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Addressing the Challenges and Future of Cave Mining news Caving Addressing the challenges and future of cave mining No. 56 SRK Consulting’s International Newsletter Infrastructure development at Oyu Tolgoi There are over 50 global cave mining projects in various stages of studies and development. Despite the fact that the cave mining method orebody below their economic depth, and further is more than 100 years old, it is only within the exploitation of often large low-grade resources at past 20 years that this method has spread from depth would not support a more expensive mining initial cave mining centres to six continents. method. In recent years, besides the economics There are currently approximately 17 cave mining of high strip ratio, the environmental concern also operations in 11 countries. plays an important role when comparing open pit mass mining and caving. Cave mines can have a The interest in cave mining is being fuelled significantly smaller footprint than a comparable by the depletion of near surface orebodies open pit, since waste mined is only limited to suitable for open pit operations, relatively high underground infrastructure development. production rates and low operating cost. Also, a number of open pits have a continuation of the …continued LEFT EDGE OF SIDEBAR BLOCK Addressing the challenges and future of cave mining (continued) JAREK JAKUBEC Shaft headgear at the Resolution Copper project, Arizona, USA Jarek has over 35 years of worldwide Cave mining principles and economics needs to be at least 100 m thick for cave mining to be economical. In the past, operating and Traditionally, cave mining was a method typical caving heights were 150-250 m. consulting experience based on the principle of undercutting rock Most of the designs which are on the in the mining industry, and then naturally letting it cave. However, drawing board today have caving lifts specialising in this mining method has been extended in excess of 350 m. Although higher underground mass to very strong rocks which would not lifts generally result in better NPV, mining methods, easily cave or would not be suitable for they also have higher business risks of diamond mining, rock caving due to very coarse fragmentation. resource sterilisation, dilution, stability mechanics and mining geology. He has To mitigate this problem, pre-conditioning of the drawpoints, and extraction level worked around the globe on more than techniques have been developed to in general. 80 mining projects in 30 countries on 5 generate more fractures and reduce the continents. Jarek worked as geotechnical fragments to a manageable size. This is By contrast, orebodies with relatively engineer at Cassiar cave mine and later, achieved by hydraulic fracturing and, in small horizontal footprints can also for De Beers Consolidated Mines in South some cases, in combination with confined be mined economically if they have Africa and Botswana. With SRK, he built blasting. Although some discussion is sufficient height and metal content to and now manages a team of mining and needed about the potential impact on in justify the capital expenditure. Good geology experts who provide consulting situ stress that is required for cave mining, examples are Northparkes Mines in services for the cave mining and diamond several cave mines are in operation with Australia, and the diamond mines in industries. Jarek has published over preconditioned rock masses and several South Africa and Canada. 25 papers on geology, rock mechanics, others are being developed. The most and mining, co-authored two mining extensive work undertaken is at Cadia East Mechanised cave mining includes guidelines books, and participated on mine and Northparkes Mines in Australia, several variations of the method, several international research projects. and Andina and El Teniente in Chile. including block, panel, incline and front Jarek is founder of the Cave Mining caving. Most of the current mines and Forum and he is a qualified person in Caving methods can be used with projects utilise either block or panel terms of National Instrument 43-101. any type of commodity since it is the caving but after several years, Ekati geological and geotechnical context that Diamond Mine, Canada successfully Jarek Jakubec: [email protected] is important. There are many parameters introduced an incline cave at their to consider but typically the orebody Koala Mine. 2 RIGHT EDGE RIGHT EDGE OF PHOTO AND COLUMN OF SIDEBAR BLOCK Cave mining differs significantly from On a positive note, in hindsight, most Block and panel caves are very suitable other typically more selective underground of the challenges could have been for highly automated equipment like mining methods in a number of areas. prevented with better upfront knowledge, remote control loaders, trucks and Because cave mining is a bottom up correct design or draw disciplines. The crushers. A future supercave could method that relies on first establishing a other disadvantage of cave mining is potentially have less than 50-60 people large fixed infrastructure underground that