The Joseph and Rose Kennedy The Kennedy Institute Georgetown University Institute of Ethics Quarterly Report W ashington, D .C. 20057

Volume 5, Number 2 Fall 1979

Sargent Shriver and When we left for China no one in our significant the human, affective, Richard A. McCormick, S.J. 18-member delegation knew what to nonacademic experiences. An expect. When we returned everyone adequate explanation for these knew the unexpected had surpassed surprising responses probably doesn’t the planned. exist, but a few rather simple observations might help. Some members of our group may have The thought they knew what was going to Our scholars learned about the happen, since each had been given a tortures, banishments and humiliations detailed itinerary. Some had prepared inflicted upon their academic China speeches for audiences they expected counterparts over the last 20 years in to address. The leader of our party China, from the lips of professors who Trip had assured and reassured everyone had actually undergone the banishments that everything would work out , trials and tribulations. Personal according to schedule. But, like most stories about the national assault upon other leaders, past and present, he was learning and on the learned by the proceeding on intuition and faith as “know-nothings” of the Cultural well as on facts and circumstantial Revolution would have shocked, if evidence. He was himself uncertain not traumatized, the most dedicated how we would be received, and by enthusiast of Chairman Mao. The whom; what audiences we would effect of this assault penetrates more address; what questions we could ask, deeply perhaps, to academics like the and what responses if any we would members of our delegation. They receive. could easily see themselves in the faces of their fellow, albeit Chinese, Before we departed no one anticipated professors. th at nothing in the travel brochures, nothing in the physical, Reading about re-education programs environmental reality of China, or is one thing. Meeting and talking for nothing in the books we had read hours with distinguished professors about China, would even be who had been ridiculed and made to mentioned at our dinner together grovel simply because they were back in Washington, when each of professors brought the reality to life. us was called upon to describe “that one most unforgettable experience” How could the Catholic priests in our of our journey from the U.S.A. to group not fail to be stirred by their Japan, to Hong Kong and to China. meetings and lengthy conversations Neither did our independent, with Chinese priests, fellow followers objective scholars mention the of Christ, who had been imprisoned universities or medical schools, nor and tortured for 25 years condemned, the discussions with political leaders, some of them, to five consecutive diplomats, lawyers or students. years of solitary imprisonment? Copyright © The Kennedy Institute Instead, they all recalled as most Fall 1979 How could Protestant ministers universities, medical schools, scientific China, but not the freedom to experience, without being touched to centers and elsewhere. Religion in propagate one’s faith. their very depths, the first open China was one of these, and we were Sunday church service in Shanghai in told repeatedly how “it did not count The heart of our stay in Beijing 13 years, when the congregation for much.” Yet whenever it came up (which included visits to the Great began singing Christian hymns as tears in discussions, the opposite seemed to Wall, the Ming Tombs, an exhibition of joy ran openly down their cheeks be the case as interest immediately game by the Washington Bullets, an at the chance once again to worship sharpened. interview with Vice Premier Yao Ilin, God. a discussion/reception with Ambassador Our group visited the Catholic Leonard Woodcock, and a How could anyone atheist, secularist cathedral in Beijing (now under the discussion with the former president or religionist ever forget a gifted jurisdiction of the “Patriotic Catholic” of the Chinese Medical Association) pianist’s performance as he tried to Bishop) with the intention of celebrating was August 27th and 28th. On these play Chopin, Vivaldi and Schubert Mass there. After numerous put- two days the Chinese made their (with fingers which had been broken offs, we were eventually treated to tea presentations and we held our by the Red Guards with the intent and an hour’s discussion of religious seminars with the National Academy that he never play again) on a battered affairs in China. As was explained to of Social Sciences (described in old piano, while bats, entering us, there is so-called freedom of further detail elsewhere in this issue). through giant holes in the theatre’s religion (practice or worship) in ceiling, swooped over the stage and The seminar was opened with a orchestra? welcome by Vice President Huan Xiang, with a return address by Every day we saw evidence of the Sargent Shriver, Richard McCormick despoliation and ignorance which had explained the nature, purpose and ravaged China. But even more activities of the Kennedy Institute. frequently, each day our spirits were The Chinese members of the National touched and elevated by the tenderness Academy (which is the equivalent in , the hospitality, the courage, and China of cabinet level in this country) the will to rise above hardship and then presented a series of topical poverty. One billion Chinese discussions including: ethical displayed, better than books or problems in a socialist society (Professor television or billboard advertising, Li Ji, Deputy Director of the the indomitable qualities of human Institute of Philosophy); population nature and the classic qualities of problems and ethics (Professor Fei Chinese civilization which have seen Xiaotong, Chairman of the Chinese and survived numerous attempts by Sociology Association); law and ethics foreigners at subjugation. (Professor Rui Mo, Deputy Director of the Institute of Law); and religious Many subjects were discussed in the thought in China (Professor Zhao course of our meetings with the Fusan, Deputy Director of the faculty members of the Academy of Institute of World Religion). Professor the Social Sciences in Beijing, and Zhao Fusan made one of the most with administrators and professors in 3

