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Approach to Lower GI Bleeding in Children

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Approach to Lower GI Bleeding in Children Jemds.com Review Article Approach to Lower GI Bleeding in Children Anupam Ranjan1, Sweta Rani2, Mahesh Chaudhary3 1Department of General Surgery, A. N. Magadh Medical College and Hospital, Gaya, Bihar, India. 2Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, A. N. Magadh Medical College and Hospital, Gaya, Bihar, India. 3Department of General Surgery, A. N. Magadh Medical College and Hospital, Gaya, Bihar, India. ABSTRACT BACKGROUND Rectal bleeding in children causes a great deal of anxiety amongst parents and thus Corresponding Author: Dr. Sweta Rani, requires appropriate assessment, explanation and treatment. Rectal bleeding in Tutor Block-C, Room No. 3, children accounts for approx. 10% to 15% of referrals to paediatric A. N. Magadh Medical College and Hospital, gastroenterologists. The incidence and prevalence of rectal bleeding in children are Gaya-823001, Bihar, India. not well understood. Certain conditions like anal fissure and polyp are common in E-mail: [email protected] general practice. In majority of the cases, rectal bleeding in children is benign in nature but in some cases may indicate serious underlying pathology. Most common DOI: 10.14260/jemds/2019/782 causes of bleeding in neonate are anal fissure, necrotising enterocolitis and malrotation with volvulus. Anal fissure is longitudinal ulceration or tear in distal Financial or Other Competing Interests: anal canal epithelial segment. The pathogenesis is still not well understood, and it None. may differ between adults and children. Anal fissure develops in toddlers who have How to Cite This Article: recent history of diet modification and change in consistency of stool. Necrotizing Ranjan A, Rani S, Chaudhary M. Approach enterocolitis is common emergency condition among premature healthy infants. to lower GI bleeding in children. J. Incidence varies 0.3 to 2.4 infants/1000 birth. Pathogenesis remains unclear, it is Evolution Med. Dent. Sci. 2019;8(48): believed that certain factors like infection, hypoxic condition, prematurity play an 3624-3630, DOI: important role. The term malrotation refers to abnormalities related to intestinal 10.14260/jemds/2019/782 position and its attachment and it includes the more recent concept of atypical Submission 02-03-2019, malrotation or malrotation variant. Atypical malrotation results when the ligament Peer Review 10-11-2019, of Treitz is to the left of midline. Regardless of the level of the bleeding primary Acceptance 18-11-2019, focus of resection should be to restore the circulating volume with urine output of Published 02-12-2019.2 more than 1 mL/Kg/hr. The total blood volume in a newborn is 85 mL/Kg and 65 mL/Kg in infants. Rapid resuscitation can restore circulating volume. Therefore, a rapid push of 30 to 40 mL/Kg is required to restore intravascular volume. Red cell transfusion should be considered after loss of 30% of the circulating volume. In most patients with early shock, an initial fluid bolus of 20 mL/Kg of normal saline or lactated Ringer solution should be given rapidly (5–10 min). Intraosseous infusion should be considered in failed peripheral iv access. I will be dealing here with most common surgical causes of bleeding per rectum in children and their management. KEY WORDS Rectal Bleeding in Children, Polyp, Colonoscopy, Laparotomy J. Evolution Med. Dent. Sci./eISSN- 2278-4802, pISSN- 2278-4748/ Vol. 8/ Issue 48/ Dec. 02, 2019 Page 3624 Jemds.com Review Article Gastrointestinal bleeding in infants and children is common infants/1000 birth. Pathogenesis remains unclear, it is in the practice of general paediatrics accounting for approx. believed that certain factors like infection, hypoxic condition, 10% to 15% of referrals to paediatric gastroenterologists. prematurity plays important role[4]. All these condition leads Rectal bleeding in children cause a great deal of anxiety to production of inflammatory mediators. amongst parents and thus requires appropriate assessment, explanation and treatment. In majority of the cases rectal Clinical Presentations bleeding in children are benign in nature but in some cases Infants presents with variable symptoms like abdominal may indicate serious underlying pathology [1],[2]. I will be distention, blood in stool, feeding intolerance and are dealing here with most common surgical causes of bleeding lethargic. per rectum. Imaging Epidemiology X- ray abdomen may show Pneumatosis intestinalis (Fig. 1) is The incidence and prevalence of rectal bleeding in children diagnostic of NEC. This is due to production of gas (mainly are not well understood. Certain conditions like anal fissure, hydrogen gas) by bacterial fermentation. Portal venous air is polyp are common in general practices. Certain