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Power, Legal Authority and Legitimacy in the Regulation of International Sport

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Power, Legal Authority and Legitimacy in the Regulation of International Sport POWER, LEGAL AUTHORITY AND LEGITIMACY IN THE REGULATION OF INTERNATIONAL SPORT Lloyd Douglas Freeburn ORCHID Identifier: orcid.org/0000-0001-8050-4337 Degree Submitted for: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Submission Date: 8 September 2017 University of Melbourne Law School Submitted in total fulfilment of the degree 1 ABSTRACT This thesis challenges the conventional conception of the private law regulatory regime of international sport. That conception is that regulatory authority in international sport is consent- based and exercised by voluntary associations acting through private law contracts. This orthodox conception is untenable. It involves a basic conflict with the categorical nature of regulatory power claimed and exercised in international sport. Further, the incidence of direct contracts between the regulatory bodies and those subject to regulation only covers a small minority of those whose activities are regulated and is inadequate to support the characterisation. Resort to ‘indirect’ contractual links and other legal fictions is also inadequate to support the characterisation. This thesis argues that on proper analysis, international sports governing bodies principally exercise arbitrary de facto private power which is made possible by their monopoly position in sport’s hierarchies and their unique capacity to enforce their own sanctions without requiring support from state legal systems. This de facto power is also supported by the arbitral regime of the Court of Arbitration for Sport. This arbitral regime is permitted to operate by state legal systems in the absence of an arbitration agreement between international federations and those over whom they exercise regulatory power, this concession based on manifestly inadequate justifications. It is also argued that the assumption implicit in the conventional consent-based conception that the de facto power of international sports governing bodies represents the exercise by those bodies of their individual liberty as voluntary associations is incoherent: the scope of individual liberty cannot extend to include non-consensual de facto power over others as this would be defeating of all liberty. The implications of these inadequacies in the conventional conception are amplified by the fact that the regulatory regime of international sport is afflicted by a fundamental legitimacy deficit in that power is exercised by institutions that are neither representative of nor accountable to those who are regulated. In addition to the moral and legal issues raised by the reality of the regime being based on de facto power, institutional corruption in sport is argued to be one consequence of the absence of proper legal and democratic legitimacy. The concern is not that there is private regulatory power in international sport, but that this regulatory power is neither legitimate, nor is it legally sound. Securing a legitimate and legally 2 sound regulatory framework is equally the concern of the international federations as well as those subjected to the federation’s regulatory power. Reforms are required to establish a regulatory regime that is both legitimate and legally sound. However, to be efficacious, these reforms must resolve the tension between international sport’s inherent requirement for the application of uniform and consistent, and therefore categorical regulation, with the prerequisites for the creation of obligations in private law. Reforms based on the introduction of a legitimate regulatory regime based on democracy and legally supported by an international convention are proposed. 3 DECLARATION I, Lloyd Douglas Freeburn, declare that: 1. This thesis comprises only my original work towards the requirements of a PhD; 2. Due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used; 3. The thesis is fewer than the maximum word limit in length, exclusive of tables, maps, bibliographies and appendices. Lloyd Freeburn September 2017 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First, it is appropriate to acknowledge that this thesis was prepared with and made possible by the support of an “Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship”. On a more personal level, my sincere thanks go to my academic supervisors, Hayden Opie and Prof. Richard Garnett. The value of Hayden’s tolerant, open-minded and generous encouragement along the winding path that this research has taken, as with his career-long contribution to the study of sports law, cannot be overstated. Richard’s patience and observations from outside the world of sports law have contributed significantly in shaping this paper. I am also grateful for the support and encouragement of Prof Michelle Foster, Prof Ian Ramsay and the staff of the University of Melbourne Law School. In particular, I am grateful to the librarians of the Law School Library for their unstinting assistance and always friendly greetings, and for the assistance of the staff of the Office for Research. Last in order, but first in importance, this research would not have been possible without the generous and unfailing support of my wife, Luci and my daughters, Isabelle and Claudia. I regret that this thesis can only ever be but a meagre return in comparison with the value of their investment. Of course, I also am grateful to the rest of my family, especially my mother, for her lifelong support and inculcation of the value of education. 5 Power, Legal Authority and Legitimacy in the Regulation of International Sport TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 2 Declaration ........................................................................................................................ 4 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................. 5 I Fundamental Aspects of Regulatory Power in International Sport ................................. 12 A Chapter Introduction ........................................................................................................ 13 1 The Concern ........................................................................................................................ 13 2 Thesis Structure .................................................................................................................. 15 B The Structure of International Sports Governance ............................................................ 17 1 Sport’s Pyramid(s) ............................................................................................................... 17 (a) International Federations ............................................................................................................. 18 (b) The International Olympic Committee ......................................................................................... 19 (c) The World Anti-Doping Agency .................................................................................................... 20 (d) The Court of ArBitration for Sport ................................................................................................ 22 2 Functions of International Federations ............................................................................... 24 3 Contractual Rules/Regulations of Sports Governing Bodies ............................................... 25 C The Nature of Regulatory Power in International Sport .................................................... 27 1 The Conventional Contract-Based Conception ................................................................... 27 2 The Limited Extent of Express Contracts ............................................................................ 30 3 The Categorical (Not Contractual) Claim to Regulatory Authority ...................................... 32 4 The Structure of Sport and Monopoly PoWer ..................................................................... 35 5 The Consistency Imperative of International Sport ............................................................ 37 6 The Contractual Characterisation and Sports Law .............................................................. 39 D The Democratic Legitimacy Deficit in International Sport ................................................. 41 1 The Democratic Deficit in International Federations .......................................................... 41 (a) The Undemocratic, Unrepresentative, International Olympic Committee .................................. 43 (b) Recognition of the Democratic Deficit ......................................................................................... 46 6 E The Legitimisation of Regulatory Power in International Sport ......................................... 48 1 PoWer and Authority ........................................................................................................... 48 2 The Requirement for Legitimacy ......................................................................................... 50 II The Contractual Authority of Sports Governing Bodies – The Real and The Fictional 54 A Chapter Introduction ........................................................................................................ 55 B The Contractual Basis of Regulatory Authority – Conceptual Issues .................................. 56 1 The Formal Requirements of a Contract and the Contractual Premise .............................. 56 2 Quasi-legislative Rules .......................................................................................................
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