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2011 A century of Parks , 1911-2011

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A century of , 1911-2011 [electronic resource] / edited by Claire Elizabeth Campbell. Canadian History and Environment Series, No. 1, University of Calgary Press, Calgary, , 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/48466 book http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives 3.0 Unported Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca University of Calgary Press www.uofcpress.com

A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA 1911-2011 A CENTURY of Edited by Claire Elizabeth Campbell Parks ISBN 978-1-55238-557-9 Canada 1911–2011 THIS BOOK IS AN OPEN ACCESS E-BOOK. It is an electronic version of a book that can be purchased in physical form through any bookseller or on-line retailer, or from our distributors. Please support this open access publication by requesting that your university purchase a print copy of this book, or by purchasing a copy yourself. If you have any questions, please contact us at edited by claire elizabeth campbell [email protected] Cover Art: The artwork on the cover of this book is not open access and falls under traditional copyright provisions; it cannot be reproduced in any way without written permission of the artists and their agents. The cover can be displayed as a complete cover image for the purposes of publicizing this work, but the artwork cannot be extracted from the context of the cover of this specific work without breaching the artist’s copyright.

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Index

A Abbey, Edward, 71 objected to tourist orientation of Refuge Cabin, 355 national parks, 283 Aboriginal challenges to modernism, 10, reinstating in parks, 341, 347–48, 355, 13–14, 254–63, 294 378 Aboriginal Forum, 335, 348, 356 ‘special privileges’ for, 289 Aboriginal handicrafts and artefacts, 197, stakeholders in national park 203n51, 305 territories, 181 Aboriginal knowledge of place, 237, 254 vote, 245 Aboriginal land claims. See land claims Aboriginal status as “citizens plus,” 260, Aboriginal people, 74n2, 237, 239, 260, 271n63 286, 293. See also Aboriginal subsistence lifeway. See people subsistence lifeway assimilating or enculturating, 293–94 Aboriginal title, 282, 284 challenged conventional thinking Acadians, 14, 207, 211, 339 about national parks, 10, 14, acceptance of lives after 197, 257, 294 Kouchibouguac, 223–24, 228 cultural attachment to Yukon North artistic representations, 207, 211–12, Slope, 277 227–28 doctrine of the vanishing Indian, 340 “authentic” residents idea, 216, 230n26 erasing native presence in parks and changes in Acadian society, 208 protected areas, 42, 260, 346 deportation, 217, 219, 223, 227 expulsion from national parks, 74n2, expropriation, 205, 208, 211–16 77n40, 169, 244, 274, 296n6, resilience, 227 361n20, 364n39 willingness to stand up for Acadian forced shifts in government policies interests, 211–12, 230n15 (See Aboriginal challenges to Acadie in twenty-first century, 229 modernism) L ‘Acadie l’Acadie?!? (1971), 230n15 introducing moral questions into Acadie nouvelle, 227 conservation debates, 277 Africville, 208 invisible to officials 100 years ago, 340 Agreement-in-Principle. See Inuvialuit IUCN definition of wilderness (1987) Land Rights Settlement and, 338 Agreement-in-Principle (AIP) Agricultural Rehabilitation and Aseniwuche Winewak Nation, 356 Development Act (ARDA, 1966), Aspen, Colorado, 148 183 Astotin Lake, 69 Aishihik Champlain First Nations Athabasca Forest Reserve, 352, 354 annual camps and teaching TEK, 347 , 369n72 Aishihik First Nation, 263, 264n1 , 346, 356 Alaska Highway, 101n25, 243, 245, 256 Athabasca River valley survey, 317 Alberta, 68 Atikamac, Lake, 192 expanded highway system, 134 automobile campgrounds, 136, 274 Alberta Archaeological Society, 313 automobile culture, 31, 39, 41, 153 Alberta Heritage Act (1973), 311 dependence on industrial processes, 73 Alberta Historical Resources Act, 311 influence on animal-human Allmand, Warren, 286 relationships, 154 Alpine Club, 55, 67, 373 shaping of park design, 5–6 Aluminum Company of America, 246 automobile road films, 158 animal–human conflicts, 158, 164. See automobile tourism, 5, 13, 60, 62, 71, also bears 73n1, 134, 144, 375 mauling incidents, 160, 164, 168–69 local groups and, 59 antelope, 5 priority for federal government for archaeological research in the Rocky national parks (interwar years), Mountain parks, 303–25, 377 83 ability to look at changes over time, automobile tourism and bears, 154, 158, 322, 325 164–65, 172 basic culture history framework, treatment in Bears and Man (1978), 324–25 170–71 focus on placing people in a landscape, wilderness ideal, 155 304, 310 automobiles, 35, 41–43 funding for, 321 originally prohibited in parks, 31 Archaeological Society of Alberta, 308 Auyuittuq, 8, 235, 282 archaeological staff in the Calgary Away from it all (1961), 162 Regional Office of Parks Canada, 304, 314 B Archaeological Survey of Alberta, 311 back to nature movement, 4, 27, 72, 154 archaeology, 10 Baffin Island (Auyuittuq), 8, 235, 282 architecture, 135 Ballade de Jackie Vautour (Richard), 227 Arctic International Wildlife Range Society (AIWRS), 278 Banff Advisory Council, 137–40, 145 Arctic National Wildlife Range, 278 Banff Archaeological Resource Description and Analysis (ARDA), Arctic sovereignty, 10 315, 317–18 ARDAs (Archaeological Resource Banff hot springs, 3, 15n6, 375 Description and Analysis), 318 , 41, 334, 355, 381 Arsenault, Aurèle, 228 archaeological resource inventory, 310 asbestos mines, 246

420 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA automobile campgrounds, 136 environmental groups opposition to, bison reintroduction plan, 323 142 destroyed by park wardens, increasing winter use, 141 146–47 Banff School of Fine Arts, 140 cultural resource management (CRM) Banff Springs Hotel, 134, 136 position, 320 Banff townsite, 54, 62 development as year-round resort, 140 anger over Ottawa’s dispossession of local Aboriginal micromanagement, 29, 44 people, 274 archaeological sites near, 323 ecological integrity, 54, 149, 321 Banff businessmen, 136, 139 at epicentre of revolution in thinking Banff Chamber of Commerce, 137 about national parks (1960s), described as large convenience store, 133–34 138 first culture history sequence, 304 environmental awareness, 147 flagship of Canadian parks system, 3, in late precontact period, 307 184 municipal status, 137, 139, 145 highway overpasses for wildlife, 54 place of contact between BC Interior initially created to protect resources for Plateau and plains people, 305 commercial use, 181 private residences, 118 interpretive service, 146 properties owned through government local community cultural ties to, 135 leases, 136–37 management and management plans, reflects different eras of national 134, 141–42, 144–45, 149, park philosophy, 375 (See also 322–23 philosophy of parks) in national iconography, 3 sense of community, 135 occupation going back eight thousand Banff- study, 381 years, 311 The Banff-Jasper Highway (Williams), 46, over-development, 133, 375–76, 379 371 park overcrowding, 7 Banff-Windermere Highway, 41, 61, Trans-Canada Highway twinning, 304 83–84 vehicular traffic, 136, 144, 160 The Banff-Windermere Highway Banff National Park new management (Williams), 35 plan (1988) Banfield, A.W.F., 253 ecological principles directing, 149 Banks Island, 282 , 355 Bathurst, 222 Banff Park Museum National Historic “Bear Confrontation Conduct” Site, 305 deleted from Bears and Man (1978), Banff provisional master plan (1968), 144 169 ambitious program of new bears, 8 construction, 141 aggressing tourists, 158 automobile tourists favoured over “bear country,” 172 wilderness protection, 144 bear culls, 164, 169, 171 (See also criticism of, 144–45 predator control)

