International Bulletin of Theology & Civilization (IBTC) Vol. 2 No. 4 (2020)

Confucianism’s Literature Iqra Aziz University of Lahore

Introduction of ‘s Literature

 Meaning of the Literature:-

. Literature means, written works, especially those considered of superior or lasting artistic merit. . Books and writings published on a particular subject.

 Definition:- Literature is a group of works of art made up of words. Most are written, but some are passed on by word of mouth. Literature usually means works of poetry and prose that are especially well written. There are many different kinds of literature, such as poetry, plays, or novels.1  Brief Intro of Confucianism:-

Confucianism is a way of life founded by (551-749 BC) who was a Chinese sage and wise man. It Has Traditionally been the substance of learning ,the source of values, and the social code of Chinese as well as a religion and .Confucianism may be understood as an all-encompassing way of thinking and living that entails ancestor reverence and a profound human-centred religiousness.2

1 https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature 2 https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism

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Literature ( The Sacred Writings)

Beliefs and practices of Confucianism are based on ancient Chinese Texts. According to Yale University, the sacred texts of Confucianism are five books that legend states Confucius wrote. Although Confucianism isn't strictly a religion, it does have a number of prominent texts, considered by many followers, to be sacred. According to the "Ancient History Encyclopedia," Confucius was an ancient Chinese philosopher, living in the 6th Century BCE. He made it his life's mission to bring peace, harmony, and enlightenment to his students and to the world. However, it is unknown whether the texts often credited to Confucius were, in fact, written by him, or whether they were written by his students, after his death.

Traditionally, it was thought that Confucius himself had compiled or edited the texts of the Five Classics. From the time of the Western , most Confucian scholars believed that Confucius re-collected and edited the prior works, thereby “fixing” the versions of the ancient writings which became the Classics. In the twentieth century, many Chinese scholars still held to this tradition.

For quite different reasons, mainly having to do with modern textual scholarship, a greater number of twentieth century scholars both in China and in other countries hold that Confucius had nothing to do with editing the classics, much less writing them. In any case, it is undisputed that for most of the last 2,000 years, Confucius was believed to have either written or edited these classics. 3

The principles of Confucianism, which the texts teach, are concerned with morality and ethics. It theorizes that moral harmony is directly related to cosmic

3 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics

30 harmony, and teaches that those who rule or teach, should lead by example, with acts of benevolence, and without the use of force. The five central principles of Confucianism, which are taught in the sacred texts are benevolence, righteousness, observance of rites, moral wisdom, and faith. Confucianism encourages humans to practice these five traits to work toward moral harmony and cosmic harmony. 4

 Five Classics and four books (Wujing & Si shu):-

Confucius systematically organized his teaching material into six parts, which later became the fouding scripture, Six Classics. Among the Six Classics, the legendary Classic of Music was lost under the reign of First Qin Emperor. Thus we have only Five Classics, that is (Shi Jing), the (Shu Jing), the (Li Ji), the Book of Changes (Yi Jing), and the (Chun Qiu).5

The Five Classics (wujing) and Four Books (si shu) collectively create the foundation of Confucianism. The Five Classics and Four Books were the basis of the civil examination in imperial China and can be considered the Confucian canon. The Four Books are comprised of the , the , , and the . From the Han to the early Song, the Five Classics grew into thirteen classics. In the early Song, however, scholars focused on the original Five Classics again. By the mid-Song, however, the Analects, Mencius, Great Learning, and Doctrine of the Mean began gaining importance and by the early fourteenth century, the Four Book were the texts for the civil examinations.6

So, there are four books and five classics in the Basic Confucianism Literature.

 The Five Classics are:

4 https://www.reference.com/world-view/sacred-texts-confucianism-c607bf348a4eb17

5 http://bs.dayabook.com/five-classics/yi-jing-the-book-of-changes

6 http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/culttemp/sitepages/fiveclassics.html

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1.Shu Ching (Classic of History) - collection of documents and speeches dating from the Later Han Dynasty (23-220 CE)

2.Shih Ching (Classic of Odes) - collection of 300 poems and songs from the early Chou Dynasty (1027-402 BC)

3. (Classic of Changes) - collection of texts on divination based on a set of 64 hexagrams that reflect the relationship between Yin and Yang in nature and society

4.Ch'un Ching (Spring and Autumn Annals) - extracts from the history of the state of Lu 722-484, said to be compiled by Confucius

5.Li Ching (Classic of Rites) - consists of three books on the Li (Rites of Propriety)

 The Four Books are:

1.Lun Yu (Analects) of Confucius 2.Chung Yung (Doctrine of the Mean) 3.Ta Hsueh (Great Learning) 4.Meng Tzu (Mencius)

The Five Classics

 Book of Documents: The Shu Ching

A collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before. It is possibly the oldest Chinese narrative, was written down

32 during the Han dynasty (23-220 C.E.) and may date from the 6th century B.C. It includes examples of early Chinese prose.

