UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre 1 Piazza SS. Annunziata, 12 50122 Florence, Italy website: www.unicef-icdc.org

POVERTY AND WELFARE TRENDS IN THE REPUBLIC OF (1990-2000)

Country Paper

Co-ordinator: Galina Gasyuk Ministry of Statistics and Analysis,

Background paper prepared for the Social Monitor (2002)

The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the policies or views of UNICEF 2

Analytical Report Index Changes during Monitoring of the Status of Children and the Family in the Republic of Belarus between 1990 and 2000

1. Demographic Trends in the Republic of Belarus

As of 1 January 2001, the republic’s population amounted to 9,990,400 people.

Until the early 1990s, the republic's population was on the steady rise, but at a gradually declining rate. This decrease became particularly pronounced in the 1990s due to a drop in the birth rate and an increase in the death rate. After 1993, the natural increase in the population became negative. A certain, although insignificant, increase is characteristic of the republic's urban population (see Fig. 1).

Between 1990 and 2000, the number of live births decreased from 142,200 to 93,700 (by 34.1%) (see Fig. 2).

By the beginning of 2001, the number of children under 18 years of age was 2.4 million, or 23.9% of the total population. Of this total number of children, 24.8% were under the age of 6 and 76.2% were between the ages of 6 and 17.

Because of the declining birth rate, the number of children decreased in all the age groups, apart from those aged 13-17 who were born in the mid-1980s, when the number of births was relatively high.

With the exception of 1989, the highest birth rate in the period under review was in the Brest Region, where it ranged from 14.9 births per 1,000 of the population in 1990 to 10.7 births in 2000.

The lowest birth rate was recorded in various years in the (from 13.1 births per 1,000 of the population in 1990 to 8.4 in 1996) and in Minsk (from 12.3 births per 1,000 of population in 1991 to 7.7 in 1997).

Over the 10 years, the birth rate decreased by 32% in the Brest Region, by 36-39% in the Mogilyov, Minsk, Grodno, Gomel and Vitebsk Regions, and by 42% in Minsk.

The current very low birth rate in Belarus does not ensure simple reproduction of the population. The crude birth rate has fallen from 1.96 per woman in 1990 to 1.31 in 2000 (the highest rate, 1.5 births per woman, was recorded in the Brest Region, and the lowest, 1.1 births, in Minsk). As a result, the number of births in 2000 came to 93,700, or 66% of the level reached in 1990. The birth rate among teenagers decreased from 44 births per 1,000 women aged 15-19 in 1990 to 27 births in 2000. Until 1992, this index kept rising, but since 1993, it has been gradually decreasing.

This, however, is accompanied by a growth in the percentages of births by unmarried women (from 7.9% in 1990 to 18.6% in 2000), which is the harbinger of significant problems both for mother and child, as well as for society as a whole.

In the years under review, the percentage of illegitimate births was the lowest in the , yet even there this index increased from 4.5% in 1990 to 11.4% in 2000. There is a favourable trend towards a reduction in the number of abortions, including those among girls under 20 years of age. 3

2. The Economic Situation and the Level of Government Revenue and Spending as the Basis for an Improvement in the Well-Being of Families and Children

Steady economic growth is the most important component of a long-term reduction in poverty and improvement in the population's standard of living.

Characteristic of the social and economic situation in Belarus after 1995 in general is the gradual elimination of the economic crisis and consistent implementation of a national social policy aimed at preserving access to education and health care for the entire population and particularly for children, and at ensuring the highest feasible social protection of the most vulnerable groups— children and senior citizens.

The change in basic macroeconomic indicators is characterised by the following data:

Dynamics of the Basic Macroeconomic Indicators 1990 1994 1995 1998 1999 2000 % change in 2000 compared with 1990 GDP growth rate (annual changes in %) -1.2 -12.6 -10.4 8.4 3.4 5.8 -11.4 Industrial production growth rate (annual changes in %) 2.1 -14.6 -11.7 12.4 10.3 7.8 0.7 Real wage growth rate (annual changes in %) 13.8 -30.9 -5.0 18.0 7.3 12.0 -5 Foreign trade balance in million US dollars … -556 -760 -1480 -765 -1161 x Annual inflation (consumer price index in %) 104.7 2321 809 173 394 269 x Budget deficit as % of GDP 2.3 -3.5 -2.7 -1.4 -2.9 -0.6 x Social spending from the national budget as % of total budget expenditure 30.8 35.9 42.8 38.0 34.7 36.7 x GDP 10.3 14.3 13.7 13.5 13.1 13.0 x

As can be seen from the above data, the favourable trends in the development of the republic’s economy, which became noticeable after 1994, began to change in the second half of 1998 mainly under the impact of negative external factors caused by the global financial crisis. In 1999-2001, measures to support domestic producers notwithstanding, the rates of growth in production slowed down, which was accompanied by a decline in the financial indices and a substantial increase in inflation—by nearly 300% in 1999 and by 170% in 2000. During the first ten 10 months of 2001, it increased by 32.5% compared with December 2000, whereas in 1998, the annual increase in prices amounted to only 70%.

The highest level of registered unemployment was recorded in 1996 when it came to 3.9% of the economically active population. During the last two and a half years, it has remained at 2.0% to 2.2%. The number of the registered unemployed is about 100,000. According to household surveys, the actual unemployment level is approximately threefold higher.

