The United States and Conflict in the Middle East

Instructor: Preston Hughes

Class Schedule: January 9 & 25 February 8 & 22 March 8 & 22 April 5 & 12

Please silence cell phones before class begins. The US and Conflict in the Middle East

Setting the Stage

HITTITE EMPIRE circa 1600 BC – 1178 BC Shown in Blue is Hittite Empire circa 1300 BC The first written international treaty known to humankind, Kadesh, was made between Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses II and Hittite King Hattushili, in 1269 BCE. The tablet is now displayed at the Archeological Museum, where you can also find the oldest love poem, written by the Sumerian queen to the Sumerian king in 2037-2039 BCE. The museum also houses the Alexander Sarcophagus. Assyrian Empire circa 7th century BCE (greatest extent) Babylonia Tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire (the first Persian Empire) in the 6th century BCE The Persian Empire circa 500 BCE Empire of Alexander the Great 4th century BCE Post Alexander Armenian Empire Armenia its greatest extent under Tigranes the Great, 69 BC (including vassals) Kurds Roman Empire At its greatest extent (vassals in pink)

Roman Empire

Sassanid Empire The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent c. 620 CE, under Khosrow II . Greatest temporary extent during Byzantine – Sasanian War of 602-628 shown in stripes. Next Slide: Islamic Empire

For Byzantine Slide discuss who lives in , Christian heretics, conditions under which they live just prior to birth of Muhammad The Qur’an on the Qur’an We sent to you [Muhammad] the Scripture with the truth, confirming the Scriptures that came before it, and with final authority over them: so judge between them according to what God has sent down. Do not follow their whims, which deviate from the truth that has come to you. 5: 48 Truly, this Qur’an has been sent down by the Lord of the Worlds; the Trustworthy Spirit [generally understood to mean the Angel Gabriel] brought it down to your heart [Prophet], so you could bring warning in a clear Arabic tongue. This was foretold in the scriptures of earlier religions. Is it not proof enough for them that the learned men of the Children of Israel have recognized it? 26: 192-197 By the Scripture that makes [things] clear, We have made it a Qur’an in Arabic so that you [people] may understand. In the Source of Scripture kept with Us, it is truly exalted and authoritative. We have made this Qur’an easy to understand—in your own language [Prophet]—so that they may take heed. 44: 58 Yet the scripture of Moses was revealed before it [this Qur’an] as a guide and a mercy, and this is a scripture confirming it in the Arabic language to warn those who do evil and bring good news for those who do good. 46: 12 The Qur’an on the Children of Israel and the Prophets Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian. He was upright and devoted to God, never an idolater, and the people who are closest to him are those who truly follow his ways, the Prophet and [true believers—God is close to [true] believers]. 3: 67-68 God chose Adam, Noah, Abraham’s family and the family of Imran [Mary’s father, according to the Qur’an] over all other people, in one line of descent—God hears and knows all. 3: 33-34

[God said to Abraham] ‘Take the spot where Abraham stood as your place of prayer’. We commanded Abraham and Ishmael: ‘Purify My House for those who walk round it, those who bow and prostrate themselves in worship’. . . . As Abraham and Ishmael built up the foundations of the House, [they prayed] ‘Our Lord, accept [this] from us. . . . Who but a fool would forsake the religion of Abraham? 2: 125-130

[Abraham said] ‘Praise be to God, who has granted me Ishmael and Isaac in my old age: my Lord hears all requests.’ 14: 39

