CUSPE 2018 Communications Special Issue:

Emerging Technology and Policy

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 1 Article Page numbers

Blockchain policy inertia: Where’s the 5-9 disruption? Aisha Sobey

Building a secure, quantum internet for the 10-14 future: will the UK’s science policy keep up? Alex Koehler-Sidki

Data Governance in the Genomics Era 15-18 Emma Lawrence

A Cutting-edge IP Litigation: the European Front 19-24 of CRISPR Patent War Michele Sanguanini

Innovation in the Fight Against Infectious 25-28 Disease Daniela Rodriguez-Rincon

Consider Fracking Your Backyard 29-33 Amanda Murphy

The Art of Science Diplomacy 34-38 Mrittunjoy Guha Majumdar

Prospective and Retrospective Rigour: Scientific 39-43 Evaluation of Environmental Policy Kasey Markel

Ensuring Societal Advancement through 44-48 Science and Technology: Pathways to Scientific Integration Stephanie Bazley

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 2

Editor’s Note

Erin Cullen, Head of Publications 2017/2018

An emerging technology is a technology emerging technologies and policy, that is in development, or that will be starting with three articles that examine developed in the next decade. It is a the emerging technologies of the digital technology that is capable of changing age. the status quo, and to disrupt the business or social environment in which it finds itself. But regulation for these Aisha Sobey eloquently explains how technologies is proving to be a Blockchain operates (elaborating on challenge, and it will be necessary to Distributed Ledger Technology, the find a balance between protecting technology behind virtual currencies society and ensuring that innovation is such as Bitcoin), and examines the not stifled. complexity surrounding legislation for The Cambridge Science and Policy this issue; does it stifle or promote Forum, held by CUSPE in 2018 was the innovation? Alex Koehler-Sidki then first in the society’s history. One of the examines the advent of the quantum important topics tackled by experts at internet, and ponders whether the UK’s the forum was opportunities for science policy will keep up with new collaboration in regulating emerging developments? An increasing amount of technologies. Artificial intelligence and machine learning were discussed in data is gathered on many aspects of detail as two of the new technologies individuals’ lives. Emma Lawrence that governments will soon need to examines the potential of using genomic consider. The impasse that can be data in medical research and explains reached between policy makers and policy approaches to address these developers was addressed, along with challenges. the perceived usefulness of regulation.

The potential of ‘reusing’ existing regulation for new technologies was also CRISPR technology, a gene editing discussed in great detail. technology has many applications in research and in the wider context of This special issue brings together gene therapy, manufacturing and articles published by CUSPE over the agriculture. Here, Michele Sanguanini last year. They tackle the theme of looks at the patenting contest

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 3 surrounding CRISPR in the European these articles highlight the challenges context. Daniela Rodriguez-Rincon then for policy makers when legislating in a examines the current infectious disease rapidly changing technological landscape and advocates a multi- environment. I hope you enjoy reading sectorial approach to tackle infectious these articles as much as we have disease. Moving to the environment, enjoyed editing and working on the Amanda Murphy dives into the divisive publications team this year. nature of fracking, and whether we should start fracking in the world’s urban areas. Erin Cullen Head of Publications, 2017-2018

CUSPE Finally, a dialogue between the developers of new technologies, governments and the public is essential Erin is a PhD candidate in the both for the progress of technology and Department of Plant Sciences, studying for society to benefit. Stephanie Bazley, plant evolution and development. Erin is Kasey Markel and Mrittunjoy Guha particularly interested in policy related to food security and the use of Majumdar examine this dialogue in their evidence-based policy in government. articles looking at the integration of You can reach her at [email protected]. science policy, environmental policy and science diplomacy respectively. All of

Acknowledgements

Thank you to the authors that agreed to have their contributions included in this mini- release.

And of course a great many thanks to all the fantastic editors who worked hard in the 2017-2018 year:

Hinal Tanna Philipe Bujold Roxine Staats Maggie Westwater Shan Chong Amber Ruigrok

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 4 Blockchain policy inertia: Where’s the disruption?

Aisha Sobey, MPhil in IR and Politics, University of Cambridge

lockchain has been framed as a uptake and the current potential of the technology that could alter the shape technology. of the world dramatically in the

B coming decades, influencing how we What is Blockchain? act and govern ourselves as a Blockchain, also known as distributed society, as the decentralised nature of ledger technology (DLT), is a Blockchain means that these networks decentralised networked database and wouldn’t be controlled by one person, way of recording transactions between group, corporation or government. the members of the network [2]. Reuters [1] expects blockchain to be disruptive, to move from simple applications to displacing central market competitors, in many areas such as healthcare, tax and accounting, politics and entertainment. In healthcare for example, the nature of blockchain means it can be used in patient records, to increase consistency, remove duplication and aid in sharing information between relevant authorities.

However, the relationship between technology and governance is reciprocal, Figure 1. Source: [3] This shows the as technology may enable new forms of three layers of DLT, and the protocol governance, but it is also defined and layer is the significant base on which constrained by the regulation and future layers are built. Each protocol actions of governments. In this article, layer sets out the expected behavior in the dynamic between the two will be the subsequent networks built on it. explored to explain the lack of policy or uptake of Blockchain into government There are three layers of DLT: the services, even though it is hailed as protocol layer, the network layer and the such a potentially significant application layer [3]. The protocol advancement. The very interplay comprises the main building blocks of between policy and technology in this the network, and developers of this instance is because of the keen social layer are likely to influence further and political implications Blockchain layers in the stack, as they are the could have, meaning that the two areas foundation on which subsequent layers have reached a stalemate, slowing the are built. The protocol layer differs from

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 5 traditional internet protocol layers, such which run in isolated streams. This not as HTTP/HTTPS. Traditional internet only makes sharing data difficult, but protocol layers allow computers to when a single application is communicate effectively, but require a compromised, this affects many other large amount of descriptive addition by applications. applications such as Google or Facebook to enable the user to interact with the How does it work? data. This setup means that centralised Blockchains organise the data into corporations own the data and require immutable blocks, or records of sensitive information, such as bank transactions, uniquely referenced to the details, to be entered each time a block that came before it. The use of purchase is made. chronological sequences makes issues DLT uses cryptographically secure such as data changing or tampering near protocols to govern the rules, operations impossible as changes to block and communication on the networks, information have to be agreed upon by however, these protocols are much more members of the network. How specific and descriptive of the niche transactional information joins the chain networks that can operate on them. For is highlighted by the example below example, Etherium is an open-source based on cryptocurrency. protocol used in smart contracts [4], while R3’s Corda is specialised for use to record financial agreements between regulated financial institutions. Other significant protocols include the Hyperledger, Bitcoin and Ripple Consensus network [5, 6, 7].

The network layer is made up of a custom blockchain network, or multiple networks, for users, built on existing protocols and governed by the network operator. Examples of these networks include the IMB Blockchain Platform [2,

5] (built using Hyperledger Fabric) and Mosaic [6]. The application layer Figure 2. Source: [1] Using money as comprises of all the custom applications the example, this shows the steps built on the network. These applications required to add information to a can be built and run by the network blockchain. The decentralised authority operator or by third parties. Examples of is highlighted as the network highlights DLT apps include cryptocurrencies and the vailidity of the transaction. Once online contracts. One benefit of DLT at verified, the information joins the the application stage is that as the sequence and is near impossible to server is shared between all network tamper with. participants, and built on this, anyone can create applications which share data, Why does it matter? but if compromised do not affect others in the network. Traditional server Blockchain, in theory, removes trust architectures require every application issues during transactions and offers a to run on a separate server and code, way to accurately keep records free

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 6 from unauthorised alteration or which could be traced through all stages misinformation. The most common and of transaction and the final customers well-known use of Blockchain is in identified, should a product be deemed cryptocurrency, following the defective or dangerous. With the whitepaper proposal of Bitcoin in 2008. potential advantages of use evident in The financial industry, including central almost all sectors, the question is posed banks, has the most interest in DLT as to why there has been very little or technology, with the majority of start- slow uptake of DLT technology? ups using the DLT being based in this sector [3]. This industry has substantial Policy inertia process inefficiencies and a massive It has been 10 years since the cost base issue. Legacy financial whitepaper proposal for Bitcoin, which systems often have large premiums for offered a new use of cryptographic transactions, as well as a complicated techniques and consensus mechanisms and poorly integrated matrix of as a new way of running a operational infrastructure. cryptocurrency. From this, DLT more Additionally, the financial crisis generally has been recognized as a highlighted the accountancy errors and disruptive technology which has difficulty in tracing the correct present application potential in all sectors. owner of an asset, especially over a However, the lack of significant substantial chain of buyers within global disruption and movement in DLT use and financial transaction services. For in policy to regulate the technology is example, when the US investment bank notable. The benefits and risks of using Bear Stearns was acquired by JP Morgan DLT are tied to the technological design, Chase in 2008, the number of shares governance and regulation applied to it. offered was far larger than the shares Blockchain, essentially, is the recorded in the books of Bear Stearns. It “protocolisation” of computer software, was not possible to clarify the providing much greater structure and accounting errors and JP Morgan Chase rules to interactions between network had to bear the damage from excess nodes than the typical IP protocols. This (digital) shares [8]. This would be makes the protocol layer, and setting resolved using DLT, as each asset is standards therein, especially important verified and cannot be duplicated or as the first point in establishing altered. internationally accepted standards for creating and regulating DLT technology, Government and public sector services which would have comparative and could benefit from DLT as its adoption political advantage. However, the risk of could increase transparency and taking the first move is also amplified. accountability, and allow e-governance This dynamic has created a standoff, in and voting, increasing public effect, between the regulators and participation. The Global Blockchain developers. Without the oppositional Benchmarking study found that 63% of force in place to indicate possibilities, Central Banks, as well as 69% of other both regulators and developers of the public sector institutions, have been technology face potentially significant investigating the use of Blockchain in losses if the wrong protocol choice is their operations [3]. Additionally, the made. use of DLT can be applied to physical assets or supply chain management, The advantages of implementation in, for such as in internationally sold produce, example healthcare, even in supply chain

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 7 management of medicines, could be social networking site that has lost all significant. Through the nature of the popularity). technology, and the entering of each asset into the chain, would mean that if a Moving forward with Policy single batch of a medicine is found to be The UK Government office for Science contaminated, or out of date, then the released a whitepaper on DLT [10] that individual boxes could be traced to the suggested that effective regulation is patients that have been supplied with key for implementation, but it is difficult them. Rather than a recall of all the to understand one without the other. medicine made on a day or dispensed Incremental development, therefore, is from a pharmacy. The efficiency and what has been seen surrounding DLT on specificity of DLT means much greater both sides of the coin. clarity in the supply chain. However, the system created would also need the DLT may be disruptive, and change the right permissions for parties able to see way we in which we do business, the data, verification of data security as governance and international healthcare records are especially transactions, however, the complexity of sensitive. Furthermore, for this to be setting international standards and efficient it would also need to be to protocols that are innately linked with scale, system wide, so the risk of this technology has proven DLT to be implementing something different to other revolutionary technological advancements [11]. For regulators and policy initiatives, the Rigorous regulation may still not be decentralized nature of DLT means that established within the next five, even the locus of power has been challenged. ten, years and a likely scenario is that The data we share with companies could the emergence of this regulation will be be controlled individually, rather than by such that Blockchain evolves by a central entity such as Google, international agreement as trade Facebook or governments. Additionally, develops, but that the pioneers of the cryptocurrencies, which are ungoverned protocols, and the authorities that and decentralised, have the latent govern them, have yet to be established. possibility to undermine state-backed Estonia have made a strong start in currency such as the US Dollar or Pound using DLT for government services, Sterling. Conversely, the use of DLT in working within the European Union and government services could increase other international agreements. It is yet participation, reduce inefficiency, ensure to be seen however, how this security, as well as offer the potential development will impact on state for a government-backed authority and the way in which cryptocurrency. As an example, the international systems operate. Estonian government is currently using DLT to support public services such as documenting health records [9]. Whilst Acknowledgements cryptographic technology is foundational First editor: Roxine Staats for this project, it hasn’t yet set the standard or expectation of DLT use. Second editor: Erin Cullen There is still opportunity for developers and states to be part of the dominant protocol movement. This will determine the difference between founding the next Facebook or, conversely, Bebo (a References

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 8 [1] Scull, Ben. 2017. "Blockchain: Why Tax And Aisha is an MPhil Accounting Professionals Must Get On Board | Thomson Reuters". Thomson Reuters. student in International Relations and Politics [2] Brakeville, Sloane, and Bhargav Perepa. 2018. "IBM Blockchain Basics: Introduction To Distributed at the University of Ledgers". Ibm.Com. Cambridge. Her https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/cloud/library/cl -blockchain-basics-intro-bluemix-trs/. research focuses on the interaction of technological development and politics. [3] Hileman, Garrick, and Michel Rauchs. 2017. "GLOBAL BLOCKCHAIN BENCHMARKING STUDY". Her MPhil dissertation is looking at the Cambridge: Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance relationship between cyberspace and US and the Judge Business School. power. She will be beginning a PhD [4] "Ethereum Project". 2018. Ethereum.Org. focusing on smart city technology in https://www.ethereum.org/. Singapore and the reciprocal relationship [5] "Hyperledger Fabric - Hyperledger". this new mode of living has with 2018. Hyperledger. https://www.hyperledger.org/projects/fabric. inequality in October. In identifying the aspects of smart cities that interact [6] Mosaic.io. 2018. "Mosaic.Io White Paper". Cambridge: Mosaic.io. negatively with inequality, she hopes to https://www.mosaic.io/pdf/white-paper.pdf. work towards inclusive use of

[7] "Review Of The 6 Major Blockchain Protocols - technology. RICHTOPIA". 2018. RICHTOPIA. https://richtopia.com/emerging-technologies/review- 6-major-blockchain-protocols.

