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Kent Academic Repository Full text document (pdf) Citation for published version Walsh, David (2016) Development, Decline and Demise: The Cult of Mithras ca. AD 270 - 430. Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) thesis, University of Kent,. DOI Link to record in KAR http://kar.kent.ac.uk/56837/ Document Version UNSPECIFIED Copyright & reuse Content in the Kent Academic Repository is made available for research purposes. Unless otherwise stated all content is protected by copyright and in the absence of an open licence (eg Creative Commons), permissions for further reuse of content should be sought from the publisher, author or other copyright holder. Versions of research The version in the Kent Academic Repository may differ from the final published version. Users are advised to check http://kar.kent.ac.uk for the status of the paper. Users should always cite the published version of record. Enquiries For any further enquiries regarding the licence status of this document, please contact: [email protected] If you believe this document infringes copyright then please contact the KAR admin team with the take-down information provided at http://kar.kent.ac.uk/contact.html DEVELOPMENT, DECLINE AND DEMISE: THE CULT OF MITHRAS ca. A.D. 270-430 By DAVID WALSH Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Classical and Archaeological Studies School of European Culture and Languages University of Kent February 2016 Word Count: 89,490 ABSTRACT This thesis provides an overview of the cult of Mithras from the late third to early fifth centuries across the entire Roman world. It seeks to illustrate what developments occurred in the cult during this period and how it subsequently came to an end. In doing so, it elucidates alterations in the environment and architecture of mithraea, the patrons and adherents of the cult, and Mithraic ritual practices. It demonstrates that by the fourth century the cult of Mithras had become increasingly localised, with a significant degree of variation evident among different Mithraic communities. Furthermore, it will be shown that, contrary to the traditional narrative, the end of the Mithras cult was not the product of an Empire-wide persecution by Christian iconoclasts, but a more gradual process that occurred over a long period of time. Additionally, it explores whether adopting a sociological approach, as has been suggested by other scholars in the past, can be used to explain how the transformations evident in the cult may have contributed to a decline in the commitment of Mithraic adherents in the fourth century. This study contributes to the wider field of research on the late antique period in three ways. Firstly, it is to my knowledge the only analysis of a non-Christian cult in Late Antiquity to cover the entire Roman Empire and thus hopes to contribute to a greater understanding of the sacred landscape in this period. In particular, it sheds some light on areas which are generally understudied in this regard, such as the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Secondly, it seeks to place the end of a cult in this period in its sociocultural context, rather than focusing only on the evidence from cult sites alone as previous studies have often done, thus providing a more nuanced explanation for why this occurred. Finally, through comparing the Mithras cult to other cults in this period it also shows that there is little to support any notion of a uniform ‘decline of paganism’ in late antiquity, with various cults experiencing divergent rates of decline which began at different times. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people I need to thank who have helped and supported me in the course of writing this thesis. First is the long list of those who have provided me with information, shown me around sites and museums, and read over various chapters of this work: József Beszédes, Jonas Bjørnebye, Neil Christie, Jitse Dijkstra, Richard Gordon, Alison Griffith, Marion Großmann, Michael Gawlikowski, Ines Klenner, Orsolya Láng, Ray Laurence, Roger Pearse, Peter Talloen, Sadie Watson, Francois Wiblé, and Paula Zsidi. Thanks to Lloyd Bosworth for producing Fig. 13. I am tremendously grateful to John Beale and the School of European Culture and Languages for providing me with a fee-wavier, without which I would not have been able to undertake this opportunity. Thanks also go to James Burchell and Andrew Martinovs for keeping me employed throughout, and to my flatmate Andrew Rawlinson, who probably now knows far more about cults in the Roman Empire than he ever expected he would. Special acknowledgement must go to my supervisor Luke Lavan for his unwavering enthusiasm and support throughout. Finally, the most important thanks go to my parents. I doubt they thought trips to the British Museum and the purchasing of many ‘Horrible Histories’ would end up here, but I hope this goes someway to repaying their endless faith and love. Any success I achieve is as much theirs as it is mine. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii LIST OF FIGURES ix INTRODUCTION Religious Change in Late Antiquity: Changing Scholarly Views 1 The Cult of Mithras in Late Antiquity 4 A Sociological Approach to Religious Change 6 Structure of the Thesis 12 Critiquing the Model 13 Selecting the Evidence 15 A Note on Terminology 15 CHAPTER 1: THE LOCATION OF MITHRAEA IN LATE ANTIQUITY AND CHANGES TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT Introduction 17 Geographical and Chronological Changes in the Distribution of Mithraea 18 Discussion 23 Mithraea and their Environment I: Previous Studies on Rome and Ostia 24 Mithraea and their Environment II.1: The Provinces Before the Late Third Century 25 Discussion 26 Mithraea and their Environment II.2: The Provinces from the Late Third Century 26 Onwards Urban Mithraea Neighboured by Industrial Buildings 27 Urban Mithraea Neighboured by Religious Buildings 28 Urban Mithraea In/Neighboured by Residential Buildings 31 Extra-Mural Mithraea 32 Urban Mithraea from Unknown Contexts 33 Private Estates 34 Rural Mithraea 34 Discussion 35 Prominence of Sanctuaries and Temples Belonging to Other Religious Groups 36 Temples to Isis/Sarapis 36 iii Temples to Magna Mater 37 Churches 37 Discussion 38 Conclusion 38 CHAPTER 2: ARCHITECTURE AND DECORATION OF MITHRAEA IN LATE ANTIQUITY Introduction 42 The Architecture of Mithraea Before the Late Third Century 42 The Symbolic Nature of the Mithraeum 46 Limiting Numbers? 48 Discussion 49 Alterations to Pre-existing Mithraea from the Late Third Century 50 Size 50 Plan 51 Orientation 51 Construction Materials 51 Internal Fittings 51 Decoration 52 Altars, Statues and Reliefs 53 Discussion 54 Mithraea Constructed in the Late Third and Fourth Centuries 55 Size 55 Plan 57 Orientation 59 Construction Materials 59 Internal Fittings 60 Decoration 62 Altars, Statues and Reliefs 63 Discussion 64 Architecture of Other Religious Groups 65 Temples to Isis/Sarapis 65 Temples to Magna Mater 67 Churches 67 Discussion 68 iv Conclusion 69 CHAPTER 3: HIERARCHY, PATRONS AND INITIATES IN LATE ANTIQUE MITHRAIC COMMUNITIES Introduction 72 Membership and Structure in the Cult of Mithras Before the Late Third Century 73 Membership 73 The Exclusion of Women 74 The Grade System 75 Discussion 77 Evidence for Patrons and Initiates from the Late Third Century Onwards 78 Emperors 78 Senators 78 Provincial Governors 80 Duces 81 Soldiers 81 Doctors 82 Citizens/Freedmen 82 Slaves 83 Unknown Status 84 Discussion 85 Elite Patronage and Membership of Later Mithraic Communities in Context 88 The Provinces 88 Rome 90 Patronage and Membership of Other Religious Groups 92 The Cult of Isis/Sarapis 92 The Cult of Magna Mater 94 Christian Communities 95 Discussion 97 Conclusion 98 CHAPTER 4: MITHRAIC RITUAL PRACTICE IN LATE ANTIQUITY Introduction 101 Mithraic Rituals Prior to the Late Third Century 102 v Initiations 102 Votive Practice 106 Sacrifices 107 Feasting 108 The Curation of Objects 109 Festivals 110 Discussion 110 Mithraic Rituals from the Late Third Century Onwards 111 Initiations 111 Votive Practice 113 Sacrifices 120 Feasting 120 The Curation of Objects 121 Festivals 122 Discussion 122 Mithraic Ritual Practice in the Wider Context of Late Antiquity 124 Initiations 124 Votive Practice 125 Sacrifices 129 Feasting 131 The Curation of Objects 132 Festivals 132 Discussion 134 Conclusion 135 CHAPTER 5: MITHRAEA AND WIDER BUILDING PATTERNS IN LATE ANTIQUITY Introduction 139 Regional Patterns 140 Temples to Other ‘Mystery’ Deities Across the Roman World 145 Construction and Repair of Mithraea in the Third and Fourth Centuries 147 Conclusion 151 vi CHAPTER 6: THE FATE OF MITHRAEA Introduction 153 Geographical and Chronological Variation in the Fate of Mithraea 154 Discussion 158 Destruction and Damage to Mithraea 159 Destruction and Damage via Fire 159 Levelling 161 Graffiti and Damage to Frescoes in Mithraea 161 Reuse of Mithraea and their Materials 163 Mithraea Reused of Different Purposes 163 Mithraea as Sources of Spolia 166 The Fate of Internal Fittings 167 Absence of Fittings 167 The Fragmentation of Reliefs and Statues 168 Items Sealed in the Mithraeum 170 Human Remains 172 Motors for the Fate of Mithraea 172 Christian Iconoclasm 172 Barbarian Incursion and Settlement 180 Imperial Legislation 185 Civil War 186 Relocation of Mithraic Initiates 187 Natural Disasters and Accidental Destruction 189 Conclusion 190 CONCLUSION Developments in the Cult of Mithras ca. A.D. 270-430 194 The Context and Architecture of Mithraea 194 Ritual Practice 195 Cult Hierarchy 196 Members and Patrons 197 The Localisation of the Mithras Cult 198 Using a Sociological Model to Explain Religious Change 199 vii Motors for the Fate of Mithraea 200 Possible Avenues for Future Work 203 APPENDIX: GAZETTEER OF MITHRAEA ACTIVE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY 205 AND THOSE THAT EXHIBIT EVIDENCE OF CHRISTIAN ICONOCLASM BIBLIOGRAPHY 279 viii LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1 The Context of Active Mithraea from the Late Third Century (excluding Rome and Ostia) Fig.