courageous statements we heard. Scholars who spend two weeks in When asked about the inequality China do not thereby become experts involved in the lack of freedom to on China, but they do form some propagate anything but atheism, he instant, even if corrigible impressions. stated simply: “I feel unequal.” The other articles in this issue of the Kennedy Institute Quarterly Report The next day the Kennedy Institute describe some of the personal impressions made its presentation. Dr. Conrad from a variety of perspectives. Taeuber discussed “Ethics and Popula- tion,” Dr. John Collins Harvey Certainly the contact between the " Ethics and Medicine,” and Dr. H. Kennedy Institute of Ethics and The Tristram Engelhardt “Ethics and Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Research.” Later in the day shorter will not be restricted to the events presentations were made on law, described herein. On Saturday, the economics, and health by Professors 10th of November, Vice President Patricia King, Thomas Beauchamp, and of the Academy of Social Sciences, Ruth Faden, which completed the Huan Xiang, visited the scholars of dialogue. One of the highlights of the Kennedy Institute of Ethics in these two days was Hans Kung’s Washington. In a happy reunion lecture on “Science and Religion” in atmosphere it was agreed that plans which he argued that the God- would be made for a joint seminar question must be viewed as an open between the two Institutes in question-not a closed one as official Washington in 1980. Chinese policy would present it. Kung Beijing University. stated pointedly that both religion Four possible subjects were suggested and revolution can be opiates to the overtures were strengthened socially for consideration at this seminar. people. during two banquets hosted successively These topics will be developed in a by the Academy of Social preliminary way by scholars at the These two days deserve at least a foot- Sciences and the Kennedy Institute. Kennedy Institute and then submitted note in the history of the People’s R epeated Mao Tais, a wicked rice to their counterparts in the Academy Republic. It was the first time in liquor used traditionally in Chinese of Social Sciences for review, criticism thirty years that ethics and religion toasts, intensified a cordiality and and discussion. One subject will be had been discussed at a public forum good will that we found abundant in chosen for the joint seminar and a by an outside group, at a seminar China. mutually agreeable date selected, so approved or at least tolerated by the that the “Opening to the Far East” Chinese government. Whatever the The Chinese segment of the trip concluded which was inaugurated in the waning results, that in itself is a breakthrough, with a visit to Q o Fu (Confucius’ months of the Summer of ’79 will be furthermore, the Chinese seem to birthplace) and three days in Shanghai, remembered as the beginning of a long want to continue the contact. And so where conversations with medical and and fruitful scholarly relationship do we. We have already invited legal experts reinforced what we had between East and West. In these days Professor Zhao Fusan to join us for a been learning all along: that Marxist- and years ahead the twain will meet. sabbatical as a Kennedy Institute Leninist analyses lead to a distinct set research scholar. These initial over- of problems, attitudes, and practices in the professions. 4

Dr. Tristram Engelhardt It is important that one not under- ethics is not undertaken as a primarily estimate the expanse of the gulf intellectual enterprise, but much involved. It is not merely a difference more as a project of moral training Bioethical Issues in tradition, as between an analytic or of the development of a proper philosopher and a phenomenologist, conscience. Our interlocutors were, in Contemporary or between a Christian philosopher therefore, often puzzled at our persistent China and an atheist philosopher. In all of search for basic conceptual those cases philosophy and more presuppositions and our attempt to particularly bioethics, can be viewed analyse various bioethical views. On October 26, 1963, Chou Yang as having an independent intellectual Though our hosts could see that a delivered an address to the Department integrity and purpose of its own, one particular bioethical issue existed, it of Philosophy and Social that cannot be reduced without loss rarely presented itself to them as a Sciences of the Chinese Academy of meaning to other intellectual quandary or problem. There was not of Sciences, “The Fighting Task concerns. In our discussions, however, a tradition of ethical controversy or Confronting Workers in Philosophy philosophical concerns, including moral pluralism to draw upon for the and the Social Sciences.” There he bioethical concerns, were persistently analysis of bioethical issues. As a argued that “Philosophy and the recast in terms of economic forces and consequence, particular moral stances social sciences constitute an important the role of particular ideas for particular or resolutions of issues were for the front in the ideological classes. The extent of this gulf most part simply taken for granted. struggle.1 This view of the role of was, I believe, in m any cases appreciated The enterprise of the ethicist was philosophy and therefore of ethics better by our hosts than by seen as that of fortifying or developing and bioethics, which is integral to a us. In any event, the gulf itself added the accepted position. O ur interlocutors Marxist-Leninist society, framed all a special interest to the exchange. It were thus at times puzzled of the discussions we had in the showed the special problems involved that we on the one hand could accept People’s Republic of China. A in, and benefits derivable from, a particular moral viewpoint, and yet philosophical interchange within serious cultural exchange with an see merit in subjecting it to vigorous an orthodox Marxist-Leninist intellectual community that has come analytical appraisal. framework proceeds quite differently to view the significance of ideas in a from philosophical and ethical discussions fashion quite different from the Because of this view of philosophical in the West. Where we view West. One should remark here that discussion in the intellectual life of philosophy, inter alia, as a rational for many reasons these differences the PRC, there was an absence of attempt to clarify ideas, and as a are more starkly drawn between the bioethical reflection, as we would good worth pursuing in its own West and the PRC than between the understand it. In a real sense there is right, philosophy in the People’s West and philosophical communities no bioethics in the PRC as a scholarly Republic remains always at least in the Soviet bloc. However, the subdiscipline, though there surely are implicitly the handmaiden of political force of this contrast is altered by not bioethical issues. Moreover, those and econom ic policies. These differences only a greater political openness, but bioethical issues appear in quite a were recognized by our I believe a greater cordiality and different mode in a society where hosts. One might indeed say that intrinsic interest on the part of the ethics is not primarily a means of our hosts were cordially attendant scholars in the People’s Republic. negotiating moral intuition by an to the problems of doing philosophy appeal to reason rather than force, across such conceptual gulfs. Because of this different context for than in a society where ethics serves philosophical reflection, the study of as a logical pluralism, as with us. 5

Rights to and in Health Care social milieu in which little active care. In short, the occasion exists for dissent from policy decisions exists. the development of bioethical reflections Health services are provided out of Thus on the one hand, patients are , were there to be an accepting the resources of communes and given com plete inform ation concerning intellectual milieu. factories for their members. Usually the risks and benefits of the one-half of the costs of the care of surgical medical procedures to which One of the impediments to such the children of factory and commune they are to be subjected. On the reflection is the lack of interest in w orkers is supported as well. Health other hand, the notion that an applied philosophy, an absence similar care is often delivered in a fashion individual would refuse a “needed” to that which prevailed among which we would consider to be operation was often dismissed with American philosophers until at spartan, and which would reflect amazement. Generally, consent is least ten years ago. This, combined 11 upon the circumstances of call-in, acquired through enlisting peer pressure with the non-analytic, “pragmatic” in our major charity hospitals. Put in , and these pressures tend to be approach on the part of the medical perspective, the m edical accomplishments fairly effective. For example, relatives profession, makes the pursuit of of China are impressive. As the of potential organ donors are often scholarly bioethical reflection somewhat PRC emphasized, its major focus has repeatedly brought to see a potential difficult. For example, in a been upon preventive medicine. One recipient in order to acquire their group of physicians and philosophers, need think only of their astonishing consent for the use of the organs. Yet we failed to convince any that there success in controlling Schistosoma despite these measures, we heard that was a bioethical issue involved in japonicum . In this context rights to certain operative procedures were removing organs for transplantation health care have been appreciated frequently declined to the consternation from dying patients. There was as a commitment to the major goal of those involved in providing neither a sense of an ethical issue of providing adequate health care to nearly a billion people. Rights to health care have been understood in terms of interest in this goal and have not been seen as a fundamental or irreducible right (e.g., though health care is provided cheaply, non-factory and non-commune workers must pay for their care). Moreover, the sense of the basic amenities of health care are quite different from ours. For example, at an operation we witnessed, little care was taken to avoid a scar on the neck of a 30-year-old woman. The proposal of greater interest in achieving greater cosmetic success was dismissed with some puzzlement.