the long lead time, it typically takes underground. will provide a very long term production 7 to 10 years, or longer, from initial platform, the initial capital costs are studies to production and the site may Cave mining toolbox typically very high. underestimate the logistics and skillset The ever-increasing speed of computing required for cave mining development To offset the impact of the large and the sophistication of numerical and operation. capital expenditure on project value, a modelling codes enable many mining consequent high rate of production and Because the cave mine has to be fully companies to model complex mining an increased tonnage per drawpoint is developed before all design parameters problems. Better and more reliable required. In this day and age, several are known to a high degree of confidence, instrumentation such as MPX cables, cave operations are running at upwards the design should be robust and technical Smart Marker System (Elexon), and Cave of 50,000 tpd and newer operations success should have priority over Tracker (Mining3) also provide excellent are being constructed for nameplate economics, especially when greenfield data for calibration of such models. capacities of 100,000 tpd and more. projects are considered. Although the cave However, do not count on the high mine may not require the same level of reliability of numerical models without Chuquicamata and New Mining Levels resource definition in terms of drillhole calibration. Reliable and accurate input at the El Teniente project in Chile; Oyu density as selective underground mining information for numerical models are Tolgoi projects, Mongolia; Grasberg caving method, the geotechnical and structural typically available only after the cave is complex, Indonesia; and the Resolution geology knowledge has to be typically designed, developed and operating. Copper project in Arizona all fall into the higher than for other methods. Some supercaves category. It has to be stressed The track record of predictive models of the information needed for the final that there are no examples where without comprehensive calibration, feasibility design may not be possible to tonnage over 100,000 tpd was achieved especially for greenfield projects, is not obtain from the drill core, and underground on a sustained basis from single cave very good and does not necessarily characterisation exposures may be footprint, although El Teniente produced increase confidence in the design in necessary. higher tonnage from concurrently mining comparison to other empirical tools and several caves. benchmarking. Additionally, complex Future of cave mining processes such as cave propagation, In terms of logistics, once a cave mine is Cave mining is moving to new frontiers subsidence geometry, and material in production, the execution is relatively with high production rates, strong rock flow in a cave mine cannot be yet straightforward. The production footprint masses, very high caving lifts and greater reliably modelled. remains fixed and mining consumables depth. In forefront of such projects is Jarek Jakubec: [email protected] typically revolve around secondary Resolution in Arizona where their shaft breaking with campaign maintenance was sunk to 2,100 m to develop deep Published in the Australian Centre for Geomechanics, within the production drives. It is important copper porphyry. Volume No.47, August 2018 (After article published) that strict draw control is maintained and the extraction level is not experiencing excess damage requiring repairs. Technical challenges of cave mining As the number of cave mining projects increases, there are also heightened expectations for high production rates and caving lifts, and greater depths to be achieved. The analysis of the cave mine performance is far from satisfactory. In the past two decades, at least 12 cave footprints were put into production and all experienced some level of unforeseen difficulty related to ground conditions, fragmentation, mining induced seismicity, mudrushes, and underestimating ground support, or simply breaking basic cave mining rules, specifically in the area of undercutting and draw management. 3 LEFT EDGE OF SIDEBAR BLOCK Accounting for micro-defects in rock mass rating 14 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 Is(50)(MPa) 2 0 Number of Fragments 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 Depth (m) Plot showing micro-defect intensity, drop test results, and point load test strength for a drillhole in a copper porphyry deposit ANDY THOMAS In 2001, Laubscher’s Mining Rock Mass in rock where defects are numerous and Andy, MEng, PEng, Rating (MRMR) classification system small, e.g. in porphyry-type rocks, it can be is a Geological (Laubscher and Jakubec, 2001) introduced difficult to isolate sections of defect-free Engineer with the rock block strength concept to account rock in which to obtain true intact strength. over 13 years of for scale effects and the influence of In such cases, the scale of micro-defects experience working closed defects on intact rock strength (IRS).
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