We gave [Abraham] Isaac and Jacob, each of whom We guided, as We had guided Noah before, and among his descendants were David, Solomon, Joseph, Moses, and Aaron—in this way We reward those who do good— Zachariah, John, Jesus and Elijah—everyone of them was righteous—Ishmael, Elisha, Jonah and Lot. We favored each one of them over other people, and also some of their forefathers, their offspring, and their brothers. We chose them and guided them on a straight path. The Qur’an on the Israelites/the Torah and Gospel of Jesus God: there is no god but Him, the Ever Living, the Ever Watchful. Step by step, He has sent the Scripture down to you [Prophet] with the Truth, confirming what went before: He sent down the Torah and the Gospel earlier as a guide for people and He has sent down the distinction [between right and wrong]. Those who deny God’s revelations will suffer severe torment: 3: 2-4 This is an account of things beyond your knowledge that We reveal to you [Muhammad]: . . . The angels said [to Mary] “Mary, God gives you news of a Word from Him, whose name will be the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, who will be held in honour in this world and the next, who will be one of those brought near to God”. [In response to Mary’s question about how she can have a son “when no man has touched me”] This is how God creates what He will: when He has ordained something He only says, “Be”, and it is. We will teach him [Jesus] the Scripture and wisdom, the Torah and the Gospel, He will send him as a messenger to the Children of Israel: . . . [he will say to the Children of Israel] “I have come to confirm the truth of the Torah which preceded me, and to make some things lawful to you which used to be forbidden”. . . . [Then God said] “Jesus, I will take you back and raise you up to Me: I will purify you of the disbelievers. I will make the disbelievers suffer severely in this world and the next; no one will help them”. As for those who believe and do good deeds God will pay them their reward in full, but God does not love evildoers. 3: 44-45, 47-57 [After the earlier prophets] We sent other messengers to follow in their footsteps. After those We sent Jesus, son of Mary: We gave him the Gospel and put compassion and mercy into the hearts of his followers. 57: 27 {Describing earlier messengers} . . . And you {Muhammad} truly are one of the messengers. We favored some of these messengers above others. God spoke to some ; others He raised in rank; We gave Jesus, son of Mary, Our clear signs and strengthened him with the holy spirit. 2: 253 The Qur’an on Jesus’ Divinity People of the Book, do not go to excess in your religion, and do not say anything about God except the truth: the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, was nothing more than a messenger of God, His word directed to Mary, and a spirit from Him. So believe in God and His messengers and do not speak of a ‘Trinity’—stop [this], that is better for you— God is only one God, He is far above having a son, everything in the heavens and earth belongs to Him and He is the best one to trust. 4: 171 In God’s eyes Jesus is just like Adam: He created him from dust, said to him, ‘Be’, and he was. . . . This is the truth of the matter: there is no god but God; God is the Exalted, the Decider’ [judge]. If they turn away, [know that] God is well aware of anyone who causes corruption [in beliefs]. Say ‘People of the Book, let us arrive at a statement that is common to us all: we worship God alone, we ascribe no partner to Him, and none of us takes others beside God as lords’. 3: 58-64 The Jews said ‘Ezra is the son of God’, and the Christians said, ‘The Messiah is the son of God’: they said this with their own mouths, repeating what earlier disbelievers had said. May God thwart them! How far astray they have been led! They take their rabbis and their monks as lords beside God, as well as Christ, the son of Mary. But they were commanded to serve only one God: there is no god but Him; he is far above whatever they set up as His partners! 9: 30-31 ‘We [Muslims] believe in God and in what has been sent down to us and to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes. We believe in what has been given to Moses, Jesus and the prophets from their Lord. We do not make a distinction between any of them. It is to Him that we devote ourselves.’ 3: 84 The Qur’an on the People of the Book (Jews and Christians)

[Believers], argue only in the best way with the People of the Book, except with those of them who act unjustly. Say, ‘We believe in what was revealed to us and in what was revealed to you; our God and your God is one [and the same]; we are devoted to Him’. 29: 46

Some of the People of the Book would dearly love to lead you [believers] astray, but they only lead themselves astray, though they do not realize it. People of the Book, why do you deny God’s revelations when you can see they are true? People of the Book, why do you mix truth with falsehood? 3: 69-71