Issues of consent and of the provision of full information are addressed in a Dr. Engelhardt, Dr. Harvey, and Father McCormick with Dr. Xi-Wu, at Shantung Medical College, Jinan, examining electron-micrographs in electron microscopy room. at stake with respect to the transfer support and care. Those who are not use of communal social pressures. of organs at that point, nor recognition severely impaired were, as far as On the other hand, the same peer that a conceptual issue existed possible, treated w ithin local communities pressures are used to support active with regard to when individuals (e.g., within the parent’s discussion of, and use of, contraception indeed die. commune). Those with more serious . In addition, individuals who difficulties were sent to major cities have more than two children meet In summary, one finds individuals with specialized facilities. However, with strong social pressures and strongly committed to humanitarian given the exigencies of contemporary economic sanctions if they do not goals, but without an interest in or China and the administrative chaos acquire an abortion for subsequent tradition of actually analyzing them. that ensued during the Cultural pregnancies. Population control has In discussing the treatm ent of deformed Revolution, there does not appear in fact become a moral goal in view infants, we were repeatedly to be a well developed general policy. of the limited resources available in told that resources were invested as Still, within those constraints, there the People’s Republic. Reproduction far as possible in their care. Physicians appears to be a commitment on the in excess of two children is thus seen in the PRC took this to be an obligation basis of “Revolutionary Humani- as a form of assault upon the common of revolutionary humanitarianism. tarianism” to provide health services resources of the citizenry and meets They were concerned that the life of for all persons in China independently with general disapproval. The People’s all persons should be succored, even of considerations of their potential Republic has achieved as a result, in when the lives supported are not future contributions. This respect for the larger cities at least, a rather productive. However, there was no life was focused only on humans widespread com m itm ent to a contraceptive interest in analyzing the bases of that ex utero. The notion of the possible ethos in order to secure a viewpoint, or of determining how a use of amniocentesis and selective minimum decent standard of living revolutionary humanitarian ethic abortion was considered to be morally for all its citizens. Towards these should come to terms with problem unproblematic. In general one found ends, the use of contraception and cases. Physicians, for example, stated a positive humanitarian position that abortion are seen to be morally that in the case of some deformed had not been subjected to any critical unproblematic. infants, life was worse than death, reflection or analysis of its possible and that therefore those should not internal contradictions and limiting The Family be treated. How such cases were to cases. be recognized, however was left In all bioethical discussions, the unexamined. family retains a vigorous central role. Reproductive Ethics In all difficult medical procedures it Care for the Mentally Retarded appears that the family is consulted. The People’s Republic of China In fact, often family consent substitutes combines a puritanical view of human Concern to provide medical and for the consent of the in- sexuality with widespread contraceptive educational care for the mentally dividual involved. In short, the family education (e.g., detailed retarded was expressed both at the is seen as an intact moral entity and billboards on the street explain level of communes and in the is treated as such. In fact, the economic contraception) and an aggressive Academy of Medicine. Within the abortion policy. On the one hand, and social sanctions against families limited resources available in a sexuality as a social or pleasurable having more than two children reflects developing nation, there appears to element of life is little discussed. this basic commitment. In punishing be a sincere commitment to provide Premarital and extramarital sex is such families (e.g., denying further vigorously suppressed through the rations for extra children, and denying Canton roofs.