Index 421 bear problem in U.S., 160 Berger, Thomas, Northern Frontier, bear studies, 165 Northern Homeland, 278, 281 bear-proof garbage disposal, 164 Berger wilderness park proposal, 278 begging along roadsides, 158 Best, Patricia, 170 campground and wilderness, 165, 171 Big Beach area, Prince Albert National grizzly bears, 97 Park habituated, 164–65, 168, 170 campers, 106 “keystone” species in road landscapes, summer cottage subdivision, 105 158, 172 , 80. See also in mass-produced postcards, 155 Big Bend Road, 83, 86 mauling incidents, 160, 164–65, agreement (BC and federal), 81 168–69, 171 construction camps, 82 prominence in tourist-animal dissatisfaction with, 88–89, 94, landscapes, 159 100n18, 100n21, 101n27 scientific understanding of bear eastern half flooded by Mica Dam, 95 behaviour, 168 publicity campaign (to lure American “spoiled” bear, 169–70 tourists), 88 tourist feeding along roadsides, 154, replacement with highway through the 158, 164–65, 171 Selkirks, 96 Bears and Man (1978), 154 roadside timber reserve, 84 aim to maintain space in parks for Bighorn (film), 168 humans and bears, 172 Bill 85 (1911), 1 disassembled the bear-automobile biodiversity, 355 landscape, 168, 171 biological science, 190, 381 First Nations’ voice in, 169 ambiguous status in national parks redefined space in a new “hybrid management (1970s), 190 landscape,” 155 biologists, 135, 149 re-education of public, 172 Bird, Dick, 161 scientific understanding of bear bison, 68, 70, 323–24 behaviour, 168 black bears. See bears tourist bear-feeding scene, 170–71 , 81, 83–84, 87, 95 viewers asked to “respect the bear,” 172 area thrown open to logging, 96 Beaufort Sea, 277–78, 282, 292 destroyed by Mica Dam, 95 Beausoleil Broussard (band), 222 Bostock, Hugh, 250, 254 Beausoleil Island, 63–65, 76n28–29 Bouchard, Lake, 189 Beaver Hills Ecosystem Boudreau, Jules, Cochu et le Soleil, 217 integrated management with Parks and Bourbonnais, Jean, 227–28 other stakeholders, 356 Valley, 310 Beckers Bungalows, 343 Bow Valley, 42, 54, 315 Belaney, Archie. See Grey Owl Bow Valley Naturalists, 146–47 Bella, Leslie, 142 Bradley, Ben, 5, 379, 391 Bennett, R.B., 44–45 Brewsters, 136 Bennett, W.H., 63–64

422 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA Bridgland, Morrison Parsons, 348 Campbell, R.H., 29 Description of and Guide to Jasper Park, Canada Land Inventory (1961), 183 34, 38 Canada National Parks Act (2000), 11 British Block cairn, 307 Canada’s national parks. See national , 83, 88 parks campaign to get Ottawa to build and Canada’s Unemployment Relief Camps, maintain highways, 80, 84 (See 82–83, 87, 99n5 also Big Bend Road) Canada’s World Heritage Sites, 10, 376 created Hamber as a provincial park, 6 Canadian Arctic Gas Limited, 281 Dominion Railway Belt, 80 Canadian Audubon Society, 142 expanded highway system, 134 Canadian Environmental Assessment Act process for creation provincial parks (CEAA), 320–21 (1940s), 89 Canadian Forest Service, 185 resource-based economy, 81 Canadian Government Travel Bureau, 37 unemployment rate (early 1931), 82 Canadian national identity British Columbia Forest Service, 95 parks as symbol of, 340, 361n21, 372, British Columbia Parks Branch, 94–95 382n1 Brooks, Lloyd, 116 sentimental links to ‘the North,’ 281 Brown, Robert Craig, “The Doctrine of “Canadian National Parks: Today and Usefulness,” 54 Tomorrow” (conference, 1968), Bruce, R. Randolph, 61 144–45, 183, 309–10, 338 Bryant Creek, 317 Canadian National Parks Conference buffalo, 5, 244 (Banff, 1978), 148 Buffalo National Park, 68, 102n38, 379 , 15n6, 31, removed from parks system, 69 99n3, 311 Buggey, Susan, 354, 356 allure of national parks en route, 3 Bureau d’aménagement de l’Est-du- Banff Springs Hotel, 134, 136 Québec (BAEQ), 183 Chateau , 136 Burwash Indian Band, 247, 249–50, 253 marketing of Banff National Park, 375 mountain passes, 309 C Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society, 16n19, 23, 142, 150, 270n55 Calder case (1973), 282 influential environmental lobby, 8 Calgary, 61 support for Systems Plan, 381 Calgary Olympic Development veneration of J.B. Harkin, 55 Association (CODA), 140 Canadian Parks Service (1984), 2 Calgary Regional Office of Parks Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, 135, 146, 161, 314, 321 256–57, 289, 292 Calgary-Banff chapter of the National opposed giving Indians formal claim and Provincial Parks Association, to any part of a National Park, 144 253 Cameron, G.I., 253 opposition to development on Beaufort Campbell, Claire Elizabeth, 379, 391 Sea coast, 277

Index 423 Cannon, Lucien, 33 Clark, C.H.D., 244–45 CANOL (Canadian Oil) Road, 245 Clarke, (Superintendent of Rocky Cape Breton Highlands, 210 Mountains Park), 305 ‘Carolling Coyotes Kapowed,’ 147 Clearwater River valley, 317 Carpenter, Edward, 38, 43 Clovis spear points, 311 Carrick, Bill, 161 Cluny Earthlodge, 307 Carrier people, 335 Cochu et le Soleil (Boudreau), 217 cars. See automobiles Coleman, A.P., 117 Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring, 135 Glaciers of the Rockies and Selkirks, 34 Cascade fire road, 141 Coleman, J.R.B., 115, 160, 165 cattalo, 68 Colpitts, George, 8, 147, 190, 274, 391 cattle grazing, 354–55 Columbia Icefields, 373 Catton, Theodore, 275 Columbia Icefields interpretive centre, Cave and Basin National Historic Site, 343 355 , 81, 94–95 Champagne First Nation, 263, 264n1 Columbia River sturgeon, 97 Chapman, Christopher, 163–64 Columbia River Treaty, 95 Chateau Lake Louise, 136 co-management with Aboriginal peoples, Chrétien, Aline, 8 275, 292, 294, 296n7, 337, 341 Chrétien, Jean, 8, 103, 141, 146, 235, 237 Committee for Original Peoples’ attempt to revise national park leasing Entitlement (COPE). See COPE regulations, 122 compensation, 214–15, 368n66 fervent promoter of national parks, for loss of commercial fishing rights, 183–84 212, 230n15 overturned Lake Louise ski hill plan, Métis families in Jasper, 335–36 148 Complainte du parc Kouchibouguac on private use of public lands, 122 (Leblanc), 220–21 on scientific research in national parks, conservation, 4, 22–23, 55, 64, 133–34, 190 138, 270n55, 288, 293, 374 second thoughts about Waskesiu plan, COPE commitment to, 285 123 early twentieth-century conservation, Christensen, Ole, 310, 317, 324 27, 334, 339, 356 citizen involvement, 119, 381 evolving nature of, 355 “citizens plus,” Aboriginal status as, 260, idea developed by Harkin, 22 271n63 Inuit and First Nations suspicion of civil disobedience, 205, 284 government conservation plans, civil society 283, 286, 290 focus on parks’ commercial potential Inuvialuit land claim and, 294 (1910s and 1920s), 72 local harvesting and, 284 role in promoting and expanding mixed conservation regime in the national parks, 55, 59 northern Yukon, 292 civil society wilderness advocacy groups, new set of rules for, 288 154

424 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA opposition to industrial activity or CPR. See Canadian Pacific Railway hunting, 67 Crag and Canyon, 29, 44, 136–37, 139, second conservation movement, 142, 146, 148 334 ‘Carolling Coyotes Kapowed,’ 147 Consolidated-Bathurst Limited, 185 Craig-Dupont, Olivier, 8, 145, 274, 346, Cooking Lake-Blackfoot Grazing, 381, 391 Wildlife and Provincial Recreation Craighead, John and Frank, 168 Area, 354 , 335 COPE, 282, 286–87, 293 Crerar, Thomas, 87, 110 ambivalence about state conservation, CRM. See cultural resource management 286, 290 (CRM) archaeology belief that protected areas could serve Cronin, Keri, 155 long-term needs, 293 Cronon, William, 340 breakdown in negotiations, 290 “The Trouble with Wilderness,” 180 committed to conservation, 285 Uncommon Ground, 339 demanded employment opportunities Cross, Austin, 88 in the park, 287 , 62, 310 desire to preserve wildlife habitats, 293 Cruikshank, Julie, 275 determined to ensure conservation cultural colonialism, 199 practised according to a new set cultural heritage, 196, 260, 292, 335, of rules, 288 339, 343–44, 346, 356, 377–78 distrustful of federal conservation cultural landscapes, 10–11, 14, 325, 356, practices, 285 363n37 exclusive rights to hunt and trap within protected areas as, 277, 297n10 park boundaries, 287, 289 cultural pluralism, 377 importance attached to wildlife and cultural relationships, negotiation of, habitat conservation, 288 263–64 Inuvialuit land claim, 283 cultural resource management (CRM) opposition to ideal of ‘uninhabited archaeology, 304, 320–24 wilderness,’ 275 culture proposed a National Wilderness privileging nature over, 377 Reservation for Yukon North Culturing Wilderness in Jasper National Slope, 291 Park (2007), 348 rejected government proposals for Cyprus Anvil lead/zinc open pit mine, protected areas in the region, 246 283 copper, 246 Cormier, Linda, 225 D cormorants, 356 Dalton Post, 244 Cornwall, 314 David Thompson Highway, 141 Coudert, J.L., Bishop, 251 Davidson, Al, 148 Council for Yukon Indians, 262 Davis, T.C., 62 coyotes, 146–47 Davis, Tommy, 105