[8] Sidel, Robin, Kate Kelly, and Dennis K. Berman. 2018. "J.P. Morgan Buys Bear In Fire Sale, As Fed Widens Credit To Avert Crisis". WSJ. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB12056959860873982 5.

[9] Martinovic, Ivan, Lucas Kello, and Ivo Sluganovic. 2017. "Blockchains For Governmental Services: Design Principles, Applications, And Case Studies". Working Paper Series No. 7. Oxford: Centre for Technology and Global Affairs. https://www.ctga.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/ctga/docu ments/media/wp7_martinovickellosluganovic.pdf.

[10] Government Office for Science. 2016. "Distributed Ledger Technology: Beyond Block Chain". London: Government Office for Science.

[11] Callsen, Gabriel. 2018. "Fintech, DLT And Regulation". INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY DIGEST. https://www.icmagroup.org/assets/documents/Regulat ory/Market-

About the Author

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 9 Building a secure, quantum internet for the future: will the UK’s science policy keep up?

Alex Koehler-Sidki, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge

he digital world is changing fast; the rests on a technique known as ‘key computing power of today’s encryption’. In general, key encryption smartphones outpaces that of provides security by encoding T supercomputers from just twenty-five information that is shared between a years ago. We can video-call people receiver and transmitter using a key. on the opposite side of the globe, and we The lynchpin of this security system trust that our data are transmitted stems from the mathematical complexity securely from one device to another. of determining the key. Keys are But, given this breathless speed of typically very large numbers, containing advancement, can we maintain our prime factors. Current computers security in the coming decades? The use struggle to extract these prime factors of quantum mechanics could be the as they rely on a brute force approach answer. Is the UK’s science policy up to that tests all possible combinations of it? factors, one after another. As these keys Ensuring our digital security has never become larger and larger, the work been a more pressing issue. The required to crack them increases WannaCry virus wreaked havoc on the exponentially, quickly reaching the order NHS last year, Russia has been the of thousands of years. subject of numerous hacking allegations, The advent of quantum computers, a and, more broadly, businesses suffer time that could be anywhere from ten to losses of billions of pounds annually as a fifty years from now, would likely upend result of hacking. Yet, on the horizon, a this entire encryption system. Quantum more benign threat is appearing in the computers derive their computational form of quantum computers. These power from quantum bits, or computers promise to solve problems ‘qubits’. While current computers use that are currently intractable by modern classical bits, which can only be in one supercomputers, particularly when it of two states, a ‘0’ or a ‘1’, qubits can be comes to factorising very large numbers in both states simultaneously due to - a technique that serves as the something known as ‘superposition’. foundation for much of modern-day This purely quantum phenomenon of encryption. This would mean that existing in both states concurrently current encryption methods, which provides a huge advantage when it would take thousands of years to crack comes to factorisation: rather than trying with a conventional computer, could be thousands of combinations iteratively, broken in just seconds by a hacker using quantum computer can try multiple a quantum computer. combinations simultaneously. Much of contemporary internet security

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 10 Although several decades may separate can share a key with perfect security. us from quantum computers, quantum As such, since it is based on the laws of cryptography, which exploits a different physics, quantum cryptography is quantum phenomenon, Heisenberg’s theoretically unbreakable. Even an Uncertainty Principle, is already eavesdropper with an infinitely powerful commercially available in the form of a computer, or even a quantum computer, quantum key distribution (QKD). This could not break this means of cryptography technique encodes communication. As other nations divert information on individual particles of significant resources toward preparing light, known as photons. As an example, for a quantum cryptography-era, one let us suppose that a sender, Alice, and a pressing question remains: has the UK receiver, Bob, want to share a secure kept up? key. Alice prepares her photons and encodes information on them using their Well, actually, the answer is mostly polarisation; she first chooses, at ‘yes’. In 2013, the UK invested in a £270 random, which basis, either horizontal- million Quantum Technology Hub [1], a vertical (+) or diagonal (x). Then she nationwide initiative of universities and chooses which bit, ‘1’ or ‘0’ to send, industrial partners who are dedicated to where horizontal (H) and anti-diagonal the development of quantum technology. (A) correspond to ‘1’ and vertical (V) Comprised of four hubs, the initiative and diagonal (D) correspond to ‘0’. She has specialised teams responsible for then sends these photons to Bob. Bob sensing, metrology, computing and, most then chooses at random which basis to importantly, communication. Moreover, measure along. If he chooses correctly, the Ministry of Defence (MoD) has he extracts the bit. If he chooses committed £36m to the cause and the incorrectly, he has a 50/50 probability of total investments from the public and getting either a ‘1’ or ‘0’. After this, Bob private sector were estimated to exceed announces publicly which basis he used £350m this year. This hardly comes as a for each measurement and Alice surprise since quantum technologies responds publicly whether he chose the could be worth as much as the consumer correct basis. Bob then discards all the electronics sector, which currently nets bits with incorrect measurements, after about £240bn a year globally [2]. which Alice and Bob share a common The money invested so far has produced string of ‘1s’ and ‘0s’. They then publicly significant results. One ongoing project compare a small section of them to is the construction of a quantum confirm that they do indeed have the communications network over fibre- same key. If an eavesdropper, Eve, optics. This would cover southern would like to learn the key whilst going England, with nodes in, among others, undetected, she can’t for a number of Bristol, Reading, London, Martlesham in reasons. Firstly, she doesn’t know in Suffolk (specifically at BT) and advance which measurement to perform, Cambridge, which also contains its own so if she does an incorrect metropolitan network. However, the UK measurement, and then sends her own struggles with the commercial particle to Bob, this will introduce an realisation of QKD. Currently, the Swiss error which can be detected by Alice firm IDQuantique have cornered the and Bob when they compare their small market, having sold their own systems selection of bits. Secondly, she cannot for several years. American and copy the photon, as this is physically Australian firms, such as MagiQ and impossible. In this way, Alice and Bob Quintessence, claim to provide systems,

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 11 but details are sparse at best. Toshiba any previous distance records [5]. They look poised to announce their entrance then went even further by performing a into the market, having demonstrated quantum-secured intercontinental video numerous field trials over the years. The conference between Beijing and Vienna, company also recently broke the record a world first [6]. This, coupled with for the fastest transfer of secure keys their announcement of a 2000 km long over 50 km of fibre [3]. Although metropolitan network [7], a brand new numerous British experts undoubtedly quantum centre [8] and a pledge to provide valuable services through create a global, quantum-secured consultancy, the only firm springing out network by 2030 has placed the Chinese of this is the Bristol-based KETS. at the top of the sector. Indeed, these Comprised of several researchers, KETS results have caused quite a stir, recently secured access to more than resulting in a number of countries £125 million of venture capital funding at announcing their own satellite projects, a recent start-up competition hosted by including Canada and Japan [9], as well Facebook and BT [4]. Taken together, it as other more collaborative approaches. seems the strength of British firms lies Despite significant progress in CubeSats more in the provision of the components - compact and comparatively cheap for these systems rather than developing satellites suitable for space-based QKD the entire product themselves. experiments - thus far, there is no indication that the UK plans to follow suit. Undoubtedly, the uncertainty surrounding Brexit makes it highly unlikely that the enormous investment required will be appropriated in the near future. Indeed, the UK’s involvement in the €1 billion EU Horizon project has already come under question.

The official position of the UK government is against implementing QKD. The National Cyber Security Centre, a branch of GCHQ, currently The UK is developing a quantum advises against the adoption of QKD due network, with nodes in several major to uncertainty surrounding its practical cities and at R&D centres such as security and feasibility [10]. However, Toshiba Research Europe Ltd (TREL) this is not set in stone, and a leading and National Physical Laboratory (NPL). science policy advisor has even indicated that revisions to this position Despite significant achievements, the UK are underway. Furthermore, significant should be hesitant to rest on its laurels, work has been carried out by the particularly when drawing comparisons European Telecommunications Standards to the achievements of other countries. Institute (ETSI) toward standardisation China has easily led the way in terms of of QKD in anticipation of its widespread translating funding and resources into implementation, and the UK’s National real, tangible results; the launch of their Physical Laboratory (NPL) has played a quantum satellite, Micius, catalysed their key role in this. Such a collaboration success, which began with the suggests that QKD is gaining momentum, demonstration of QKD between Micius and the focus has now shifted away from and a ground station, easily surpassing proving theoretical security to

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 12 demonstrating real-world, practical References security. This shift suggests QKD may be moving outside of the lab and into something that could soon be part of [1] EPSRC (2017) UK National Quantum Technologies Programme. [Online]. Available: everyday life. https://bit.ly/2H8CbUk

So, what are the next steps for UK [2] Government Office for Science (2016) The science policy? This will hinge upon the Quantum Age: technological opportunities. [Online]. outcome of Brexit; significant research Available: https://bit.ly/2w4JiZn funding currently stems from the EU [3] Z. Yuan, et al., "10 Mb/s quantum key distribution," (e.g., in the form of the Marie Curie in QCrpyt 2017, Cambridge. Fellowship), which also sources many of [4] BT (2017) BT, Telecom Infra Project and the individuals currently involved in Facebook announce start-up competition winners. British QKD development. Next, as the [Online]. Available: https://bit.ly/2gg365b initial funding phase for the four [5] S.-K. Liao, et al., "Satellite-to-ground quantum Quantum Hubs will end this year, key distribution," Nature, vol. 549, pp. 43-47, Aug policymakers must determine whether 2017. the funding will be extended or renewed. The Hubs have catalysed the [6] The Independent (2017) Scientists hold world's first intercontinental video conference using quantum development of several quantum encryption. [Online]. Available: technology clusters in York, Bristol and https://ind.pn/2HnLM7C Cambridge, and, by continuing Hub [7] Financial Times (2017) China trial paves way for funding, the UK government could not ‘unhackable’ communications network. [Online]. only grow the sector but also provide Available: https://on.ft.com/2u1cwGH assurance to businesses that have yet to [8] Popular Science (2017) China is opening a new invest in quantum communication. quantum research supercenter. [Online]. Available: Finally, Britain ranks within the top five https://bit.ly/2gtaV4s in terms of spending, publications and [9] National Institute of Information and patent applications in the area of Communications Technology (2017) World's First quantum science [2], and continued Demonstration of Space Quantum Communication collaborations between academia, Using a Microsatellite. [Online]. Available: business and government will ensure a https://bit.ly/2HnM7ao strong global position for years to come. [10] National Cyber Security Centre (2016) Quantum The age of quantum internet is imminent, Key Distribution. [Online]. Available: and the UK must decide if it wants to https://bit.ly/2HiX6BD continue as a leading player of the so- called ‘quantum revolution,’ or resign itself to a place on the sidelines.