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payment for education and health Dr. Conrad Taeuber increase to one percent in 1979, and care benefits), the State continues to to 0.5% by 1985. The target is to have view the family as a morally responsible no growth by the end of the century, entity. As a consequence, an with births just equalling deaths. analysis of bioethical issues in the The People Immigration or emigration are People’s Republic is forced to attend relatively unimportant in these to the family in a way that would not “Between 900 million and a billion,” totals. One report stated that some be necessary in the West. was the answer given by the Vice 250,000 refugees have entered the Premier when he was asked about the People’s Republic of China, primarily Future Exchange: numbers of people in his country. across the land borders. Large as that Working Through Ideologies On second thought, he said number may seem in the United “958,000,000”. That was the figure States, one can readily agree with These very sharp differences between which had been published officially, the Chinese observer who expressed the state of scholarship in bioethics omitting the population of Taiwan. the view that the refugees presented a in the People’s Republic versus that The official estimate was as of the end humanitarian rather than a demo- of the West make exchange on these of 1978 by the time the Kennedy graphic problem . points interesting for both sides. For Institute delegation spoke with him, the People’s Republic the increased the total may well have climbed to The publication of demographic use of intrusive medical procedures 965 million. statistics has not been a high priority will undoubtedly press health professionals activity for the government. The local and philosophers to reflect The release of “official” figures on registration system is considered an on problematic areas such as patient the country’s population is in itself a adequate basis for such statistics as consent and upon definitions of unique development. Until recently are needed. In a country as large as death. On the other hand, the People’s analysts outside China have been China, with limited communication Republic of China offers the West an dependent on scattered information and transportation facilities in much occasion to reflect and learn about a in making their assessment of population of the area, it should not be surprising consent society’s approach to modern trends in that country. The new that national and regional statistics bioethical issues, an approach value figure falls within the range of are largely lacking, at least so far as within a different conceptual context estimates made in Washington and publication is concerned. Analysts and with special commitments to the New York, which were as low as 921 may argue whether the birth rate is family and to population control. million and as high as one billion. as low as 16.5 or as high as 26.6 per Such an exchange would surely be thousand of the population. (The beneficial to both parties. Whatever the final digit in such birth rate in the United States is numbers may be, it is clear that currently about 15 per thousand.) The China is by all odds the most populous rate in China is low in comparison country in the world, including nearly with similar rates in other less a quarter of the world’s people. developed countries. Moreover there are strong indications that the birth 1. Chou Yang, “The Fighting Task Confronting The same official reports state that rate has dropped by about one third Workers in Philosophy and the Social Sciences: during 1978 the total population in the years since the early nineteen Speech at the Fourth Enlarged Session of the fifties. Very few of the less developed Committee of the Department of Philosophy and increased by 1.2%, or about 11 Social Sciences of the Chinese Academy of million. It is planned to reduce the countries have had such a rapid Sciences Held on October 26, 1963.” Peking: decline in their birth rates. Foreign Languages Press, 1963, p. 1. Death rates have also been cut rather displays of contraceptives and posters The article further points out that rapidly—in 1970-75 they were only advocating small families make it rapid growth is not beneficial to an about half as high as they had been evident that the climate has changed accelerated rate of capital accumulation twenty years earlier. Whether the from one of antagonism to the idea ; it hinders the speed of raising death rate is as low as 6.0 or as high of restricting fertility to the active the level of scientific and cultural as 9.6 per thousand of the population promotion of programs toward that standards; and it is not beneficial may be difficult to establish, but it end. to the improvement of levels of living. is clear that the People’s Republic of China has made substantial gains in Shortly before the group’s arrival in The author points with pride to a the reduction of deaths, especially China, the People’s Daily had carried decline in the annual rate of growth those due to infectious diseases. an article by Chen Muhua, Vice from 2.3 percent in 1971 to 1.2 Compulsory immunization of all Premier of the People’s Republic of percent of 1978. She calls for a school children, coupled with China and the Head of the Planned substantial reduction of the number universal compulsory education, Birth Leadership Group in the State of third and higher order births and undoubtedly has played an important Council (effectively the Cabinet). In the promotion of the one child family role in this achievement. However, this article she argued that under a as the ideal. The action program called the infant mortality rate is still more socialist system the production of for includes: strengthening the than three times that of the United goods, i.e., the development of the leadership of the party by including States, and is susceptible to further national economy, must follow the planned birth work in the daily reductions. principle of proportionality. Planned agenda at all levels of party development in the production of committees; a thorough investigation material goods and the planned into “forbidden” areas of population “The target is to have reproduction of the population itself theories, and the creation of a public no growth by the end of must be in harmony. The planned opinion in favor of controlling the century, with births control of population growth is not population growth; the enactment of a product of subjective decisions but laws and enforcement through just equalling deaths.” is determined and demanded by the economic means, chiefly rewards; socialist system of production. the training of medical personnel and Controlling population growth is the production and distribution of China, like industrially less developed considered essential to the realization contraceptives; and the establishment countries generally, has a very low of the four modernizations: percentage of its people in the older of strong planned birth offices. agriculture, industry, science and age groups. However, with the Contraceptives and medical care are improvements in health and reduction technology, and national defense. The free throughout the country. of mortality among children and superiority of the socialist planned young adults, the causes of death economy provides the possibility for As one moves about the country one common among older people will mankind to regulate its own reproduction is made aware of the efforts to become of increasing concern. and to coordinate population popularize the notion of a one child growth with the increase in the production family. The talk seems to say that a Visitors to China very quickly become of material goods. For a long one child family is the desirable norm, aware of the campaign by the govern­ time there was an inadequate under- two children are tolerable, but no good citizen would have more. ment to curtail births. Window standing and inadequate research into the principles of a planned economy. Leaders of commune and production 9

brigades and other people in leadership special commune meetings carry the At one university there is a women’s positions whom we encountered message. A woman who has had her faculty group which meets knew that that was the doctrine. Vice first child will be visited by female periodically to discuss matters of Premier Muhua had pointed out in her cadres who will offer to accompany common interest. If one of the article that about one third of the her to the hospital to have an IUD members should become pregnant 17.4 million births were third or fitted, and who will return in six in violation of the accepted norm of higher order births. As an immediate months time to make sure that it is family size, she would be “reasoned” goal she called for the reduction of still in place. In another commune, with and every effort would be made the number of such births by one half. the local authorities are keeping track to “have her do something about it.” of the birth control measures used by - There was much talk about a new According to Chinese law, adult family law which was being discussed children are responsible for the care in draft form, and was being reviewed of their aged parents. There is no with provincial officials. One proposal nationwide Social Security system receiving some publicity was that to provide for the care of the elderly. economic incentives would be offered Such provisions are the responsibility to couples which stop with one child, of agricultural communes, industrial for example, a money bonus monthly, production brigades, or other or an increase in the size of the private enterprises. A common statement is plot, giving that family the housing that some 80% of the population live space which is normally allotted to a in rural areas and that it is precisely family of four persons. In April 1979 these areas in which tradition and a law embodying such provisions was personal economic calculations favor in effect in Sichuan Province. Threats the continuance of large family of a cut in wages for having a third patterns. One is frequently told that child, reduced rations, and the the policy favoring the small family elimination of free schooling and care may work in the cities and industrial have also been discussed. enterprises, but that it will be very difficult to make it prevail in the rural One observes that in a matter such as areas. family planning, the central government lays down policies which One can not spend even a few days are communicated to all levels of the 3,000 married women of child- in the major urban areas without government but that implementation bearing age. In a housing project it being impressed by the sheer numbers is left to the local authorities who was stated that priority is given to of people. The streets are filled with may be given quotas, yet left free to newly married couples but only if people at all hours of the day and implement specific measures. There they have waited until the bride is wherever one turns one encounters is also a significant reliance on “peer 25 years old. Marriage at a younger masses of people. Even in the rural pressure.” In a commune one may be age would relegate the couple’s areas one seldom sees an individual told that each production brigade and application for housing to the bottom working alone, but usually there are team has its own leading group on of the list. Premarital sex is severely a number of persons, both men and family planning. Broadcasts and condemned and one is repeatedly told women, who are carrying out their that it simply does not occur. tasks. 10