Index 425 Dawson, 246 DNA, 323–24 Dawson News, 245 doctrine of the vanishing Indian, 340 Dempster, Harry, 115 “The Doctrine of Usefulness” (Brown), Dempster Highway, 245 54 Department of Archaeology at the Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act University of Calgary, 308, 310 (1911), 4, 28, 58, 367n61 Department of Fisheries and Oceans, amendments (1913 and 1914), 30 287, 289 Dominion Forestry Branch, 4 Department of Heritage, 11 Dominion Lands Act, 58 Department of Indian Affairs and “Dominion Parks – Their Values and Northern Development. See Ideals” (Harkin), 32 DIAND Dominion Parks Branch, 2, 4–5, 25–27, Department of National Defence, 83, 87 55, 58–59, 71, 181 Department of Northern Affairs and accomplishments, 44 National Resources, 7, 116–18, alliance with the landscape artist, 29 135, 163 annual reports, 33 Department of Sociology and commercial potential, focus on, 68, 72 Anthropology at the University of created auto-accessible parks, 41, 60 Alberta, 308 environmental or resource Department of the Environment, 11, 287, management, 44 289 facilitated private sector development Department of the Interior, 2, 4, 7, 26, of resort towns in national 58, 61, 68, 70 parks, 60 deportation and Kouchibouguac link, guidebooks (1920s), 22, 35, 39 217, 219, 223, 227 lobbying from local groups, 60 Désaulniers Club, 189 parks roadbuilding (1920s), 41 Description of and Guide to Jasper Park preservationist and pro-development (Bridgland), 34, 38 policies (simultaneously), 5, 59 Desmeules, Pierre, 191 preservationist philosophy, 5, 59–60, DIAND, 7, 11, 103, 124, 183, 289–90 68 determined to meet needs of the oil promotional literature, 33 (See also and gas industry, 277, 290 guidebooks) Dick, Lyle, 274, 341, 392 promotional literature (1920s), 34 Diefenbaker, John, 14, 122, 125, 129n13, Publicity Division, 7n407, 35, 37, 130n43 66–67 “Northern Vision” of development and road building, 41, 60 progress, 246 tourism, promotion of, 31, 34, 60, 68 represented Prince Albert riding, 117 wildlife protection, 69 Dieppe, 226 Domtar, 185 , 355 doublespeak or whitewashing, 206, Dinsdale, Walter, 117–18, 258 229n2, 364n44 , 324 Douglas, Howard, 28, 58 Divide Creek and Red River Douglas, Robert, 34 junction, 317

426 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA downhill skiing, 139 Endangered Spaces campaign, 16n19 Drummond Glacier, 324 The Enduring Wilderness (1963), 163–64 dual mandate of development and engineering, 134–35 preservation, 5, 7, 11, 59, 163, 273, Enlightenment thought, 260 334, 375 environmental assessments, 320 environmental concerns, 168 E environmental history, 19n29 Easagaming (resort town), 65 environmental protection, 8, 12, 278 ecological characterizations for national conflict with tourism / recreation parks, 124, 145, 191. See also usage, 7, 71, 374 zoning in parks management displacement of resident communities ecological diversity, 8 and, 293 “ecological Indian,” 169 environmental thought and practice, 3 ecological integrity, 6, 54, 127, 149, environmentalists, 72, 135, 142, 148 321–23, 333–34, 346 American environmental movement, criticisms, 383n12 142, 376 as focus of national parks, 127, 149, opposition to development on Beaufort 376 Sea coast, 277 Parks Canada definition, 17n21 response to Banff provisional master ecological restoration, 320, 356 plan (1968), 142 ecological science, 13, 190, 320–24 use of Berger report, 281 ecological stress in Canada’s national erasing native presence in parks and parks, 11, 376 protected areas, 42, 260, 346 ecological studies, 144 Essex County Wild Life Association, 70 ecology, 191, 309 Etherington, Wilf, 169, 178n58 emphasis on ecology as non-human ethnicity and class, 338 nature, 12 European criticism of wilderness / no humans as threat to, 66, 363n36 people perspective, 340 economic downturn (1930), 81–82 Evangeline, 217 ecosystem-based model, 375–76 L ‘Évangéline, 217, 224 Edgecombe, G.H., 354 expropriation, 284. See also Métis families education as part of Parks Canada in Jasper mandate, 364n40 recognized as counter-productive, 216 Elders of the Descendants of Jasper resistance to, 208, 211–16 National Park (EDJNP), 348, 356 elk, 5 F Elk Island, 68, 77n46 failed parks, 5, 79–98, 379 , 28, 68–69, 356 Faro, 246 elk kill site on Banff Springs golf course, federal land claim policy. See land claims 323 Fedje, Daryl, 315, 317, 324 Elsipogtog First Nation, 207 Fenton, Greg, 348 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 180 Findlay/Finlay family, 335

Index 427 Finlayson, Ernest, 354 G First Nations hunting privileges in Wood Gauchier family, 352 Buffalo National Park, 360n17 Geological Survey of Canada, 305, 315 First Nations people, 3, 196, 206–7, 247, 286. See also Aboriginal people George, Dan, Chief, 169, 172 attempt to make conservation officials Georgian Bay Islands National Park, 14, respect local harvesting, 284 64–66 Gertrude blamed for decimation of big game, 42 (submerged in Emerald Bay in Waterton), 320 collaboration with, 346 Gibbon, J.E., 249 concern that creation of new national parks would deny Aboriginal Gibson, A.H., 253 title, 284 Gibson, R.A., 243 “ecological Indian,” 169 GIS technology, 304, 318–19, 325 in elk cull planning in Banff, 365n49 Glacier National Park, 27, 58, 81, 334 exclusion from national parks, 169, bear studies, 165 296n6 Glaciers of the Rockies and Selkirks Indians defiled by contact with (Coleman), 34 modernity, 251, 254 Gladieux family, 352 parks created in negotiations with, 325 Glassco Report, 135 suspicious of government conservation Glenbow Foundation of Calgary, 307–8 programs, 283 Globe and Mail, 119, 215 treatment by Parks Branch, 39 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 39 voice in Bears and Man (1978), 169 gold fields, 239, 246, 258 Forbis, Richard, 307, 311 Golden, 41, 81, 95 An Introduction to the Archaeology of Grace, Sherrill, 275 Alberta, Canada, 308 Grand-Mère plantation, 192, 202n23 forest reserves, 4, 27–28, 44 Gray, R.C., 191–92, 194 Forestry Branch, 28–29, 58 Great Depression, 6, 25, 44 , 183, 210 Great Smoky Mountains, 158, 165 Fort St. James, 312 Green, Herbert U., 67 Fortifications of Quebec, 312 Grey Owl, 46, 67 Fortress Lake, 97 Grieve, Edward, 185 Fortress of Louisbourg, 312 grizzly bears, 97 Foster, Janet, Working for Wildlife, 55 Gros Morne, 8 Franchére, Gabriel, 38 Group of Seven, 180 Fry, A.E., 256 Guardians of the Wild (Williams), 43, 46 Fuller, W.A., 257 guidebooks, 34, 38–39, 41–42 Fund for Rural Economic Development Guimond, Doris, 228–29 (FRED, 1966), 183 Gwich’in peoples, 277, 291 Fundy, 210 demanded end to oil and gas activity fur trade, 238, 346 on their trapping grounds, 278 fur trade site restoration, 312, 314