In the Republic of Belarus, despite a reduction in the GDP and the amount of funds allocated in the national budget for ensuring citizens’ constitutional right to preschool services and free education and health care, the share of budgetary funds spent on these purposes in the past ten years did not decrease; on the contrary, it kept growing, which can be seen from the following data: 4

Dynamics of the Share of National Budget Spending of the Republic of Belarus on Education and Health Care (percentage) Spending on education and including: health care as % of GDP total budget social spending on education as % of spending on health care and spending spending physical training as % of GDP total budget social GDP total budget social spending spending spending spending 1990 6.8 20.5 65.8 4.3 13.0 41.6 2.5 7.5 24.2 1994 11.2 28.0 78.1 5.8 14.6 40.7 5.4 13.4 37.4 1995 10.4 32.4 75.6 5.5 17.1 40.0 4.9 15.3 35.6 1996 10.8 38.4 78.9 5.8 20.6 42.4 5.0 17.8 36.5 1997 11.4 34.8 81.5 6.3 19.3 45.2 5.1 15.5 36.3 1998 11.1 31.5 82.7 6.2 17.6 46.1 4.9 13.9 36.6 1999 11.1 29.4 84.9 6.1 16.2 46.9 5.0 13.2 38.0 2000 11.2 31.5 85.7 6.2 17.4 47.4 5.0 14.1 38.3

In view of the insufficient financing of health care and considering the complicated demographic situation and unsatisfactory state of the population’s health, the President of the Republic of Belarus singled out the development of health care and the improvement of health as a priority aspect of the Programme for the country’s social and economic development for 2001-2005.

3. Education Trends

Throughout 1990-2000, work aimed to ensure the stable functioning and development of the national education system was carried out in the republic. The network of educational institutions and preschool establishments has been preserved and is being developed, their curricula are being improved, and the system of general education schools is being reformed. In addition to state-run schools, private educational institutions, in particular, those in the sphere of higher and specialised secondary education, are being developed.

Preschool education. Preschool care and education is the stage preceding first school grade in the education system of the Republic of Belarus. It is responsible for ensuring optimum conditions for the physical development of children taking into account their age and individual features, as well as preparing them for primary education.

Preschool establishments offer day care, supervision, health improvement, education, and training for children between the ages of 1 and 7 years. The system of preschool establishments includes day nurseries, nursery schools, and kindergartens.

As of the end of 2000, a total of 4,423 preschool establishments, including 1,139 kindergartens, 2,902 nursery schools, 8 day nurseries, 354 preschool establishments of a school-cum-kindergarten type, and 20 child development centres operated in the republic. In terms of purpose, 3,490 (79%) of them are general development establishments, 39 (1%) are compensatory establishments (for children who need correction of their physical and mental development), and 737 (17%) are establishments of a combined type.

Compared with 1990, the total number of preschool establishments has decreased by 927 or 17%, and the number of day nurseries and nursery schools by 1,693 or 37%. The reduction in the total number of preschool establishments notwithstanding, the preschool education system has remained 5 well-developed and accessible to the population for a number of reasons. This is firstly due to the fact that the preschool establishments which used to belong to individual enterprises were taken over by local educational agencies, i.e. they became community property. As of 1 January 2001, the percentage of state-run preschool establishments amounted to 80% compared with 24% in 1990. Secondly, working mothers are given partially paid leave after childbirth to take care of their babies until they reach three years of age. Thirdly, parents only pay about 25% of the expenses on meals, or 5% of the total state spending per child, for the upkeep, education and training of their children at preschool establishments.

As a result, the number of children between the ages of 1 and 6 in preschool education increased from 67.6% in 1990 to 70.8% in 2000, whereby the percentage of those between 1 and 2 years of age decreased from 44.7% to 32.8%, which can be regarded as a favourable trend, and the percentage of those between 3 and 6 years of age increased from 63.3% to 86%.

Further transformation of preschool education is related to the reform of general education schools. In 1997, the education system was entrusted with incorporating all 5-year-old children into school preparatory programmes, including those at preschool establishments. Children, regardless of the level of their parents’ incomes, have equal opportunities to acquire the knowledge necessary for entering a preparatory class in a primary school at the age of six.

Of the 72,400 6-year-old children attending preschool establishments, 65,600, or 90.6% , attended the preparatory classes set up at these establishments.

A total of 10,300 7-year-olds attended preschool establishments in 2000 and practically all of them, apart for 56, studied in the general education first-grade-level classes set up at these preschool establishments.

General education. To realise the right of every child to education, a well-developed network of general education institutions operates in the republic.

In 2000, a total of 4,671 state-run daytime general schools, including 2,788 secondary schools, 86 gymnasiums, 25 lyceums, 6 colleges, 97 special schools and boarding schools, and 15 private schools provided basic and general secondary education.

They were attended by 1,524,300 pupils, compared with 1,481,800 in 1990.

The enrolment of children in primary schools amounted to 91.6% in 2000 compared with 96.2% in 1990. The number of children between the ages of 11 and 15 who received an incomplete secondary (basic) education amounted to 92%, which was a little below the 1990 level of 93.2%.

