Compromised Margin: Migration and Agrarian Transformation in the Northeastern Thai – Lao Borderlands

COPYRIGHT AND USE OF THIS THESIS This thesis must be used in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Reproduction of material protected by copyright may be an infringement of copyright and copyright owners may be entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. Section 51 (2) of the Copyright Act permits an authorized officer of a university library or archives to provide a copy (by communication or otherwise) of an unpublished thesis kept in the library or archives, to a person who satisfies the authorized officer that he or she requires the reproduction for the purposes of research or study. The Copyright Act grants the creator of a work a number of moral rights, specifically the right of attribution, the right against false attribution and the right of integrity. You may infringe the author’s moral rights if you: - fail to acknowledge the author of this thesis if you quote sections from the work - attribute this thesis to another author - subject this thesis to derogatory treatment which may prejudice the author’s reputation For further information contact the University’s Director of Copyright Services sydney.edu.au/copyright COMPROMISED MARGIN: MIGRATION AND AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION IN THE NORTHEASTERN THAI – LAO BORDERLANDS Soimart Rungmanee A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Human Geography) School of Geosciences, Faculty of Science University of Sydney, Australia February 2014 Statement of Originality This is to certify that to the best of my knowledge, the content of this thesis is my own work. This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or other purposes. I certify that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work and that all the assistance received in preparing this thesis and sources have been acknowledged. Soimart Rungmanee i Acknowledgements The completion of this thesis could not have been achieved without the excellent support and encouragement from many individuals. Their contributions are sincerely appreciated and should be recognised. First and foremost, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Professor Philip Hirsch. I felt very fortunate and grateful to have Professor Philip Hirsch as my thesis supervisor. He is an exceptional teacher and an inspirational person who also provided enthusiastic encouragement throughout my doctorate research programme. I also would like to express my sincere thanks to Associate Professor Bill Pritchard for his guidance, and Dr Robert Fisher for his great support and invaluable comments. Special thank goes to Dr Estelle Dryland for editing my Thai-English writing style and saving me from many errors, and Dr. Nathan Wales for helping me to produce maps. Lastly, I am particularly grateful for the assistance given by the administrative team at the School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Sue, Nikki, and Ramana, during my four years in Sydney. My fieldwork represents the most important part of my thesis. It was a special period that provided me with research and life experience in Northeast Thailand and Lao PDR. As my fieldwork sites are located in relatively rural and remote areas, the contribution of many people made the period less difficult. I wish to thank villagers in Ban Fangthai, Ban Kaemkong, and Ban Laonua for sharing their stories, and Ms Wantanee Trongdee who accompanied me during the preliminary fieldwork and kindly provided accommodation in Mukdahan city for me. I should also thank Mr Tankaew Prombidon from the Savannakhet Province, and staff at the Mukdahan Provincial Governor’s Office, Mukdahan Immigration Office, and Wan Yai District Governor Office, in particular Dr Sommai Preechasilp, Mr Charin Tianpermpoon, and Mr Rachane Tunprapat. They facilitated me in various ways in the fieldworks. Financially, the study would not have been possible without a scholarship from Thammasat University, my institution in Bangkok. The PRSS Grant from the ii University of Sydney is also a great support as it covered a series of additional expenses related to my fieldwork. I additionally have greatly benefited from the opportunity to present initial analyses and early drafts at various workshops, and conferences. For this, many thanks go out to fellow participants and the organisers and funders, especially Maureen Helen Hickey (NUS), the International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS) in the Netherlands, ChATSEA, and ENITS, Chulalongkorn University. In Thailand, I would like to express my gratitude to my colleagues in the Department of Community Development, Faculty of Social Administration at Thammasat University. At a more personal level, I am very thankful to my beloved colleagues, in particular Associate Professor Parichart Walaisatian, Assistant Professor Kamonthip Chamkrajang, Acharn Weeraboon Wisartsakul, Acharn Panrat Nimtalung, and Ms Waraporn Wasuthepruk, for their encouragement and moral support throughout my study time. I would also like to thank many Thai friends for their kindness. Special thanks go to Dr Nattakhant Akarapongpisak, Prakirati Satasut, Arratee Ayuttakorn, Busarin Lertchowalitsakul, Associate Professor Kanoksak Kaewthep, Monthathip Channaphum, Ammarawadee Inthakanok, Tubtim Tubtim, Lada Phadungkiati, Atchara Rakyudhitham, Wasana La-ongplew and many friends from the Australian National University and the University of Sydney. Finally, my deepest gratitude goes to my beloved family. I cannot thank my parents, Augsorn Tanyawanich and Burin Rungmanee, my grandmother, auntie Kit and uncle Chit, and my sister, Dr Sarin Rungmanee enough for their love, enthusiastic support, and encouragement which greatly helped me tackle the numerous challenges I faced throughout my Ph.D. journey. Finally, I would like to thank Martin Carroll who has given moral support and understanding during the last tough year of my thesis writing. It is more than appropriate that I dedicate this thesis to them. iii Abstract Agrarian transformation, a process associated with changes in the relations of production, occurs when capitalism penetrates or is adopted into modes of agricultural production and labour. It has been classically approached through the prism of class and rural differentiation in peasant communities. Previous studies have tended to primarily focus on core agricultural areas rather than other geographical settings. This thesis investigates how the socio-cultural and geographic contexts of the northeastern Thai-Lao borderlands, specifically the flexibility of border crossing and language and cultural similarities, shape the current agrarian transformation in particular patterns of migration. It argues that the pathway of agrarian transformation in the northeastern Thai-Lao borderlands is not a linear de- agrarianisation process. Although villagers are generally involved in a wide range of economic activities, many are engaged in farming at the same time. Labour shortages in the Thai borderlands have been resolved by transborder rural-to-rural migration. Ethnographic fieldwork and surveys have been conducted in three communities. The first two are cross-border communities located along the Mekong River, one in Mukdahan Province in northeastern Thailand, and the others in Savannakhet Province, Lao PDR. The third community is in the hinterland of Laos, approximately 50 km from the border, and is also in Savannakhet Province. The findings of this thesis are presented in three parts. The first part identifies the spatial contexts of northeastern Thai-Lao borderlands that allow the scope of compromise in state-village relations in the borderlands. The second part exposes migration patterns of villagers in the northeastern Thai-Lao borderlands and their long-distance migration to Bangkok and its vicinities. The third part reveals that a certain type of agriculture persisted in the northeastern Thai- Lao borderlands and a hinterland village of Laos in contrast to the linear theory of iv de-agrarianisation. It argues that the ability of the Thai farmers to absorb cheap Lao workers supported ongoing agriculture and led to new agrarian relations between the Thai farmers and the Lao workers. In Laos, migration and remittance support agricultural households to invest in small businesses, build new houses, or buy new lands, all of which provide upward mobility for the Lao villagers. Those findings contribute to theoretical debates about the state power, state- village relations in the borderlands, the non-linear and overlapping nature of rural-to-rural and rural-to-urban migration, and agrarian transformation in Southeast Asia. Taken together, the thesis provides a better understanding on the process of agrarian transformation, and suggests that, because this transformation often follow a non-linear path, it casts doubt on simple notions of de-agrarianisation. v Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................. iv Statement of Originality ................................................................................... i Acknowledgements .......................................................................................... ii List of Figures ................................................................................................... xi List of Tables………………………………………………………………….xii Abbreviations and Acronyms………………………………………………...xiii Chapter 1 Setting the Case ...........................................................................

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