Acknowledgements Alex would like to thank the first editor of this article Maggie Westwater, and second editor Roxine Staats.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 13 About the Author

Alex Koehler-Sidki is a 3rd PhD student with the Engineering Department at the University of Cambridge. His current research is focused on the security of single photon detectors in quantum cryptography which is based at Toshiba Research Europe, just north of the city. Prior to this, Alex completed an MSci at the University of Nottingham, including a year at the Ludwig-Maximilians- Universität in Munich, before spending half a year working at a leading photonics company.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 14 Data Governance in the Genomics Era

Emma Lawrence, Department of Plant Science, University of Cambridge

n recent years, the volume of data address these challenges. generated from all aspects of our I lives has been increasing, in parallel What is genomics and how can it be used with the sophistication of analytical for healthcare? techniques used to process this data. This shift toward a ‘data-driven’ society The DNA of all organisms is composed has the potential to yield insights that of a long sequence of DNA nucleotides – can benefit many sectors of public life, A, C, T and G – that together form a but it has also prompted concerns unique code. Through genome related to privacy. A recent report by sequencing, scientists can determine the the Royal Society on data management order of these letters in an individual and use [1] is a recognition that the fast organism. All humans have the same pace of all areas of data growth requires nucleotide letter for most positions in careful consideration. the genome, but they differ at a few positions which are termed ‘variants’. In the field of healthcare research, an While most variants in the genome do area generating large amounts of highly not impact our physiology, some can unique data about individuals is that of cause disease. Knowledge of these genome sequencing and genomics. variants can be useful for informing Sharing of genome sequence data has treatment, as well as for providing the potential to improve our timely diagnoses. Many of these understanding of diseases, which can, in disease-causing variants are rare, turn, improve diagnostics, treatment and meaning that they are not observed at integration of personalised medicine into high rates in the general population. As standard healthcare practices. However, such, genomic analysis requires large the difficulties associated with datasets comprised of many—typically maintaining privacy of this data are thousands—of genome sequences, so significant. These challenges demand a researchers have enough statistical need for policies that will encourage power to detect such variants. Luckily, innovation and scientific progress for the the cost of sequencing a genome has collective benefit of all whilst minimizing plummeted in recent years, and the level of risk to the individual. therefore many individuals can be sequenced synchronously for minimal This short article will explore the costs. Nonetheless, data sharing, which potential advantages and risks of using is simply the combining of different genomic data in medical research, and it smaller datasets generated in different will suggest policy approaches to

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 15 research centres, can help produce the individual in the future, for example if large datasets required. It can also they are thought to have increased risk increase efficient interpretation of the of a disease [2]. This can be same variants across different research circumvented by using ‘coded data,’ so centres, reduce the risk of misdiagnosis, individuals can still be linked to their and improve the reliability of diagnoses genomic data and identification can [2]. Taken together, data sharing can be occur if required, but the code is kept in of a direct benefit to patients living with a secure environment. However, it has rare diseases, and the UK has adopted been suggested that DNA can never be several policies to encourage further completely anonymised due to the data pooling [3]. Genomics England is inherent uniqueness of the genetic leading a movement to adopt genomic identity [5]. Current legislation does testing as an integrated part of routine protect and regulate the sharing of clinical care in the NHS, and the ongoing personally identifiable data, but there is 100,000 Genomes Project aims to set up a lack of consensus over the appropriate a genomic medicine service for the NHS level of safeguarding for genomic data to in the coming decades [4]. minimize privacy risks.

Concerns and Risks A concern for the collection of genome data is how to obtain consent for its We have seen that the collection and usage. An individual may consent for sharing of genomic data has the potential their own personal genome being to bring advances in scientific sequenced and the data released, but understanding and healthcare. However, this can also give indirect information there are some concerns associated with about family members, and to a lesser this. extent, members of the same ethnic group and population [1, 6]. Therefore, First, guaranteeing the privacy of some question whether a genome individual-level genomic data can be sequence can be ‘owned’ and challenging. Data shared between consequently whether one individual can research groups is typically ‘de- consent to its use. It is also difficult to identified’, meaning that any personally consent to all the possible future uses of identifiable information (PII) must be the data. Both data analysis and removed from the dataset before genomics are rapidly advancing fields, genomic data can be shared with other and it may not be possible to foresee all research groups. While PII most future possibilities. A ‘broad consent’ obviously includes information like model permits use of the data for an name, date of birth and home address, unspecified range of future research in other information, such as a post code, recognition of these difficulties, but it is county or even ethnicity, could be important that individuals understand combined with other PII to identify an what this consent means in practice. individual, particularly those with rare diseases. In the case of patients with Suggested policy approaches these diseases, there is a concern that a breach of confidentiality of this Several different sources have argued information could place them at risk of for new regulatory bodies to address the being subject to discrimination and/or challenges of a changing genomic stigmatisation. However, the de- medicine landscape. The Science and identification of data could limit the Technology Committee recently ability of researchers to contact an launched an inquiry into genomics and

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 16 genome editing, where suggestions were transparent to those involved in a study, made that a new body, similar to the and researchers should acknowledge Human Genetics Commission which that privacy cannot be completely existed up to 2012, should be formed guaranteed. An example of a healthcare [7]. In her 2016 annual report data project that failed because it did not ‘Generation Genome’, Dame Sally Davies cultivate public trust was the NHS’s recommends that government public care.data program. The purpose was to engagement with genomics should be extract data from GP practices and link increased with the creation of a new it with that from hospitals, to improve National Genomics Board [5]. This treatments and patient care. However, it approach will help to ensure that was stopped in 2016 after concerns over progression will be monitored and data privacy weren’t fully addressed or investigation into any potential harm is communicated to patients [9,10]. carried out. Despite extensive patient communication and public dialogue, there remains A consensus for how genomic data will confusion over the concept of be confidentially treated should be anonymised and pseudo-anonymised reached. If successful, lessons can be data in the 100,000 genomes project taken from the 100,000 Genomes Project [11]. This highlights the importance of and applied to other projects. They have maintaining a clear dialogue with the created a secure data governance public. Finally, new uses for genomic system for storage and access of data emerge every year, and sensitive patient data, where de- policymakers should consider how identified data is analysed in a monitored obtaining informed consent at each stage environment. Researchers need to apply of these new developments could to access the de-identified data which increase an individual’s knowledge and can only be approved if the purpose is ownership over the use of their data. deemed reasonable. In addition, the database of Genotypes and Phenotypes, Conclusions which is a National Institutes sponsored repository of large-scale genetic and It is expected that as genome clinical datasets, has a rigorous sequencing and genomic testing application process for annonymised becomes more commonplace in research data and requires research institutes to and healthcare, a shift in the policy provide secure data storage that aligns landscape will be required to manage the with their guidelines [8]. In agreement associated risks. It is important that with this, a report by the Nuffield scientific progress in this area can Council on Bioethics also makes the continue, but in a secure environment following recommendations; that privacy that people trust. Public participation is breaches must be reported to affected vital for the success of future genomic individuals, that criminal penalties should research projects, and their promise to apply for misuse of data, and that access deliver transformative genomic to data is restricted to researchers that medicine. are subject to institutional oversight [3]. Acknowledgements Another consideration is the importance of cultivating public trust in any genome First editor: Maggie Westwater sequencing project. As in any area of Second editor: Erin Cullen human subjects research, the security of Image credit: Shaury Nash, CC BY-SA data storage must be made fully 2.0

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 17 References About the Author

[1] The Royal Society (2017) Data management and Emma is a PhD use: Governance in the 21st century. [Online]. Student in the Available: http://bit.ly/2C9TzCT Department of Plant [2] Raza, S., and Hall, A. (2017). Genomic medicine Sciences, working on and data sharing. Br. Med. Bull. 123, 35–45. meiotic recombination [3] Nuffield Council on Bioethics. The collection, in the flowering plant linking and use of data in biomedical research and health care: ethical issues. [Online]. Available: Arabidopsis thaliana. http://bit.ly/16qU2A4 Emma completed her

[4] Genomics England: The 100,000 Genomes Project undergraduate degree in Natural [Online]. Available: http://bit.ly/2bbfJuG Sciences at the University of Cambridge, where she developed a passion for [5] Chief Medical Officer Annual Report 2016: Generation Genome. [Online]. Available: genetics and the complexity of genomes. http://bit.ly/2uhbNQW She is interested in the role of policy in

[6] Royal Society Talk by Chloe-Agathe Azencott promoting genomic medicine, food (2017). Machine learning and Genomics: precision security, and the use of evidence-based medicine vs patient privacy. [Online]. Available: http://bit.ly/2pdNgJK policy in government. During her PhD, she completed an internship with Sense [7] House of Commons Science and Technology Committee (2017) Genomics and genome-editing: about Science in London. future lines of enquiry. [Online]. Available: http://bit.ly/2IrkywO

[8] Mailman, M.D. et al., (2007). The NCBI dbGaP database of genotypes and phenotypes. Nat. Genet. 39, 1181-1186.

[9] Limb, M. (2016). Controversial database of medical records is scrapped over security concerns. BMJ 354, i3804.

[10] Godlee, F. (2016). What can we salvage from care.data? BMJ 354, i3907.

[11] The Guardian (2015) Privacy and the 100,000 Genome Project. [Online]. Available: http://bit.ly/2HEzZAq

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 18

A Cutting-edge IP Litigation: the European Front of CRISPR Patent War Michele Sanguanini, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge

Karen Stroobants, University of Cambridgepalindromic repeats’ and describes a RISPR/Cas9 is a gene editing region in prokaryotic genomes where technology that is revolutionising the arrays of repeated near-palindromic C way that scientists design biomedical sequences—nucleic acid sequences, e.g. research. In addition to this, GACGTC, where the complementary CRISPR/Cas9 is opening promising strand (CTGCAG) is the mirrored image avenues for applications in gene therapy, of the primary one—are interlaced with manufacturing, and agriculture. The short variable sequences. Scientists first commercial and disruptive potential of acknowledged the existence of such this invention is so promising that it genomic patterns in the bacterium sparked a ‘gold rush’ towards patenting Escherichia coli in 1987, and in many CRISPR/Cas technologies. Two principal other prokaryotes (either archaea or players weighed in to define the eubacteria) over the next decade. In the CRISPR/Cas9 patent landscape in the mid-2000s, multiple authors suggested US: the University of California Berkeley that CRISPR acts as a ‘bacterial adaptive (UCB) and the Broad Institute, a joint immune system’ [3]. A few years later, MIT-Harvard research institute [1]. multiple CRISPR-associated proteins This ultimately led to a high-profile (Cas) were described as effectors of this patent battle in front of the US Patent function in prokaryotes. Among Cas Trial and Appeal Board, where the Broad proteins, Cas9 has been characterised Institute prevailed in the first instance extensively from a biochemical and [2]. The dispute, however, continues biological point of view. worldwide. In this Communication, I will focus on the European front of this At this point, one could use patents to litigation; the problem being not only tell the recent story of CRISPR/Cas9 who owns this technology in Europe, but systems. This approach might be less also what are the potential impacts of appealing than the (often controversial) patent conflicts between academic ‘heroic’ narrative of CRISPR [3], but it institutions on European policy and law. also permits to avoid (cherry) picking which scientists provided major A song of CRISPR and Cas contributions towards understanding this system [4]. The players that are Others have more extensively narrated sectioning the patent landscape of how a niche field of research, an CRISPR/Cas are also dividing a ‘pie’ ‘immune system’ found in bacteria, worth tens of millions of USD [1], but became the next big thing in genome are not the only people who contributed editing [3,4]. CRISPR stands for to the science behind this technology. ‘clustered regularly interspaced

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 19 The first attempt at patenting CRISPR Total War CRISPR/Cas dates back to 2008 [5], when Luciano Marraffini and Erik J. Both UCB and the Broad Institute claim Sontheimer from Northwestern an engineered CRISPR-Cas9 system for University demonstrated that use in genome editing. Doudna and CRISPR/Cas could cut DNA – and could Charpentier’s patent does not specify potentially be used to interrupt the cell types to which it might be horizontal gene transfer from/to applied, while Zhang’s patent claims pathogens. The authors abandoned this specific use on eukaryotic cells. If we patent due to a lack of sufficient represent the two patents as Venn experimental evidence; however, diagrams, the claims of the latter patent Marraffini would later become a key might be a subset of the former. And to actor in the Broad/UCB patent battle in be patentable, an invention must be Europe. The first successful CRISPR novel considering the information patent application was filed by a already available to the public (the ‘prior Lithuanian researcher, Virginijus art’), show non-obvious inventive step Šikšnys, in March 2012 [6]. This patent from already patented inventions, and it is, however, widely overlooked in most must be fully disclosed. ensuing CRISPR patent battles as it contains claims on a CRISPR-RNA system created in vitro—not genetically encoded like the Broad/UCB one.