The number of pupils continuing to attend school in order to obtain a complete general secondary education increased from 156,400 in 1990 to 186,000 in 2000. The smallest number of pupils in the 10th-11th (12th) grades, 141,800, was recorded in 1993—the year when the economic crisis reached its worst point. The share of teenagers aged 16-17 obtaining complete general secondary education at school during the 2000/2001 academic year came to 54.6%, whereas in the 1995/1996 year it was 49.7%. The percentage of girls among pupils in the 10th-11th (12th) grades was 56.3%, compared with 58.4% in 1990 and 57.9% in 1995.

The number of pupils attending schools in order to obtain a general secondary education is growing faster than the total number of 15-17-year-old teenagers. Their total number grew by 9.2% between 1 January 1996 and 1 January 2000, and the number of pupils attending general secondary schools increased by 27%. This is explained, on the one hand, by the desire of a part of pupils to have the 6 opportunity to continue studying at school in order to subsequently obtain a professional higher education, whereas for others it provides the opportunity for making a second attempt to enter secondary professional educational institutions. On the other hand, this postpones the entry of this group of the population onto the labour market and, thus, the need to address their employment problems, both for the state and for these teenagers and their parents.

Among the pupils finishing secondary schools, 38% enter higher education institutions, 22%— vocational schools, and 19%—specialised secondary educational institutions the same year in order to continue their education.

The opportunity to obtain basic vocational (technical) training building on basic and general secondary education is provided by a well-developed network of vocational schools in the republic. During the 2000/2001 academic year, there were 248 such schools with a total enrolment of 137,700 students, including 108,700 young men and girls in post-basic education departments, and 26,300 in post-secondary education departments. Their annual enrolment amounts to approximately 60,000, with girls accounting for about 38%.

Between 1990 and 1997, the total number of students attending vocational schools decreased every year. Since 1997, however, there has been a steady increase in the number of persons receiving vocational and technical training.

There are 157 educational (secondary specialist) institutions which offer professional secondary (specialised secondary) education and training in 164 professions.

The number of young people obtaining a professional secondary education amounted to 150,300 in the 2000/2001 academic year, having increased by 22.8% compared with the 1995/96 academic year.

In 2000, a total of 43,800 specialists graduated from specialised secondary schools, which is 6,800 or 18.3% more than in 1995 and 3.8% more than in 1990, and placement was provided for 24,800 or 72% of all the graduates of daytime departments.

A total of 27% of those admitted to specialised secondary schools, including 14% of those who graduated from such schools in 2000, have entered higher educational institutions.

In 2000, a total of 25,600 people were enrolled in the republic’s higher educational institutions, including 42,100 studying in the daytime, 700 attending evening classes, and 25,600 taking correspondence courses—182%, 169%, 70%, and 221% of the 1990 level, respectively.

A total of 57,600 persons enrolled as first-year students at state-run and 10,700 at private institutions of higher education. In all, 282,000 students, including 159,000 (56.4%) women and 670 orphaned children, are studying at higher educational institutions.

Compared with 1990, the number of students attending state-run higher educational institutions has increased by 56,500: the number of students taking day classes increased by 37,900, the number of those taking correspondence courses by 22,200, whereas the number of students attending evening classes has decreased by 3,600.

4. Trends in the Material Well-Being of Children and the Family

Much is being done in the republic to prevent a decline in the population's standard of living. For the time being, however, it would be premature to say that this problem has been solved. The 7 following changes in indices are indicative of unfavourable trends in the level of the population’s income:

Main Indices of the Standard of Living in the Republic of Belarus in 1990-1999 Indices Unit of 1990 1994 1995 1998 1999 2000 measurement Average monthly per capita cash thousand income (APCI) roubles 0.199 103.5 617.4 4,005.2 15,542 50.1* Real cash income (as % of the preceding year) % 112 91 73 119 96.6 120 Average monthly gross pay of thousand wage and salary workers (AMP) roubles 0.269 98.2 755.1 4,635.2 19,580.8 58.9* Take-home pay (as % of the preceding year) % 114 69 95 118 107.3 112 Minimum consumer budget thousand (MCB) (per capita average) roubles 0.125 90.0 706.9 3,599.3 16,813.5 46.7 Minimum wage (MW) thousand roubles 0.70 8.9 55.0 275.0 945.8 2.7 MW to MCB ratio % 56.0 9.9 7.8 7.6 5.6 5.8 AMP to MCB ratio % 215.2 109.1 106.8 128.8 116.5 126.0 MW to AMP ratio % 26.0 9.1 7.3 5.9 4.8 4.6 APCI to MCB ratio % 159 115 87.3 111.3 91.9 107.3

* Taking into account the 1,000-fold reduction in the banknote denomination

Numerous increases in the minimum wage have not made up for inflationary losses, and the minimum wage to minimum consumer budget ratio continues to fall. This has a particularly strong impact on those groups of the population whose source of income is the national budget and the social protection fund (social pensions, children’s allowances, stipends, paid leave for taking care of sick children, and sick leave allowances).

As can be seen from the table, in 2000 per capita cash income was only 7% higher than the MCB level, and wages were only 26% higher than the MCB, whereas in 1990 they came to 1.6 and 2.2% of the MCB, respectively. Thus, at present the per capita income and wages of the population only ensure consumption at the level of the minimum consumer budget for working parents.

It should be noted that the current amount of allowances paid to families with children has no substantial effect on raising children’s living standards to the level necessary for ensuring their adequate physical, intellectual, and emotional development.