428 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA H National Park must possess spectacular landscape and recreational Habbakuk (in Jasper), 320 potential, 99, 181 habituated bears, 158, 164–65, 168, 170 publicity, 34, 39, 43, 382 Haggart, Alexander, 1–2 on regional equity, 66 Halifax, 314 request for salt licks near the highway, , 5–6, 93–94, 62, 158 100n24 road development, 60, 65 complicated relationship with highway, on special treatment for Waskesiu, 110, 97 114 creation of, 89, 93 success in creating a national system, deletion of, 96–97 58–59, 374 example of failed park, 80 tourism, promotion of, 55, 65 (See also gambit to involve Ottawa in automobile tourism) development of Selkirk region, work on housepit village site near Banff 199 Springs golf course, 307 mining and logging permitted, 95–96 Harkin Award, 23 part of BC campaign for federal Harmon, Byron, 155 building of highways, 80, 97 Harmons, 136 timber sales, 101n32 Harvie, Eric L., 307 Hamilton, Alvin, 117, 270n55 Hatfield, Richard, 215, 221, 228 Hand, Bob, 147 “Healing Broken Connections,” 347 Harkin, James B., 4, 22, 29, 31, 35, 61, Henberg, Marvin, 338 106, 273, 305, 371–72, 380 Henderson, Norman, 377 annual reports, 33, 43 Henry, Percy, 247 asked to resign by R.B. Bennett, 44 heritage legislation, 304 Canada’s early policies on national Heritage River designation, 346, 356 parks, 373–74 Herrero, Stephen, 158, 168, 171 conservation, 22–23, 55, 64, 133–34, Herridge, Mary Bird, 45–46 138 Herridge, William Duncan, 46 “Dominion Parks – Their Values and Ideals,” 32 high modernist planning, 229n5, 245, 274 environmental hero status, 23, 55 highway tourism. See automobile tourism established Canada’s national commemorative program, 374 historic archaeology, 312–13 goal of fostering an “informed public historic reconstruction projects, 312 opinion,” 382 Historic Resources Impact Assessments hybrid vision, 374 (HRIA), 313 memories compiled and published by Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Williams, 24 Canada, 374 middle ground between development Historical Parks, 6 and protection, 64, 133–34, The History and Meaning of the National 138 Parks of Canada (Harkins memoirs), 46

Index 429 Hooper, Ron, 348 International Union for Conservation of housepit sites, 305, 307, 315, 317, 323–24 Nature. See IUCN , 141 An Introduction to the Archaeology of human creations, 2, 11 Alberta, Canada (Forbis), 308 human place in nature, 294, 309, 337, Inuit. See also Aboriginal people 339, 350, 355, 376 attempt to make conservation officials human presence in national parks, 42, respect local harvesting, 284 185, 190, 260, 273–74, 285. See suspicion of government conservation also erasing native presence in parks programs, 283 and protected areas; people as a Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (ITC), 282 problem Inuvialuit Final Agreement (IFA, 1984) extends back to remote antiquity, 377 accommodated Inuvialuit interests and privileged vs. outlawed activity, 273 cultural values, 292, 377 human rights, 338–39, 354 allowed industrial activities along hunting and trapping rights, 243, 247, Beaufort Sea coast, 292 250, 253, 260n17, 287, 354. See co-management body established by, also subsistence hunting within 292 park boundaries conservation and industrial development (new rules), 293 I Inuvialuit hunters, 287. See also subsistence lifeway Icefields Parkway, 134 conflicts with oil companies in the Imperial Oil, 148 Beaufort Sea, 282 In Trust for Tomorrow: A Management prosecution under Migratory Birds Framework for Four Mountain Convention Act, 286 Parks (1986), 149 Inuvialuit land claim, 283, 285–86, 294, Indian Act, 260 377 Indian Affairs and Northern Inuvialuit Land Rights Settlement Development. See DIAND Agreement-in-Principle (AIP), 287 Indians. See Aboriginal people; First denunciation of, 290 Nations people Inuvialuit negotiators. See COPE Indigenous people. See Aboriginal people; First Nations people Inuvialuit Nunangat, 283, 285 individual, liberal belief in, 260 Inuvialuit people, 277, 282, 286 industrial activities. See also oil challenged Canadians to relook at exploration in the Beaufort Sea human place in nature, 294 forbidden under National Parks Act committed to conservation, 285 (1930), 6 cultural attachments to Yukon North industries as stakeholders in national park Slope, 277 territories, 181 perceptions of national parks, 287 intergovernmental politics, 5, 80 Iroquois, 335 “Interior Dry Plateau Region,” 17n19 IUCN, 337 “An Interminable Ode,” 21 IUCN categorization of protected areas, 341, 357n1

430 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA IUCN Category II designation, 333, 337, (Williams), 35, 38 355 Jasper Park Lodge, 343 IUCN Category V designation, 343, Jasper townsite, 118, 343 354–55, 360n19, 362n31, 362n35 Jasper (Williams), 35 “Eurocentric concept,” 339 Jeckell, H.A., 242 retain but not rejuvenate cultural Jesup North Pacific Expedition, 305 practice, 335 Joachim, Adam, 367n61 IUCN definition of wilderness (1987) Joachim family, 335 support for genocide and dispossession Johnson, Mary Jane, 258 of Natives, 338 Johnson, Pauline, 39 , 10, 14, 275, 377. Johnston Canyon Campground, 136 See also Northern Yukon National Johobo copper mine, 246 Park Jones, Steve, 162 “just society,” 260 J The Jack Pine (Thomson), 180 K Jackson, F.H.R., 250 Kathleen Lake, 245 Jackson, Mary, 122–23, 126 , 8, 16n11 Jacquot brothers, 250–51 Kent County, New Brunswick, 208, 210 Jasper Forest Park, 335 Kerr, R.D., 111 National Historic Site, 317 , 309 Jasper National Park, 27, 34, 184, 317, Kicking Horse , 41 334 The Kicking Horse Trail (Williams), 35, Aboriginal Forum, 335, 348, 356 41–42 archaeological resource inventory, 310, , 83–84, 87, 94–96 343 Kinbasket Reservoir, 97 ARDA, 318 King, William Lyon Mackenzie, 62, cultural camp (proposal), 343–44 130n43 Cultural Resource Management dedication of Prince Albert National (CRM) position, 320 Park to “the average man,” 122 cultural values of Euro-Canadians role in establishing Prince Albert preserved, 344, 346 National Park, 105, 128n7, cultural values of Métis and First 129n13 Nations people neglected, Kingston Whig Standard, 160 343–44 Kjar, Them, 247, 253 enlarged (1914), 30 Klondike gold rush, 238, 246, 258 fur trade history, 344, 346 Kluane, 7–8, 10 habituated campground bears, 164 Clark’s report on, 244–45 initially created to protect resources for core/reserve idea, 257–58, 262 commercial use, 181 “grandeur” as befitting a national park, IUCN Category II designation, 333 244 Métis families in, 14, 335–36, 343– marks transition in role of national 44, 350 parks, 263, 377

Index 431 Kluane First Nation, 264n1 “Kouchibouguac ou le grand Kluane First Nations (agreements signed déracinement” (Roussel), 219 2003), 263 Kulchyski, Peter, 275 Kluane Game Sanctuary, 247, 283 boundaries extended to Alaska L Highway, 256 Laing, Arthur, 118, 122, 135–37 hunting in, 243–44, 249–50, 253 middle ground between development open for prospecting, staking, and and protection, 138, 140 mining, 244, 246 on special privilege, 118–19 special reserve for Indian hunting and support for ski facility development, trapping (suggestion), 243 140 Kluane gold rush, 258 wish to diminish status of park towns, Kluane mountain named for John 138–39 Kennedy, 258, 260 Lake Louise campgrounds, 136 Kluane National Park (established 1995), Lake Louise ski hill development, 139– 262–63, 283, 347–48 40, 147–48 Kluane National Park Reserve, 235–64, public hearings (1971), 148 377 Lake Louise village, 41, 136, 138–39, 146 Klukshu, 244 Lakeview subdivisions (Prince Albert Koidern River, 256 National Park), 110–11 , 41, 61, 83–84, land claims, 10, 263, 275, 278, 281, 283. 86, 334 See also individual land claims Kootenay National Park and the Banff- Land Use and Occupancy Study for the Windermere Highway (Williams), western Arctic, 283 35 Landry, Dollard, 210 Kopas, Paul, 274 Landry, Nelson, 224 Taking the Air, 8 Langemann, Gwyn, 10, 324, 377, 392 “Kouchibouguac” (Roussel), 217 Lascelles, Tony. See Green, Herbert U. Kouchibouguac (1979), 220–22, 224, 227 Lasn, Kalle, 169 Kouchibouguac (2007), 207, 227–28 Latourelle, Alan, 336, 338 Kouchibouguac National Park, 8, 10, 14, Laurentian Club, 189 125, 205–29 Laurentian Wilderness, 192 Acadians return to, 224–29 La Laurentide, 185 creation of, 205 Laurier, Wilfrid, 28–29, 130n43 expropriations, 205, 208, 211–16, 284 Le Capelain, C.K., 253 formal opening (1979), 215 lease question in townsites, 139, 145 government’s willingness to buy social peace, 214 Leasholds Corporation bill, 122 integration of Acadians’ stories into Leblanc, Gérald, 226 programs, 377 Complainte du parc Kouchibouguac, Special Inquiry, 214–16, 224, 229n4, 220–21 337 work on NFB project on the expropriation of Kouchibouguac, 220

