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Home , Anthropology, Dukun

HUMANIORA

VOLUME 29 Number 1 February 2017 Page 46–60

Redefining The Term of

Sartini, Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra Universitas Gadjah Mada Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Dukun, wong pinter, and other terms, commonly constitutes to the term of , are often interpreted in the same way. In particular, the dukun and wong pinter are generally understood as who have extraordinary or even powers, are capable of communicating with spirits and understanding the unseen, can generally help resolve issues faced by members of their , including illnesses, spiritual disturbances, lost items, unfortunate fates, etc. They are also predicated to charge to the patient and even willing to help to harm other people. In fact, not all have negative behaviors. In Temanggung, Central , though this general understanding is still common, there is distinction in the specific details and characteristics of the dukun and wong pinter. Dukun are often understood negatively, meanwhile the wong pinter has more positive connotations. Because of the different principle meaning the both terms should not be generalized and used appropriately and wisely. Improper use can cause discomfort in the , and academically the both term actually refers to a completely different subject characteristics.

Keywords: behavior, dukun, negative, positive, redifining, term

INTRODUCTION (Jordan, n.d.) Winkelman (Winkelman, 2010) Though developments in have Jacobsen, (Maddox, 2003), Edson (Edson, 2012), advanced modern treatments greatly, traditional (Chilson & Knecht, 2003), and (Heinze & Berney, healing still plays an important in . That 1991), show the wide spectrum of traditional it is common to see banners and advertisements healing methods categorized as shamanism. In offering alternative healing treatments or products, , research into shamanism has likewise such as herbal , indicates that in been common. These include, for example, traditional healing has, rather than being eliminated Lemelson, who investigated balian traditional by the advent of modern medical , healers of (Lemelson, 2004, p. 57); Foley, remained strong in society. Traditional treatment who investigated the paraji of West Java (Foley, methods have been practiced and developed 1984, p. 54); Viner and Kaplan, who investigated throughout . Among the various the guru of the Pakpak (Viner & Kaplan, traditional healing practices are those practiced by 1981, p. 98); Bernstein, who investigated the shamans, a phenomenon which has widely been balien in (Bernstein, 1993, p. 1); studied by researchers. Trisakti who investigated the balin of the Dayak On the international scale, the writings (Trisakti, 2009); and Matondang, who investigated of Eliade (Eliade, 1989), (Harvey, Wallis, & the balian of the Dayak Paser (Matondang, 2014). Harvey, 2010) Atkinson (Atkinson, 1992), Pearson The practice of shamanism in Java has attracted (Pearson, 2002), Lebra (Lebra, 1985), Jordan numerous researchers, including Geertz (Geertz,

46 Sartini, Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra - Redefining the Therm of Dukun

1976), Mulder (Mulder, 2005a), Daniels (Daniels, The dukun or wong pinter and others in 2009a), Sofwan (Sofwan, 2010) Woodward similar professions have a significant role in (Woodward, 2011), Hesselink (Monnais & Cook, society. However, their presence has often been 2012a), Indrasuari (Indrasuari, 2012) and Sutiono controversial. Several factors contribute to this (Sutiono, 2014). negative view of dukun or wong pinter, who are In Central Java, there are the wong pinter often targets for their communities’ anger and (literally “clever people”), alternative treatment hatred, as in Banyuwangi. Do dukun and wong providers who are alternatively known as dukun pinter automatically share the same characteristics, (“shamans”), tabib (“medicine men”), ahli thus meaning that the same mistakes are made by kebatinan (“mystic experts”), ahli thariqah all of them? (“experts in ‘the way’”), and ustadz or kyai (both Observation conducted in Temanggung, terms for Islamic scholars) (Sofwan, 2010, pp. Central Java, in 2014 has found that there is a 1–2). These wong pinter are often considered clear distinction between the terms dukun and equivalent to the practitioners named dukun in wong pinter. The wong pinter are often considered various references. Aside from dukun and wong a special class of dukun, and though these terms pinter, there is also the term (i.e. are often equated when referring to Javanese persons with paranormal powers). The term shamans, the term wong pinter has its own special dukun is generally used in rural areas, whereas the characteristics. term paranormal is more common among urban This article explains the existing understanding (Schlehe, Nertz, & Yulianto, 2013, p. of the term dukun as “general magical specialists” 8). or “magico-religious specialists” in general sense, Traditional healers are considered to be the understanding of wong pinter as a special class knowledgeable of and disease, and are of dukun, and propose the attitude to use the term. believed to have the ability to massage patients, This article emphasize that there are different to determine good days (for , etc.), and to understandings on the term of “dukun”. It means conduct (Hesselink, 2011, pp. 13– that the term should be used properly. 14). Other abilities include giving advice, giving directions, and giving spiritual guidance, as well FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION as having considerable knowledge of mysticism. Dukun and Wong Pinter as General Terms Owing to these abilities, among the Javanese these Dukun has become a common term in healers are frequently known as wong pinter. Indonesia to refer to the practitioners of traditional People go there for many purposes. medicine. Geertz and Khiun, for instance, Generally, people go to the dukun or wong use the term dukun, and both Geertz (Geertz, pinter when they feel ill (physically or non- 1976, pp. 86–87) and Khiun (Khiun, 2012, p. physically), or are facing uncertainty regarding 25) identify numerous categories of dukun, their own fates, the election of officials, etc. The including dukun bayi (midwife shamans), dukun medical knowledge and treatments obtained from calak (circumcisers) (marriage the dukun are unique, and their very presence , dukun temanten specialists), dukun petungan (numerologists), brings their own (sometimes controversial) dukun sihir (sorcerers), and, the most important dynamics. Dukun are often said to be involved of these according to Geertz is dukun biyasa, who in incidents of , both as victims and as are considered “general magical specialists” with perpetrators. In the Banyuwangi region in 1998, a wide range of powers, including the ability to for instance, a number of suspected dukun santet discover lost items, predict the future, and practice (“sorcerers”) were killed in acts which Siegel santet (witchcraft). Meanwhile, Sutiono (Sutiono, (Siegel, 2001) connects to the political intrigues of 2014, p. 1) uses the term wong pinter for shamans the -era and which Herriman as they are generally found in Java. He refers to finds rooted in society’s anxiety over rumors of them as “magico-religious specialists”, “ninjas” (Herriman, 2010) and the murders of guru a definition relatively similar to that used by Geertz for the ngaji ( teachers) and kyai (Herriman, 2006).