The Book of Documents is a compilation of 58 chapters detailing the events of ancient China. The Book of Documents tells the deeds of the early sage-kings Yao and Shun. These narratives are influential in the development of the understanding of a sage. The compilation also includes the history of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. The Book of Documents is often considered the first narrative history of ancient China.7

It is related in the Analects that Confucius, when asked why he did not take part in government, responded by citing a passage from the ancient Shujing (“Classic of History”), “Simply by being a good son and friendly to his brothers a man can exert an influence upon government!” to show that what a person does in the confines of his home is politically significant (2:21).

Rulers should begin by rectifying their own conduct; that is, they are to be examples who govern by moral leadership and exemplary teaching rather than by force. Government’s responsibility is not only to provide food and security but also to educate the people.

Confucius defined the process of becoming human as being able to “discipline yourself and return to ritual” (12:1).8

 Book of Odes: The shih Ching

The Book of Odes. This contains poems dating back to 1000-500 B.C.E. 9

The Book of Odes is also translated as the Book of Songs or Book of Poetry.

A collection of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 105 festal songs sung at court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house 10

7 http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/culttemp/sitepages/fiveclassics.html 8 https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism

9 http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/

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A range of issues, including love and marriage, agricultural concerns, daily lives, and war.

 Book of Rites

The Book of Rites. This text describes Chinese religious practice from the eighth to the fifth century B.C.E.

The Book of Rites described the social norms, governmental organization, and the ritual conduct during the Zhou dynasty. Believed to have been compiled by Kongzi, the Book of Rites is the foundation of many ritual principles that arise in later imperial China. According to the Book of Rites, proper ritual conduct would maintain harmony in the empire, as well as emphasize the virtue of piety.

 Book of Changes: The I Ching

The Book of Changes. Dating to approximately 3000 B.C.E., this famous oracular book is one of the oldest sacred texts in the world.

Also known as I Ching or Book of Changes. The book contains a divination system comparable to Western geomancy or the West African Ifá system. In Western cultures and modern , it is still widely used for this purpose.

Spring and Autumn Annals A historical record of the State of Lu, Confucius's native state, 722–481 BC. As the longest of the Five Classics, the Spring and Autumn Annals is a historical chronicle of the State of Lu. Unlike the Book of Documents, the Spring and Autumn Annals appear to have been created specifically for annalistic purposes. The Spring and Autumn Annals was traditionally understood as being written by Confucius, but modern scholars believe the text was actually written by various chroniclers from the State of Lu.11 SCHOOL of thaught

10 http://www.china-expats.com/ChineseLiterature2.htm

11 http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/culttemp/sitepages/fiveclassics.html

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Confucian ideas were also firmly established in the legal system as ritual became increasingly important in governing behaviour, defining social relationships, and adjudicatingcivil disputes. Yet it was not until the prime minister Gongsun Hong(died 121 BCE) had persuaded Wudi to announce formally that the ruschool alone would receive state sponsorship that Confucianism became an officially recognized imperial ideology and state cult.

As a result, Confucian Classics became the core curriculum for all levels of education. In 136 BCE Wudi set up at court five Erudites of the Five Classics and in 124 BCE assigned 50 official students to study with them, thus creating a de facto imperial university. By 50 BCE enrollment at the university had grown to an impressive 3,000, and by 1 CE a hundred students a year were entering government service through the examinations administered by the state.

In 175 the court had the approved version of the Classics, which had been determined by scholarly conferences and research groups

FIVE CLASSICS = FIVE VISIONS:

The Five Classics can be described in terms of five visions: metaphysical, political, poetic, social, and historical.

The metaphysical vision, expressed in the (“Classic of Changes”), combines divinatory art with numerological technique and ethical insight. According to the philosophy of change, the cosmos is a great transformation occasioned by the constant interaction of yin and yang, the two complementary as well as conflicting life forces (qi). The world, which emerges out of that ongoing transformation, exhibits both organismic unity and dynamism. The exemplary person, inspired by the harmony and creativity of the cosmos, must emulate that pattern by aiming to realize the highest ideal of “unity of man and heaven” through ceaseless self-exertion.