5. Poverty Incidence

Before 1999, a normative method for defining poverty was adopted in Belarus. Persons with a level of disposable resources lower than 60% of the minimum consumer budget were regarded as poor (needy). 8 On 1 January 1999, the Law “On the Subsistence Level in the Republic of Belarus” was enacted. This law set forth fundamentally new legal terms for defining the subsistence level and placing citizens in the poor (needy) category. According to this law, the subsistence level budget is the main criterion for recognising citizens as poor, and all citizens (families) placed in this category are entitled to public assistance.

Households surveys show that the substantial number of dependents in families is one of the main factors of poverty in Belarus. It is this factor that determines the relatively low level of average per capita income in large and incomplete families. The least severe level of poverty is observed in families consisting of two persons and the most acute in large families of 5 and more persons. In addition, a distinctive feature of the present stage of development is the increase in the number of poor people and the change in the structure of poverty. At the initial stage of the economic transformations (1992-1994), the so-called socially vulnerable strata of the population (single persons, pensioners, disabled persons, and large families) traditionally constituted the main percentage of poor people. Today, however, the centre of gravity is increasingly shifting towards the “working” poor—that is, those able-bodied members of society who for a number of reasons, above all the nature of their employment (or unemployment), have low incomes and cannot support themselves and their families.

The poverty level of families raising children is characterised by the share of households with average per capita disposable resources below the subsistence level. The dynamics of this index over the last five years is described by the following data:

The Share of Households with Average Per Capita Disposable Resources below the Subsistence Level (percentage) Types of households Years As % of the total 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 All households 31.2 26.4 27.8 40.4 35.7 100. 100 100 100 100 including: singles 14.3 15.9 14.9 26.6 21.7 9.4 13.3 10.4 13.6 13.3 families without children 22.0 20.2 22.6 34.2 29.7 23.2 25.5 27.2 28.9 29.6 families with children 45.1 36.1 36.8 51.4 47.8 67.4 61.2 62.4 57.5 57.1 including: with 2 adults 45.4 36.8 37.0 52.3 48.3 61.4 55.8 56.3 51.6 51.0 including: with 1 child 36.7 28.4 27.9 43.6 39.9 25.7 22.5 23.4 24.1 25.1 with 2 children 52.2 41.2 44.6 60.5 57.2 28.7 24.9 26.0 22.2 20.6 with 3 or more children 68.2 71.4 67.0 77.4 81.2 7.0 8.4 6.9 5.3 5.3 with 1 adult 42.1 29.9 35.5 44.7 43.4 6.0 5.4 6.1 5.9 6.1 including: with 1 child 31.6 23.6 25.6 39.2 37.0 3.0 2.6 2.6 3.5 3.7 with 2 or more children 62.2 39.9 51.0 56.2 58.0 3.0 2.8 3.5 2.4 2.4

As can be seen from the table, the poverty level of the population in the republic declined until 1999; in 1999 it amounted to 40.4%, which was substantially higher than the 1995 level.

In 2000, the share of households with average per capita disposable resources below the subsistence level was 35.7%. More than half of them (57.1%) were families with children, 29.6%—families without children, and 13.2%—single persons. Prevalent among the total number of needy families with children are families with one or two children (89.8%). Incomplete families with children 9 account for 10.6% of all the needy families. Three out of four families with three or more children belong to the category of poor families.

There is a substantial difference in the percentage of needy families between urban and rural areas. In urban areas, 44% of the families with children lived below the poverty line, whereas in the countryside their share was 58%. The percentage of the needy among families with one child was 37% and 47.6%, among families with two children 55% and 61.5%, and among families with three or more children 77% and 84%, respectively. A total of 23% of families with children living in urban areas and 39% of those living in the countryside remained in poverty throughout the year.

The Distribution of Households with Disposable Resources Per Family Member below the Subsistence Level in 2000 is Characterised by the Following Data: Disposable resources per family member as % of Percentage share of households Reference data the subsistence level (SL) less than 50% of SL 3.4 4.1 (1999) 50.1-60% of SL 3.8 60.1-70% of SL 5.2 70.1-80% of SL 6.8 80.1-90% of SL 7.6 90.1-100% of SL 8.9 Total below SL 35.7

The incidence of poverty, i.e. the share of households with disposable resources per family member of less than 50% of the subsistence level (extreme poverty), has decreased and amounted to 3.4%, compared with 4.1% in 1999.

The highest concentration of poverty and the greatest ratios of its intensity are recorded in incomplete and large families. It should be noted that standard families with two working parents and one or two children, which in the past formed the basis of medium-income groups of the population, now constitute a substantial share of the poor (21.1%).

If we regard poverty in terms of age, children between the ages of 0 and 15 years currently form the poorest demographic group. Poverty affects children more than it does any other group. Among children under 15 years of age, the poverty level reached 57.4% in 1999 and 54.6% in 2000. In the Republic of Belarus, poverty is largely of a temporary nature, and in 2000 its average duration was 2.5 months.