47 Humaniora, Vol. 29, Number 1 February 2017 dukun biyasa or those used by other researchers shamanic powers to (for instance) treat poisoning, for the term dukun. No research differentiating the counter witchcraft, or provide pengasihan ( dukun and wong pinter has been found to date. ). These dukun also recognize numerous The abilities and of traditional healers types of spirits (Peletz, 1988). There is a similarity in Java, be they known as dukun, kyai, wong tuwa, in the provision of symbolic healing and use of wong pinter, etc., have been widely explored both spiritual forces by the shamans in Bali, Indonesia, through scientific research and through . and in Ontong Java (Connor, 1990), an atoll near One work by Katrin Bandel (Bandel, 2006, pp. the Solomon Islands (http://sb.geoview.info/ 16–18) compares the image of traditional medicine otong_java,8260752). Research into the Meratus (i.e. the image of the dukun) with the image of of Dayaks has also found shamanism, biomedical treatment (i.e. the image of doctors) including enchantments (ilmu hirang) which can in literature. The famous Babad Tanah Jawi attack those lacking protection through a process (“History of the Land of Java”) (Olthof, 2014, p. of “poisoning by supernatural media”. Owing to 3), which was written during the Mataram dynasty of the seriousness and threat of this and transcribed by Olthof in 1941, contains an practice, outsiders often consider entering Dayak interesting story regarding the role of the dukun. In areas to be difficult, and marrying into a Dayak this story, a tenung (sorcerer) is sent by the Dutch is likewise held to bring its own risks. Many East India Company in a secret attempt to kill the believe that men who marry Dayak women must be King for breaking his vow to the Company (Olthof, careful, for if they plans to leave their wives, their 2014, p. 324). Mystic abilities, thus, have long genitals will either disappear or become detached been known among the . Indeed, (Grim, 1987, pp. 262–263). In such cases, dukun several other works of classical Javanese literature involvement is frequently cited. deal with Javanese mysticism and magic, telling of Investigating the Dayaks in Kalimantan, it ways to ensure one’s safety, to calculate good days is found that the existence of dukun is heavily for specific activities, to live in with other interlinked with knowledge of medicinal herbs people and nature, to find missing people, to cure (Caniago & Siebert, 1998). Bernstein also writes diseases, etc. Such almanacs, or primbon, generally of the dukun’s prowess in providing traditional conveyed medicinal concepts and healing for diseases caused by one’s body being regarding traditional medicines (Sudardi, 2002, entered by a spirit (Bernstein, 1993). Spirit p. 12). They were generally owned by elders, ownership is a specialty of the dukun (Faucher, community leaders, dukun, and guru kebatinan, 2002). They may, as in West Java, be considered all of whom were considered the intellectuals of capable of handling mental conditions which their (Sudardi, 2002, p. 13). Such books can are incurable through modern medical practice still be found, and the knowledge they contain (Horikoshi-Roe, 1979), or of controlling spectral remains part of the way of life of many Javanese tigers as in Aceh (Ali, 1995). The dukun treat both communities. physical and spiritual diseases, and may massage patients or give them herbal medicines (Gaines, Existing Understanding of the dukun 2002). They are also involved in maintaining Knowledge, abilities, and powers of dukun celebrities’ physical appearance (Suanda, 1981, p. Traditional healing practices are as widely 29) and in matchmaking (Singarimbun & Manning, dispersed as humankind itself. Anthropological 1974, p. 77). Among the Batak, knowledge of the research has frequently explored the roles of calendar system (ari-ari sitelupuluh) is critical for traditional practitioners. For instance, Taussig traditional practitioners, who are known as guru researched the shamans in the hills of Putumayo, or dukun. They, as with other dukun in the villages Columbia, who are involved in healing, fortune- of Indonesia and Malaysia, determine which dates telling, and practicing magic (Taussig, 1987, pp. are good for certain activities (Viner & Kaplan, 139–170). Other research showed that the dukun 1981, p. 98). More generally, dukun are connected in Bogang, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia, use their to religious , enchantments, or magic, or the control of spirits as in Bali (Lemelson, 2004,