The political vision, contained in the Shujing, presents kingship in terms of the ethical foundation for a humane government. The legendary Three Emperors (Yao, Shun, and Yu) all ruled by virtue. Their sagacity, xiao (), and dedication to work enabled them to create a political culture based on

35 responsibility and trust. Their exemplary lives taught and encouraged the people to enter into a covenant with them so that social harmony could be achieved without punishment or coercion. Even in the Three Dynasties (Xia, Shang, and Zhou) moral authority, as expressed through ritual, was sufficient to maintain political order. The human continuum, from the undifferentiated masses to the enlightened people, the nobility, and the sage-king, formed an organic unity as an integral part of the great cosmic transformation. Politics means moral persuasion, and the purpose of the government is not only to provide food and maintain order but also to educate.

The poetic vision, contained in the Shijing, underscores the Confucian valuation of common human feelings. The majority of verses give voice to emotions and sentiments of communities and persons from all levels of society expressed on a variety of occasions. The basic theme of that poetic world is mutual responsiveness. The tone as a whole is honest rather than earnest and evocative rather than expressive.

The social vision, contained in the classic of history shows society not as an adversarial system based on contractual relationships but as a community of trust with emphasis on communication. Society organized by the four functional occupations—the scholar, the farmer, the artisan, and the merchant—is, in the true sense of the word, a cooperation. As a contributing member of the cooperation, each person is obligated to recognize the existence of others and to serve the public good. It is the king’s duty to act kingly and the father’s duty to act fatherly. If kings or fathers fail to behave properly, they cannot expect their ministers or children to act in accordance with ritual. It is in that sense that a chapter in the Liji entitled the “Great Learning” (Daxue) specifies, “From the son of heaven to the commoner, all must regard self-cultivation as the root.” That pervasive consciousness of duty features prominently in all Confucian literature on ritual.

The historical vision, presented in the (“Spring and Autumn *Annals+”), emphasizes the significance of collective memory for communal self- identification. Historical consciousness is a defining characteristic of Confucian

36 thought. By defining himself as a lover of antiquity and a transmitter of its values, Confucius made it explicit that a sense of history is not only desirable but necessary for self-knowledge. Confucius’s emphasis on the importance of history was in a way his reappropriation of the ancient Sinitic wisdom that reanimating the old is the best way to attain the new. Confucius may not have been the author of the Chunqiu, but it seems likely that he applied moral judgment to political events in China proper from the 8th to the 5th century BCE. In that unprecedented procedure he assumed a godlike role in evaluating politics by assigning ultimate historical praise and blame to the most powerful and influential political actors of the period. Not only did that practice inspire the innovative style of the grand historian Sima Qian (c.145–c. 87 BCE), but it was also widely employed by others writing dynastic histories in imperial China.12

The Four Books

 Analects Confucian Analects (Lun Yü) Confucius, tr. James Legge [1893] The Analects were a collection of sayings written down by Confucius' students in the period approximately seventy years after his death.13 A compilation of speeches by Confucius and his disciples, as well as the discussions they held. Written during the Spring and Autumn period through the . Since Confucius's time, the Analects has heavily influenced the philosophy and moral values of China and later other East Asian countries as well. 14

Republic of China, emphasized Confucian studies and expected candidates to quote and apply the words of Confucius in their essays.15

12 https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism

13 http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/

14 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics

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In addition to learning, the Analects emphasize the importance of good governance, filial piety, virtue, and ritual.16 Considered a "commentary" on the Five Classics Imperial examinations wanted a lot of these works to be studied and applied by the test takers in the actual exam17 Actually the sayings of the Analects reveal Confucius’s personality—his ambitions, his fears, his joys, his commitments, and above all his self-knowledge

The purpose, then, in compiling the distilled statements centring on Confucius seems not to have been to present an argument or to record an event but to offer an invitation to readers to take part in an ongoing conversation. Through the Analects Confucians for centuries learned to reenact the awe-inspiring ritual of participating in a conversation with Confucius.