The government reports that the the end of the century than it is now. which sharply restricted the training population in 1953 was 582 million Questions of food supply, housing, of scholars and research workers. persons, not including the population levels of living, and living space will of Taiwan. Twenty-five years later an continue to be critical. Chen Muhua spoke of “forbidden” “official” estimate gives the total as areas of research. These were 958 million. Even if birth rates are According to official statistics food particularly noticeable in the social further reduced rapidly, continued supplies have increased as population sciences, including demography. growth of that population is indicated has increased, and it would appear to Although population growth and the by the large number of women in the casual observer that in areas we control of that growth are receiving the early childbearing ages. Recent visited food supplies are adequate. high level attention within the reports by the Bureau of Census give However, there are reports that in government, there is very little of “low” projections of 1.2 billion by some of the more remote areas there what we would classify as the year 2000. The “medium” are food shortages and even famine demographic research. At the projection, which is generally conditions. As this is w ritten there is a Academy of the Social Sciences we preferred by the analysts, would be news dispatch from China which learned that none of the Institutes some 200 million higher. Neither reports that a total of 8,500 students is devoted to the study of variant uses birth rates as low as those were admitted to postgraduate work, Demography. An inquiry about this proposed by Chen Muhua when she of some 600,000 who had applied. lack elicited the response that such an looks for zero population growth The numbers reflect not only on the Institute is to be set up in 1980. A by the year 2000. But even if that large numbers of persons of college number of research institutes are should be achieved, the population age, but also on the continuing reported from some universities in of the country would be greater by effects of the cultural revolution the country, but it appears that they are primarily concerned with a study of Marxist-Leninist-Maoist thoughts on population.

The lack of demographic data is matched by a lack of research in that field. No one can speak with confidence of current population size or of trends. One can only speculate on the problems which must face a large and growing population, given the constraints under which any governmental program must work. The oft-repeated slogan: “Let a thousand flowers bloom and a thousand schools of thought contend" comes after a long period during which such diversity was extremely restricted. There is understandable

Canton bicycles. ■

Beijing University.

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hesitation on the part of intellectuals Dr. James Childress Let me m ake a few prelim inary observations who were victims of the excesses of . First, we had our most the cultural revolution to expose fruitful discussions when we focused themselves to similar troubles. The Reflections on on concrete problems such as population Rector of Beijing University was control and when we avoided removed from his position in 1960 Socialist Ethics jargon such as “deontology” (which because he advocated reductions in bewildered one translator in Beijing). Our delegation was, we were told, the the rate of growth of the population Second, in China ethics is part of first North American group to meet and stated th at stern and administratively philosophy which, in turn, is part with the Chinese Academy of Social effective measures might of social science. Social science in need to be applied if persuasion failed Sciences since the Liberation. In our China deals with problems in connection lead to the needed results. In June two-day session with members of the with social phenomena, and the 1979 he was officially informed that Institute of Philosophy, the Institute Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the criticisms of his theories had been of World Religion, and the Institute with a staff of 1,500, is very much erroneous and that actual events of Law, all under the Chinese aware of the needs of the state. The have validated the correctness of Academy of Social Sciences, we had autonom y of the enterprise of philosophy his theory of controlled fertility. an opportunity to explore the or ethics is not a major issue. Accordingly the Party “wants to meaning of socialist ethics in China. Third, we wondered w hether philosophers institute a thorough rehabilitation Elsewhere, for example, at Beijing concentrating on ethics and restore your reputation.” Plans University and at Fudan University examine certain problems that interest are underway for a population census in Shanghai, we also m et with philosophers moral philosophers and theologians in 1981. It may be that later visitors and other scholars. I shall in the United States. War, for example, to China will find more reliable data offer some impressions of socialist is not considered a problem for and analyses of dem ographic developments ethics as viewed by philosophers and ethics; it comes under the division o ther scholars in China. It is impossible than can be found in 1979. of historical materialism. to say much about morality in China, i.e., how people actually While m any political leaders, scientists live, on the basis of our brief visit. , and physicians appeared to be But it may be useful to see how some pragmatic, most philosophers uncritically Chinese scholars view morality and reiterated Marxist-Leninist- ethics in a socialist society. I shall Maoist ideology without attention to concentrate on papers given by Western revisionism of Marxism. For Professor Li Ji, Deputy Director example, the philosophers insisted of the Institute of Philosophy, and that the substructure—economic Professor Rui Mo, Deputy Director relations and production—determines of the Institute of Law. Professor Li what happens in the superstructure, Ji discussed “Ethics and Moral which includes both law and ethics. Problems in Socialist Society,” while Moral conceptions are reflections of Professor Rui Mo discussed “Law and the means of production. There is no Ethics.” I shall also draw on some abstract morality or law, only the observations offered by other Chinese morality or law of a particular class philosophers and social scientists as or society. well as by physicians, scientists, and judges. 12

How are law and ethics as parts of the superstructure distinguished? According to Professor Rui Mo, one major distinction is that law involves coercion while morality depends on public opinion. Law is an expression of the will of the ruling class, while ethics is a set of normative principles expressed by individuals and groups in judgments and actions.

