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Understanding the “Who” in Conservation: Why Gender Matters

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Understanding the “Who” in Conservation: Why Gender Matters Understanding the “Who” in Conservation: Why Gender Matters Nadia Fatima Tenouri A thesis submitted for the completion of a Doctor of Philosophy Te Iho Whenua Te Whare Wananga o Otago Ōtepoti Aotearoa School of Geography The University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand 2019 Abstract Environmental management and conservation practices are at their core greatly affected by who is making the decisions for how to manage and address issues. Thus, it is of great importance to understand how the makeup of conservation decision making bodies affects environmental management processes and practices. This research looks at how gender factors into the environmental management space through the investigation of the major overarching question: In what way(s) does gender play a role in conservation / environmental decision making in a developed country context? In particular, it asks: 1) what is the representation of men and women in conservation leadership in New Zealand, 2) how, if at all, do male and female practitioners differ in their environmental values, priorities and strategies for management, and 3) how does gender factor into the decision making space and its processes? To answer these questions, a sample of five large national and seven small local Dunedin-area organizations were selected based on their significance nationally or locally. Secondary data on gender representation by tier (i.e. upper level executive to low-level job position) was procured through contact with each organization, and interviews were conducted with 32 executive members of these organizations. Additionally, a survey aimed at understanding gender differences in conservation values, priorities, and strategies was distributed to employees of various environmental organizations across the country. Results demonstrate that women make up a large portion of conservation organizations generally but a small portion of leadership roles. Male and female practitioners overall are quite similar in ideology with a few important exceptions such that increasing female leadership presence in conservation may lead to increases in indigenous iwi involvement, education investment, regulation of mining and forestry practice, length of deliberation on issues, cautiousness in approach, openness to ideas, and overall communication. Women’s inclusion also appears to affect the work environment of conservation organizations through increasing focus on more interpersonal and “human” aspects. All in all, this research provides an extensive discussion of the representation of women in conservation, gender dimensions of conservation ideology, and gender dimensions of the conservation work environment, providing a strong argument in favor of increasing gender equity in conservation leadership. iii Acknowledgments First and foremost I would like to thank my wonderful partner, Garrett Lentz, and my lovely family who have always afforded me limitless support, love and encouragement throughout the whole PhD process and life in general. They have made me the person I am today, and without them, my life would look a lot different! In particular, I want to thank my parents for everything they have done for me over my life and all the love and time they have given me. I also am thankful for the love of education and learning they instilled in me from a young age. I owe them much of the beautiful life I get to enjoy every day, and it is hard to put into words how grateful I am to them for all they have imparted upon me. I want to thank Garrett Lentz, my partner of ten years this past February 2019, for being on this journey together with me. Thank you for moving all the way across the world to do our PhDs together. There is no one else I would rather have had by my side for this. Thank you for the endless support and love and for always being there for me to distract with random comments about interesting studies I have discovered while we are supposed to be working. I cannot express my deep gratitude to you for your constant grounding presence in my life. And thank you for all the times you have looked over this thesis and read and edited my work. I am truly grateful. Of course, I also want to thank my wonderful supervisors, Sophie Bond and Claire Freeman, for their constant guidance and support over the years of this PhD journey. I appreciate all the time and effort you have put into helping me plan, create, edit, and polish this labor of love! Thank you so much for all your help. I definitely could not have done it without you! iv Table of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... v List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. x Chapter One: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Thesis Format....................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter Two: Gender Differences in Various Measures ...................................................... 11 2.1 A Brief History of Geography and Gender ........................................................................ 11 2.2 Introduction to the Literature ............................................................................................. 12 2.3 Part I: General Gender Differences .................................................................................. 14 2.3.1 Nature versus Nurture ................................................................................................. 14 2.3.2 Risk ............................................................................................................................. 16 2.3.4 Personality................................................................................................................... 17 2.3.5 Values ......................................................................................................................... 20 2.3.6 Cooperation and Conflict Resolution .......................................................................... 21 2.3.7 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 25 2.4 Part II: Women in Positions of Leadership ....................................................................... 25 2.4.1 Leadership Style.......................................................................................................... 25 Drivers for Women as Transformational Leaders ......................................................................... 29 2.4.2 Women in Business..................................................................................................... 30 Business Ethics ............................................................................................................................. 30 Financial Performance .................................................................................................................. 32 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 34 2.4.3 Women in Government ............................................................................................... 34 Significance ................................................................................................................................... 37 2.5 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 37 Chapter Three: Gender and the Environment ....................................................................... 38 3.1 Part I: Gender and Environmental Concern, Behavior, and Management ....................... 38 3.1.1 Differences in Environmental Concern ...................................................................... 38 3.1.2 Differences in Pro-Environmental Behaviors ............................................................. 43 v 3.1.3 Geographical Notes on Environmental Concern and Behavior .................................. 48 3.1.4 Reasons for Gender Differences ................................................................................. 50 Knowledgeable Support Hypothesis: ............................................................................................ 50 Social Roles: Parental Roles and Economic Salience Hypotheses: .............................................. 51 Institutional Trust Hypothesis: ...................................................................................................... 52 Safety Concerns Hypothesis: ........................................................................................................ 53 Gender Socialization Hypothesis: ................................................................................................. 55 An Aside on Innate Gender Differences: .....................................................................................
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