One of Confucius’s most-significant personal descriptions is the short autobiographical account of his spiritual development found in the Analects:

At 15 I set my heart on learning; at 30 I firmly took my stand; at 40 I had no delusions; at 50 I knew the mandate of heaven; at 60 my ear was attuned; at 70 I followed my heart’s desire without overstepping the boundaries. (2:4)

Confucius’s life as a student and teacher exemplified his idea that education was a ceaseless process of self-realization. When one of his students reportedly had difficulty describing him, Confucius came to his aid:

Why did you not simply say something to this effect: he is the sort of man who forgets to eat when he engages himself in vigorous pursuit of learning, who is so

15 http://www.china-expats.com/ChineseLiterature2.htm

16 http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/culttemp/sitepages/fiveclassics.html

17 https://chineseliterarycannon.weebly.com/confucian-cannon-ldquofour-books-and-five-classics.html

38 full of joy that he forgets his worries, and who does not notice that old age is coming on? (7:18)

What he demanded of his students was the willingness to learn: “I do not enlighten anyone who is not eager to learn, nor encourage anyone who is not anxious to put his ideas into words” (7:8).18

 Doctrine of the Mean The Doctrine Of The Mean (Chung Yung) Confucius*, tr. James Legge [1893] More mystical than the other Confucian classics, the date of composition of this text is unknown.19 The Doctrine of the Mean has been translated in many ways, including The Constant Mean (Legge) and Maintaining Perfect Balance (Gardener). 20 Another chapter in Classic of Rites, attributed to Confucius' grandson Zisi. The purpose of this small, 33-chapter book is to demonstrate the usefulness of a golden way to gain perfect virtue. It focuses on the "way" (道) that is prescribed by a heavenly mandate not only to the ruler but to everyone. To follow these heavenly instructions by learning and teaching will automatically result in a Confucian virtue. Because Heaven has laid down what is the way to perfect virtue, it is not that difficult to follow the steps of the holy rulers of old if one only knows what is the right way.21 One Chapter of the Book of Rites Attributed to the grandson of Confucius, Zisi

18 https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism

19 http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/

20 http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/culttemp/sitepages/fiveclassics.html

21 http://www.china-expats.com/ChineseLiterature2.htm

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Divided into 3 parts, 1) The Axis - Confucian Metaphysics, 2) The Process - Politics, 3) The Perfect World/Sincerity - Ethics ("Golden mean (philosophy)," 2013) Goal of the writing: To maintain balance and harmony by persuading a state of constant equilibrium into the mind or using the golden way to perfect virtue ("The doctrine of," 2010)22 Chung Yung, The Doctrine of the Mean from The Book of Ritual [Li Chi ] The Doctrine of the Mean describes the power of sincerity which emanates outward from humans to the cosmos itself. When a person cultivates their authentic nature they are said to affect the rejuvenating forces in the natural world. Through the process of realizing one’s authentic self, a person forms a triad with heaven and earth. Only he who possesses absolute sincerity can give full development to his nature. Able to give full development to his own nature, he can give full development to the nature of other men. Able to give full development to others, they can give full development to the nature of other men. Able to give full development to the nature of men, he can give full development to the nature of all beings. Able to give full development to the nature of all beings, he can assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and earth. Capable of assisting the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and earth, he may, with Heaven and earth, form a triad.23

 The Great Learning (Ta Hsüeh)

Confucius*, tr. James Legge [1893] The third book in the Confucian canon. Literally, 'Education for Adults'. Written between 500 BCE and 200 BCE.24

Originally one chapter in the Classic of Rites. It consists of a short main text attributed to Confucius and nine commentary chapters by Zeng Zi, one of Confucius's disciples. Its importance is illustrated by Zeng Zi's foreword that this is the gateway of learning.

22 https://chineseliterarycannon.weebly.com/confucian-cannon-ldquofour-books-and-five-classics.html

23 http://fore.yale.edu/religion/confucianism/texts/

24 http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/

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It is significant because it expresses many themes of and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. Government, self cultivation and investigation of things are linked.25 To him, learning not only broadened his knowledge and deepened his self- awareness but also defined who he was. He frankly admitted that he was not born endowed with knowledge, nor did he belong to the class of men who could transform society without knowledge.26

Great Learning: The Great Learning is a guide for moral self-cultivation. According to the Great Learning, the key to moral self-cultivation is learning, or the investigation of things. Through the investigation of things, one comes to understand the principle in all things, which allows one to better comprehend the world. Through this moral self-cultivation, one's li (principle) and qi (psychophysical stuff) are in harmony, leading to consistent moral behavior. Zhu Xi prescribed that The Great Learning be the first of the Confucian Classics read, as the message contained in The Great Learning would orient scholars to think about the value of their studies.27 One Chapter of the Book of Rites Ten commentary chapters supposedly derived and written by Zengzi, a disciple of Confucius, but not written by Confucius Shortest volume of the Confucian Canon28 Wang Yang-ming, Inquiry on the Great Learning Wang Yang-ming (sixteenth century) emphasized (as had Mencius) the innate