Both law and morality originate in the substructure. When they have the same origin, i.e., emerge out of the same class interests, they converge . Divergence and conflict result when they express different class interests. Some feudal and bourgeois views may persist alongside proletarian views. According to Professor Rui Mo, confusion about right and Construction workers. wrong was widespread during the rule of the Gang of Four. serving the people in numerous ways Professor Li J i’s presentation provoked prior to his death at age 22 in an a lively discussion, both during When production is collectivist and accident. He was selfless, not only the session and later. Because her two state-owned, the ethic should be fulfilling his assigned roles but serving examples have counterparts in other socialist. In a socialist ethic, according in other ways such as collecting traditions, which stress both saintly to Professor Li Ji, the emphasis manure for the commune. He wrote and heroic actions, we wanted to shifts from the personal to the social, in his diary: determine what is distinctive about from the partial to the whole, and socialist ethics. Without denying that from the immediate to the remote. I want to be a man who is useful such examples can be found elsewhere, The aim is to serve the people whole- to the people and nation. If Professor Li Ji responded by saying heartedly. Professor Li Ji, who is this is what you call a ‘fool’ then that sacrifice, or selflessness, is more finishing a book on socialist ethics, I’m willing to be a ‘fool.’ The common in socialist ethics. It might offered two examples of serving the revolution needs such ‘fools’ and be difficult to establish her claim people wholeheartedly. First is the so does socialist construction. I empirically, but acceptance of service example of Comrade Lei Feng, apparently only have one heart and it is of the people as a goal, as a moral widely known and appreciated turned towards the Party, toward requirement, appears to be widespread in China. Chairman Mao said, “Learn socialism and communism. and deep in the People’s Republic of from Comrade Lei Feng.” Born in China. At any rate, moral discourse 1939, Lei Feng was a poor orphan Professor Li Ji’s second example appears to be relatively untouched by who joined the army and became was a woman who was fatally burned themes of individuality, self-expression a member of the Communist Party, while trying to prevent a factory from being destroyed by fire. and self-fulfillment that mark much involve some sacrifice of the individual In areas of applied ethics, we tried to moral discourse in the United States. agent’s own interests. Within determ ine how physicians and philosophers One questioner wondered whether the socialist ethics, the example of Lei handle some problems that examples represent a value system Feng represents an ideal and praise- trouble us such as reproductive freedom that emphasizes the material over the worthy style of life. It expresses the and refusal of treatment. Regarding personal (e.g., the woman lost her life strong sense of obligation to the many of our problems, we were trying to save the factory). Professor society in socialist ethics, but it is not assured: “There is no problem like Li Ji refused to say that production clear how many of his actions are that in China. It doesn’t happen in is more important than people, for, deem ed obligatory. There may be China.” Moral problems or dilemmas she insisted, the factory’s loss would many different ways to discharge the do not exist out there in the world, have affected a lot of people. obligation to the society. In some but are created by moral principles respects, the emphasis in Chinese and values. In the absence of pluralism Philosophers in the West frequently socialist ethics is on virtue. It captures , some problems and dilemmas distinguish ordinary social duties— the spirit and attitude of the new simply do not arise. In response to what we expect of everyone—from man, appropriate to the socialist a question about the most pressing supererogatory actions that transcend society, without specifying obligatory “moral problems” or “controversies” our duties and conform to ideals. The acts. in medicine and health care in China, latter merit praise, often because they Dr. Huang, Director of the Academy of Medicine, did not identify a single problem. For example, when we asked how decisions are made about the treatment or non-treatment of defective newborns, he insisted that after Mao all are treated.

When disagreements about moral matters emerge in China, “persuasion” is used. We frequently encountered the term “persuasion.” For example, if a patient disagrees with his physician and family and wants to refuse medical treatment, he will be “per- suaded” to accept the treatment. (Such disagreement was held to be very rare). Likewise if a woman is pregnant with her third child, she will be “persuaded” to have an abortion. We wondered just how much was packed into the term “persuasion,” particularly whether it included what we would call “undue influence,” “manipulation,” and even “coercion.” For example, A commune kitchen. Dr. Taeuber and Dr. Faden observing students in lab room.

14

Chinese physicians reported that it Dr. John C . Harvey of Canton; the Capital Hospital is not easy to “persuade” families (formerly the Peking Union Medical to donate a deceased relative’s kidneys College Hospital) and the China Institute and other organs for transplantation; Medicine of Medical Research (housed in families want to bury or to burn the one of the laboratory buildings of body as a whole. As part of the the former Peking Union Medical process of persuasion, the family is in China College) in Beijing (Peking); the asked to see the patient who would Shantung Province Medical College The delegation from the Kennedy receive the organ. Such a request which contains schools of Medicine, Institute of Ethics was afforded the would probably be viewed as coercive Dentistry, Pharmacy, and Nursing in the United States. opportunity to observe and to examine (housed in the former Christian superficially some aspects of College, Cheeloo (Qilu), founded b y medical research, teaching and care Henry Luce’s father) in Jinan, as Different interpretations of persuasion in the People’s Republic of China well as a production team’s clinic in and coercion reflect different (PRC). This report is a subjective a commune on the outskirts of Jinan; conceptions of the relations between one and necessarily anecdotal. It is and, finally, the Hua Shau Hospital individuals and the society. In a based on the perceptions and conclusions (an affiliated teaching hospital of the dominant strand of western thought, drawn by the author. It Shanghai Medical College) in Shanghai. we tend to think of individuals as is not objective, neither is it based on a A conversation was arranged in Beijing independent bearers of rights; out well thought out study rigorously with Dr. Huang Chia-ssu, Director of of charity they may choose not to pursued. Thus it may well be open the Academy of Medicine and President stand on these rights. In Chinese to errors both in fact and conclusions; of the China Academy of Medicine. socialism, individuals and the society the former because translation of In addition to those facilities personally are interdependent, and the dominant conversations was in some places visited, the group met with moral tone is to serve the people very difficult (the interpreters were several professors of medicine and of whole-heartedly. We are concerned not, strictly speaking, trained medical psychiatry in other medical schools about protecting the individual’s interpreters), and the latter because and hospitals in Beijing and Shanghai. autonomy over against the community visits were often brief, and questioning , health care professionals, etc., and pursuit of ideas were limited while Chinese socialism stresses the by time constraints. Daily schedules All of the physicians, medical scientists virtue and obligation of service to were full; activity was vigorous. , students, and health care the community. Some of these themes Fatigue blurred clear thinking and workers with whom we talked were are in obvious continuity with the good note taking. At the time, my very open, reasonably frank in their traditional Chinese thought. For own notes seemed complete; going discussions, and very courteous. All example, as Victor Li has pointed out, over them now reveals many lacunae. members of the delegation were there is no Chinese word for “pri- received most warmly by them. No vacy,” so important for autonomy During the course of the work-study question was considered unimportant in our individualistic society. tour as guests of the Chinese Academy and all were answered as completely of Social Sciences, we observed several and as honestly as the medical facilities in different parts of respondents could under existing the country. Among those we visited circumstances. In these conversations were a commune hospital outside a good exchange of ideas ensued. 15