432 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA Lee, Gerry, 147 changed approach to northern Leopold, Aldo, 68, 338 conservation, 284 Leroy, G.A., 145–46 Mackenzie Valley pipeline proposal, 281 Lesage, Jean, 118 MacLaren, I.S., 10, 68, 199, 273, 284, Lethbridge, 62 378, 392 Lewis, H.F., 253 Mair, Winston, 146, 163 Life in the Woods (Thoreau), 180 Malfair, John, 120 living homestead proposals, 344 “Man and Landscape Change in Banff local community / national authority National Park” (Nelson), 144 tension, 5, 14, 125. See also shack Maréchal, Lake, 192 tent controversy ski resort, 343 local influences on the creation of parks, Marshall, Robert, 68 60, 62–63, 75n15, 379 Martin, Brad, 199, 263, 377, 393 local inhabitants Mattawin River, 185 exclusion from national parks, 296n6, La Mauricie National Park, 10, 179–99 346 characterized as “The Laurentian scientifically informed parks and, 199 Heritage,” 191 as stakeholders in national park fauna inventory work, 191 territories, 181, 277 human history limited to “folklorized” local knowledge. See also traditional presence, 196–97 ecological knowledge (TEK) industrial and recreational past denial of, 243, 256 reinvented as wilderness, 182, local vested interests, 134 184, 189 Locke, Harvey, 55 interpretations of what wilderness Lonergan, David, 221–22, 227–28 should be, 198 Loo, Tina, 172 marsh ecosystems and , 182 Louter, David, 158 “natural beauties,” 184, 191 Lower Fort Garry, 312 need to erase human imprint (timber, Luxton, Norman, 135 fishing), 185 Luxtons, 136 new zoning representing the “wild” backcountry, 195 M removal of cultural heritage, 196, 346 strengthening of federal power in MacDonald, Flora, 262 Quebec, 199 MacDonald, John, 139 a ‘true Laurentian Wilderness,’ 192, Macdonald, John A., 15n6, 104, 181 194 MacEachern, Alan, 5, 55, 158, 180, 273, Mauricie region, 183 363n37, 373, 392 fishing and hunting, 182, 185–86 Natural Selections, 229n1 forestry, 182 MacKaye, Benton, 68 human-modified landscapes of, 182, Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry, 278, 185, 189 286. See also Berger, Thomas industrial activity, 182 McConnell Creek, 324

Index 433 McDonald, Charles, 105, 128n8 Mirabel airport, 208 McDonald, D.D., 62 “Mission 66” (U.S. National Park McDonald family, 352 Service), 7 McFadden, J.N., 62 Mitchell, K.B., 164 McHarg, Ian, 191 Moberly, Ed, 348 McLaggan, John W., 335, 350, 352, Moberly, Evan, 344, 354 368n65 homestead, 348, 355 McLean, J.D., 238 at Victor Lake, 352, 367n61 McNamee, Kevin, National Parks in Moberly, Ewan. See Moberly, Evan Canada, 372 Moberly family, 335 McTaggart-Cowan, Ian, 144–45 modernist narrative, 256 “The Role of Ecology in the National denial of local knowledge and regional Parks,” 144 interests, 243 Mealy Mountains, Labrador, 17n19 high modernist planning, 229n5, 245, Meek R.J., 256 274 Meighen, Arthur, 33 Moncton, 226 Menissawok, 16n11, 68–69 counterculture, 220 Métis (aboriginal rights), 216 francophonie summit, 226 Métis families in Jasper, 14 French English language tensions, compensation, 335–36 211–12, 226, 230n15 expulsion, 335, 350 Morrisset, Father, 251, 254 , 95 Morse, Charles H., 354 Mica Dam, 96–97 motor tourism. See automobile tourism Migmag Cedar Trail, 207 , 87, 89 Migratory Birds Convention Act, 286 Mount Revelstoke National Park, 60, 334 Migratory Birds Treaty, 70 , 87, 89 Mi’kmaqs, 206 mountain caribou, 97 mineral prospecting, 246. See also gold mountain parks. See also names of fields individual mountain parks mineral resource exploration and Aboriginal use of mountain passes, development, 243 303, 309 Mines and Resources, 7 children of Yellowstone, 334 mining interests (Yukon), 246, 257 incorporated CRM concerns into their mining law management plans, 321 Free Entry system of, 239 long and continuous human presence, Minnewanka, Lake 10, 309–10 inventory of submerged features at, reference for deciding what is 320 “interesting” in Canadian Minnewanka site, 312 landscape, 197 multicomponent precontact site, 311 Mt. Rainier, 54 surface collection and test excavation, Muir, John, 54, 64, 146, 180 311 , 244 multi-use parks, 270n55

434 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA Murie, Olaus and Mardy, 278 dual identity as protected natural area Murphy, Peter, 348 and recreation area, 5, 7, 59, 64, Murphy, Thomas G., 84, 86–87, 89, 96 71, 104, 133, 147, 273, 374 muskrat trapping project, 256–57 dual purpose, 128n2 ecological characterizations, 124, 145, N 191, 376 (See also zoning in parks management) Nahanni, 8, 235 established partly to draw traffic to Nahanni River, 282 CPR, 31 Nash, Roderick, 179 as generators of wealth, 33, 374 Wilderness and the American Mind, 142 historical study, 11, 13 National and Historic Parks Branch, hybrid spaces, 13, 182 200n7 as icons celebrating picturesque National and Provincial Parks landscapes, 3, 5, 99, 181 Association, 8, 142, 144, 270n55 link in chain of unsustainable National Energy Board, 281 economic activity, 73 National Film Board, 8, 37, 154, 161, as a means of protecting the 168, 220 environment, 144, 181 National Historic Parks, 312 as museum, 190–91, 196, 310 National Historic Sites, 307 must be seen to work for all groups of National Historic Sites Service, 312 Canadians, 104, 373 archaeological resource inventories, national system of, 66, 236, 374, 379 310 need for broadly based constituency, National Historic Sites Service 373, 375, 380–81 (See also civil Manuscript Report Series, 313 society) national park buffalo reserve (proposal, negotiated agreements for, 263–64, Kluane), 242 275, 278, 282–83, 325, 335, national park interpreters, 309 355 national park reserves, 10, 325. See also periodic politicization of, 379–81 names of individual reserves place in federal bureaucracy, 4, 7, 11, created in context of modern treaty 28, 30, 375 negotiations, 325 as playground, 60, 64, 66, 70–71, 245 national parks, 35 popular understanding of (mid- changing conceptions of, 237–38, 375, twentieth century), 245 379 private dwellings in, 104–5 (See also commercial and humanitarian benefits, shack tent controversy) 33 professional inputs, integration of, 380 “dedicated to the people of Canada, scientific principles of management, for their benefit, education and 245 (See also National Parks enjoyment,” 375 System Plan) definitions, 270n59 stewardship of, 373, 380 dispossession of native inhabitants, 180 suburb-like camping (60s and 70s), 153 support from Canadian people, 43, 54

Index 435 as symbol of Canadian identity, 340, Interpretive Service, 146 372, 382n1 Inuit and First Nations distrust of, 283 as uninhabited landscape, 310 mission of recognizing true wild nature wilderness sanctuaries, 10, 54, 180 (See and promoting its good uses, also wilderness) 192 National Parks Act (1930), 69, 72, 118, nation-building-through-science 356, 374–75 activity, 196 confirmed traditional role of parks as new planning section, 1957, 7, 115–17, serviced recreation areas, 106 129n33, 137, 274 ecological protection, 106 new policy about citizen involvement, industrial activities excluded under, 6 119 required removal and exclusion of opposed to development on Beaufort trespassers, 337 Sea coast, 277 resource development forbidden under, opposed to Indian fishing and hunting 106 rights, 253 National Parks Act (1974), 289 privileged tourists over local residents, new concept of national park reserve, 273 10, 325 reinventing territory as wilderness, 189 traditional hunting and fishing shaping and responding to attitudes practices under, 10 about parks, 8 National Parks Act (1988) support for ski hill development, 140 ecological integrity as watch phrase, technical expertise, reliance on in, 135 127, 149 university-trained ecologist, 148 National Parks Act (2000), 337 National Parks in Canada (McNamee), National Parks Association, 67 372 National Parks Branch, 2–3, 6, 83, 86, national parks in north. See northern 257 parks archaeologists, 312 National Parks Policy statement (1964), attempt to balance tourism and 118, 137 preservation, 164 preservation nudged ahead of change in attitude (during 1960s), recreation, 7 146–48 National Parks System Plan, 8, 145, 281 decentralization, 7, 135, 137 identified candidate areas for development still favoured over protection, 380 protection (1960s), 147 mitigated the politicization of park ecological characterizations for establishment, 381 national parks, 124 natural regions defined under, 8, 195, efforts to discourage bear highway 199 liaisons, 160, 165 “natural values” as primary interest, environmental awareness, 7, 147 196 films encouraging tourism, 161–62 social and cultural history of greater voice to biologists, 149 landscapes not mentioned, 196 historic archaeology, 313 support among non-governmental heritage agencies, 380–81