The longest periods of poverty (from 9 to 12 months in a year) are observed in households with children, which can be seen from the following data: 10 Length of Time Households Lived Below the Poverty Line in 2000 (percentage) Share of households with Those of them for a period of disposable resources below that remained 1-3 4-9 10-12 Average duration of stay the subsistence level below the months months months below the poverty line poverty line (tempo (semi-per- (perma- (in months) rary) manent) nent) All families 100 27.7 42.6 29.7 2.5 Singles 100 40.0 41.8 18.2 2.2 including those above the working age 100 41.3 41.6 17.1 2.1 Families w/o children 100 31.0 43.7 25.3 2.4 Families with children under 18 years of age 100 20.8 42.6 36.6 2.7 including: families with 1 child 100 23.8 44.2 32.0 2.6 families with 2 children 100 18.6 43.1 38.3 2.8 families with 3 or more children 100 5.6 28.6 65.9 3.5

The income limitations of the needy population are to a considerable extent compensated by receipts in kind—food produced by people on their subsidiary plots of land. In the structure of the disposable resources of needy households such receipts account on the average for 16.1%. Among needy urban households the value of receipts in kind does not exceed 10% of their disposable resources, whereas among rural residents with low incomes it comes to 27.4%. In addition to these receipts, the budget of needy families is supplemented by subsidies and privileges granted by the state, local authorities, and enterprises at which one of the family members works.

More than one third of needy households report that they regularly receive aid in the form of food products from their relatives and friends.

The statistical monitoring of households shows increased differentiation in their income level (disposable resources). In 1990, the average income of the top 10% wealthiest families was 200% higher than the average income of the bottom 10% poorest families, in 1995 it was 450% higher, in 1998—520% higher, in 1999—480% higher, and in 2000—480% higher. Thus, inequality in the distribution of incomes is growing. The universally accepted income inequality index, the Gini Coefficient, was 0.261 in 1995, 0.283 in 1998, 0.270 in 1999, and 0.270 in 2000.

Inequality in the distribution of incomes primarily affects families with children. In 2000, nearly 15.1% of these families fell into the first decile group, with the lowest level of incomes, and only 4.5% comprised the tenth group, with the highest incomes. Among families with three children, 43.2% fell into the first decile group in terms of income level, whereas there were no such families in the tenth, the top, decile group. In general, families with children account for 64.1% of the first decile group. More detailed data about the differentiation of households in terms of income level are presented below. 11 Distribution of Various Types of Households by Decile Groups in 2000 (percentage) Across the republic Singles Households Households including without with children with 1 with 2 with 3 or more children child children children All households 100 100 100 100 100 100 including by decile (10%) groups: first (with the smallest disposable resources) 4.6 7.2 15.1 11.2 17.1 43.2 second 5.7 7.8 14.0 11.5 17.2 22.7 third 6.9 9.0 12.5 11.4 14.6 11.3 fourth 7.9 10.1 11.0 10.4 12.8 6.4 fifth 8.5 10.1 10.7 11.4 10.3 6.6 sixth 10.4 10.3 9.5 10.6 8.3 5.6 seventh 11.7 10.5 8.7 9.5 8.3 1.4 eighth 11.9 11.3 8.0 9.5 6.4 1.4 ninth 13.3 12.7 6.0 8.6 2.1 1.4 tenth (with the greatest disposable resources) 19.1 11.0 4.5 5.9 2.9 0

Distribution of Various Types of Households within Decile Groups in 2000 (percentage) Across the republic All house- Singles House- House- including holds holds holds with 1 with 2 with 3 or without with child children more children children children All households 100 21.7 35.6 42.7 26.0 14.1 2.6 including by decile (10%) groups: first (with the smallest disposable resources) 100 10.1 25.8 64.1 29.0 24.0 11.1 second 100 12.4 27.8 59.8 29.9 24.1 5.8 third 100 15.0 31.9 53.1 29.6 20.6 2.9 fourth 100 17.2 36.0 46.8 27.2 18.0 1.6 fifth 100 18.4 35.8 45.8 29.6 14.5 1.7 sixth 100 22.7 36.6 40.7 27.6 11.7 1.4 seventh 100 25.5 37.5 37 24.9 11.7 0.4 eighth 100 25.9 40.1 34.0 24.6 9.0 0.4 ninth 100 28.9 45.5 25.6 22.4 2.8 0.4 tenth (with the greatest disposable resources) 100 41.5 39.3 19.2 15.2 4.0 0

The income deficiency, estimated as the amount of additional funds necessary for bringing the cash income of needy groups up to the subsistence level, came to 10.8% of the total amount of cash incomes (in 1999, 14.9%).

Among the various social and economic categories of needy households, it is families with 3 or more children that experience the greatest shortage or deficiency of funds: their incomes should be increased by 60% to enable them to reach the subsistence level. 12

Under these circumstances, the best and most effective tool for overcoming poverty would be a policy aimed at increasing the families’ incomes. However, such a policy should by all means result from economic growth and an increase in production efficiency rather than from a redistribution of incomes.

6. Accessibility of Health Care Services and the Children’s and Teenagers’ Health Status

As of 1 January 2000, the Ministry of Public Health alone had 15,400 hospital beds for sick children and 6,300 hospital beds for pregnant women and new mothers. Children’s health care services were provided by 24 children’s hospitals, 391 children’s outpatient clinics (consultation centres), 15 children’s dental clinics, 305 maternity consultation centres, and 2,855 paramedic obstetrical stations. A total of 4,364 paediatricians, 2,659 gynaecologists and obstetricians, and 6,698 maternity nurses were working in the country.

In comparison with 1990, the network of medical institutions and specialists in the field of mother- and-child health care has not decreased.