Many of the remarks made by the The Cultural Revolution did great leaders of groups at the time of physical damage as well. Libraries introductions contained perfunctory were burned, buildings ravaged, statements paying tribute to the records destroyed, laboratory equipment Marxist-Leninist-Socialism espoused damaged or destroyed. To an by Chairman Mao and describing outsider, it appears that madness the benefits brought to the peasants, reigned. Now rebuilding is taking workers, and soldiers of China by place. the Liberation. Difficulties, frustrations , and adverse conditions in In 1977 the Cultural Revolution was medicine were uniformly attributed abandoned. In 1978 a national science the Gang of Four. Medicine, it conference was held and a science was emphasized, is participatory in development plan for the next 5-7 the overall national priorities of the years was adopted, with the conclusion Four Modernizations, it being within that eight key areas were to the third area, which is science and be developed. In medicine, genetic technology. engineering and population control received top priority. One gets the impression that within Kennedy Institute delegation observing the last twelve months very rapid acupuncture operation. One of the older Chinese physicians strides have occurred in the opening who had been educated in the United up of the thought and expression their duties at the universities and States before World War II said: “It of ideas, albeit always consistent hospitals and sent to the countryside is as if Chinese medicine went to sleep with Marxist-Leninist Socialism. for “re-education” about the practical for twenty years and like Rip Van Comparisons of experiences and problems of the country’s peasant Winkle is just awakening.” Consequently observations of other American and worker population. Some scholars schools of medicine are being physicians and health care workers continued to receive their full pay, reorganized, libraries restocked, who have visited the PRC in previous although they had no teaching or laboratories re-equipped, manuals years confirm this impression. research duties. Such individuals rewritten. Scholars are hungry for were sometimes physically abused exchanges with scholars of the West The isolation of the PRC and lack and subjected to humiliation and to learn of the progress in medicine embarrassment. Many of these intellectuals of intercourse with the outside world over the last twenty years. precludes our understanding the were in the older age group and certainly suffered physically dreadful and really terrifying effect Nowhere did I see much of medical and emotionally, yet superficially that the Red Guard’s Cultural records. Medical libraries were for Revolution, led by the notorious Gang none appear now to hold the most part inadequate and were our, had upon the intellectual life resentment, or at least none express lacking copies of journals for the Fhe country between the years it, nor do they seek retribution. last two decades. Copies of textbooks 1966-76, One gets the impression During this period, those students in existence were editions published that chaos reigned. All education, who were allowed to pursue education, in the 1950’s and were in the language including medical education, came including medical education, were of whatever western country had almost to a standstill. All intellectuals admitted to studies on the basis of vested influence in the particular were suspect. Most were relieved of political merit rather than academic geographic area before liberation, merit. 16

usable chemical glassware, old monocular laboratory sperm development and microscopes, and an early model the effect of inhibitory chemical of an isotope counter. This area had substances upon the same was being received, however, the direct expression studied. All the scientific investigators of Red Guard wrath. said the research was directed and in accord with that area assigned by the In a laboratory exercise some of us Ministry of Health in Beijing, as had saw in the Medical School in Jinan, been set earlier at the National the equipment reminded me of a Science Conference and within the pathology student lab in America of goals of the Four Modernizations. the 1940’s. All scopes were monocular No free individual personal research ; the sectioning microtomes was being done nor would it be were older models. The manuals had allowed, I deduced. All the scientists been written by the instructor who were well aware of the goals set by had been rehabilitated only 18 the aforem entioned scientific congress months ago. The students were very . Efforts are now directed primarily hardworking, disciplined, extremely at population control and polite, and very deferential to the genetic engineering, they all said, teacher. The ambience reminded conforming to the national goals. Thyroid acupuncture patient applauding me of a German university. Indeed, the Kennedy Institute delegation immediately though this school was housed in a The Teaching Hospital in Jinan was after her operation. former Christian College, built by “closed for lunch for patients” and e.g., Beijing, English; Jinan, German; Americans, the Shantung Province could not be visited. Conversation Shanghai, French. had been a German sphere of with surgeons conducting clinical influence up until World War I, and research in renal transplantation led Laboratory equipment was for the then it had been influenced by the me to believe that this area has little most part outmoded or nonexistent Japanese. Interestingly, Japanese priority and has not been pursued if the facility had been the object of medical pedagogy has, for the most vigorously. The clinical investigators the Red Guard destruction in the part, been based on the German had just set up a tissue typing laboratory misguided and tragic conception of m odel. ; they were unconcerned about “purification and re-education, elimination the definition of death and ethical of bourgeois influence, and The Anatomy Department of the problems in transplantation. They elimination of internal contradiction.” Provincial Medical College in Jinan did say the reluctance of the Chinese The medical school in Jinan has been was the only place where actual to cause any violation of integrity reequipped. In one research laboratory research was observed. It was first of the human body after death (a excellent modern electro n rate. One team was studying endometrial Confucian concept of integrity and microscopes (German) were in use and changes during the menstrual wholeness persisting in this officialy in another was the most up to date cycle, utilizing electron microscopic atheistic country) resulted in kidney equipment for tissue culture. In the techniques. Another group was supplies coming only from criminals two laboratories visited in the studying, by cytogenetic techniques, suffering capital punishment. The Institute of Medical Science in Beijing, the X chromosome. Another group legal scholars among us (who had on the other hand, there was precious was attempting gene mapping in been unable to get any information little: a few tables, some chipped but birth defects. In the tissue culture on capital punishment previously 17