Fight those of the People of the Book who do not [truly] believe in God and the Last Day, who do not forbid what God and His Messenger have forbidden, who do not obey the rule of justice, until they pay the tax promptly and agree to submit. The Qur’an and Fighting Unbelievers So-called “Verse of the Sword” When the [four]forbidden months are over, wherever you encounter the idolaters, kill them, seize them, besiege them, wait for them at every lookout post; but if they repent, maintain the prayer and pay the prescribed alms, let them go on their way, for God is most forgiving and merciful. 9: 5

Believers, those who ascribe partners to God are truly unclean: do not let them come near the Sacred Mosque after this year. If you are afraid you may become poor, [bear in mind that] God will enrich you out of His bounty if He pleases: God is all knowing and wise; Fight those of the People of the Book who do not [truly] believe in God and the Last Day, who do not forbid what God and His messenger have forbidden, who do not obey the rule of justice, until they pay the tax promptly and agree to submit. 9:29 The Qur’an on Husband-Wife Relationships and Inheritance Give orphans their property, do not replace [their] good things with bad, and do not consume their property along with your own—a great sin. If you fear that you will not deal fairly with orphan girls, you may marry whichever [other] women seem good to you, two, three, or four. If you fear that you cannot be equitable [to them], then marry only one, or your slave(s): that is more likely to avoid bias. 4: 3 You will never be able to treat your wives with equal fairness, however much you desire to do so, but do not ignore one wife altogether, leaving her suspended [between marriage and divorce]. 4: 129

Men shall have a share in what their parents and closest relatives leave, and women shall have a share in what their parents and closest relatives leave, whether the legacy be small or large: this is ordained by God. 4: 7

Husbands should take good care of their wives, with [the bounties] God has given to some more than others and with what they spend out of their own money. Righteous wives are devout and guard what God would have them guard in their husbands’ absence. If you fear highhandedness from your wives, remind them [of the teachings of God], then ignore them when you go to bed, then hit them. {Commentary: This signifies a single slap.} If they obey you, you have no right to act against them: God is most high and great. If you [believers] fear that a couple may break up, appoint one arbiter from his family and one from hers. Then, if the couple want to put things right, God will bring about a reconciliation between them: He is all knowing, all aware. 4: 34-35 If a wife fears high-handedness or alienation from her husband, neither of them will be blamed if they come to a peaceful settlement, for peace is best. 4: 128 The Qur’an on Female Modesty

[Prophet], tell believing men to lower their eyes and guard their private parts: that is purer for them. . . . And tell believing women that they should lower their eyes, guard their private parts, and not display their charms beyond what [it is acceptable] to reveal; they should draw their coverings over their necklines and not reveal their charms except to their husbands, their fathers, {etc—family members, in particular}; they should not stamp their feet so as to draw attention to any hidden charms. 24: 30-31

Prophet, tell your wives, your daughters, and women believers to make their outer garments hang low over them so as to be recognized and not insulted: . . . 33: 59 The Succession Crisis

Muhammad and his followers moved from Mecca to Medina in 622. Called the Hijra, this event became the starting point for the Islamic calendar.

Muhammad continued to receive revelations until he died in 632.

He left no instructions—at least, no clear, incontestable instructions—as to who should succeed him—as leader of the Islamic community (umma) upon his death.

Some of his closest associates believed his successor should be chosen according to the tradition of the elders in the past—the Sunnah: elders meet and elect the man deemed most fit to lead the umma. Those who held this view eventually came to be called the Sunni.

Others believed his successor should be from his bloodline. The only one who fit this description was Muhammad’s cousin Ali, who was married to his daughter Fatma (Fatima). Those who supported Ali as Muhammad’s successor—the partisans of Ali (Shiatu in Arabic)—eventually came to be called Shia (often spelled Shiite in English sources).