Another fundamental patent application was filed in May 2012 [7]. It came from Jennifer Doudna, a structural biologist at UCB, and Emmanuelle Charpentier, who was at the time a microbiologist at Umeå University in Sweden. The collaboration of the teams led by the two women made it possible to engineer a CRISPR/Cas9 system to induce a targeted double- Figure 1 CRISPR-Cas9 mechanism. A) stranded DNA cleavage in vitro [8]. Cas9 (orange) is a Cas protein with Figure 1 shows the mechanism of this multiple functions: in nature it DNA editing technology. The plot twist complexes with targeting RNA derived in this story was a patent filed by Feng from a CRISPR cluster (crRNA) and a Zhang at the Broad Institute in second, structural RNA called tracer December 2012, that contained claims RNA (tracRNA). The group from Doudan on a protocol to apply CRISPR/Cas9 and Chaprentier proved that these two system for genome editing in eukaryotic RNAs can replaced with a single guide cells [9]. Later on, his team published a RNA (sgRNA, magenta) [8]. B) The study in Science, where they were able RNA-protein complex then unwinds the to edit the genome of murine and human double helix and scans the genome until cells [10]. With an expensive patent it reaches a sequence which 1) is gamble, the Broad Institute collaboration complementary to the spacer region of fast-tracked its application to the US crRNA and 2) is adjacent to a sequence Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) motif called a PAM site. After sequence [1]; the patent was accepted in 2014, recognition, Cas9 cleaves double- while the one from UCB is still pending. stranded DNA three bases upstream of

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 20 the PAM sequence from both sides dispute over CRISPR patents becomes leaving blunt-ends, which are hotspots labyrinthine, with no Ariadne’s thread in for homologous recombination sight. Multiple players are in the arena, (fundamental to gene knock-ins) or along with Doudna and Charpentier, and small sequence deletions that might lead Zhang. Some are to be expected—such to gene knock-out. Panel A from as Vilnius University, the home Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 structure institution of Virginijus Šikšnys, inventor resolved with X-ray diffraction of a non-genetically encoded CRISPR (PDB:4OO8). Panel B adapted by technology—others are not. Of note is permission from Macmillan Publishers Merck’s subsidiary company Ltd: Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol, MilliporeSigma, which was granted a doi:10.1038/nrm.2015.2 © (2016). patent for a CRISPR-based knock-in strategy specific for genome editing in In 2016, UCB filed an interference to the eukaryotic cells (EP3138910). EPO’s USPTO stating that the Broad’s patent is decision caused surprise among an ‘obvious’ derivation from their own. American commentators [11]. This action opened a high-level MilliporeSigma’s patent—also granted in international patent war between Australia, Singapore, and Canada— Cambridge (MA) and Berkeley. The focal covers claims very similar to those point being whether it would be trivial to presented by the Broad Institute [10], use the system developed in vitro by but was filed six days prior. Doudna and Charpentier in eukaryotic cells. The Broad Institute managed to The EPO awarded the European convince the US Patent Trial and Appeal equivalent of the patent at the centre of Board that its patent is a non-obvious the American dispute to the Broad application of the system patented by Institute back in 2015 (EP2771468) UCB [2]. The ruling opened a scenario following an international patent in the US where both the UCB (when application naming the Broad Institute, awarded) and Broad patents might be MIT and Harvard as applicants. The valid for commercial application in application was filed in December 2013 agriculture or human gene therapy. UCB claiming a priority date of December has since filed an appeal to the decision 2012—i.e. the date the patent was first of the USPTO, but their decision is still filed to the USPTO [12]. Claiming pending [2]. priority means that the novelty of the patent is to be established as if it were The war for CRISPR/Cas9 is not over filed on the priority date (December yet, because each Regional/National 2012), and not on the filing date Patent Office is a distinct battlefield. For (December 2013) [13]. In this story, example, in 2017 China took sides with dates are as fundamental as reading. Doudna and Charpentier, granting them a patent for the use of CRISPR/Cas9 in Opponents of the Broad Institute’s patent vitro and in all types of cells [2]. This in Europe have found a winning came after the European Patent Office argument, based on a technical (EPO) also granted the two scientists a difference between European and US CRISPR/Cas9 patent with broad claims patent law, which led to the revocation (EP2800811) in May of the same year. of the patent on 17th January 2018. One of the priority documents, dated 2012 CRISPR goes to Crete (US application 61736527), named Luciano Marraffini, at the time at When moving to the Old Continent, the Rockefeller University in New York, as

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 21 co-inventor with Zhang, while the business’ [1, 2, 15, 16], and the role of application included only the latter as policy makers in addressing this issue (if inventor. This mismatch is not coming need be). out of the blue, but is the result of a non-conventional parallel patent dispute Patents are a contract between between Broad Institute and Rockefeller inventors and society, where one side University, solved through arbitration in discloses their invention to the public, January 2018 [14]. According to and the other grants them the negative European rules, the names of inventors right to protect the invention for a listed on priority documents and on the definite period of time. This, in turn, filed application must be identical in incentivises people to create new tools order to claim priority (in the US, at or processes that might benefit society least one of the inventors must be as a whole; patents serve as a powerful present in both documents). This tool to drive scientific innovation. The technicality meant that the application link between legal protection of could not claim priority date and its inventions and innovation has been effective date became the filing date. recognised for a long time, for example The Broad application lacked novelty the United States Constitutional over the prior art in December 2013 Convention introduced an ‘Intellectual (see for example [10]) and ultimately Property clause’ in the U.S. Constitution had to be revoked. (Article I, Section 8, Clause 8) as early as 1787. The Broad Institute is appealing the decision on the grounds that the EPO However, advantages become less clear has rules contradicting international when academic institutions are pushed patent treaties. However, it is unlikely towards patenting—or rather, exclusive that the EPO is going to defy decades of licensing—and commercialising their patent case law to accommodate Broad’s research. The CRISPR patent dispute is requests [13]. Nonetheless, this defining a quite unprecedented scenario revocation does not directly affect the where a plethora of (mostly academic) many follow-up CRISPR patents that the players, each with partially overlapping Institute still holds in Europe. Thus, at claims on a technology, are present in the moment multiple institutions are in different regional/national markets. One possession of key patents with similar aspect of this problem is that claims on CRISPR/Cas9 in Europe. This universities, the patent owners, transfer situation is probably not going to have a licensing rights to their private winner-take-all solution, and it is likely ‘commercial arms’ (a.k.a. spin-off that multiple players will share rights to companies) according to the practice of the technology [13]. surrogate licensing [2, 15]. Compared with the past decades, this is a novel CRISPR patents, academia, and policy approach to the commercial exploitation making of academic research [16] and it might be related to changes in the availability The CRISPR patent war is not just a and distribution of research funding. fascinating story for people interested in Some scholars have warned that a Intellectual Property law. At its core, convoluted licensing situation might end there are fundamental issues related to up hindering the development and the role of academic institutions in the commercial availability of CRISPR- commercialisation of their research, the derived biomedical technologies, since a consequences of ‘academia becoming handful of private companies would

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 22 retain exclusive licensing rights to the focus back on openness and scientific technology [1, 15]. collaboration. A second crucial point we need to focus on is the potentially detrimental effect that these litigations have on interinstitutional collaboration and on the Acknowledgements way in which academic research is run. I would like to thank Prashanth Ciryam Again, the CRISPR example is and Roxine Staats (also first editor of paradigmatic, as it disclosed manual this article) for invaluable input on the examples of toxic behaviours in article. I thank the second editor, Philipe academia: from downplaying the role of Bujold, for meaningful comments. other groups in developing CRISPR/Cas9 [1], to using Prof. Doudna’s critical analysis of her own work as a key argument against UCB patent claims [2].

In the long run, the fear of patent References clashes might hold back institutions from [1] Cohen, J., 'The Birth of CRISPR Inc.' Science collaborating—in particular when 355.6326 (2017): 680-684. potentially profitable technologies are on [2] Sherkow, J.S., ‘Patent protection of CRISPR: an the table. This would betray one of the ELSI review’ Journal of Law and Biosciences (2017): main assets of scientific research: S65-S76. collegiality. [3] Lander, E.S., ‘The Heroes of CRISPR’ Cell 164.1-2 (2016):18-28. Funding bodies and policy makers might have a pivotal role in avoiding the [4] Ledford, H., 'The unsung heroes of CRISPR' emergence of a ‘patent or perish’ culture Nature 535.7612 (2016): 342-244. in applied research. For instance, they [5] Sontheimer, E.J., and Marraffini, L.A., "Target could respectively adopt or promote the DNA interference with crRNA", US20100076057A1 adoption of evaluation criteria that would (abandoned). favour applicants providing forms of [6] Šikšnys, V., Gasiunas, G. and Karvelis, T., “RNA- open licensing, such as patentleft (the directed DNA-cleavage by the Cas9-crRNA complex” patent analogue of copyleft), alongside US009637739B2 (awarded). standard ones. Another possibility is to [7] Doudna, J.A., Jinek, M., Charpentier, E., et al., encourage the use of patents to exert "Methods and compositions for RNA-directed target ways of ‘private governance’ [2] on DNA modification and for RNA-directed modulation of their commercial derivations that would transcription", US20140068797A1 (pending). favour communities. For example, [8] Jinek, M., et al., "A programmable dual-RNA- Monsanto’s license from the Broad guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial Institute for agricultural applications of immunity" Science 337.6096 (2012): 816-821. CRISPR/Cas9 requires the multinational [9] Zhang. F., "CRISPR-Cas systems and methods for company to allow the practice of saving altering gene expression", US008697359B1 and resewing seeds from one season to (awarded). the next [17]. A policy-driven push on [10] Cong, L., et al., "Multiplex genome engineering academic institutions towards open and using CRISPR/Cas systems" Science 339.6121 (2013): ethical licensing, if matched with policies 819-823. that encourage a fairer distribution of [11] Cohen, J., ‘CRISPR patent battle in Europe takes funding, might discourage research a “wild” twist with surprising player’ Science (2017). institutions from pursuing time- and doi:10.1126/science.aan7211 money-intensive patent wars and put the

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 23 [12] Servick, K., ‘Broad Institute takes a hit in European CRISPR patent struggle’ Science (2017). About the Author doi:10.1126/science.aat0487 Michele Sanguanini [13] Kupecz, A., ‘Who owns CRISPR-Cas9 in Europe?’ Nature Biotechnology 32.12 (2014): 1194-1196. is a member of Gonville & Caius [14] Grens, K., ‘That Other CRISPR Patent Dispute’ The Scientist, 31 August 2016 (last accessed April College and a PhD 2018). Archived at https://perma.cc/44B3-8B7M. student at the Centre

[15] Contreras, J.L. and Sherkow, J.S., ‘CRISPR, for Misfolding surrogate licensing, and scientific discovery’ Science Diseases 355.6326 (2017): 698-700. (Department of [16] Sherkow, J.S., ‘Pursuit of profit poisons Chemistry). His research involves the collaboration’ Nature 532.7598 (2016): 172-173. systems biology and biophysics [17] Guerrini, C.J, et al., ‘The rise of the ethical underlying neurodegenerative processes license’ Nature Biotechnology 35.1 (2017): 22-24. and ageing, with a focus on protein aggregation in Alzheimer’s disease. Before coming to Cambridge, Michele received a Diploma in Biology from Scuola Normale Superiore and an MSc in Biology Applied to Biomedical Sciences from the University of Pisa. Michele is interested in the relationship between science and the law and how policy making might address the challenges arising from their interaction.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 24

Innovation in the Fight Against Infectious Diseases

Daniela Rodriguez-Rincon, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge

Karen Stroobants, University of Cambridge Surveillance he discovery of antibiotics in 1928 led the world to believe that the fight Formal reports of suspected outbreaks T against infectious diseases was one to are usually received by the WHO from be won within a few years. Nowadays, ministries of health, national institutes of nearly 90 years following the discovery public health, WHO regional offices, and of penicillin, infectious diseases remain civil society. Traditional surveillance one of the main causes of mortality methods rely on routine reporting of worldwide, with lower respiratory tract pre-determined information by infections, diarrhoeal diseases, and healthcare facilities. This often results in tuberculosis ranking among the top 10 delayed notifications, making outbreak causes of death according to the World prediction difficult and leading to slow or Health Organization (WHO) [1]. In less-than-adequate responses. recent years, the advent of antibiotic Technological advances, mainly in the resistance, the anti-vaccination field of digital transformation, have movement, and humanitarian crises have enabled the development of digital seen a rise in infectious diseases that surveillance reporting systems and were once thought to be nearly monitoring networks, providing a more eradicated, such as polio, tuberculosis rapid response to epidemic threats. and measles. These systems collect and analyse Reducing the burden of infectious information obtained from diverse diseases by 2030 is one of the targets sources, including social media, news stated in the Sustainable Development reports, and web-based searches, with Goals (SDGs), with SDG3 focusing on the aim of detecting events with ending the epidemics of the Acquired epidemic potential prior to official Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), notifications [3]. tuberculosis, malaria and neglected As part of the Global Outbreak Alert and tropical diseases, as well as combating Response Network (GOARN), the Global hepatitis, water-borne diseases and Public Health Intelligence Network other communicable diseases [2]. (GPHIN) was developed by Health Innovation in the field of Science and Canada in collaboration with the WHO as Technology has allowed for better a tool for event-based surveillance. This surveillance, diagnosis, and treatment system is a secure internet-based multi- options, as well as contributing to the lingual early-warning system that development and implementation of continuously searches global media strategic policies. sources to identify information regarding