25 http://www.china-expats.com/ChineseLiterature2.htm

26 https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism

27http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/culttemp/sitepages/fiveclassics.html

28 https://chineseliterarycannon.weebly.com/confucian-cannon-ldquofour-books-and-five-classics.html

41 goodness of the human mind-and-heart. He underscored the feeling of commiseration in the human which would naturally flourish in the practice of humaneness (jen) extended to other humans and toward all living and non-living things. Master Wang said: The great man regards Heaven and Earth and the myriad things as one body. He regards the world as one family and the country as one person. . . . Therefore when he sees a child about to fall into a well, he cannot help a feeling of alarm and commiseration. This shows that his humanity (jen) forms one body with the child. It may be objected that the child belongs to the same species. Again, when he observes the pitiful cries and frightened appearance of birds and animals about to be slaughtered, he cannot help feeling an “inability to bear” their suffering. This shows that his humanity forms one body with birds and animals. It may be objected that birds and animals are sentient beings as he is. But when he sees plants broken and destroyed, he cannot help a feeling of pity. This shows that his humanity forms one body with plants. It may be said that plants are living things as he is. Yet even when he sees tiles and stones shattered and crushed, he cannot help a feeling of regret. This shows that his humanity forms one body with tiles and stones.29

 Mencius  Mencius is known as the self-styled transmitter of the Confucian Way. Educated first by his mother and then allegedly by a student of Confucius’s grandson, Mencius brilliantly performed his role as a social critic, a moral philosopher, and a political activist.30 Mencius, tr. James Legge [1895] The second book in the Confucian canon, the Meng-tzu, is named after its author, also known as Meng K'o or Mencius (371-289 B.C.E.).31 Collection of conversations of philosopher Mencius, who was also a Confucian thinker32

29 http://fore.yale.edu/religion/confucianism/texts/

30 https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism

31 http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/

32 https://chineseliterarycannon.weebly.com/confucian-cannon-ldquofour-books-and-five-classics.html

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A collection of conversations of the scholar Mencius with kings of his time. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, the Mencius consists of long dialogues with extensive prose.33 Mencius) Mencius is a collection of conversations Mencius had with Kongzi. Mencius places a strong emphasis on the responsibility of the emperor to practice good governance through following the Way. Additionally, Mencius believes that all human beings are inherently good. One of the most popular passages from Mencius notes that all humans instinctively respond with alarm and compassion when we see a child teetering on the edge of a well, suggesting that everyone is innately good and moral. Yet, he notes that not everyone actually rushes to save the child and emphasizes the idea that though we are all born with the seeds of righteousness and goodness, but must learn how to nurture and cultivate those seeds.34

 Why it is considered a Chinese Literary Cannon:

 Covers wide range of subjects like literature, history, philosophy, politics, economics, education, moral ethics, geology, arts, and science, and technology, etc.

 They are textbooks for Confucian scholars to spread information to the Confucian school and information for ancient scholars who wanted to become a government official who needed to pass the imperial exam.

 Regarded as some of the wisest texts in Chinese history. They can be applied to all walk of life, as they have been and continue to "enlighten" people in present time. 35 Conclusion:

33 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics

34 http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/culttemp/sitepages/fiveclassics.html

35https://chineseliterarycannon.weebly.com/confucian-cannon-ldquofour-books-and-five- classics.html

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In the 12th century, Zhu Xi codified the sacred texts of Confucianism, calling them simply the Four Books; The Great Learning, the Analects of Confucius, the Book of Mencius and The Doctrine of the Mean. Zhu listed The Great Learning first among the Four Books not because it is the most important, but because it should be read first. It lays out the framework from which Confucians can progress to study the other texts

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20. Dr. M. Sharif Chaudhry,A comparative study of world religions,Lahore book centre,first ediion, 2003 21. Herrlee g. Creel,Chinese tought from Confucius to mao tse tung, the university of Chicago press 22. A. g. bouquet,Comparative religion a short otline,casell London 23. S.A.Nigosian,World faiths,st. Martin’s press,new york ڈارٹکآاہی ردیش، احظف دمحم اشرق اطمہعل ،زمابہ اعمل،ادارہ اقیقحت ِت ذمابہ،۶۱۰۲ .24 املکیئوکوگن،اپلرفاڈینیم،لینپلف،اڈنیروی ونس ابرٹ،اچرسل اٹزیئنی،،داین ےک دقمی و دجدی ذمابہ،اقیلختت الوہر، ۶۱۰۲ء، .25

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