436 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA National Parks System’s Planning negotiated with indigenous leaders, Manual, 195 263–64, 275, 278, 282–83, National Recreation Area concept, 77n39 325, 335, 355 National Wilderness Park Steering Northern Parks Working Group, 284 Committee (NWPSC), 287–88 “Northern Vision” of development and National Wilderness Reservation for progress, 246 Yukon North Slope Northern Yukon National Park, 275, 284, concessions to oil and gas companies, 291–92. See also Ivvavik National 290 Park National Wildlife Area, 289 created (1984) as part of negotiated native people. See Aboriginal people; First land claim settlement, 278, Nations people 282–93 natural gas. See oil and gas companies Nunavut land claim proposal, 282 Natural Resources Transfer Act (1930), 80 Natural Selections (MacEachern), 229n1 O Nelson, Gordon, 142, 144–45 oil and gas companies “Man and Landscape Change in Banff concessions to in Yukon North Slope, National Park,” 144 290–92 Nemiskam, 16n11, 68–69 oil exploration in the Beaufort Sea, Network in Canadian History and 277–78 Environment (NiCHE), 13 conflicts with Inuvialuit hunters, 282 Neufeld, David, 7, 273–74, 283, 377, 393 Ojibwe, 335 New Brunswick Expropriation Act, 211 Old Crow, 278, 287 New Brunswick government, 205, 208 Old Women’s Buffalo Jump, 307 expropriations for Kouchibouguac, Oliver, Frank, 4, 28 206 Olympic National Park, 54 focus on Kouchibouguac’s potential for Olympic proposal (1968), 148 economic development, 210 Orr, R.B., 63 Nicol, John, 123, 196 Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 155 Nielsen, Erik, 258 Ottawa Citizen, 88 Noranda, 222 Ottawa Marine Archaeology Unit, 320 Norquay, 139–40 Ouellette, Gilles, 196 Northern Frontier, Northern Homeland (Berger), 278, 281 P northern parks, 3, 10, 13 to be tailored to expectations of Pacific Rim, 8 southern visitors, 274 Palisades Centre, 343 co-management arrangements, 275 Panel on the Ecological Integrity of in context of growing native political Canada’s National Parks (2000), power, 275 11, 346–47, 376, 381 First Nations’ tenacity, resilience, and Parc National des Pyrénées wit, 264 protected nature in balance with man, 343

Index 437 park naturalist program, 146 working with others to protect Parks Canada, 2–3, 10, 200n7 biological diversity of Award of Merit for developing the field ecosystems, 376 of historical archaeology, 312 Parks Canada Agency Act (2000) changing definition of national parks, ecological values stressed, 376 237 Parks Canada Policy (1979), 216 cultural landscape concept, 10–11 subsistence activities in national parks, under Department of the Environment 285 (1979), 375 Parks Canada Program. See Parks Canada dual mandate of development and “Parks for Tomorrow” (conferences, 1968, preservation, 273, 334 1978, 2008), 8, 13, 55 ecology as non-human nature, 12 Parti acadien, 212 global leader in environmental Pattullo, T.D. “Duff,” 84, 86–87, 89, 93, challenges of protected places, 96 –97, 101n25 14 Pearl Harbor, 93 Guiding Principles and Operational Pearson government, 183 Policies, 181, 321, 377 people as a problem, 274, 340, 376. See on human habitation and local also human presence in national resource use in parks, 190, 274 parks; wilderness human rights issues, 339 people as solution, 381–82 idealized representation of wilderness, philosophy of parks, 25, 32, 38–39 180, 190 crafted by Harkin, Williams, interest in the picturesque in Canadian Williamson and others, 31 nature, 197 humanitarian and commercial value of need to build broadly based parks, 25 constituencies, 373, 375, 381 largely understood and accepted in negotiations with First Nations when mid-1940s, 45 establishing new parks, 284, Pickard, Rod, 317 335, 355 Pinard, A.A., 65 outreach and engagement, new Plantes family, 352 emphasis on, 381 Pocahontas Cabins, 343 promotional discourse, 181 Point Pelee National Park, 5, 161, 356 reorganized (1994), 321 automobiles banned from the tip, 71 resettlement of evicted Aboriginal became highly developed tourism people, 335–36 centre though created as responsibility to protect current preservation, 70 cultural sites, sacred areas, 347 protection of stopover point for selective exclusion of humans, 197 migratory birds, 68 visitor experience initiative (2006), under threat from overuse, 11, 71 378, 381 political dynamics, 380 willingness to bend principle on private integral to the establishment of use, 126–27 national parks, 379 mitigated by Systems Plan, 381

438 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA Porcupine caribou herd, 278, 289 “progressive” view of history, 340 portable cabins, 114–16, 120–21, 127. See pronghorn antelope, 68 also shack tents Prospect Point, 107, 128n12 precontact archaeology, 311, 313 summer cottage site, 106 predator control, 146–47 protected areas, 256, 293, 350 preservationist model, 54, 59, 64 cultural landscapes as, 277, 297n10 nature should be untouched, 376 erasing native presence, 260, 346 preservationist movement (U.S.), 68 indigenous groups’ objections to, 283 Primeau’s Landing, 105 IUCN categorization, 341 Prince Albert, 5, 62, 110, 117, 130n43 people a problem for, 340 Prince Albert Board of Trade, 107, 110, preserving traditional local culture, 114 339 Prince Albert Daily Herald, 122 removal of local peoples from, 274 Prince Albert National Park, 14, 67, 138, provincial jurisdiction over natural 379 resources, 5, 80 “a case of special privilege and fancied Publicity Division (Parks Branch), 66, right,” 116 77n40 attendance, 111, 127 image of parks as playgrounds rather families of modest means, 107 than wilderness areas, 67 local clientele, 107, 123 travel and wildlife documentaries, 37 local community / national authority tension, 5, 103–27 Q local lobbying for, 62, 65 Quebec City, 314 popular use as regional summer Quebec government playground, 107, 123, 127 nationalization private lands to create shack tent controversy in, 103–27 “controlled exploitation zones,” Prince Albert National Park (Williams), 186 35 Québécois, 227 Prince Albert National Park Provisional Master Plan (1971), 124–25 R Prince Albert National Park Shack Tent Owners’ Association, 111 Reconte-moi Massabielle (Savoie), 222–24 private dwellings in Canada’s national Red Deer Lake. See Waskesiu Lake parks, 118, 138. See also shack tent Red Deer River valley, 324 controversy Red Deer River watershed in Banff Banff, 139 National Park, 317 history of, 104–5 Reeve, Alex, 119–20 private hunting and fishing clubs Reeves, Brian, 308, 313–14 holding lands designated for future linking of human history and park in the Mauricie, 186, 189 environment, 309 “improvements” to the local ecosystem, showed that archaeological sites were 189 present throughout Banff, 303 private use of public lands, 122 survey of Crowsnest Pass, 310

Index 439 surveyed Waterton Lakes National roads. See also names of specific roads and Park, 309 highways Reichwein, Pearlann, 55 automobile link between Vancouver reinstating an ongoing Aboriginal or and Calgary, 81 Métis presence, 341, 347–48, 356, automobile roads (late 1920s) in the 378 mountains of , not beyond realm of possibility, 355 80 rejuvenating cultural practice, 335, 356 back to healthier and fuller contact challenge to Parks Canada Agency with nature, 41 (PCA) practices, 335, 378 construction to provide automobile relief work camps, 82–83, 87, 99n5 access to ski hill areas, 140 resource development in national parks, democratic ideal that national parks 181 not be restricted to the wealthy, forbidden under National Parks Act 66 (1930), 106 environmental effects in Point Pelee, resource development in the north, 246, 71 282. See also mineral prospecting; national park status and, 105 mining interests (Yukon); oil and proposed in Banff provisional master gas companies plan, 144–45 resource management, 321 wildlife and, 154, 158 Resources for Tomorrow Conference, roadside timber reserve (Big Bend), 83 Montreal (1961), 142 between Kinbasket Lake and Boat Revelstoke, 61, 81 Encampment, 87 Revelstoke Progress Club, 60 open to logging in anticipation of Mica Richard, Zachary, 207, 219–21, 226 Dam flooding, 96 Ballade de Jackie Vautour, 227 Robertson, Gordon, 116–17 Rick, John, 312 Robichaud, Louis, 210–12 Riding Mountain National Park, 66–67 National approvals for private sector Historic Site, 304, 307, 312, 314 development, 65 Rocky Mountain Park (1885), 27, 58 draw for automobile travelers from exclusion of Native people, 74n2 U.S., 63 first open to automobile, 60 exclusion of Native people, 77n40, little knowledge of what had been 361n20, 364n39 there before, 305 program of road and golf course shrunk by Dominion Forest Reserves construction, 65 and Parks Act, 28 shack tents, 118 villa or cottage lots in, 104 Riding Mountain National Park , 80, 97 Committee, 62 crossroads of cultures from the BC Riding Mountains area Plateau and the Plains, 307 significance as sanctuary for a people have always been present, threatened elk herd, 62 303–4 Rimrock Hotel (now the Juniper), 136 promotion of (through guidebooks), 22