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 25 disease outbreaks and other relevant diagnosis leads to better treatment events of potential international public outcomes and reduces transmission — a health concern. Reports obtained in this key factor in eradication. way require verification to ensure cases meet a specific case definition. The Moreover, innovation in the field of importance of GPHIN was highlighted in diagnostics has not been limited to 2003 during the Severe Acute speed, but also to comfort. Many Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak infectious diseases can only be in China, issuing the first alert of unusual diagnosed through a blood sample, respiratory illness in Guangdong requiring patients to attend healthcare Province to WHO and GOARN. centres and have their blood drawn. Advances in the field of HIV/AIDS Diagnosis diagnostics have resulted in the invention of HIV home-tests, allowing Advances in the field of genetics and people to test for HIV in the comfort and biotechnology have enabled rapid privacy of their homes. diagnosis of infectious agents. New technologies allow the identification of Treatment unculturable bacteria thanks to DNA sequencing, and whole genome The treatment of infectious diseases sequencing (WGS) can be used not only consists of drugs aimed at killing or to diagnose an infectious agent but also limiting the growth of the infectious to identify epidemic strains and agent, but, due to the intense regulatory transmission events. The most pathways in drug development and the commonly used genetic tool in clinical high increased risk of failure of clinical microbiology is the real-time trials, pharmaceutical companies do not polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which invest greatly in drug candidates for amplifies genetic material for enhanced infectious diseases since the return on detection of pathogens, and is investment is generally quite low. characterized by high sensitivity and However, antibiotic resistance is specificity, low contamination risk, and globally recognised as an emerging high speed [4]. public health threat, and policy initiatives are underway to provide solutions for A notable example of the role of overcoming important obstacles in the innovation in diagnostics, in the context fight against antibiotic resistance. These of infectious diseases, is the case of include strategies to incentivise the tuberculosis (TB). The bacterium that development of novel antibiotics, causes TB takes approximately 21 days including the development of new to grow in solid culture. Therefore, economic models and policies for diagnosis using classical microbiology is sustainable antibiotic use [5]. typically slow, during which time the infected patient is contagious and can transmit the disease to anyone in close ‘The fight against infectious proximity, given the airborne nature of disease therefore requires a multi- TB. In addition to genetic techniques as sectorial approach; policy makers a method of identification, the invention must consider all aspects leading of mycobacterial growth indicator tubes to the spread of infection and the (MGIT) has been revolutionary, allowing specific cultural traditions of the identification of positive cultures as soon affected countries.’ as 1 hour after inoculation. Rapid

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 26 One of the main causes of antibiotic Acknowledgements resistance is non-compliance with the prescribed treatment due to the length Dani would like to thank the first editor of treatment, the amount of daily pills of this article Roxine Staats, and second taken, or the adverse side effects editor Shan Chong. Dani would also like associated with the drug. These to thank Erin Cullen for encouraging her problems also arise in treating chronic to write the article in the first place. non-bacterial infectious diseases, such as HIV. Research from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, References as well as the Brigham and Women’s Hospital, into new delivery options for [1] World Health Organization (2017) The top 10 currently available drugs has led to the causes of death, fact sheet. [Online]. Available: http://bit.ly/1c9a3vO development of an ingestible capsule that can slowly release 1 week’s worth [2] United Nations Development Programme (2016) of antiretroviral drugs [6]. Although its Sustainable Development Goals. [Online]. Available: bit.ly/2d4dcA4 application is currently only being researched for HIV, this technology [3] G. J. Milinovich, et al., “Internet-based could be used in the delivery of a surveillance systems for monitoring emerging number of drugs. infectious diseases,” The Lancet Infectious Diseases, vol. 14, pp. 794, Sep 2014.

Policy and its Role in Eradicating [4] M. J. Espy, et al., “Real-Time PCR in Clinical Infectious Diseases Microbiology: Applications for Routine Laboratory Testing,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol. 19, pp. Policies on infectious diseases are 165-256, Jan 2006. difficult to establish due to the range of [5] U. Theuretzbacher, C. Årdal, S. Harbarth., competencies involved and the different “Linking sustainable use policies to novel economic socio-economic and cultural settings in incentives to stimulate antibiotic research and development,” Infectious Disease Reports, vol. 9, pp. which they are implemented. Scientific 28-31, Jan 2017. advances have played an important role in eradicating many infectious diseases [6] A. R. Kirtane, et al., “Development of an oral in the developed world, however, many once-weekly drug delivery system for HIV antiretroviral therapy,” Nature Communications, vol. 9, hard-to-reach areas in low- and Jan 2018. middle-income countries may not reap the benefits of such advances due to high levels of poverty. Moreover, poverty creates conditions that favour the spread of infectious diseases and prevents affected populations from obtaining proper access to prevention and care. Therefore, policies to reduce poverty and inequalities play important roles in eradicating diseases.

The fight against infectious disease therefore requires a multi-sectorial approach; policy makers must consider all aspects leading to the spread of infection and the specific cultural traditions of the affected countries.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 27 About the Author

Daniela is a PhD candidate at the Molecular Immunity Unit of the Department of Medicine, studying Mycobacterium abscessus infection in the context of Cystic Fibrosis. She completed her undergraduate degree in Biology at Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Spain) and obtained her Master’s degree in Medical Microbiology from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Daniela is very interested in the role and contribution of Science and Policy in the fight against infectious diseases. She is currently doing an internship at the Department of Strategic Policy at UNAIDS in Geneva, Switzerland.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 28 Consider Fracking Your Backyard

Amanda Murphy, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge

racking or hydraulic fracture led the UK to become a net importer of stimulation is a very recognisable, natural gas in 2004, crude oil in 2005 F very divisive topic. It is common to and all petroleum products by 2013. have a strong opinion about fracking, While the use of renewables increased be it for or against. “Fracking. No. Not in to almost 20% of all electricity my backyard.” Indeed, for most, fracking generated in 2016, petroleum and is something for others to solve. But natural gas still make up 76% of total while we empathise with the impact of primary energy consumption, with such industrial development, we seldom natural gas providing 46% of electricity suggest fracking in our backyard. generation. The UK consumes The North Sea dominates the United approximately 2.5 trillion cubic feet Kingdom’s (UK) energy supply. (TCF) of natural gas a year and natural However, with North Sea oil and gas gas imports currently supply 40% of this fields in decline, controversial fracking domestic demand [1]. technology may be the best option to fill The UK principally imports crude oil the gap in domestic energy demand. from Norway with the balance from West Exploration sites earmarked for Africa, the Middle East, Russia and hydraulic fracture stimulation are in North America. Crude oil can be relatively rural areas of the North West, transported in tankers or pipelines, Yorkshire and East Midlands, but shale however, while natural gas can also be oil and gas development should be transported in pipelines, tanker shipping considered in more urban areas. London requires conversion to liquefied natural and the South East overlie the gas (LNG) and then regasification at the prospective Weald and Wessex destination. The UK gas grid is sedimentary basins and development connected to mainland Europe through here would be close to consumers in an two major pipelines and via pipelines area with a strong history of monitoring, from the Norwegian sector of the North industrial brownfields sites and existing Sea. In 2016, 77% of imported gas came road and power infrastructure. Perhaps through these pipelines, principally from it is time to consider fracking in our Norway [1]. However, Europe faces London backyard. similar issues of production decline and The UK remains the second largest Russian imports are increasingly part of producer of petroleum liquids in the energy mix of continental Europe European OECD countries, with almost [2]. Imports of LNG ceased in the UK all the UK’s oil and gas production from during the 1980s following development offshore fields in the North Sea. The of the North Sea but resumed in 2005; declining production of these fields has the import amount now varies in

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 29 response to global market conditions. Engineering [9]. The review introduced For example, LNG imports significantly new requirements and oversight for decreased following the 2011 Fukushima fracking operations [6] and additional disaster as demand for LNG in Japan regulation around hydraulic fracture tightened the global market [1]. stimulation was enacted in the Companies such as Centrica are trying Infrastructure Act 2015. These to secure gas supply through long term requirements mean fracture stimulation LNG import contracts [3], while National operations need to adhere to the traffic Grid and Ineos already import shale gas light seismic monitoring system. This converted to LNG from North America system is designed to mitigate the risk [4,5]. of seismic activity and operators are required to monitor seismic activity in The development of shale oil and gas in real time around the hydraulic fracture the UK could make a significant site using a Richter scale rating. contribution to meeting the increasing Depending on the measured response domestic energy shortfall and help they will continue (green), monitor secure gas supplies as the North Sea (amber) or stop (red) [10]. declines. At present, the UK has no shale oil and gas developments and only In addition to induced seismicity, shale limited shale oil and gas exploration has oil and gas development in the UK raises been attempted. Without significant concerns around water contamination exploration effort, the estimated and handling. The Energy and Climate volumes are very uncertain, however, Change Select Committee’s report on suggested recoverable shale gas could shale gas concluded that hydraulic be 5-40 TCF [6]. fracturing itself does not pose a direct risk to water aquifers, provided that the Exploration and development of shale oil well casing is intact [11]. Current and gas, and other unconventionals such regulation should ensure well integrity; as tight gas, coalbed methane, mine vent however, there is criticism of how gas and gas storage come under the robustly this legislation can be enforced Petroleum Act 1998 and onshore [6]. Baseline monitoring of air, land and licensing in the form of a UK Petroleum water is critical and while the Exploration and Development Licence Infrastructure Act 2015 requires 12 (PEDL). The statutory regulations to months of methane monitoring in allow drilling and well testing within a groundwater prior to fracture stimulation PEDL involves several government and air quality monitoring following regulators. These regulators vary stimulation - a longer history of according to the jurisdictions of England, monitoring is desirable. A key Scotland and Wales. Shale gas recommendation of the Royal Society exploration came to a sudden halt in the and Royal Academy of Engineering UK following fracture stimulation of the report was to carry out comprehensive Preece Hall site near Blackpool in 2011 baseline surveys [9]. Air quality can [7]. Two minor earthquakes are thought show seasonal variation, weekend to have been triggered during the variation due to road traffic and there operations [8]. Following this incident can be episodes of winter or summer the UK government imposed a smog from Europe [12]. It will be moratorium on hydraulic fracturing, but important to distinguish these ‘normal’ lifted it a year later following the review levels from shale oil and gas activities of scientific and engineering evidence by and this will require a record of levels the Royal Society and Royal Academy of before stimulation. The British

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 30 Geological Survey (BGS) is currently oil and gas fields. The technology behind undertaking a National Baseline Methane shale oil and gas was only developed Survey in groundwaters across the UK. and implemented in the late 1990s and Findings from this survey show that fields from this era are still producing where sites were sampled a number of [6]. While current regulations appear times variations were generally minor adequate, it will be important to follow but some areas show larger changes the progress of these first shale oil and [13]. Without greater understanding of gas fields and regulation may need to be this variation, it is not clear if the revisited based on their mandatory 12 month monitoring will decommissioning experience. adequately capture longer term baseline variation in groundwater methane No shale oil and gas fracture stimulation concentrations. has been completed in the UK since the Preece Hall site in 2011. Now, in 2018, The surface disturbance and surface four companies are proposing to fracture footprint of shale oil and gas is stimulate wells in the North West, important, particularly as shale gas Yorkshire and East Midlands [17]. developments require the drilling of These proposed sites for future fracture many wells. A major issue with regard to stimulation are in rural areas; however, surface impacts is that areas of land and shale gas exploration and development wildlife habitat can become fragmented. can take place in urban areas. For Land often needs to be cleared to allow example, shale gas wells have been access to the well site including drilled across the Dallas–Fort Worth– construction of roads and pipelines [14]. Arlington metropolitan area in North This can change the look of the land and Texas, USA. Almost 2000 producing have implications for local wildlife wells are located within the city limits of populations which may need to be Fort Worth which is home to over mitigated. The initial drilling and 800,000 people [18]. Drilling in hydraulic fracturing process requires populated areas has also occurred in the construction of a wellpad: a flat 2-3 UK; conventional oilfields underlie the hectare area. A drilling rig and villages of Gainsborough (the wells are equipment is then mobilised onsite to on the golf course) and Wareham [7]. drill the well and carry out the hydraulic fracturing operation. During this stage Urban exploration and development in there is often heavy vehicle traffic to the London and the South East could site and noise from the 24 hour investigate the shale oil and gas operations. Following this stage, the site prospectivity of the Wessex and Weald consists of a wellhead, perhaps with Basins. These Basins already have a additional production equipment. The history of conventional (non-shale) oil area of the wellpad may periodically be and gas exploration and there are 13 used again during workovers or producing fields within the Weald Basin restimulation. When the well is no longer alone. The source of the oil in these economically viable, cement plugs are fields is from Jurassic aged shales; the installed, and the land above can be Lias formation made famous by the reused [15, 16]. This plugging and Black Ven mudslides and fossils at Lyme abandonment of wells is commonplace in Regis and the Kimmeridge Clay which the UK for conventional oil and gas and seeps oil from the cliffs around is no different for shale oil and gas Kimmeridge Bay. These formations wells. However there are no precedents would be the target for shale oil and gas for large scale decommissioning of shale exploration. It is not entirely clear how