48 Sartini, Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra - Redefining the Therm of Dukun p. 57). In West Java, the healing role of the dukun they will generally still help their patients, but while is also taken by the dalang (“puppeteers”) during nggrundel, muttering and without truly accepting (“puppet”) performances. The dalang heal this lack of payment. One source even said that by giving patients prayer water (Foley, 1984, p. the wong pinter (here used generically) who are 54). Healers’ roles continue to grow, and traditional better categorized as dukun, aside from expecting healing has even been used to treat drug addicts payment, will also akal ukil—use various tricks to through meditation, faith healing, and acupuncture take profits or other benefits from others. In other (Heggemhougen, n.d.). words, these dukun are held to frequently use their According to Geertz (Geertz, 1976, pp. special abilities or, perhaps, the beliefs of their 90–91), there is a tendency of dukun to become communities for their own specific purposes. This involved in magic or sorcery and to charge for informant held that, if the aid given was successful, their services, even demand payment, contributes it was mostly because of suggestion, rather than the to society’s ambiguous views of them, he notices abilities of the “helper”. a negative view of the dukun. As the services The term dukun tends to carry with it the provided by the dukun are often considered connotations of a desire for profit and a willingness objectionable, and as the dukun frequently ask their to manipulate social beliefs and abilities. To avoid patients for money, they are viewed negatively these negative connotations, the dukun tend to and with much suspicion. As such, many dukun prefer the terms pitulung (helper) or tiyang sepuh prefer to use the term pitulung (“helper”), which (elder) (Geertz, 1976, p. 96), or to be called an implies that they care only about helping others. orang pinter or paranormal. They also attempt This is supported by observations conducted in to exhibit religious (Islamic) beliefs and positive Temanggung. attitudes (Daniels, 2009a, p. 78). In this research, the term dukun often carries The emergence of social problems or negative connotations, such as an expectation of interpersonal/interfamilial intrigue, as a result (for payment, a desire to help for personal profit, a instance) of conflict over land or power, can lead willingness to do immoral acts, a desire to show to a desire to use spells or enchantments. Doing off one’s abilities, a lack of humility, a lack of so requires the involvement of a dukun (Retsikas, interaction and integration with the community, 2002). As illustrated by numerous , and even a lack of willingness to provide advice to the Javanese people have traditionally used the patients and neighbors (Sartini, 2014, p. 29). terms guna-guna and magic to refer to the spells Social view of the dukun (Wiener, 2007, p. 501). Woodward Specifically, the term dukun is used as a label argues that the term dukun is ambiguous, or even for traditional healers who have the following negative, in its connotations. It tends to imply characteristics: having extraordinary powers; specific economic and social , as well as the willing to give help, but not freely; and expecting control and use of dangerous powers (Woodward, remuneration or payment, or even posting fixed 2011, pp. 70–71). Woodward explores the Javanese fees. These people tend to make use of their dukun in his book through one chapter, which is communities abilities and beliefs (Sartini, 2014, p. given the title The Javanese Dukun: Healing and 23). This definition will be further explored with Moral Ambiguity. The focus of his research is the data regarding social views of the dukun, which religious and cultural bases of traditional Javanese will begin with a general description of the services medicine. Woodward disagrees with Geertz’ they provide. , which argues that Javanese concepts of Research (Sartini, 2014, p. 23) indicates healing are based on tenets of an animistic Javanese that the term dukun tends to refer to persons with . Rather, for Woodward, the understanding extraordinary abilities who are willing to help, of health, disease, and healing in Java is based but expect remuneration/payment or even post on an Islamic world view and Islamic of fixed fees. Some community members refer to this personhood. The absorption of Islamic theology, expected payment as bebungah (gift) or mahar doctrine, and mysticism in Javanese healing (). If the dukun are not given any payment, indicates a medical system, medical

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knowledge, and traditional practice which originate officials felt it necessary to protect themselves from from outside Javanese . In his opinion, the influence ofsantet or witchcraft. Thus, a dukun many of the abstract concepts of personhood, or kyai gave them a pagar pengasihan (“fence of cosmology, power, and knowledge which shape grace”) to be used to maintain their offices and to the Javanese medical system can be traced to the gather public support (Wessing, 1996). Qur’an and the Middle East (Woodward, 2011, Another development in the positioning of p. 69). Nevertheless, the Javanese dukun in Java the dukun is the identification of these healers frequently cause differences of opinion among as paranormal, as practitioners of alternative society, particularly in relation to their spiritual medicine who base their treatments in Western powers. Much of society claims that these powers rationalism. Traditional healing models have can only originate from turning against and likewise begun to be modernized by increasing worshiping another deity (in Islamic doctrine, their levels of functional rationality, following shirk) (Woodward, 2011, p. 83). developments in biomedicine, and transforming themselves in the face of global contexts and the Changing Profiles: Relationship with religion Indonesian populace’s increasingly sophisticated In the of the relation between the understanding of (Woodward, 2011, p. 111). dukun and their patients, the dukun are commonly These dukun-doctors include dzikir (recitations), referred to as tiyang sepuh, a form of respect sholawat (supplication), and (Daniels, similar to that of a child for his or her parent 2009a, p. 71) in their treatments, thus modifying (Geertz, 1976, p. 96). Geertz sees that the term both rational Western treatments and Islamic dukun as generally used contains within it a spirituality. For Landy, such developments, which paradoxical ability to give assistance, which leads have occurred as an effect of , allow to suspicion and rejection of the dukun in society. for a re-synthesis process which redirects individual This paradox comes from the fact that the dukun rituals to new functions. Even treatments which are are often mentioned in connection with various indigenous in character can complement scientific incidents, either as victims or as perpetrators. The healing systems (Landy, 1974, p. 117). bloody killings which afflicted the Banyuwangi Such healers have become common in society area around 1998 drew widespread attention and refer to their work as alternative medicine. from the general society and academics. Research They utilize a variety of approaches, including conducted by Siegel (Siegel, 2001) regarding jampi-jampi () and , the political intrigues of Soeharto-era Indonesia, (herbal medicine) made from plant material, nerve as well as by Herriman regarding rumors of massages, prana (“cosmic energy”) treatment, etc. “ninjas” (Herriman, 2010) and the killings of guru These approaches are paired with prayer, dzikir, ngaji and kyai suspected of being dukun santét night supplications, and meditation. Of all the (Herriman, 2006) have shown this. The dukun terms used to refer to the them, the practitioners have a powerful presence in , as found by of these alternative treatments, whom Sofwan Bubandt (Bubandt, 2006) in his examination of (2010, pp. 8, 78) names the wong pinter, prefer the correlation between sorcery and corruption in to be known as kyai, ustadz or tabib rather than the derailing of democracy building in Indonesia. dukun. Recently, there has been a tendency for Witchcraft, or santet, as part of magical activities practitioners of alternative medicine to promote are an extension of politics, and in the political themselves through such media as billboards, imagination of some people santet/witchcraft radio, and television. and corruption are linked. This contributes to Recent developments in Islam in Java have an ambivalence in power transference issues. influenced how Muslims view alternative treatment Strangely, dukun involvement is also apparent methods. One view is that the healing abilities of in the politics of power at universities, which a kyai are a realization of the powers granted to represent the highest of learning in some Muslims through karomah (God’s blessing). Indonesia. During the transfer of power between Others hold that these healers’ spiritual powers are officials at one university in , several a form of direct communication with God. This