Deterioration of the environment and a decline in the financial situation of many families and in the health of the entire population have led to an increase in overall morbidity rate among children. In 2000, a total of 2,573,000 cases of first-diagnosed diseases among children 0-14 years of age were recorded. The overall morbidity rate amounted to 138.2 cases per 100,000 children 0-14 years of age, having increased by 14% in comparison with 1990.

Morbidity Rate Among Children 0-14 Years of Age by Groups of Diseases 1990 2000 2000 as % of 1990 Number of recorded cases of first-diagnosed diseases per 100,000 children 95,054 138,195 145.4 including: infectious and parasitic diseases 7,795 10,013 128.5 tumours 76 132 173.7 diseases of the endocrine glands, digestive troubles, metabolic diseases, and diseases of the immune system 1,292 867 67.1 diseases of the blood and the hemopoietic organs 487 943 193.6 mental disorders 447 1,124 251.5 diseases of the nervous system and the sense organs 3,687 7,706 209.0 diseases of the circulatory system 278 605 217.6 diseases of the respiratory organs 67,382 95,362 141.5 diseases of the digestive system 3,196 4,735 148.2 diseases of the urogenital system 519 1,273 245.3 diseases of the skin and the subcutaneous cellular tissue 3,391 5,407 159.5 diseases of the musculoskeletal system and the connective tissue 287 1,119 389.9 congenital anomalies (developmental defects) 198 396 200.0 injuries and poisonings 5,317 6,695 125.9

In the structure of diseases, diseases of the respiratory organs account for the greatest share (69%), with infectious and parasitic diseases (7.2%) ranking second. Children between the ages of 1 and 4 are the most susceptible to these diseases. Predominating among infectious diseases are chickenpox (2,979 cases), rubella (729 cases), and intestine infections (619 cases per 100,000 children). Ranking third are diseases of the nervous system and the sense organs (5.6%). It should be noted 13 that the incidence of these diseases among children has doubled in comparison with 1990. Injuries and poisonings (4.3%) occupy fourth place. They are the most frequently recorded among children between the ages of 10 and 14. In the structure of children’s traumatism, injuries received at home, in the street, and at school are most prominent.

During the past five years, the breast-feeding programme promoted by WHO and UNICEF has been successfully carried out in the republic. In 2000, 68.3% of babies under the age of three months, 38.2% under the age of six months, and 16% under the age of one year were breast-fed. In 1998, the respective figures were 65.9%, 33.8%, and 12.6%, and in 1995, 48.3% of children aged less than 3 months and 27.4% of children under the age of 6 months received breast milk.

The morbidity rate among teenagers in 2000 exceeded the 1990 level by 45.7%. Changes in morbidity according to groups of diseases are shown below:

Morbidity among Teenagers 15-17 Years of Age by Groups of Diseases 1990 2000 2000 as % of 1990 Number of recorded cases of first-diagnosed diseases per 100,000 children 61,128 89,045 145.7 including: infectious and parasitic diseases 2,634 3,444 130.8 tumours 59 171 291.0 diseases of the endocrine glands, digestive troubles, metabolic diseases, and diseases of the immune system 1,349 1,438 106.6 diseases of the blood and the hemopoietic organs 57 142 247.6 mental disorders 1,279 1,988 155.4 diseases of the nervous system and the sense organs 4,259 5,536 130.0 diseases of the circulatory system 474 1,102 232.6 diseases of the respiratory organs 36,036 52,482 145.6 diseases of the digestive system 2,648 3,595 135.8 diseases of the urogenital system 867 2,444 282.1 diseases of the skin and the subcutaneous cellular tissue 3,021 5,412 179.1 diseases of the musculoskeletal system and the connective tissue 969 3,002 309.8 congenital anomalies (developmental defects) 125 169 135.2 injuries and poisonings 7,139 7,633 106.9

A decline in the standard of living and malnutrition are traditionally associated with an increase in the incidence of tuberculosis.

The incidence of tuberculosis among young people between the ages of 15 and 19 is growing in the republic.

In 2000, the incidence of active tuberculosis among young people aged 15-19 increased by 39.7% in comparison with 1991 and by 19.5% in comparison with 1995. Within the year, 155 persons (19 cases per 100,000 members of the population) contracted tuberculosis, and 131 persons out of this number (16 cases per 100,000 members of the population of that age) developed tuberculosis of the respiratory organs.

The aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster continues to take its toll. In 2000, the incidence of thyroid cancer among young people aged 15-19 increased from 0.6 to 9.2 cases per 100,000 of the population of that age compared with 1990. 14 The moderate price and availability of strong alcoholic drinks have led to a growth in their consumption not only by the adult population, but also by young people and teenagers. The openness of the border with Russia has led to the creation of a transportation corridor for smuggling drugs from Asian countries to Europe through Belarus. As a result, a portion of the drugs began to “sediment” in Belarus, which brought about a substantial growth in the incidence of drug addiction among young people.

The incidence of alcoholism and alcoholic psychosis among teenagers between the ages of 15 and 19 years reached 51 cases per 100,000 members of the population of that age—a 27% increase over 1995. The incidence of drug addiction and substance abuse increased by 130% to reach 29.5 cases per 100,000 members of the population of the said age in 2000.

The incidence of venereal diseases is increasing due to young people entering sexual relationships at a younger age and more intense level, their insufficient knowledge about “safe sex,” the high cost of means of protection in a number of cases, and carelessness, to a certain degree.