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 31 far these rocks extend beneath the domestic gas supplies. Alternatively, we surface but it is predicted that they go can secure LNG imports; which requires north as far as Croydon [7]. additional energy input for liquification, regasification and transport and almost Shale oil and gas in London and the certainly will include shale gas. Our third South East may be a better alternative option would be to develop our own than development in more rural areas. domestic shale oil and gas. While the UK The energy is produced closer to the has an informed regulatory framework, consumers, infrastructure is already any development will involve significant present, and there is already a strong construction of surface infrastructure history of environmental monitoring and needs to have extensive baseline within the city (for example, square mile monitoring of the land. These concerns air quality monitoring [12] and sampling would be eased if developments were in and associated studies of methane in the more urban areas of London and the groundwater prior to the National South East. Developments would be Baseline Methane Survey [13]). The close to consumers in an area with Town and County Planning Register Act industrial brownfields sites, existing 2017 requires local authorities to infrastructure and a history of prepare and maintain registers of monitoring. brownfield (previously developed) land that is suitable for residential development. Croydon Borough lists 12 sites over 2 hectares and the 2012 Acknowledgements National Land Use Database of Previously Developed Land also listed I would like to express my appreciation several locations south of London over 2 to the CUSPE team for their guidance hectares including old brickworks. and support in writing the article in These and other similar sites might be particular first editor Philipe Bujold and suitable for activities such shale gas second editor Roxine Staats. development particularly locations such as old gas works, sewage works or brickworks. Redevelopment of these sites is often complicated by possible References contamination and costly clean-up may [1] (EIA) U.S. Energy Information be needed before any sort of reuse. This Administration, "Country Analysis Brief: United could be an opportunity for developing Kingdom," vol. 18 March ed. government incentives to link shale oil https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis_includ es/countries_long/United_Kingdom/uk.pdf: U.S. Energy and gas development with clean-up of Information Administration, 2018. these types of brownfields sites. [2] Eurostat, "Energy production and imports," While regulation is critical in the in Eurostat Statistics Explained, ed: European Commisson, 2017. development of shale oil and gas in the UK, the current major roadblock is [3] Centrica. (2013, March 25) Centrica signs public opinion [6]. It will be important to long-term US LNG export deal with Cheniere. educate and consult the wider Company News. Available: https://www.centrica.com/news/centrica-signs-long- community on choices within the greater term-us-lng-export-deal-cheniere energy landscape. In the absence of more creative solutions, the UK has [4] J. Moylan. (2016, September 28) First US shale gas arrives at Ineos plant in Scotland. Available: three main alternatives. We can look to http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-37474396 Europe, and increasingly Russia, for our

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 32 [5] J. Ambrose. (2017, July 5) National Grid to what-does-it-mean-for-local-people import LNG from US shale for the first time. The Telegraph. Available: [16] (UKOOG) United Kingdom Onshore Oil and https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2017/07/05/nati Gas. (2017, 9 May 2018). What it looks like. Available: onal-grid-import-lng-us-shale-first-time/ http://www.ukoog.org.uk/community/what-it-looks- like [6] G. P. Hammond and Á. O’Grady, "Indicative energy technology assessment of UK shale gas [17] A. Vaughan. (2017, December 25) UK extraction," Applied Energy, vol. 185, pp. 1907-1918, fracking to begin in earnest in 2018 after tough year 2017. for industry. Available: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/dec/2 [7] (DECC) BGS/Department for Energy and 5/fracking-start-2018-shale-gas-uk-industry- Climate Change, "The unconvential hydrocarbon protests resources of Britian's onshore basins," ed. https://www.ogauthority.co.uk/media/1693/shalegas_u [18] City of Fort Worth. (2018, 10 April 2018). k.pdf: Department for Energy and Climate Change, Gas Well Drilling. Available: 2013. http://fortworthtexas.gov/gaswells

[8] (BGS) British Geological Survey, "Earthquakes induced by Hydraulic Fracturing Operations near Blackpool, UK," ed. http://www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/research/Blackpool About the Author Earthquakes.html: British Geological Survey, 2018. Amanda Murphy is a [9] Royal Society/Royal Academy of Engineering (RS/RAEng), "Shale gas extraction in the PhD candidate in the UK: a review of hydraulic fracturing," ed. geotechnical and https://www.raeng.org.uk/publications/reports/shale- gas-extraction-in-the-uk: RS/RAEng, London, UK, environmental 2012. research group at the

[10] (DECC) Department of Energy & Climate Cambridge University Change, "Traffic light monitoring system (shale gas Department of Engineering. Prior to and fracking) ", ed. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/traffic- study she worked as a petroleum light-monitoring-system-shale-gas-and-fracking, geologist in Australia. 2013.

[11] House of Commons Energy and Climate Change Committee, "Shale Gas Fifth Report of Session 2010–12 " vol. 1, ed. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmsel ect/cmenergy/795/795.pdf: The Stationary Office, London, UK, 2011. [12] Environmental Research Group King's College London. (2018, 16 May). London Air. Available: http://www.londonair.org.uk/LondonAir/Default.aspx

[13] R. A. Bell, W. G. Darling, R. S. Ward, L. Basava-Reddi, L. Halwa, K. Manamsa, et al., "A baseline survey of dissolved methane in aquifers of Great Britain," Sci Total Environ, vol. 601-602, pp. 1803-1813, Dec 1 2017.

[14] Office of Oil and Natural Gas, "Footprint Reduction," ed. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/07/f33/ Footprint%20Reduction.pdf: U.S. Department of Energy, 2016.

[15] M. Stephenson. (2015, Sept 15) Fracking: What does it mean for local people? Elsevier Connect. Available: https://www.elsevier.com/connect/fracking-

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 33 The Art of Science Diplomacy

Mrittunjoy Guha Majumdar, Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge

ichard Holbrooke once said well have been the first instance of 'Diplomacy is like jazz: endless science diplomacy between R variations on a theme'. A fine-art as nations. Closer to Cambridge, Philip it seemingly is, diplomacy has Zollman was made Foreign Secretary of recently had an added the Royal Society in London in 1723 and embellishment on its canvas: science. his role was to maintain regular For the diplomats of the day, this new correspondence with scientists overseas addition to the vanguard of diplomacy to ensure that the Royal Society’s has come with a lot of additional fellows remained up-to-date with the resources and opportunities, over and latest ideas and research findings. above the traditional elements of 'soft Before World War II, news and power', which is an approach to information about scientific international relations that involves developments abroad were conveyed to persuasion using economic and/ or London by commercial, military and cultural influences. even agricultural consignments. Historically, science and technology were often used in diplomatic circles. However, it was only after the war that Sometimes they were used to strike a due to Joseph Needham, whose work in sense of awe into emissaries from the area of promoting an ‘International foreign lands. For example, the Science Co-operation Service’ was Byzantian Emperor had a special widely-recognized, the natural sciences hydraulic system that elevated his were recognised as subjects that could throne to the ceiling of the Magnaura do with a bit of international cooperation Palace, thereby making a lasting in a regulated way. They were impression on visitors. At other times, incorporated within the mandate of the science was an integral part of building United Nations Educational, Scientific international bonds. Jesuit missionaries and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). played a major role in medieval This was done notwithstanding the international diplomatic circles, from international movement to address helping in the signing of the Treaty of issues of global concern such as the Nerchinsk to the Kangxi Emperor’s threat posed by the introduction of favourite mapmaker-cum-diplomat nuclear weapons, which was written Father Gerbillon. What they did do in the about in a manifesto by Bertrand Russell process of facilitating stronger and Albert Einstein in 1955, that called international ties was to establish on scientists of all political persuasions centres of learning and research that to address the issue. The famous looked into scientific pursuits. This may Pugwash Movement on science and world affairs, which was recognized with

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 34 a Nobel Prize in 1995, was also founded also various non-state entities including at around this time, in 1957, as what nongovernmental organisations proved to be a major player in the world (NGOs), lawyers, the media and of science diplomacy: the science scientific bodies, amongst others. For program by the North Atlantic Treaty instance, at the United Nations Climate Organisation (NATO). Change Conference in 2013 (COP19), there were more than 800 delegates After the Cold War, science diplomacy from non-governmental organisations entered a stage of dormancy, which has alone. However, after all is said and only recently been broken through. done, efforts to define and demarcate Indeed science and diplomacy have the role of scientists within this complex recently entered into a new phase of world order are still in a nascent stage. symbiosis. As per the Royal Society and The United Nations Conference on American Association for the Trade Development (UNCTAD) set up a Advancement of Science (AAAS), science diplomacy initiative in 2001 to the concept of “science diplomacy” enhance ‘the provision of science and refers to a number of parallel ideas technology advice to multilateral under one conceptual umbrella. Not only negotiations and the implementation of can science inform and support foreign the results of such negotiations at the policy objectives (such as on climate national level’ [1]. The American change) and improve international Association for the Advancement of relations (such as in international Science (AAAS) established its Centre collaborations for scientific pursuits like for Science Diplomacy in 2008 to bring the Large Hadron Collider), diplomacy together people from the spheres of can also facilitate international scientific foreign policy, science and public cooperation. Famous American policy to recognise areas where science molecular biologist Dr Nina Federoff, cooperation can help build trust, leading while being the Science and Technology to better intercultural understanding. Adviser to US Secretary of State, once said ‘Science diplomacy is the use of scientific interactions among nations to ‘Science diplomacy is the use of address the common problems facing scientific interactions among humanity and to build constructive, nations to address the common knowledge based international problems facing humanity and to partnerships.’ build constructive, knowledge based international partnerships.’ Over the next century, foreign policy is poised to be increasingly shaped by certain linked challenges of In the UK, the Royal Society has sustainability on the global stage. This considered bridging science and includes insufficient energy resources, diplomacy as one of its key objectives of climate change, food shortages and scarcity of water. Science and its new Science Policy Centre. The UK technology will be critical in addressing government, too, has taken a number of these hurdles and hence, the use measures to link science more directly of good scientific advice by to its foreign policy priorities. It set up a policymakers should be prioritised. The Science and Innovation Network (SIN) in global diplomatic world has increasingly 2001, which over the years has moved towards a disaggregated model expanded to have bases (usually in High that not only involves governments, but Commissions or Consulates and UK

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 35 embassies) in 25 countries. The and negotiations. In the 2009, the network does not provide any research Geological Survey of Canada recently funding itself, but rather facilitates initiated a collaborative project that collaboration between the United involved researchers from Norway, the Kingdom and international research United States of America, Sweden partners on a number of scientific and and Russia. They published the very policy matters, such as climate first comprehensive survey of Arctic change, energy and innovation. geology in a step that could have beneficial implications for contentious sovereignty claims between these countries. [2]

Establishing links between scientists and diplomats helps both: for the former by informing them about the realities of foreign policy and policymaking, and for the latter by highlighting the role and limitations of science in policy. Improving the scientific knowledge and understanding of delegations working on Sir Peter Gluckman is widely recognized key world issues like climate change and in the world of science diplomacy. He is health is crucial. In the United Kingdom, currently the inaugural Chief Science the Royal Society founded an interesting Advisor to the New Zealand Prime scheme in 2001 to pair an MP with a Minister. He is a fellow of the Royal scientist to facilitate this in the domestic Society of London and has received the environment [3]. Diplomacy, in turn, can AAAS Award for Science Diplomacy, in help to set up scientific collaborations 2016. that are the need of the hour for contemporary research that involve For effective science diplomacy, the large upfront investments in scientific community must not only be infrastructure, which is beyond the up-to-date with information on the state budget of any one country. of our planet's natural and socio- Scientists may require diplomatic economic systems, but be capable and assistance on a number of fronts, empowered to inform policymakers at particularly in intellectual property the right time. It is also in the best agreements, contract negotiations, or interests of evidence-based even with visa regulations. Post-Brexit, policymaking and diplomacy for the this has been a major cause of concern scientists to know where uncertainties for EU-UK scientific collaborations, exist in these resources and where the since around 30,000 EU evidence-base is inadequate for an nationals occupy nearly 17% informed decision or policy. Even on of University research and teaching certain sensitive issues that may be of posts in the United Kingdom. In a importance to national security, scenario where a “hard Brexit” could scientific collaboration can help to potentially impact more than 90,000 facilitate political cooperation STEM (Science, Technology,