50 Sartini, Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra - Redefining the Therm of Dukun can be connected to , which is part of the on which form of treatment is most properly religious understanding being developed, together named Islamic-based healing. The blurring of with worship based in the five pillars of Islam. these categories has been seen as practices have Sufis put greater emphasis on the spiritual aspects developed. For instance, several healers who were of religion than rituals or outward adorations. originally not oriented towards Islam, who made Another view argues that these healers practice use of magic and sorcery in their treatments, have a syncretic form of Javanese animist religion and reoriented themselves to be more Muslim. Islam, and thus theirs is not a truly Muslim faith In his research, Daniels has explored these (Woodward, 2011, pp. 94–97). dynamics and found that healing orientation has As part of their passion for returning to a changed to be better suited to recent developments more Muslim Islam, a number of healers have in religious understanding. However, the continued developed a prophetic way of healing and claimed existence of these healers has continued to it to be an Islamic treatment method. This method cause controversy over their claims of veracity, emphasizes dzikir, sholawat and prayers, as well particularly as related to the religious values as reading verses of the Qur’an, using prayer underlying their practices (Daniels, 2009b, pp. water, and applying physical therapies such as 78–79). massage and herbal potions (Daniels, 2009a, pp. The terms dukun and wong pinter are often 77–79). The tendency for treatment to become equated. They are both frequently used as general more religion-based has been seen, for instance, in terms to refer to a with special powers the preference of sellers at the Demak Market in (including a connection with the spirit realm) who choosing a dukun. These vendors tend to choose gives aid upon request. However, these terms can kyai as “prayer helpers”, because the kyai are be differentiated between “white” and “black” believed to have a better command of Islamic practices, as well as internal and external ones, teachings than the dukun (Indrasuari, 2012, p. 1). which have positive and negative connotations. Daniels categorizes the traditional healers The term wong pinter is more generally used of Java into three types, namely the dukun, to refer to persons with special powers, but has kyai and ustadz. This categorization scheme is positive connotations (Sartini, 2014, p. 44). different than that of abangan, santri and priyayi formulated by Geertz, though both are used to Characteristic ofWong Pinter as a kind of understand plurality and local understandings of Dukun it. These categories are stated to be integral and Special understanding fluctuative within the dynamics of society and Above, it has been mentioned that the term cultural processes (Daniels, 2009a, p. 55). From wong pinter is frequently understood as a general this, it is clear that Daniels’ categorization is also one, equivalent to the term dukun. If this were dynamic, and that his categories can mix, similar to true, however, the ambiguous and negative Geertz’ view that the categories of santri, priyayi, characteristics connoted by the term dukun would and abangan can be blurred (Geertz, 1976, p. 87). also be conveyed by the term wong pinter. Though According to Daniels (Daniels, 2009a, p. 56), practitioners’ efforts to obtain knowledge and these three types of healers can be grouped into abilities are similar, the term wong pinter indicates one of two main orientations based on their views: characteristics that are unlike those connoted by normative Sufi- and normative Salafi-oriented dukun or kyai. At least, this is what can be seen forms of healing, and un-Islamic forms of healings. among the people of Temanggung, Central Java. Though Islam-oriented forms of healing are Research has indicated the following information. divided into two subcategories, both are united in The term wong pinter, narrowly defined, refers their criticism of healing methods that they claim to to someone with special abilities, particularly those be un-Muslim and thus inappropriate for treatment. related to their ability to directly communicate Nevertheless, healers who reject local wisdom- with the supernatural but also including the ability based healing (i.e. healing based in Kejawen, or to treat, to pray for, and to advise patients. It syncretic Javanese religion) are unable to agree

51 Humaniora, Vol. 29, Number 1 February 2017 also connotes a helpful person who demands no associated with the dukun, he asserts that guru recompense and high moral integrity (Sartini, mistik are more frequently viewed as sepuh or 2015, p. 284). What are the differences of wong wong tuwa, as exalted and honored elders whose pinter and other names especially dukun and kyai? wisdom is derived from the grace of God and is Wong pinter, dukun and kyai have different used for charity. They are of a special character, and meanings, though their characteristics are are held to emanate mystery and knowledge. They interrelated. Wong pinter is frequently asserted live their lives responsibly, are prepared to bear to be the same as dukun because both types of worldly burdens, and have peace of soul. Many practitioners often provide aid. However, they people depend on them, because they are thought differ significantly when it comes to the issue of to be blessed with clairvoyance and thus able to remuneration. The wong pinter do not ask for any give accurate advice. The guru mistik are ideal payment for their assistance, whereas the dukun father figures. The urug mistik are also believed generally demand material recompense. Wong to have the ability to treat diseases, calculate good pinter, meanwhile, has similarities to the term kyai dates, tell fortunes, and serve as mediators between as both terms refer to persons who provide aid or the common people and spirits, ancestors, and assistance, but differ significantly in the matter God. Differing significantly fromdukun traits as of knowledge of Islam. The wong pinter who are identified by Geertz, theguru mistik do not demand also kyai have a solid understanding of Islam. recompense for their assistance (Mulder, 2005b, p. However, wong pinter need not always have a good 76). They tend to openly show their confidence as command of Islamic doctrine, and some are not people who have strong ties to the highest , even practicing Muslims (Sartini, 2015, p. 284). and are certain that theirs is a mission unlike that of The wong pinter may inherit their knowledge, the common people (Mulder, 2005b, p. 77). or obtain it by completing laku prihatin (“spiritual acts”) such as observing special fasts (Sartini, Services provided 2014, p. 661) or conducting specific rituals and The services provided by wong pinter vary meditation. Their approach to providing treatment greatly. They may include physical healing, as is more or less the same as that used by the dukun. well as treatment of diseases or other disturbances The key point here is that the term wong pinter caused by spirits, fate-reading, etc. Research has positive connotations, rather than the negative (Sartini, 2014, pp. 36–38) indicates three categories ones associated with the term dukun (such as of aid often provided by the wong pinter such as: practicing sorcery or demanding recompense for disease treatment, treatment of disturbances by their assistance). The wong pinter are considered spirits and finding of lost items, determination of to follow the demands of their and have good dates, and life aids such as: fortune, future, uncompromised morals (Sartini, 2014, p. 661). business. These characteristics are similar to those which Wong pinter often treat persons with various Mulder associates with the guru mistik (“mystic physical illnesses, such as stomach pain, diabetes, teachers”). tumors, and cancer. Patients seek out the wong In his exploration of Javanese mysticism, pinter for to save both money and time. Seeing a Mulder finds that traditional healing and social wong pinter does not require any administrative service activities are generally practiced by mystics hassle, nor does it require payment. Likewise, known as guru mistik. This term, however, tends patients who have already undergone extensive to have positive connotations in society (Mulder, medical treatment at hospitals without success 2005b). Mulder differentiates between the guru will use the wong pinter as an alternative form of mistik and dukun. In his view, the dukun and other treatment. Some of the persons who seek aid are practitioners of Javanese esoterism are firmly poor and uneducated. For instance, one patient differentiated from the guru mistik, despite having experienced continuing stomach pain despite similar abilities and providing social aid, because having seen a doctor numerous times. This patient of their characteristics. Although he does not came to see a wong pinter and ask that he pray provide an explicit description of characteristics for the patient’s health. The patient was given