The incidence of syphilis among young people aged 15-19 increased sharply in 2000 compared with 1990 to reach 153 cases per 100,000 members of the population of that age against 3 cases in 1990. From 1997, however, the incidence of syphilis among this age group began to decrease. In comparison with 1995, it has decreased by 55%.

There has been a decrease in the incidence of gonorrhoea (both acute and chronic) among teenagers between the ages of 15 and 19 by 22.3% compared with 1990 and by 45.4% compared with 1995 (in 2000, 232 cases per 100,000 members of the population aged 15-19 were recorded) (see Fig.).

7. HIV/AIDS Situation in the Republic of Belarus and the Degree of the Population’s Awareness

The number of people infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is on the rise. Out of 3,279 HIV-infected persons registered by the end of 2000, 2,809 (85.7%) are young people aged 15-29. Among those registered as HIV-infected, 5 persons are suffering from AIDS. Since 1987, a total of 71 persons between the ages of 15 and 29 have died in the republic from this condition.

The main cause of contracting HIV by young people is joint drug injection (80%).

During 2000, 421 persons between the ages of 15 and 29 with the diagnosis “HIV-infection” were registered. Of the total number of HIV-infected persons, 825 (29.4%) are women.

Of the 421 HIV-infected persons registered in 2000, 195 cases (46.3%) were registered in the , where an extremely adverse situation with drug trafficking has developed.

One of the major factors in preventing HIV-infection is the population’s awareness of the HIV/AIDS problem.

The findings of a survey conducted in the republic showed that, in general, the population is informed about the HIV/AIDS problem and, in particular, about the principal ways and factors of transmitting HIV. At the same time, there are gaps in specific knowledge about other aspects of the HIV/AIDS problem, such as the different life situations in which the virus may be contracted, how long to wait after the time of possible infection before going for an examination, the availability of efficacious medication, etc. 15 8. Child Mortality

In 2000, a total of 1,536 children aged 0-14 years died, which is 292 fewer than in 1999 and 1,276 fewer than in 1990. The greatest number of children (872) died during the first year of their lives.

Between 1990 and 1999, the highest infant mortality rate was recorded in 1994-1995, when there were 13 deaths of infants under one year per 1,000 live births. Then it began to decrease, and in 2000 came to 9.3 per mil. It is the lowest figure among the CIS member countries.

In the regions polluted as a result of the Chernobyl disaster, however, the infant mortality rate is considerably higher. For example, in the Gomel Region, it amounted to an average of 12.0 per mil in 2000, which is 5.5% lower than the 1990 level. In the republic as a whole, however, the infant mortality rate decreased by 21.8%. In the Mozyr District of the Gomel Region, it reached 10.5, in the Loyev District—13.0, and in the Vetka District—17.1 deaths of children under one year per 1,000 live births.

The higher the mother's educational level, the lower the infant mortality rate. In 2000, it amounted to 4.1 per mil among women with a higher education (in 1990—9.7), 9.4 among women with complete secondary education (in 1990—11.6), and 17.4 among women with incomplete secondary education (in 1990—20.7). (Fig. )

In the opinion of experts in this field, the decrease in the nationwide infant mortality rate, despite the continuing deterioration in the population’s health, was due to the concentration of resources and concerted efforts by the national health care system to resolve this particular problem, i.e. due to work aimed at achieving a “good index value.” Under present-day conditions, the infant mortality rate no longer has any practical impact on the demographic processes, since mortality among children under one year of age accounted for less than 1% in the overall mortality structure in the past five years. Continued more stringent control over infant mortality is fraught with an increase in the disability rate among children, which we are already witnessing.

The number of sick children being born has increase from 11.9% to 18.8% compared with 1990 and the number of disabled children under 16 years of age has grown from 9,700 to 26,400, or by 170%.

In structure of the causes of death of children during the first year of their lives, congenital development anomalies rank first (32.2%), followed by conditions of the perinatal period (32.1%), i.e. causes relating to the mother's health. Diseases of the respiratory organs account for 10% of all cases.

The leading place among the causes of death in children over one year of age goes to accidents, poisonings, and injuries (50.5%). The greatest number of children died from external causes between the ages of 10 and 14 years (20.2%) and between the ages of 1 and 3 years (14.0%). Predominant among the causes of death from external causes, especially in the 10-14-year-old age group, are accidental drowning and road accidents.

9. Disabled Children

One of the major problems relating to the preservation of children’s life and health are diseases leading to various limitations of vital and social functions. As of 1 January 2001, the number of disabled children 0-17 years of age reached 29,115 (1.2% of the child population). In comparison with 1990, their number has increased threefold. In 2000, a total of 4,145 children were diagnosed for the first time as disabled. 16 Ranking first among the diseases resulting in child disability are diseases of the nervous system and the sense organs (25.5%), cerebral palsy accounting for a major share of them (27%); ranking second are congenital anomalies (22.0%), ranking third are mental disorders (15.1%), and ranking fourth are tumours (10.1%).

In October 2001, the average social pension received by disabled children was 26,000 Belarussian roubles, or 18.0% of the average monthly pay.

10. Juvenile Delinquency

The trend in the republic towards deterioration of the crime situation among young people persists. Drunkenness, drug abuse, vagrancy, and manifestations of violence and aggression are widespread among a substantial percentage of young people.

The extreme behaviour of children and teenagers is largely due to the increase in the number of parents who drink to excess.