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 36 Engineering and Mathematics) jobs as governed using an approach to per a new analysis commissioned and international cooperation that is published by London mayor Sadiq Khan informed by scientific evidence and [4], a pressing need at this time is to supported by scientific partnerships. make Diplomacy for Science a priority. As for Science for Diplomacy, the much- needed positive feedback that is sought by diplomats from scientists and the Acknowledgements world of science in the diplomatic processes can be established using Mrittunjoy would like to thank the first science cooperation agreements to editor of this article Roxine Statts, and improve bilateral ties between nations, second editor Erin Cullen. creation of new scientific institutions (such as CERN) and scholarships for network-building and partnerships. With new challenges such as environmental References degradation, scarcity of resources and the danger of nuclear warfare, [1] United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, “SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY highlighting the scientific and DIPLOMACY Concepts and Elements of a Work environmental nuances of foreign-policy Programme”, United Nations, 2003. Available: agreements has led to increased http://unctad.org/en/docs/itetebmisc5_en.pdf. discussion and debate on science [2] C. Harrison, et al., “A New Geological Map of the Arctic: Geological Survey of Canada Open File 5816”, diplomacy. Frontiers + Innovation – 2009 CSPG CSEG CWLS Convention, 2009. Available: https://www.geoconvention.com/archives/2009/090.pd Today, science diplomacy needs f. support from individuals and [3] The Royal Society (2013) Royal Society Pairing organisations placed at all levels of the Scheme 2013. [Online]. Available: https://www.geoconvention.com/archives/2009/090.pd science community. Young scientists f. should be made aware of opportunities [4] Cambridge Econometrics (2018) Preparing for and incentives to engage with policy and Brexit. [Online]. Available: diplomacy very early on in their careers. https://www.camecon.com/wp- Points, such as the consideration of how content/uploads/2018/01/Preparing-for-Brexit.pdf. cooperation on scientific aspects of nuclear disarmament could support the wider diplomatic process, need to be addressed. Measures must be initiated with, and in, countries that have been struck by violence and war to see how science diplomacy can help, in all three ways: science for diplomacy, diplomacy for science and science in diplomacy. Last but not the least, international spaces that are beyond national jurisdictions such as Antarctica, the deep seas and outer space, need to be

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 37 About the Author Mrittunjoy Guha Majumdar is a PhD Scholar in Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge. He is currently Secretary of BlueSci-Cambridge University Science Magazine and Head of Communications of the Cambridge University Science Policy and Exchange (CUSPE). He is also the Graduate Union Welfare Officer. In the past he has worked with the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, on various science initiatives.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 38 Prospective and Retrospective Rigour: Scientific Evaluation of Environmental Policy

Kasey Markel, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge

he preservation of our environment Purpose-driven research is particularly is an ethical imperative and one of T the greatest challenges of the common in conservation and twenty-first century. By necessity, environmental science, where mitigation much of the battle to protect the and prevention of anthropogenic environment will be waged at the level environmental disasters is usually the of policy. However, the track record of primary reason to document past and environmental legislation shows much current disasters [1]. Law and policy room for improvement, a development are frequently the most powerful tools to that will only be reliably achieved when achieve this goal, so environmental and it becomes common practice to conservation scientists find themselves rigorously evaluate the effects of all with a closer association to policy than policies with scientifically rigorous many other fields of science. studies, prospectively as part of the Every scientist must understand the planning process and retrospectively branch of policy that governs their field, after widespread implementation. but those who wish to shape policy Environmental scientists are uniquely require a far greater degree of positioned by virtue of their biological understanding. It is necessary to expertise, scientific training, and understand how a change in policy will statistical skills to take an active role in impact the behaviour of nations, this evaluation process. corporations, and people. If a natural On paper, science and engineering are system is in a given state as a result of completely distinct disciplines: the first human action and we wish to change it attempts to understand the world, the to another, we must understand not only second seeks to change it. This how human action affects the classification may be convenient for environment, but also how specific establishing academic departments, but policies affect human actions. One could it fails to capture the full scope of what imagine that it is the duty of scientists to many scientists and engineers really do. provide reports on the state of the world Engineers rely on scientific data, and and allow policymakers to devise frequently generate scientific data of schemes to improve it, but this scheme their own. Scientists are often interested does not mirror the current course of in engineering the subject of their study. events, nor is it the ideal solution to the Engineering and “pure” science are problem. Conservation and conceptually separate, but ultimately environmental scientists frequently much research in both fields is a hybrid: study anthropogenic ecological applied or purpose-driven research. problems, and their work ideally

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 39 culminates in policy changes that reduce sciences. the very environmental harm they study – a goal shared by engineers. The Richard Thaler won the Nobel prize in response to environmental catastrophes economics for his work surrounding creates a feedback loop where human “nudging”, a branch of behavioural activity changes the environment, which economics examining how subtle attracts environmental scientists who situational changes can alter human lobby to develop policies that correct the behaviour. The surprising truth is that human impacts that first caused the small changes can radically alter problem, as illustrated in Figure 1. behaviour, at costs often a tiny fraction of traditional “common sense” interventions. For example, assistance in filling out a financial aid form increased college enrollment 40 times more than a traditional program subsidising education [2], and another traditional program providing families with information about financial aid turned out to have no effect at all [3]. Unfortunately, these kind of experiments examining the effects of policy are the exception rather than the rule [4].

The scarcity of scientifically rigorous analysis of the effects of policy can result in mistakes like sex education that increases teen pregnancy [5] and Figure 1: Feedback loop of human- criminal justice programs that increase environment interactions. Solid black lines delinquency [6]. Thankfully, these denote pure environmental science, dotted black line denotes scientific input in policy, programs are being slowly phased out red line denotes the knowledge gap due to a slew of studies showing they discussed here. To engineer the feedback fail to achieve their stated goals. This is loop, all four links must be understood. a triumph of retrospective rigour, analysis of the outcome of a policy after deployment. However, policy mistakes were already widely implemented at Links 1 and 2 in this loop are firmly in substantial cost, and they remain difficult the domain of environmental science, to eliminate for political and financial link 2 is simply the process of studying reasons. A cheaper and quicker way to link 1. Environmental scientists often discover the efficacy of a policy is serve as advisors and advocates for prospective rigour, rigorously evaluating policy change, and are therefore deeply small-scale pilots before widespread influential in link 3. Link 4 in the implementation. feedback loop is how policy changes alter human behaviour, and the lack of Though currently rare, using pilot evidence in this link is the limiting factor studies to rigorously evaluate the for understanding and controlling the impacts of policy before broad whole loop. This critical final link implementation is by no means a novel traditionally falls into the domain of idea [7]. Prospective rigour has been behavioural economics and behavioural widely adapted by international aid

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 40 organisations such as the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab and the World Bank, which use small and controlled pilot studies to evaluate interventions before broad deployment. A surprising trend has emerged from these studies: many interventions completely fail to achieve their stated goals, while most others accomplish very little. Fortunately, some interventions work quite well, confirming that policy changes can indeed influence the world in the desired direction. These few highly successful interventions are frequently more than 50 times as Figure 2: DALYs saved per $10,000 spent. effective as the average intervention, Most interventions accomplish little or ignoring those that do nothing at all. nothing, the best are orders of magnitude better. Adapted from [8]. Given the urgency of problems such as environmental degradation or global poverty, it is tempting to skip this period All of these interventions are well- of assessment and optimisation, but to intentioned, and there was no way of do so would be a mistake of the highest knowing a priori that some would be so order. Instead, the massive variation in much less effective than others. Yet in efficacy between different interventions study after study, the same pattern highlights the importance of using shows up: when different policy prospective rigour. As one example, the interventions are compared against each World Bank Disease Control Priorities in other, some achieve nothing, many Developing Countries working group achieve little, and a few are truly evaluated a variety of global health worthwhile. Given limited resources, the interventions targeted at reducing most effective interventions should be mortality and morbidity, as measured by implemented first, until the law of disability adjusted life years (DALYs). diminishing returns reduces their cost They found that childhood immunisation efficiency down to the level of other saved over 180 times as many DALYs options. Prospective rigour is the series per unit cost as treating hypertension of rigorous pilot studies required to and nearly 700 times as many DALYs as know which interventions to prioritise. antipsychotic medication, as shown in Figure 2. The efficacy of environmental policy almost certainly varies over a similarly

broad range, so it is critical we invest our time, energy, and money to ensure we are implementing the policies on the far right of this sort of graph - randomised pilot studies could go a long way towards achieving that goal. Environmental scientists have expertise to contribute for designing small-scale, blind, randomised controlled pilot studies

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 41 appropriate for the initial evaluation of policy-making table. This puts them in the effects of a given policy and a more an excellent position to design and systematic evaluation process after the evaluate the rigorous pilot studies selected policies are deployed. This required for prospective rigour. At the approach is desperately needed because minimum, this means sharing their some widely-implemented unique skillset and expertise with policy environmental policies have been makers and social scientists, expensive and ineffectual. collaborating to understand the fourth and final link of the feedback loop they In the United States and Europe, study. It is a Herculean undertaking, but mandatory ethanol additives in petrol studying both the natural and the human have increased the price of food, caused systems involved in environmental massive habitat loss, and increased catastrophes would massively increase agricultural pollution [9]. All these ills environmental scientists’ efficacy in have been in hope of reducing protecting the environment. greenhouse gas emissions, but the reduction is negligible - in the American Society relies on environmental and case, less than a quarter of a percent of conservation scientists to prevent and the greenhouse gas emissions from mitigate anthropogenic environmental petrol, at a cost of over fourteen percent catastrophes. The primary tool for this of the corn crop (the primary feedstock has always been legislation and policy, for fuel-additive ethanol) [10]. Diverting and scientists have the skillset required agricultural resources from food to test which policies are most cost production to ethanol production effective. The stakes are too large to increases corn prices by ~23% and not use the most effective policies increases the portion of land devoted to available, and that calls for empirical corn by 18%, according to the United analysis - for prospective and States Department of Agriculture [11]. retrospective rigour. In attempting to solve any given problem, many well-intentioned ideas do not work in practice, and the best are orders of magnitude more cost-effective Acknowledgements than the others. Retrospective rigour only tells us when a policy was wrong I would like to thank my editors Amber years after the fact, when changing Ruigrok and Philipe Bujold, whose ideas course is difficult. Prospective rigour substantially improved and clarified this before the massive infrastructural and article. capital costs of the fuel ethanol policy program could have directed us down a wiser path from the beginning.

Of course, understanding how policy affects human action is not a simple challenge. Environmental scientists are used to studying complex and experimentally intractable phenomena, all while working with large and varied datasets. Their expertise in how the environment responds to human actions justifies a seat at the environmental

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 42 References About the Author

[1] M. E. Soulé, “What is Conservation Biology? A new synthetic discipline addresses the dynamics Kasey is a Master’s and problems of perturbed species, communities, and student in Plant ecosystems,” Bioscience, vol. 35, no. 11, pp. 727–734, Dec. 1985. Sciences in the Synthetic Biology [2] S. Benartzi et al., “Should Governments Invest More in Nudging?,” Psychol. Sci., vol. 28, no. 8, group. His research pp. 1041–1055, Jun. 2017. involves improving

[3] E. P. Bettinger, B. T. Long, P. Oreopoulos, the tools for genetic and L. Sanbonmatsu, “The Role of Application engineering of Assistance and Information in College Decisions: Results from the H&R Block Fafsa Experiment,” Q. J. chloroplasts, the subcellular factories Econ., vol. 127, no. 3, pp. 1205–1242, Aug. 2012. that carry out photosynthesis in plants and algae. He is interested in improving [4] S. Macintyre, “Good intentions and received wisdom are not good enough: the need for controlled global agriculture from human health and trials in public health,” J. Epidemiol. Community environmental perspectives. Before Health, vol. 65, no. 7, pp. 564–567, Jul. 2011. coming to Cambridge, he completed a [5] P. K. Kohler, L. E. Manhart, and W. E. Bachelor of Science at University of Lafferty, “Abstinence-only and comprehensive sex education and the initiation of sexual activity and teen Miami. pregnancy,” J. Adolesc. Health, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 344– 351, Apr. 2008.