ROLE OF RELIGION IN ARAB CONQUESTS

Contrary to popular belief, the early conquests did not seek to spread the faith through forced conversion but to spread Muslim rule. Many early Muslims regarded Islam solely as an Arab religion. Moreover, from an economic perspective, increase in the size of the community through conversion diminished Arab Muslims’ share in the spoils of conquest. As Islam penetrated new areas, people were offered three options: (1) conversion, that is full membership in the Muslim community, with its rights and duties; (2) acceptance of Muslim rule as “protected” people and payment of a poll tax; (3) battle or the sword if neither the first nor the second option was accepted. The astonishing expansion of Islam resulted not only from armed conquest but also from these two peaceful options. In later centuries, in many areas of Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia, the effective spread of Islam would be due primarily to Muslim traders and Sufi (mystic) missionaries who won converts by their example and their preaching. (Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path, 34-35) ROLE OF RELIGION IN ARAB CONQUESTS

There is no compulsion in religion: true guidance has become distinct from error, so whoever rejects false gods and believes in God has grasped the firmest hand- hold, one that will never break. . . . God is the ally of those who believe: He brings them out of the depths of darkness and into light. But close to the disbelievers are their false gods, who take them from the light into the depths of darkness, they are the inhabitants of the Fire, and there they will remain. Qur’an 2:256-257

If anyone denies God’s revelations, God is swift to take account—if they argue with you [Prophet], say, ‘I have devoted myself to God alone and so have my followers’. Ask those who were given the Scripture, as well as those without one, ‘Do you devote yourselves to Him alone?’ If they do, they will be guided, but if they turn away, your only duty is to convey the message. God is aware of his servants. 3: 20 The Sunni-Shia Split

The fourth “Rightly Guided Caliph” was Ali, who was also chosen in accordance with the Sunnah. In 661, a challenger named Muawiyya, governor of Syria, led a revolt against Ali. When Ali was not able to defeat his challenger, an extremist group of Ali’s own supporters assassinated him. Muawiyya and his successors, who were Sunni, created a dynasty—the Umayyad dynasty— which lasted until 750 CE.

When Muawiyya died, Ali’s son Hussein, whom the Shia accepted as caliph, challenged Muawiyya’s son Yazid for leadership of the umma. In 670 Yazid’s army met and massacred Hussein’s small force near Karbala, not far from the present site of Baghdad. This is the date that lives in infamy for all Shia, down to the present day. It is commemorated annually with dramatic ceremony, especially in Iran. Ali and Hussein are, to the Shia, saints, deeply revered. The Shia have never forgiven the Sunni for this act and for their further persecution of the Shia for Shia practices, which the Sunni see as blasphemy (e.g., visiting tombs and shrines of Shia holy men). This mutual antipathy is as strong today as ever and is part of the basis for the enmity between Iran (where Shia is the country’s religion) and Saudi Arabia (almost exclusively Sunni). The Sunni- Shia rivalry also affects the situation in Iraq and in Syria.

In October 732, the army of the Umayyad Caliphate met Frankish and Burgundian forces under Charles Martel between the cities of Tours and Poitiers, leading to a decisive, historically important Frankish victory known as the Battle of Tours. Abbasid Empire established in 750 with Capital in Baghdad. Harun al-Rashid was its greatest Caliph.

786-809 Caliph HARUN al- RASHID + zenith of Abbasid power +period of cultural renaissance in Baghdad and other cities of the empire + House of Wisdom + One Thousand and One Arabian Nights +Major advancements made in development of Islamic jurisprudence + By 10th century, cohesion gone, Empire splits up though Abbasid caliph still “rules” in Baghdad + Turks begin to arrive from the east (west-central China/Mongolia)

As the Abbasid Empire continues to split up, late in the 11th Century the First Crusade sets out for Jerusalem. After crossing Asia Minor and defeating Turks along the way—and stopping to take —is arrives at the city of Jerusalem in 1099. Crusades will continue through 12th and into the 13th century.