52 Sartini, Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra - Redefining the Therm of Dukun prayer water, and after drinking this water felt with the wong pinter regarding dates for weddings, that his stomachache was cured. When a mother circumcisions, and other life milestones. People had difficulty giving birth, awong pinter was also consult the wong pinter regarding the best asked to pray for an easier birth. Someone having dates for building homes or bridges or even for difficulty facing death could also ask awong pinter planting rice. All of this is intended to ensure for prayer to ensure they would be ready to die. that they benefit most from their activities or Wong pinter often use plants and herbal mixtures ceremonies. One tobacco merchant interviewed to cure diseases and ailments. For instance, stated that he consulted with the wong pinter awar-awar leaves are used to prevent illnesses regarding the best dates to buy tobacco. and dhadhap srep is used to treat fever. Burns, Life’s many challenges cause people to bites, and poisonings likewise all have their own face a large number and variety of problems. In specific treatments. Eachwong pinter has his own general, patients need support, affirmation, and “recipes”. advice regarding the problems they face. Some Aside from treating physical illnesses, wong of these problems are mental, while others have pinter are also often asked to help cure people who to do with the future. For instance, someone who are thought to have been possessed by spirits. Such will write a test, be it for school, employment, possession is believed to cause young children to or promotion, will feel stressed and unconfident. become fussy or different to control. The wong In such conditions, patients often come to ask pinter are also said to be able to treat for prayers so that they can be psychologically such as santet. prepared to write their tests. Persons disappointed Wong pinter are also believed to be able to over their inability to find a spouse can likewise exorcise spirits from new homes, seek missing consult a wong pinter and ask for prayers so that persons (especially children) who are thought to they may marry quickly. Wong pinter function to have been kidnapped by spirits, and ensure the provide prayers and advice to their patients, and safe return of someone who has journeyed afar. thus ensure peaceful living. In the words of one One source stated that he had asked a wong pinter respondent, the wong pinter can help with thinking. who was also well versed in religious matters (a They often provide and remind patients kyai) to pray that he find his missing wallet and hisof the importance of introspection. Wong pinter brother’s missing wallet (two occasions). This kyai also provide advice regarding the importance invited the informant to join mujahadah (group of recognizing the fate determined by God and prayers) with his students, and both wallets were recommend that patients become more charitable found. and dedicated to prayer. Some entrepreneurs come For the Javanese, selecting the date on which to wong pinter to ask for prayers in support of their something is done has an important role in businesses. determining that activity’s future. One of the more famous Javanese almanacs is the Betaljemur Motivation Adammakna, which serves as a reference for the The motivation of the wong pinter for giving Javanese people’s lives. This almanac includes aid to others is based mostly in their desire to methods for calculating appropriate or blessed sincerely help their fellows. The of dates for conducting certain activities. Wong pinter the wong pinter in giving aid can be summarized frequently understand such issues and are able as follows (Sartini & Supartiningsih, 2016, pp. to determine dates, and as such, members of the 33–34). general populace (who lack such knowledge) will a. Love and care (welas asih). All creatures consult with them. This Javanese principle holds should care for each other, help each other, that there are good dates for conducting specific assist each other, particularly when they are activities or holding certain ceremonies, and that facing unfortunate conditions. these dates will ensure the greatest and most b. Helping or assisting one’s fellows by reducing desired results. the burdens of people who are suffering. Aiding Even today, the Javanese people often consult others is considered a duty of all people.