[6] A. Petrosino, C. Turpin-Petrosino, and J. Buehler, “Scared Straight and Other Juvenile Awareness Programs for Preventing Juvenile Delinquency: A Systematic Review of the Randomized Experimental Evidence,” Ann. Am. Acad. Pol. Soc. Sci., vol. 589, no. 1, pp. 41–62, Sep. 2003.

[7] D. T. Campbell, “Reforms as experiments,” Am. Psychol., vol. 24, no. 4, p. 409, 1969.

[8] Dean T. Jamison Joel G. Breman Anthony R. Measham George Alleyne Mariam Claeson David B. Evans Prabhat Jha Anne Mills Philip Musgrove, Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries (Second Edition). The World Bank, 2006.

[9] D. Pimentel, “Ethanol Fuels: Energy Balance, Economics, and Environmental Impacts Are Negative,” Nat. Resour. Res., vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 127– 134, Jun. 2003.

[10] J. Hill, E. Nelson, D. Tilman, S. Polasky, and D. Tiffany, “Environmental, economic, and energetic costs and benefits of biodiesel and ethanol biofuels,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., vol. 103, no. 30, pp. 11206–11210, Jul. 2006.

[11] J. Fernandez-Cornejo, A. Somwaru, H. An, M. Brady, and R. Lubowski, “Modeling the Global Economic and Environmental Implications of Biofuels Production: Preliminary Results for the Medium Term,” GTAP Resource, vol. 2723, 2008.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 43 Ensuring Societal Advancement through Science and Technology: Pathways to Scientific Integration

Stephanie Bazley, MPhil in Medical Science, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge

R&D in 2021/20221. n an increasingly digitised world, those within STEM fields have a This substantial public investment is I responsibility to communicate their made, not merely to support intellectual research in an accessible manner to advances, but also with the belief that the funders and end-users of their funded research will benefit the public. innovation. Steps should be taken to With Innovate UK chief executive, Dr. incentivise improved scientific Ruth McKernan CBE, stating that communication by scientists via social ‘Research and innovation has never been 2 media, open source publishing and higher on the agenda’ , and the director outreach programs. In this way, we can of the Campaign for Science and ensure equal access to research across Engineering, Dr. Sarah Main, claiming society, and increased acceptance of that ‘Such sizeable public investment innovation, whilst avoiding costly delays brings a responsibility to spend it 3 to their implementation. effectively’ , one cannot deny the increasing expectation for STEM fields The scientific field was built upon the to deliver results. But what do we accept basic core principles of collaboration and as responsible propagation and distribution. With the digital age came dissemination of our research in 2018? renewed opportunities for integration While advances in scientific research are with the community. Now, the published in scientific journals, only a foundations of science and healthcare selection of these findings ever reaches are once again changing, as paradigm- the general public. shifting technologies such as AI- powered healthcare solutions and Adler et al. previously outlined the genomic medicine become the norm. If impact of education, occupation and our communities do not understand and income on disparities in population 4 accept these new services, any positive health . Research suggests that scientific impact is significantly limited. In order to literacy may also become a contributing find a resolution to this problem, we factor. With reports suggesting that need to focus on improved scientific workers in STEM industries are communication and education, through currently earning approximately 29% re-examined frameworks for scientific more than their non-STEM counterparts, impact and funding. and projections for increased employment and job growth in STEM Current issues in science communication fields, policy makers must be proactive to minimise the practical inequities In 2016, the UK Government promised created by a shifting balance of power5. yearly increases in research funding Due to current shortcomings in the until 2020, and to spend £12.5 billion on

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 44 dissemination of research to the wider scientists may also increase the validity community, those who have a formal and integrity of scientific communication scientific education, and access to as a whole, since fewer errors would be scientific publications, may benefit from made in the translation and reporting of medical or healthcare research findings their work. This could, in turn, result in before they are translated into greater trust and acceptance of healthcare policy and practice. Without legitimate, but controversial research the non-technical, layperson findings. In this way, scientists would be communication of science, we could face able to communicate their research in a demographic-based isolation from manner that is impactful, and positive. science and technology innovations, as they become more prevalent in future. In order to create an environment and culture of outreach amongst the A major issue facing scientific scientific community, it must be communication and outreach is the incentivised by government, and funding distortion of scientific findings for mass bodies. Most funding bodies already media, both intentional and accidental. have established public engagement As journalists reporting research policies, such as the UK Research and discoveries traditionally have little-to- Innovation’s ‘Pathways to Impact’ no scientific research experience, their policy8. While these policies are reporting of scientific research is often designed to facilitate community inaccurate6. Even with increased focus involvement, and recognise the benefit on the scientific education of journalists, and responsibility of such initiatives, and increased specialist journalists, more could be done to engage scientists inaccurate reporting of research in scientific outreach beyond their basic continues, placing credible and robust funding obligations. scientific findings in serious danger of being labelled ‘fake news’. Research policy solutions to increase community outreach Given that tax contributions and charitable donations fund the majority of Research policy solutions to increase scientific research, it is the scientific communication may act to responsibility of scientists to improve increase research impact. Current the dissemination of their research in funding policies encourage publishing in 7 order to educate their communities and open access journals , but publishing maximise the societal value of their research in non-technical modes, and work. writing in clear language, would make publicly funded research more The potential benefit of direct science accessible to the general population. In communication by researchers the case of research that warrants education campaigns, such as those that Direct communication between scientists influence lifestyle and health changes, and the general public has the potential government-verified social media to reduce the reliance on easily engagement may provide opportunities accessible, low-quality sources of to rely on free advertisement provided information. Questions that necessitate a by the masses. Short easily digestible sound scientific understanding are articles and ‘viral’ stories may provide traditionally either left unanswered or avenues for mass distribution of answered poorly online by the ill- scientific findings in simple, but accurate informed. Direct communication by formats. In this way, government bodies

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 45 could save money on education the retirement home could contact the campaigns, health and lifestyle Office for Community Innovation to interventions, and even medical request a pharmacologist to speak about treatment. Saved revenue could be the basics of their work. Other examples directed back into further scientific may include medical researchers visiting research. hospitals, environmental scientists visiting companies interested in Direct communication of science by increasing their environmental researchers may also protect against awareness, or physicists speaking about low adoption rates of cost-saving the applications of their work to school innovations, due to public distrust of children. By engaging scientists to assist modernisation. Through increased in community education, they would also societal integration of STEM be given the opportunity to share their researchers, governments may be able research to people who would otherwise to adopt cost-saving modernisations and not get that chance to learn about it. increase efficiency on much shorter Moreover, through getting information timescales. first-hand, our citizens would be better informed on important issues, and more To this end, I propose the creation of an actively invested in the furtherance of ‘Office for Community Innovation’. The science. remit of this office would be to connect researchers with members of the Researchers would be incentivised to community who can facilitate their attend these community engagements, outreach initiatives, in order to promote on a basic level, as they would provide social connectivity through the the opportunity to meet funding quotas propagation of research and education. for such outreach. The opportunities As well as researching opportunities for provided by the Office for Community cross-communication, this office would Innovation would also allow researchers provide three main services: to build their communication and presentation skills, and to engage with 1) Community contact - community the real-world applications of their organisations would be able to contact work. Community members are likewise the office to request scientists to come incentivised to attend these and speak to them on topics relevant to engagements to learn more about how their field research advances will affect their 2) Researcher contact - researchers career, healthcare, and day-to-day lives would be able to contact the office to in the future. request community contacts for Increasingly, journals are printing a education initiatives ‘plain language summary’ of research 3) Researcher-to-researcher connection papers along with standard abstracts. By – the office would act as a conduit to adjusting existing policies to include connect with other researchers with explicit requirements to publish research complementary objectives that could be findings in lay language on non-technical met through joint education initiatives platforms, engage with outreach initiatives, and maintain social media Imagine that elderly members of the presence, the real-world impact of community living in a retirement home scientific outreach will become apparent. would like to know more about how their Stricter funding guidelines and medicines work. The administrator of requirements, along with review

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 46 processes set up to ensure these new criteria are met, will ensure rapid [6] Marsh et al. Messenger - Media, science & society; engagement & governance in adoption of these new principles. Europe. (2006). Implementing a rating system for researcher engagement would also [7] Research Councils UK. Research Councils UK Open Access Policy. UK Research and Innovation provide a clear, real incentive to comply. 13 (2013). Available at: https://www.ukri.org/files/legacy/documents/rcukopen By encouraging STEM outreach, accesspolicy-pdf/. (Accessed: 14th July 2018) governments and funding bodies may [8] Research Councils UK. Impact through renew the spirit of collaboration (and knowledge exchange: RCUK position and competition) between laboratories and expectations. (2014). offices. There may also be more direct rewards. Increased research exposure [1] M. E. Soulé, “What is Conservation Biology? would result in public consideration like A new synthetic discipline addresses the dynamics never before. This unprecedented and problems of perturbed species, communities, and access to research may also increase ecosystems,” Bioscience, vol. 35, no. 11, pp. 727–734, Dec. 1985. collaboration between science and [2] S. Benartzi et al., “Should Governments industry, ensuring rapid translation of Invest More in Nudging?,” Psychol. Sci., vol. 28, no. 8, research into beneficial outcomes. pp. 1041–1055, Jun. 2017.

Optimised industry engagement may [3] E. P. Bettinger, B. T. Long, P. Oreopoulos, result in a higher diversity of channels in and L. Sanbonmatsu, “The Role of Application which research can progress to the point Assistance and Information in College Decisions: of benefiting those who are ultimately Results from the H&R Block Fafsa Experiment,” Q. J. Econ., vol. 127, no. 3, pp. 1205–1242, Aug. 2012. funding these discoveries. [4] S. Macintyre, “Good intentions and received wisdom are not good enough: the need for controlled trials in public health,” J. Epidemiol. Community Health, vol. 65, no. 7, pp. 564–567, Jul. 2011. Acknowledgements [5] P. K. Kohler, L. E. Manhart, and W. E. First editor: Hinal Tanna. Second editor: Lafferty, “Abstinence-only and comprehensive sex Erin Cullen. The author declares no education and the initiation of sexual activity and teen pregnancy,” J. Adolesc. Health, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 344– conflicts of interest. 351, Apr. 2008.

[6] A. Petrosino, C. Turpin-Petrosino, and J. Buehler, “Scared Straight and Other Juvenile Awareness Programs for Preventing Juvenile References Delinquency: A Systematic Review of the Randomized Experimental Evidence,” Ann. Am. Acad. Pol. Soc. [1] Gibney, E. UK government announces Sci., vol. 589, no. 1, pp. 41–62, Sep. 2003. research-spending hike ahead of budget. Nature (2017). doi:10.1038/nature.2017.23028 [7] D. T. Campbell, “Reforms as experiments,” Am. Psychol., vol. 24, no. 4, p. 409, 1969. [2] Innovate UK - Dr Ruth McKernan CBE. Delivery Plan Shaping the future 2017-2018. (2017). [8] Dean T. Jamison Joel G. Breman Anthony R. doi:http://16.8011.01/ Measham George Alleyne Mariam Claeson David B. Evans Prabhat Jha Anne Mills Philip Musgrove, [3] Ghosh, P. Research money central to Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries Budget. BBC News (2017). (Second Edition). The World Bank, 2006.

[4] Adler, N. E. & Newman, K. Socioeconomic [9] D. Pimentel, “Ethanol Fuels: Energy Disparities In Health: Pathways And Policies. SES Balance, Economics, and Environmental Impacts Are Heal. 21, 60–76 (2002). Negative,” Nat. Resour. Res., vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 127– 134, Jun. 2003. [5] Ryan Noonan. STEM Jobs: 2017 Update (ESA Issue Brief #02-17). (2017). [10] J. Hill, E. Nelson, D. Tilman, S. Polasky, and

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 47 D. Tiffany, “Environmental, economic, and energetic costs and benefits of biodiesel and ethanol biofuels,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., vol. 103, no. 30, pp. 11206–11210, Jul. 2006.

[11] J. Fernandez-Cornejo, A. Somwaru, H. An, M. Brady, and R. Lubowski, “Modeling the Global Economic and Environmental Implications of Biofuels Production: Preliminary Results for the Medium Term,” GTAP Resource, vol. 2723, 2008.

About the Author

Stephanie Bazley is completing her MPhil in Medical Science (Clinical Neurosciences) at the University of Cambridge, working in collaboration with University College London. She is currently investigating the degradation of hippocampal replay in Alzheimer’s disease. Prior to her current research, Stephanie obtained a research Honours degree from the University of Queensland, working as a part of the Perinatal Research Centre. Stephanie is currently a digital healthcare policy researcher for Polygeia, and Head of the Cambridge Division of the Science Innovation Union.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY AND POLICY 48