NOTE BERBERS Crusader Century Two major crusades arrive in eastern Syria/Palestine during this century. Richard the Lion- Heart and Saladin (a Kurdish leader) are main rivals during this period. near exhaustion due to Crusaders and arrival of more & more Turks. A Century of devastation and upheaval The Fourth—and final—major Crusade captures and sacks Constantinople. Meantime, the Mongols arrive from the East and wreak havoc throughout much of the Middle East. They sack Baghdad, end the Abbasid caliphate, are finally defeated (1260) by the Mamlukes, out of Egypt. In the late 13th century, Turks led by Osman establish a community just east of the Sea of . In the 14th century they will expand their territory, including gaining a foothold in Europe, in Thrace, thanks to encouragement of the Byzantine ruler. Ottomans expand further into the Balkans; take Constantinople in 1453. Byzantine Empire is no more.

Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II established “millet” system, granting religious minorities (Jews, Orthodox Christians, Armenians) autonomy and control over their affairs, within the Ottoman system. The Millet System

It was Mehmet’s policy to officially recognize minority religious groups and to allow them considerable autonomy in their political affairs, as well as freedom to worship as they desired. This policy was implemented through the “millet” system. (Millet in Turkish means nation or a particular ethnic or religious community.) By this policy the Sultan recognized the leaders of the Orthodox Christians, Armenian Christians and Jews as heads of their respective millets. Their authority extended beyond matters of religious administration and included judicial and tax-collecting authority. Thus, the millet system was an instrument of the Ottoman government. Ottoman Empire reaches its maximum extent in Europe. Its army, under Suleyman the Magnificent (1522-1566) reach Vienna and lay siege to the city, but is unable to take it. Persia controlled by Safavids; adopts Shia Islam as official religion. Ottomans extend control beyond the Caucasus, but begin many years of debilitating conflict with the Russians. Meantime, western seafaring powers begin to show up in Muslim realms, especially in south and southeast Asia, including today’s India and Indonesia. Even ships from the American colonies begin to appear in the Middle East.

Ottomans on the decline. Muslim thinkers begin to wonder “What Went Wrong”. Some, such as al-Wahhab in Arabia, believe the reason for Islam’s—and especially the Arabs’— decline is adoption of Western “innovations”, corruption from the West, and failure to live in Islamic purity. The answer is to return to the pure, pristine Islam of Muhammad’s time in the 7th century. Those who don’t agree are seen as heretics who must be dealt with. Islamic Reformers in the 17th & 18th Centuries Shayk Ahmad Sirhindi in India (1564-1624) “asserted the need for Muslims to purge their lives of un-Islamic practices and to reform popular Sufi practices, which he believed were responsible for much of the religious syncretism that threatened the identity, moral fiber, and survival of Indian Islam in its multiconfessional setting.” (Esposito 4th Ed, 148)

Muhammad Abdul ibn Abd al-Wahhab (circa 1703-1792) like earlier reformers, such as Sirhindi and ibn-Taymiya, believed that the political and moral decline of the Islamic community was due to a “deviation from the straight path of Islamic practice.” (Esposito, 144) The movement he started adopted the use of force to achieve the goal of returning the Islamic community to the pristine Islam of the early Meccan and Medinan period, with Sharia law as its sole basis. This increasingly militant movement viewed all Muslims who resisted as unbelievers. Wahhabism - Salafism Al-Wahhab--Saudi Arabian conservative theologian, Hanbali jurist, reformer, and ideologue of the Wahhabi movement. Proclaimed the necessity of returning directly to the Quran and hadith, rather than relying on medieval interpretations. Denounced as heretical innovations the practices of shrine cults, saint worship, requests for intercession from anyone other than God, and assigning authority to anyone other than God. Promoted strict adherence to traditional Islamic law. The general term for this ideology has been called Salafism, or the religion of the elders. Its form in modern Saudi Arabia, and in some other Islamic states influenced by Saudi Arabia, is called Wahhabism.

In 1765, Wahhab made a pact with Arabian warrior Muhammad ibn Saud and subsequently united Bedouin tribes under Saudi--Wahhaabi rule.