53 Humaniora, Vol. 29, Number 1 February 2017 c. Desire to be useful to one’s fellows and provide considered exemplary citizens because they do charity. everything well and give their best: their d. Helping sincerely for Allah, without hope of are orderly and their children become members recompense. of the community. Wong pinter are considered e. Asking for God’s help. If it is the fate of the humble and friendly, and owing to their statuses sick person, then he or she will be cured. as exemplary citizens are often asked to give f. Belief that, if one helps one’s fellows, the advice or direction to the community. In one case, persons helped will pray for the persons who a wong pinter named Mbah Mudah was given a helped them. special position within district-level discussions. Some of the wong pinters provide healing Lower administrative levels (villages and hamlets) and other because they hear the likewise often consult wong pinter for advice. whispering of spirits, follow the instruction of Their wise views, simple comportment, humble their teachers, or unconsciously obtain healing and refreshing way of speaking, and their capacity abilities. Because of these abilities, they are sought as residents are all reasons for the wong pinter to be by persons in need of aid. When practitioners are consulted for advice (Sartini, 2015, p. 33). able to provide healing and other forms of aid, the Although most are not formal leaders with the emphasis is on their sincerity, on their willingness authority to make decisions, wong pinter are held to give aid without asking for anything in return. as pillars of their communities because they Though they do not offer their services, they also morality, serve as positive examples, and influence do not refuse the requests of persons seeking them. society with their advice. Wong pinter tend not Another reason why the wong pinter continue to emphasize their own abilities. Wong pinter their activities is because they have the support contribute to community decisions by providing of their families and communities. They are advice regarding the best decisions to be taken considered important and necessary figures in their (Sartini, 2015, p. 59). communities, as they have the ability to give advice Research conducted in 2014 (Sartini, 2014) and to heal. Many practitioners are respected and and research conducted in 2016 (Sartini & honored for their kindness. Supartiningsih, 2016) has shown that, generally, the wong pinter are received positively by their Social view communities. They are needed to heal physical Social reception of the wong pinter tends ailments and non-physical ailments, as well as to be positive. The wong pinter are considered to solve social problems and offer examples and exemplary members of the community. They are advice. Nevertheless, owing to the variety of views thought trustworthy, able to tell good from bad, held by members of their communities, there are and unwilling to do wrong. If they do wrong, it still those who oppose the wong pinter. is not deliberate. Such morality is attributed to Data indicates that such opposition often them because the wong pinter are believed to be comes from groups categorized as being hardline of strong faith, to be serious students of religion, Muslims who strictly promote the concept of and to approach themselves to God. In a Javanese Islamic purity. One source, Akhmad Daroji of context, they are persons with prihatin for God— Bejen, described these opponents as “Extremist i.e. their actions and methods are intended to bring Muslims”. This minor segment of society opposes them closer to God through certain religious or Akhmad Daroji and the other wong pinter and spiritual understandings. The wong pinter are no considers them to be misleading society, arguing different than other members of the community. that the healing provided by the wong pinter such They do not isolate themselves or consider others as Ahmad Daroji goes against correct religious to be beneath them. They intermingle with their doctrine (as these groups understand it). Among communities, can easily socialize, are open, and his neighbors, however, Ahmad Daroji is known are known to follow rules, diligently participate to be a devout Muslim who diligently goes to in social aid, and work hard. Wong pinter are the mosque to pray, helps those who require assistance by providing them with prayer and

54 Sartini, Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra - Redefining the Therm of Dukun herbal remedies, cures spiritual possession, and Use of modern technology protects people being disturbed by evil spirits or Use of modern technology among the wong afflicted by black magic. His service is provided pinter tends to be minimal, as their becoming freely, without any expectation of remuneration. healers and helpers tends not to be a professional Indeed, Ahmad Daroji prefers that his patients calling. Their actions are instead mainly intended not give him any payment. Some of treatments to provide assistance when it is needed. If someone provided involve prayer, including recitation of in their powers and comes to the wong Al-Fatikhah and other short Qur’anic verses. pinter to ask for assistance, then they will help Ahmad Daroji also mediates, seeking revelation in silent, isolated places. He explains that, sometimes, to the best of their abilities. There are no specific efforts to improve their abilities except for prayer his spiritual experiences sometimes come from and prihatin. People seeking aid are mostly premonitions which are received through dreams. He thinks that it is his use of meditation which is influenced by their faith and their belief in specific healers’ abilities. considered to be against Islamic doctrine by these In Java, there are the concepts of cocog, of a “extremist Muslims”. patient matching his or her healer(Geertz, 1976, p. Likewise, Ahmad Daroji is occasionally 91), and the success of a treatment. Patients suspected to be a dukun (in the negative connotation), mandi, even though he asks God the Almighty for help may be treated more easily by specific healers. The term is often related to phrases considered to and prays to Him. The informant considers the mandi have potent healing abilities (Sartini, 2014, p. 647). Muslims who hold such views to be keminter The wong pinter’s knowledge can be received (to consider themselves the most intelligent and from their parents, teachers, religious lessons, correct). Despite facing such opposition, Akhmad books, or other sources. Mostly, however, they Daroji continues to take positive courses of action, are self-taught. They develop their abilities in following the motto “ngalah, plalah, supaya ora accordance with the assistance expected by kalah” (let it go, so you don’t lose). He believes members of the community. According to Pak that all people should respond to negative actions Darman, “ ” with positive ones, and that giving in is not the Wong pinter kuwi duwe penemu dhewe (“The Wong Pinter develop their abilities on same as losing. The informant believes that all of their own”). This means that the wong pinter will a person’s negative actions will be repaid unto him or her in the future. independently find a way to treat patients and develop their own abilities, including in the areas Another source, Mbah Gudik from Langgeng, of determining treatment regimens and resolving Tlogomulyo, has had experiences which differ problems. Although such self-development tends somewhat from those of Ahmad Daroji. Mbah not to use modern technology, continued social Gudik is capable of communicating with the developments, including increased knowledge of supernatural, but this cannot easily be learned religion, means that the wong pinter must regularly or understood by others. No schools teach such update their healing and service models (Sartini, abilities, Mbah Gudik says, and he does not know 2014, p. 647). where his own abilities come from. All experiences which cannot easily, if at all, be explained or Relationship with religion imagined by others will have those who refuse to belief them. Mbah Gudik explains that he With the increased development of religion is sometimes even considered to be “strange” and religious activities within their communities, (Sartini, 2015, p. 32). the knowledge and religious devotion of the wong Although these wong pinters did not have pinter has generally increased. This can be seen, direct confrontations with persons holding for instance, in the adaptation of prayer to more extremist views, some sources explained that closely follow readings of the Qur’an. Many certain people did not believe in their abilities. prayers can be found in form. Nevertheless, they have continued to maintain Mbah Cokro, for instance, provided services good relations with their communities. through several forms of fasting, namely: mutih