440 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA Rocky Mountains Forest Reserve, 352 Saskatoon Board of Trade, 114 Rocky Mountains Park Act (1887), 3, 30 Savoie, Jacques, Reconte-moi Massabielle, leasing of lands for residences and 222–24 commercial development, 58 Sax, Joseph, 339 permits for grazing, 58 Scace, Bob, 144 preserving land and wildlife, 58 Scenic and Historic Preservation Society required removal of “trespassers,” 337, of America, 30 350 scenic beauty and picturesque landscapes, sanction for the development of mines, 99, 181, 191, 244–45 58 in selection of sites of national parks, Rocky Mountains Repeat Photography 181 Project, 348, 350 Schmalz, Bill, 154, 168–69, 172 Rogers Pass, 81, 95, 99n3, 309 science of ecology, 182, 195 Rogers Pass highway, 102n34 scientific approach to fur management, “The Role of Ecology in the National 256 Parks” (McTaggart-Cowan), 144 scientific definition of national park Roosevelt, Theodore, 180 values, 237–38 Ross, Alexander, 38 scientific knowledge, 254 Rothman, Hal, 73 scientific management, 239, 245, 274 Roussel, Claude scientific understanding, 145 “Kouchibouguac,” 217 “scientification” of the landscape, 190, “Kouchibouguac ou le grand 197–98 déracinement,” 219 Searle, Rick, 149 Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 247, Seel, Kurt, 309 258 Sekani, 335 Royal Commission on Government , 80, 97 Organization (1962), 135 highway through, 81, 95 Rudin, Ronald, 125, 273, 346, 377, 393 shack tent controversy, 103–27, 379 shack tents, 111, 114–15, 120–22, 124 S fees, 129n17 Sabin, Paul, 286 led to sense of community, 107 Sable Island, Nova Scotia, 17n19 longstanding tradition in Waskesiu, Saint-Maurice River, 185 114–15, 127 Sandlos, John, 5, 14, 41, 83, 158, 237, semi-proprietary rights in a national 273, 283, 361n20, 373–74, 393 park, 116 Sanson, Norman Bethune, 305 Shand-Harvey, James, 352 Saskatchewan Natural History Society, Shawinigan Club, 186, 189 125 Shuswap semi-subterreanean winter Saskatchewan Wildlife Federation, 125 pithouses, 305 Saskatchewan’s “poor man’s paradise,” Shuswaps, 42, 335 121 Sibbald, Howard, 62 Saskatoon, 115 Sierra Club, 381 Silent Spring (Carson), 135

Index 441 ski hills, development of, 139–40, St. Lawrence Islands National Park, 58 147–48 St. Lawrence Seaway, 208 , 355 state involvement in economic Smart, James, 111, 114 development, 210. See also social Smith, Harlan I. safety net archaeological housepit village site near Steuart, Davey, 125 Banff Springs golf course, 305, Stonies, 42, 335 307, 315 Strong, B.I.M., 111, 114 first professional archaeological work Sturgeon River Forest Reserve, 105, in the mountain parks, 307 128n6 social activism, 135 subsistence hunting within park social and environmental justice, 277 boundaries, 284–86 social complexity of contemporary subsistence lifeway, 10, 238–39, 256–57 Canadian landscapes, 199 Inuvialuit desires to maintain hunting social issues, 145 and trapping, 287 social safety net, 246–47. See also relief reduction of, 242 work camps; state involvement in seen as obsolete, 247, 250–51, 253–54 economic development Sulphur Mountain Cosmic Ray Station, Société d’exploitation des ressources 355 éducatives du Québec (SEREQ), Sunshine, 139–40 191–92 Supreme Court, 215 Société nationale de l’Acadie (SNA), on Nishga land claim, 260 226–27 Sutter, Paul, 68 Society for Historical Archaeology, 312 Swift, Lewis, 335 South –Lower Similkameen Swinnerton, Guy, 354 National Park Reserve, 17n19 System Plan. See National Parks System Southern Tutchone, 265n7 Plan arrival of newcomers, 238 experiential knowledge of local T geography, seasons, and resources, 238, 254 Taking the Air (Kopas), 8 trade and travel networks, 238 Taverner, Percy, 70 unconstrained hunting and fishing Taylor, C.J., 7, 44, 118, 154, 184, 190, until the 1920s, 239 195, 361n25, 394 Special Inquiry (Kouchibouguac), 214, Taylor, Jim, 274, 379 216, 229n4, 377 Tekarra Lodge, 343 called for Parks Canada to involve , 162 former residents, 224 Tester, Frank, 275 recommended Vautour be left alone, Theberge, John, 237 215 Thelon Game Sanctuary, 283 Spence, Mark, 275 themes of human history in Kluane, 258 “spoiled” bear, 169–70 Aboriginal peoples not mentioned, 260 A Sprig of Mountain Heather, 32, 34 Thompson, David, 38

442 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA Thomson, Tom,The Jack Pine, 180 revenue, 15n6, 32 Thoreau, Henry David tourist expectations, 54 Life in the Woods, 180 U.S. tourists, 61 Walden, 180 wilderness sanctuaries, 10, 54, 180 (See Thorsell, Jim, 134–35, 146, 150 also wilderness) Thousand Islands Park, 3–4 traditional aboriginal knowledge of place, Through the Heart of the Rockies and the 254 Selkirks (Williams), 41 traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), first mass-market guidebook, 35 343, 347. See also local knowledge land long vacant, 42 Trans-Canada Highway, 135 timber, 27 completed between Banff and Yoho, logging in Hamber Provincial Park, 134 95–96, 101n32 Trans-Canada Highway twinning in La Mauricie National Park, 185 Banff National Park, 317, 375 roadside timber reserve (Big Bend), 83, archaeological research related to, 304 87, 96 site survey and excavation, 314 timber leasing system, 29–30 travel guides. See guidebooks Todhunter, Roger, 375 Trent-Severn Canal system, 63 Together Today for Our Children “The Trouble with Wilderness” (Cronon), Tomorrow, 260 180 Tolmie, Simon Frasier, 82–83 Troye, Warner, 165 Toronto Globe, 1, 350 Trudeau, Pierre, 260 tourism, 3, 22, 28, 31, 34, 45, 53, 63, Trudeau government, 8, 122 136, 158, 375. See also automobile White Paper on Indian Policy, 103 tourism Campground, 136 and, 88 Turner, James Morton, 334 films encouraging, 161–62 Two Jack Campground, 136 growth with completion of Trans- Canada Highway, 135–36 U Harkin’s devotion to, 55 UA RV. See Upper Athabasca River Valley hotel and motel units at Lake Louise (UARV) and Banff, 136 Uncommon Ground (Cronon), 339 influence on development of national UNESCO World Heritage Site parks, 25, 54, 73 designation, 355 mass back-to-nature tourism, 154 Unimpaired for Future Generations, 74n2 national parks as tourist “playground,” uninhabited wilderness. See also human 66, 71, 245 presence in national parks negative ecological effects of, 54, 66 dependent upon myopia (can’t see Point Pelee, 70 Indians), 340 and preservation of scenic beauty or Inuvialuit opposition to, 275 rare animals, 72 at root of national park movement in railroads tourism literature promoting , 275 parks, 35, 50n35

