INFORMED, ENGAGED AND EMPOWERED? A THICKER DESCRIPTION OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN THE SETTING OF COASTAL ADAPTATION POLICY IN ENGLAND AND WALES Christopher Thomas Blunkell Working Lives Research Institute A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Professional Doctorate Researching Work (DProf) at London Metropolitan University, 2014 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My profound gratitude to the staff of the Working Lives Institute at London Metropolitan University for their support and encouragement, and especially to Steve Jefferys, Cilla Ross and Allan Williams. I am also indebted to my examiners for their help in refocusing my thinking in fruitful new ways. Thanks to my friends and colleagues on the doctoral programme for helping to keep me going when I needed it the most, to Darren O’Grady for his exceptionally generous hospitality on my trips to London, and everybody else who indulged me along the way. My gratitude also to all of those who agreed to give me interviews and other input for this study, and especially to those who have given so much of themselves and made so many sacrifices in trying to ensure that their communities get to have a proper say over their futures – I wanted to make a record of what you did, and I hope I have done you justice. Finally, my deepest thanks to Claire and Lewis for allowing me the time and space, in so many ways, to pursue this project – I am eternally grateful to you both, and hope you know how much I love you. ABSTRACT In the early part of the 21 st century, decisions not to defend parts of the coastline of England and Wales, with homes expected to be lost uncompensated, were contentious. Academic literature encourages further consideration of how people in such locations organise themselves to influence policy, and the function of social class in this regard. This study suggests that there are limits to the influence that can be exerted on policy in this way, and that larger, better- resourced and better-socially-connected communities are more inclined and able to organise as effective action groups. However, limits to influence are also due to deliberative structures and processes that can marginalise local concerns and representations. The subject is approached through literature review and three case studies of policy setting and collective action – two at local level, for purposes of comparison, and one of a national lobby group and its engagement with central government. At local level, differences in approaches taken to the formation of coalitions with institutions and other groups are particularly evident. Sustained collective action can result in influence; however, local concerns are not always articulated publicly, and do not always result in collective action. The business of grassroots action falls typically to very few people with significant costs for them, and such arrangements can feed official concerns around representative legitimacy. Overall, coastal planning exercises do not appear to satisfy the main tenet of ‘localism’ – that citizens should be given power over decisions that affect them. Many coastal communities may require support in order to participate effectively, and policy owners must avoid privileging the preferences of the ‘usual suspects’. This may not be sufficient, however, given contention over the orthodoxy that losses resulting from decisions not to defend are borne significantly by individuals. Table of Contents GUIDE TO ACRONYMS .................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 6 The research interest ......................................................................................................... 6 Background ....................................................................................................................... 8 From sea defence to Flood and Coastal Erosion Risk Management ................................ 10 Adapting to change .......................................................................................................... 13 Community empowerment and the shift towards Localism .................................... 16 Thesis structure ............................................................................................................... 20 Chapter 2: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 21 Research approach ......................................................................................................... 23 Research design .............................................................................................................. 25 The cases .................................................................................................................... 27 Data gathering and analysis ...................................................................................... 30 Methodological issues ..................................................................................................... 32 Reliability and validity ................................................................................................ 32 Sampling strategy – selecting informants ................................................................ 34 Interviewing strategy ................................................................................................. 38 Positionality and bias ................................................................................................ 39 Data management ...................................................................................................... 40 Generalisation ................................................................................................................. 41 Chapter 3: THE INVOLVEMENT OF COMMUNITIES IN COASTAL GOVERNANCE ....... 43 Environmental campaigns, networks and the role of the individual .................................. 44 Collective action and the individual .......................................................................... 46 Analysing community involvement ................................................................................... 47 Interest ........................................................................................................................ 54 Mobilization ................................................................................................................ 56 Opportunity ................................................................................................................. 57 Further enquiry ................................................................................................................ 62 Bourdieu and capitals ................................................................................................ 64 How does interest translate into attitudes and collective action? .......................... 65 Social class and resources for collective action ..................................................... 69 Organization and the capacity to act on interests ................................................... 71 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 72 1 Chapter 4: THE SETTING OF LOCAL COASTAL POLICY ............................................ 73 Selsey ............................................................................................................................. 77 Social, economic and geographical profile .............................................................. 77 The setting of the Pagham to East Head draft coastal defence strategy ............... 79 Sheppey .......................................................................................................................... 89 Social, economic and geographical profile .............................................................. 89 The Isle of Grain to South Foreland Shoreline Management Plan .......................... 92 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 101 Transferability .......................................................................................................... 104 Chapter 5: MOBILIZING INTEREST AT LOCAL ............................................................. 107 Coastal change – interest, organization and mobilization .............................................. 108 Mobilizing interest – Selsey ..................................................................................... 109 Mobilizing interest – Sheppey ................................................................................. 112 Organizational configuration – grassroots and government ........................................... 117 Town and parish councils ....................................................................................... 122 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 128 Chapter 6: MOBILIZATION AT NATIONAL LEVEL ...................................................... 134 NVCC – origins .............................................................................................................. 135 A body that government can do business with ............................................................... 141 Reinventing