55 Humaniora, Vol. 29, Number 1 February 2017

(only consuming plain rice and water), ngebleng Less developed tend to rely on (one-day fast), ngadhem (not consuming any the services of dukun. The fertile growth of spices), and pati geni (full fasting, with one being traditional medicine in Indonesia has also been confined to a limited space). Mbah Cokro continued influenced by the country’s conditions. The to help patients until his death in 1963. At the time, history of health, disease, and healthcare before few people prayed strictly in accordance with Indonesia proclaimed its independence has Islamic doctrine; they generally relied on remained understudied, and as such information or kenduren, a prayer which involved eating on it remains scarce (Boomgaard, 1993, p. 77). together. At the time, mantras and healing prayers Healthcare in Java in the early 20th century was involved a mixture of the Javanese and Arabic provided by practitioners known as dokter Jawa . For instance, the opening prayer which (Javanese doctors) and dukun. At the time, medical is properly pronounced Bismillahirohmanirohim in journals answered questions regarding health and Arabic was simply pronounced Semillah (Sartini, its connection to (Monnais & Cook, 2014, p. 645). 2012a, p. 108) and to supernatural beliefs, as well The handling of different cases relies on as the use of chewed areca nuts for treating of different prayers or mantras. When someone is to eczema (Monnais & Cook, 2012b, pp. 109–110). be called home, the Donga Pemeling is used to Kurniarini, Darini, & Dewi (2015, p. 12) communicate with the spirit/non-human world to depicts late as being a society ask for that person’s safe return. Cases of missing in which healthcare quality was improving, but people, or people who are thought to have been only among certain parts of society. Though the hidden by evil spirits, are handled by reciting the indigenous of Java did receive some Srabat Putih mantra and reading several verses of in healthcare issues such as hygiene and the Qur’an (Sartini, 2014, p. 646). sanitation, as well as smallpox vaccinations, these According to another source, treatments facilities were unable to reach all of society. The may involve the recitation of sholawat, Qur’anic populace tended to rely on traditional treatment verses, or even joint prayer (mujahadah). This regimens rather than modern medicine. Indeed, occurs because many of the informants in from the time of the Dutch East India Company until Temanggung have a pesantren (Islamic boarding the 20th century, the Dutch colonial government school) education, including Arisun, Rohim, deliberately allowed the indigenous population to Ismanto, Ahmad Nasikhun, Abdul Fatah (Sartini use the services of the dukun and tabib for their & Supartiningsih, 2016), Ustadz Isro’i Suyuti, and healthcare needs (Baha’uddin, n.d., p. 1). Ustadz M. Nur Amin (Sartini, 2015, p. 33). Parts of Javanese society still practice a Generally, the wong pinter closely follow personalistic etiology (explanation for the origin of their religious duties. They are considered faithful disease), and thus make use of traditional healing people who pray regularly and consider their practices. Societies whose etiology is mainly powers to have come from God. The actions of personalistic tend to seek treatment from local the wong pinter are stated by the informants to practitioners, who are known as shamans (or, in be based in religious syari’at (). The wong Indonesia, dukun) and are considered capable of pinter help their patients recognize the importance both directly communicating with the spirit world of surrendering themselves to God. Their advice and of using magic (Foster & Anderson, 2006, pp. generally complies with, rather than deviates from, 82–83). Traditional healing here can be understood religious teachings (Sartini, 2014, p. 29). as healing or treatment using techniques which have been continuously practiced in society for Wise to Use the Term hundreds of , before the advent of modern There are several reasons why it needs medicine. Traditional healing systems are part comprehensive understanding in view of the of the traditional knowledge system and the phenomenon and wise in using the term. technological aspects of (Sudardi, 1. The Background of the history and 2002, p. 12). This situation forced members of Javanese Culture society, particularly women, to form their own