causes have associated with a worst prognosis. Pneumoperitoneum: - In a to be focused and investigated accordingly. supine X-ray, the air will collect anteriorly (near the umbilicus) or might outline the falciform ligament. Bowel Upper GI Bleeding Lower GI Bleeding perforation may be present in 1/3 patients in the absence of Haemorrhagic disease of the newborn Swallowed maternal blood Anal fissure pneumoperitoneum. Nonspecific findings include a localized Neonate Stress gastritis Necrotising enterocolitis dilated loop of bowel, thickened loops, ascites or a gasless Coagulopathy Malrotation with volvulus Vascular malformations abdomen. Anal fissure Gastritis Milk protein allergy (allergic Esophagitis proctocolitis) Infant Hypertrophic pyloric stenosis Intussusception (1 month to Trauma secondary to gastrostomy Duplication of intestine 2 yrs.) tube Lymphonodular hyperplasia Drug induced Infectious diarrhoea Eosinophilic gastroenteropathy Polyps Peptic ulcer Meckel’s diverticulum Oesophageal varices Inflammatory bowel disease Gastric varices Lymphonodular hyperplasia Gastritis Child Haemolytic uremic syndrome Esophagitis (>2 yrs.)/ Infectious colitis Mallory-Weiss syndrome older child Solitary rectal ulcer Trauma secondary to gastrostomy Fissure in ano tube Haemorrhoids Eosinophilic gastroenteropathy Eosinophilic gastroenteropathy Drug induced Vascular lesions Varices Table 1. Causes of Gastrointestinal Tract Haemorrhage Figure 1. Intraluminal Pneumatosis Anal Fissure Anal fissure is longitudinal ulceration or tear in distal anal Laboratory Evaluation canal epithelial segment. The pathogenesis is still not well Commonly increased leukocyte counts, thrombocytopenia, [3] stood, and it may differ between adults and children. Anal electrolyte abnormalities, metabolic alkalosis, hypoxia seen. fissure develops in toddlers who have recent history of diet In approx. 30% cases bacteraemia is present so blood sample modification and change in consistency of stool. Constipation should be collected before use of antibiotics. often precedes a hard, bulky stool resulting in posterior midline tear below mucocutaneus Junction. Fissure lead to Bell Clinical Staging further constipation aggravating the symptoms. Anal fissure Stage I Suspicious (only clinical sign suggestive) presents with bright red of blood streaking on stool and Child Stage II Definite infant having pneumatosis intestinalis. cry while bowel movement. Split in anoderm most common (IIA: Mild illness, IIB: Moderately ill) located on posterior midline especially in male infants and Stage III Advance anterior midline in female infants. The goal of treatment is to (IIIA: Impending perforation, IIIB: with Perforation) interrupt the vicious cycle of painful defaecation, stool retention, formation of hard stool and delay in healing of anal Treatment fissure. Anal fissure usually managed by sitz bath and an Medical management includes early bowel decompression, osmotic stool softener. Sitz bath promote good anal hygiene intravenous broad-spectrum antibiotic use, maintain and relax the anal sphincter. A 0.2% nitro-glycerine ointment volume/perfusion, pain control and early parenteral for 6-8 wks. and botulinum toxin (chemical sphincterectomy) nutrition [5]. The surgical management of NEC remains popular treatment in adult. Topical use of Tacrolimus is new controversial. Surgery is done when there is proven bowel therapy. Surgical treatment includes fissurectomy, anal perforation or clinical condition deteriorates [6]. dilatation under GA and lateral internal sphincterectomy. Malrotation with Volvulus Necrotising Enterocolitis The term malrotation refers to abnormalities related to Necrotizing enterocolitis is common emergency condition intestinal position and its attachment [7] and it includes the among premature healthy infants. Incidence varies 0.3 to 2.4 more recent concept of atypical malrotation or malrotation J. Evolution Med. Dent. Sci./eISSN- 2278-4802, pISSN- 2278-4748/ Vol. 8/ Issue 48/ Dec. 02, 2019 Page 3625 Jemds.com Review Article variant. Atypical malrotation results when the ligament of and off crampy abdominal pain in previously healthy child [9]. Treitz is to the left of midline. Clinically lower abdomen may appear scaphoid. High degree of suspicion based on history, clinical findings, investigation Normal Rotation and Fixation either Doppler ultrasonography or upper GI contrast study is required. Laparotomy or laparoscopic evaluation may be required depending upon the general condition of the patient. Chronic Midgut Volvulus Lymphatic and venous obstruction is seen in intermittent or partial midgut volvulus. Most commonly occurs in children of more than 2 years old child.[10] Among the common complaint chronic vomiting is seen in (68%), colicky pain abdomen in (55%), diarrhoea seen in (9%), constipation and haematemesis.
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