According to the Ministry of Public Health, the number of persons affected by alcoholism and alcoholic psychoses diagnosed for the first time in 1999 amounted to 19, 100, or 191 cases per 100,000 members of the population. Compared with 1990, the number of recorded cases alone has nearly doubled, and compared with 1995, it has increased by 45%. The number of such cases among women has increased threefold and by 87%, respectively, and among teenagers it has increased twofold compared with 1995.

The consequences of the increase in parental drunkenness and alcoholism are a burden that lies heavy on the state. Such “quasi-parents” cannot be bothered with bringing up their children, and they have to be placed in orphanages, children’s homes, or boarding schools. The number of those deprived of their parental rights has increased dramatically in the past few years. In 1993, 1,044 fell into this category, whereas in 2000, as many as 3,777 persons were deprived of their parental rights—an increase of 260%. Between 1993 and 2000, a total of 220,021 persons were deprived of their parental rights.

The Number of Children Whose Parents Have been Deprived of Their Parental Rights (per year) 1993 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total in 1993-2000 Total number of children 1,869 3,244 4,119 5,164 5,289 4,721 27,103 31,870 including those aged: under 1 year 77 73 114 121 131 140 750 938 2-3 years 265 509 417 452 417 417 2,805 3,267 4-6 years 405 779 807 933 795 783 5,065 5,803 7-10 years 509 901 1,279 1,492 1,600 1,332 7,928 9,224 11-13 years 347 563 844 1,149 1,300 1,117 5,836 6,917 14-17 years 266 419 658 1,017 1,046 932 4,719 5,721

Over the eight years, the number of children whose parents have been deprived of their parental rights amounted to 31,870, including 10,008 children (31.4%) of preschool age (0-6 years), 16,141 children (50.6%) aged 7-13 years, and 5,721 teenagers (18%).

One factor influencing the crime rate among juveniles is the weakening of the family as a social institution and growth in the number of incomplete families. 17 According to the data of the 1999 population census, the number of incomplete families, i.e. families consisting only of a mother (father) with children under 18 years of age, was 355,500, or 22.5% of the total number of families with children. Such families living in towns accounted for 24.2% and those living in rural areas, for 17.2% of all families.

Over the ten years that have passed between the 1989 and 1999 population censuses, the number of households in which there were married couples with children under 18 years of age decreased by 9%, whereas the number of households including incomplete families with children increased by 60% (those with mothers and children by 62.7%, and those with fathers and children by 43.4%).

As a result of divorces alone, every year more than 40 thousand children under 18 are left without one of the parents in the republic.

In 1999, of the total number of crimes solved in the republic, 9,000 crimes or 20.6% more than in 1990, were committed by juveniles or with their participation. Crimes committed by juveniles or with their participation account for 9.4% of the total number of solved crimes. In terms of corpus delicti, among the crimes committed by juveniles premeditated and attempted murder accounted for 0.6%, rape and attempted rape—0.7%, deliberate grievous bodily harm—1%, robbery—7.8%, robbery with violence—3%, and theft—58.6% (including burglary—16.9%).

In 2000, the share of juveniles among caught offenders came to 11%, compared with 16% in 1990. The number of juvenile offenders who committed a crime while intoxicated with alcohol increased by 36.8% in 2000 compared with 1990, and the number of repeat offenders, more than threefold.

In 2000, the number of juveniles registered at juvenile delinquent inspection services reached 17,400, which is 19.4% more than in 1990. Nearly half of them (49.5%) were teenagers between the ages of 16 and 17. Predominant among the offenders were school students—60.1% (in 1990— 35.7%) and students of vocational schools—16.1% (in 1990—28%).

In 2000, 41,500 teenagers (260% more than in 1991) were taken into custody for committing offences. Of this number, 18,200 (220% more) were detained for drinking liquor and public drunkenness, and 388 teenagers (twice as many) for the use of drugs and substance abuse.

11. Orphaned Children

There is a problem of social orphanhood in the republic. As of January 1, 2001, there were a total of 30,081 orphaned children and children left without parental care. Of this number, 12,594 children (41.9%) are being raised in guardian and foster families, 245—in family-type foster homes, 173—in children’s villages, 1,300—at homes for abandoned children, 2,298—at children’s homes, 9,210— at boarding schools of all types, and 699—at boarding houses for disabled children. A total of 2,242 children are under the guardianship of the state and are studying at vocational schools, 265— at specialised secondary educational institutions, and 92—at higher education institutions.

In 1999, government structures carried out a number of measures to develop social services for children and the family, set up a network of social and social-pedagogical establishments, and prevent social orphanhood. At the beginning of 2001, a total of 24 territorial centres for providing services to the family and children were operating in the republic.

After a National Centre for Adoption was set up in the republic and the Republic of Belarus Presidential decree “On the Material Support of Families that Have Adopted Children” entered into force, the adoption of children became more active. In 2000, a total of 912 children were adopted, which is 180 more than in 1999 and more than twice as many as in 1990. Citizens of the Republic 18 of Belarus adopted 495 children, which is 97 (16%) fewer than in 1999 and 88 (15%) fewer than in 1995. Foreign citizens adopted 417 children in 2000, which is nearly 3 times as many as in 1999 and 8 times as many as in 1995.

G.I. Gasyuk Ministry of Statistics and Analysis of the Republic Belarus