56 Sartini, Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra - Redefining the Therm of Dukun health systems (Hull, 1979) despite group of people is not easy. limited resources and facilities (Hull, 1981). It takes time to change the world view of an According to Santino, traditional healing (also individual or a community. It is highly recognized known as folk medicine) gains its effectiveness by people engaged in religious conversion, as seen from being a manifestation of faith, symbols, and in the analysis of Hiebert (Hiebert, 2002, pp. 7-11) customary actions, as well as social behavior. on conversion or religion of transformation. There In such medicine, faith is utilized for practical are three levels in the conversion process, namely: purposes and has direct consequences on health behavior and rituals, beliefs, and . and treatment. Activities are both spiritual and Hiebert pointed out that if there is a Hindu to pragmatic, sacral and secular (Santino, 1985, p. in a short time actually means that 153). This can be seen from the fact that faith and happened was a change at the level of syncretic medical treatments are among the oldest objects behavior. The level of belief and world view of of study in medical . Faith-related the person or group is not easily changed because medicine is, together with its practice, a central part someone lives in the context of the long-running of culture (Foster & Anderson, 2006, p. 61). Every human who has formed his thinking. Changes in social group has its own basic medical knowledge. world view can not be an instantaneous process Even today, at the beginning of the 21st and changes occur slowly, even coercive transfer of century, traditional healers and treatment in world views can lead to conflict. Java community Java have remained similar to those discussed experience shows that transformation. above. This is shown by, among others, research It occurred “religious compromising” in Java conducted by Daniels and Woodward. One profile because some people nominally converted to Islam provided by Daniels indicates that traditional but they still follow the religious understanding healing practices still involve efforts to strengthen that has long roots. They still do old rites (Masroer one’s inner powers through prayer recitation, Ch. Jb., 2004, p. 31). Islam developed to the fasting, and meditation. Although communication community who are influenced by Hindu and with God, realized through prayer, is prioritized, it strong local understandings. Therefore, the Sufis is supported through communication with the other who preach Islam accommodate local beliefs in beings created by Him, including the , demons, order to make up the Javanese Islamic rituals, as and other spirits. These practices are syncretic in offered by a group of Islamic preachers, known character, combining Javanese mysticism with as Wali Sanga. The teachings of Islam coexist Islam (Daniels, 2009a, p. 61). with different belief to keep peace and tolerance (Ridwan, 2008, p. 1.4). The use of mysticism The process of forming a world view approach leads the process of religious conversion View of the world is a unique initiative of growing more tolerant, adaptive, and open to a lot of individuals or groups. World view with regard views. It is considered as the ideal medium to bring to the of life, a way of thinking, life together religion and belief there (Ridwan, 2008, expectancy, the principle of life, , faith or p. 13). This compromise approach is also visible even religion (Abdullah & Nadvi, 2011, p. 270). It in the pesantren (Islamic boarding). Pesantren was a system of organized knowledge culturally Tegalrejo Magelang obligates the students the (Kearney, 1975, p. 248), whereas for Carvalho tasawuf as one of objects of study (Pranowo, 2011, (2006, p. 113), a world view is a belief system that p. 192) and it shows the life of the students who is associated with the nature of reality and how run the Sufi rites. They do fastingmutih (eat only one acts as a subject in the reality. As a process of rice or tubers and water), ngrowot (eat only tubers) cultural and social phenomenon that is constantly (Pranowo, 2011, p. 2014)”edition”:”2”,”event- moving and always changing, there is constant place”:”Jakarta”,”ISBN”:”978-979-3064-70- interaction so the of the world view of a 3”,””:”Indonesia”,”author”:[{“family”:” society or any individual basically have a temporal Pranowo”,”given”:”Bambang”}],”issued”:{“date- dimension (Abdullah & Nadvi, 2011, p. 270). parts”:[[“2011”]]}},”locator”:”2014”}],”schem Nevertheless, changing worldview of a person or a”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/

57 Humaniora, Vol. 29, Number 1 February 2017 /raw/master/csl-citation.json”} . Most information that is the between activities have similarities to the rituals of self- practitioners and further understanding of the control in the Java community (Koentjaraningrat, public about these differences so the public 1994, p. 371). Conversion of belief and religion and scientists in particular can use that term needs wisdom and process. A confrontational proportionally. approach to convert people may lead to certain conflicts in society. REFERENCES Ali, Z. (1995). Note on a Pair of Batu Aceh in Rembau. What should we do? Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal The use of the term “dukun” and “wong Asiatic Society, 68(1 (269)), 81–89. pinter” should be used appropriately because both Atkinson, J. M. (1992). Shamanisms Today. these designations do not designate characteristics Annual Review of Anthropology, 21(1), of the same profile. Both terms need specific 307–330. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev. an.21.100192.001515. definitions The use of appropriate terms will make social relationships become more harmonious. It is Baha’uddin. (n.d.). Dokter Jawa dan Mantri Kesehatan expected there will be no claims, , and dalam Sejarah Kesehatan Indonesia pada Masa Kolonial https///www.academia.edu/4435361/ destructive actions to accommodate the difference. dokter_Jawa_dan_Mantri_Kesehatan. It is required multicultural awareness and not to impose views on others. Bandel, K. (2006). Sastra, Perempuan, Seks . Yogyakarta: Jalasutra. If there is an effort to influence the views of other members of society, then it should be done Bernstein, J. H. (1993). Poisons and Antidotes Among subtly and wisely. Coercion changes in world view the Taman of West Kalimantan Indonesia. Bijdragen Tot de Taal, Land-En Volkenkunde, cannot be done because of a change in the primary 149(1), 3–21. level could lead to conflict in society, such as the imposition of a ritual execution. Boomgaard, P. (1993). The Development of Colonial Health Care in Java; An Exploratory Introduction. Bijdragen Tot de Taal, Land-En CONCLUSION Volkenkunde, Deel 149(ieste Afi), 77–93. Researches on Javanese traditional healers Bubandt, Ni (2006). Sorcery, Corruption, and the have been a tendency to equate the notion dukun, Dangers of Democracy in Indonesia. The wong pinter and other practitioners in particular Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, of “magico-specialist” practitioners. Yet found a 12(2), 413–431. reference that specifically point out differences Caniago, I., & Siebert. (1998). Medicinal Plant Ecology, among these practitioners, specifically dukun“ ” Knowledge and Conservation in Kalimantan, and “wong pinter”. In fact, there are significant Indonesia. Economic Botany, 52(3), 229–250. differences between them. Therefore, whoever Chilson, C., & Knecht, P. (2003). Shamans in Asia. needs to wisely use the terms because it was in London; New York: RoutledgeCurzon. these terms are contradictory predicates, negative Connor, L. H. (1990). Seances and Spirits of teh Death: and positive connotations. In needs specific Context and Idiom in Symbolic Healing. definitions among the terms. Mentioning one for Oceania, 60(4), 345–359. all terms can invite discomfort or even false claims Daniels, T. P. (2009a). Islamic spectrum in Java. and actions. Attempts to do the transformation or Farnham, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. conversion of beliefs and are not an Retrieved from http://public.eblib.com/ easy thing to do. As a worldview, understanding a EBLPublic/PublicView.do?ptiID=449235. person or group is accumulated understanding of Daniels, T. P. (2009b). Islamic spectrum in Java. history which is formed in a long time. Thoughtful Farnham, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. actions and appropriate use of the term is necessary Retrieved from http://public.eblib.com/ to not generalize what the term means. EBLPublic/PublicView.do?ptiID=449235. This paper contributes to providing more Edson, G. (2012). Mysticism and alchemy through the

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