Index 443 Université de Moncton, 211–12, 230n15 V universities. See also names of individual vacant wilderness. See uninhabited universities wilderness environmental studies programs, 142 Van Horne, William, 3, 15n6 growing influence in shaping Vancouver Sun, 95 government policy, 134 Vautour, Jackie, 212, 225 public advocacy in, 142 accepted as permanent presence, 223 second wave of wilderness preservation and, 154 arrested for digging clams, 215 University archaeology field schools, 320 centre stage in many artistic creations, 217 “University of Banff,” 146 contested legality of expropriation, 214 University of British Columbia’s School of Community and Regional house bulldozed, 207, 213–14, 217, Planning, 142 222 University of Calgary, 144 image as agent of resistance, 219 University of Calgary’s Department of Métis (aboriginal rights), 216 Geography, 142 payment to leave, 215, 228 Upper Athabasca River Valley (UARV), petition, 214–15 356 provided leadership and a public face, balancing human and non-human life 213 in, 334 returned as a squatter, 207, 214, 221 homesteads in, 335 Vautour, John L. See Vautour, Jackie long history of human presence, Vermilion Lakes site 334–35 10,700-years of occupation, 315 reinstating Métis or Aboriginal Vermilion wetlands excavation, 315 presence (idea), 340–41 Victor Lake, 367n61 use by humans and animals, 333 homesteaders move to, 350, 352 U.S., 3, 32, 93 shifting boundaries, 352, 367n61, bear problem, 159 368n61 restrictive corridor on both sides of the Victoria Memorial Museum in Ottawa, Alaska Highway, 243 305 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 246 visitor experience initiative, 378, 381 U.S. National Park Service, 7, 190, 195, Vivian, Brian, 320 348 Vuntut Gwich’in First Nation, 290–91 U.S. National Park Service Mission 66 building program, 142 W U.S. national parks system, 140 Waiser, Bill, 5, 14, 138, 273, 379, 394 criticism of industrial tourism, 71 Walden (Thoreau), 180 U.S. Organic Act (1926), 337 Walt Disney Productions, 161 use and protection, twinning, 5 Wapizagonke, Lake, 185 use-versus-preservation debate, 154, 163, Wardle, J.M., 83 171. See also dual mandate of Wasagaming (resort town), 65 development and preservation Waskesiu campground

444 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA crowded conditions, 106, 111, 115 debate (corruption by over- dominated by shack tents and portable development), 159 cabins, 117 fundamental component of North plan to replace shack tents with trailer American culture, 180 sites, 120 human rights issues, 334, 338–39, 354 popularity, 107, 110 IUCN definition of, 338 Waskesiu Lake, 105 justification for parks, 54, 66 Waskesiu redevelopment plan (1967), 119 popular histories emphasizing, 74n8 second thoughts about, 123–24 questionable in parks established in shock and dismay at, 120–21 long-inhabited lands, 199 Waskesiu summer cottagers redefined, 10 influential in deciding park policy, 127 reworking inhabited landscapes into Waskesiu Tent Cabin and Portable Cabin “pristine” wilderness, 180 Association, 103 Romantic notion of, 334 campaign to stop redevelopment plan, a social construct, 181, 340 121–22 uninhabited, 275, 340, 357 Chrétien’s meeting with, 123 wilderness recreation, 124, 135 complaints “their park” under attack, “windshield wilderness,” 158 124–25 Wilderness Act (U.S., 1964), 7 Waskesiu townsite, 65 wilderness activism, 54–55 private cottages, 104 Wilderness and the American Mind (Nash), Waterton Lakes National Park, 27, 30, 142 58, 309, 334 wilderness conservation in Canada, U.S., bison, 323 and Britain park within a forest reserve, 28 comparative study, 376–77 Waterton Lakes National Park (Williams), wilderness movement, 153, 165 35, 42 wilderness park as alternative to fee Watrous, Richard B., 49n28 simple ownership, 286 Wawaskesey, 16n11, 68–69 wilderness playground paradox, 334–35, Weber, Lake, 192 340 Weekend Magazine, 139 wilderness protection, 144, 274, 334, 337, Wheeler, Arthur, 373 339 Where Has Sanctuary Gone? (1971), 165 wilderness recreation, 135 Whistler, B.C., 148 Wilderness Society, 278 White, James, 315 wilderness values, 274 White Paper on Indian Policy, 103, 260, wildlife. See also bears; coyotes; 271n60, 282 subsistence lifeway White River First Nation, 263 economic value of, 247 Whitehorse mines, 246 as tourist attraction, 8, 62, 245, 247 Whyte Museum of the Canadian wild animals seemed “tamed” along Rockies, 305 roadways, 158 Whytes, 136 wildlife cinematography, 155, 161 wilderness, 13, 27, 142, 198, 343, 383n9 wildlife in the Yukon report (1958), 257

Index 445 wildlife management, 354 Williams’ guidebooks, 25, 35, 40 Wildlife of the Rockies (1959), 160–62 First Nations’ presence downplayed, 42 wildlife parks, 68–69 indicative of Branch’s thinking in wildlife preserves, 5, 68 1920s, 39 wildlife protection, 69 platform for communicating Park Williams, M.B., 3, 5, 14, 21–46, 373 Branch’s message, 42 The Banff-Jasper Highway, 46, 371 reworked in 1940s and 1950s, 46 The Banff-Windermere Highway, 35 trademark device (quotations), 38–39 Bennett’s cuts and, 45–46 Williamson, F.H.H., 31, 37 compiled and published Harkin’s , 355 memoirs, 24, 46 Windermere, 62 and expansion of the national parks Winnipeg, 314 system, 58 Winter Olympic Games (1960), Squaw Grey Owl and, 46 Valley, California, 140 Guardians of the Wild, 43, 46 “Winter Recreation and the National guidebooks (See Williams’ guidebooks) Parks: A Management Policy and The Heart of the Rockies, 46 Development Program,” 140 Jasper National Park, 35, 38 Woco Club, 189 Jasper Trails, 35 women’s position in Canadian civil The Kicking Horse Trail, 35, 41–42 service (1910), 48n10 Kootenay National Park and the Banff- Wood, James, 106, 110 Windermere Highway, 35 Wood Buffalo National Park, 68, 70, 251, linked parks to tourism, 25 283 loyalty to Harkin, 27 First Nations hunting privileges in, parks as part of our natural birthright, 360n17 42 Working for Wildlife (Foster), 55 philosophy of parks, 25, 32 World Heritage Convention (1976), 10 Prince Albert National Park, 35 World Heritage Site designation, 355, publicist and popularizer of early parks 370n73 system, 373 World Heritage Sites, 10 publicity assistant and publicity agent, World Wilderness Congress (Fifth, 1995), 37 338 research on mountain parks, 22, 35 World Wilderness Congress (Fourth, salary, 37 1987), 337 supported by Harkin, 27 World Wildlife Canada System Plan, 16n19 Through the Heart of the Rockies and the Selkirks, 35, 41–42 Wormington, Marie, 308 on timber leasing system, 29 Writing on Stone, 307 travel and wildlife documentaries, 37 Wynyandies family, 352 tried to make her name as writer, 46, 48 Waterton Lakes National Park, 35

446 A CENTURY OF PARKS CANADA Y political action contributing to greater awareness, 377 Ya Ha Tinda Ranch separation from their land, 247 archaeological surveys, 310–11 Yukon Fish and Game Association, 247 Yard, Robert Sterling, 68 Yukon Native Brotherhood, 260 , 335, 369n72 Yukon territorial government, 243–44, Yellowstone model 247, 286, 288, 290, 292 of conservation, 339–40 importance of development, 242–43 of park development, 208 opposed land withdrawals for Indian protection of wilderness by outlawing hunting and trapping, 242 permanent human residence, revision to Yukon Game Ordinance, 334, 337 1947, 247 Yellowstone National Park, 3, 54, 158, supported oil and gas companies on 180 Beaufort Sea coast, 277 bear studies, 165, 168 romantic notion of wilderness, 334 Z , 27, 41, 58, 334 archaeological surveys, 310–11 zoning in parks management, 191–92, Yukon, 254 195, 361n25, 387–89 hydro-electric power proposals for, 246 cornerstone of planning process in parks, 141 Yukon Branch of the Department of the Interior, 70 degrees of human presence and use, 339 Yukon First Nations. See also Southern Tutchone “Zoo of the Mountains,” 160 demanded “freeze on development of all unoccupied crown land,” 260

Index 447

“a diverse and fascinating array of perspectives on the history of Canada’s national parks”

– Stephen Bocking, Professor and Chair of the Environmental and Resource Studies Program, Trent University

When Canada created a Dominion Parks Branch in 1911, it be- came the first country in the world to establish an agency de- voted to managing its national parks. Over the past century, this agency, now Parks Canada, has been at the centre of important debates about the place of nature in Canadian nationhood and relationships between Canada’s diverse ecosystems and its com- munities. Today, Parks Canada manages over forty parks and reserves, totalling over 200,000 square kilometres and featuring a dazzling variety of landscapes, profoundly affecting the way we, and the world, see our country. These fourteen essays address Parks Canada’s long-stand- ing struggles to encompass both preservation and use in places created for “benefit, education and enjoyment” of Canadians. These colourful, place-based accounts trace how the agency has designed, managed, and promoted national parks in response to public demand, political strategy, scientific debate, and environ- mental concern. As it navigated contests of territory, extraordi- nary geographical diversity, and the changing landscape of the modern Canadian state, it has gradually defined national parks as both cultural landscapes and sites of ecological integrity.

CLAIRE CAMPBELL is an associate professor in the Depart- ment of History and the Coordinator of Canadian Studies at Dalhousie University. She is the author of Shaped by the West Wind: Nature and History in Georgian Bay (2004) and co-editor of Groundtruthing: Canada and the Environment, a special issue of the Dalhousie Review (2010).

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