since they had been told in another observation booth. I had the opportunity cooperate when the surgeon was setting that such punishment did not to interview the patient identifying the recurrent laryngeal exist because crime was so low) were through the interpreter immediately nerve, always vulnerable to damage in delighted to get this vicarious bit of after the procedure. She said she felt any thyroid operation. The patient, information. The clinical investigators no pain, only a sensation of “pins while under acupuncture, could quickly said that they had only done and needles” in her neck. The acupuncture cough at the command of the seven renal transplants in the past needles were inserted into surgeon! tw o years. the interdigital spaces of the left hand between the thumb and index In this operation, which was done In Shanghai we were told th at excellent finger and the index and middle very skillfully with a minimum of results were obtained from fingers. A micro-current was run bleeding, a drain was left in place. the pioneering studies done on micro- through these needles. This must have been to facilitate surgical suturing techniques of vessels postoperative wound damage and and nerves. Pioneering work has also As the acupuncture anesthesiologist it meant to me that the incidence been done in bone grafting, which has spoke no English, translation was of postoperative wound infection resulted in superb results in the auto- difficult and the principles o f acupuncture was high. Indeed it seemed everywhere implantation of severed limbs. We did not emerge clearly. The we went in any medical facility, did not observe any of these operations physician, trained in traditional concern for antisepsis was minimal. on patients first hand. However, Chinese medicine, said acupuncture We were taken through the main at the Shanghai Trade Palace, we had has an effect upon the nerves, the the opportunity to observe medical fluids of the body between the nerves, equipment, prosthetic devices and and on the “meridians.” The meridians operating instruments which are being could not be further explained manufactured in the PRC. These as to whether these were anatomical examples on display were very advanced structures capable o f dissection, physiological , particularly the artificial phenom enon, or biochemical joints for knees, elbows and fingers. (endorphin?) substances. The guide did say this equipment was for export and not for home Clearly acupuncture is effective in consumption. some types of operations. The anesthesiologist reported that in the At the Hu a Shau Hospital in Shanghai Chinese experience, acupuncture was we observed the removal of a thyroid most effective for operations above nodule under acupuncture anesthesia. the diaphragm but not as effective in The operating room was bare of any abdominal or pelvic procedures, in modern equipment except for a hy- mentally ill patients, or in comatose for coagulation and an patients. Clearly it is n o t acclaimed electrical generator used to administer as a universal anesthesia, acupuncture anesthesia. The manual but obviously it is effective. In my skills exhibited by the surgeons were opinion it should be studied thoroughly great. The anesthesia was effective. and adopted when practical The patient waved before and after and useful. I was very impressed that the procedure to the group in the the patient was awake and able to Acupuncture chart. 18

corridor of the operating theater in in the appropriate setting to begin The practicing physician is a servant the Hua Shau Hospital having merely again. Laboratories are being equipped of the clients for whom he provides changed our shoes and put gowns over and scholarship is being encouraged. care. The clients make the policies and our clothes. In the communal hospital Exchanges with the West are encouraged the physician carries out the medical , visitors walked in and out at . Medical education too has had aspects, unfettered professionally, will through the small and ill-kempt a renaissance. Students are now being b u t under the general social and behavioral room used for minor surgery. In all adm itted to medical school on academic norms set by the group. The the hospitals and clinics, the buildings merit. Medical education has physician scholar (leader, professor, were in need of repair and the equipment been reconstituted and is vigorous, research scientist) is very m uch respected was old and outmoded by demanding, and taught in the Western and has a few more material Western standards. These deficiencies methodologies, though traditional benefits and emoluments than other were readily acknowledged. The in- Chinese herbal medicine is also being health care professionals. creased incidence of postoperative fostered. wound infection was also readily Modern drugs in use in the West were acknowledged. Health care is extensive and spread evident in the pharmacies of all hospitals throughout the populace. It is varying . Traditional herbal medicine Overall my impression is that basic in effectiveness and in excellence. On was also practiced in all hospitals and medical research is just now beginning the whole it appears to be below clinics. The herbal doctors claimed again. The individuals who had held w estern standards, though som e developments great effectiveness of traditional medicines posts of responsibility and who had , particularly reimplantation and potions. It seems th at investigation been previously trained to conduct , appear to be far ahead of the of these products would be research are now being placed back West. a worthwhile research project for pharmacologists to find the active substances and to identify them. The claims of some of the herbal physicians seem extravagant to a western scientific investigator. There are no reports of data to be examined; double blind studies are not carried out. Yet such studies would be in violation of Confucian ethical principles as, “If something is good for a person, it cannot be denied.” It will be interesting to see how such Con fucian ethical principles will be incorporated into the development of modem medicine within the national priorities of the Four Modernizations. The prospects are certainly exciting for the 1980’s.

Pathology lab class in Shantung Medical College, Jinan. 19

William F. Ryan, S.J. to China from meetings and discussions Even though priests of the Patriotic with perhaps a hundred people. Church assured us that all Chinese These included both Chinese and Catholics now belong to their independent foreigners, political leaders, scholars, Church, all others questioned The Catholic guides, interpreters, foreign press admitted that the Patriotic Church personnel, believers and atheists, contains only a small minority of Church in China priests and members of the Catholic Catholics. I was, in fact, able to Patriotic Church. It also included meet several members of this invisible visits with other Catholics who reject church, who had worked, visited, or “M y friends, religion is no big thing this church as a government agency, been in prison or labor camps in different in China today!” and finally Chinese Jesuits who have regions of China. All agreed been and/or who are still confined that in many places—especially in This self-assured caution stated categorically to labor camps. This is my brief more rural and mountainous villages— by our Chinese guide as we synthesis of what I heard and saw. the Church carries on clandestinely emerged from our visit to the old with varying degrees of vitality, Catholic Cathedral in Beijing remains Before the revolution in 1949, it was sometimes with the help of priests, uppermost in my mind as I jot down estimated that China had three million but more often under lay leadership for you my impressions on the present Catholics. At that time many left for which is at times supported by religious state and possible future of Catholicism Taiwan and elsewhere. When in 1957 sisters. in China. Our Chinese hosts were the revolutionary government insisted frank. If there is some thaw in their that the new, independent Catholic Though there are no full-time priests hardline treatment of believers it does Patriotic Church break all ties with and though all its priests are now not stem from a new-found interest in Rome, and its action was condemned aged, children continue to be baptized religion, but rather from the keen by Pope Pius XII, still more Catholics, and brought up in the Catholic faith. desire of its new leaders to win the including all foreign missionaries, Home Masses and prayer services are cooperation of all Chinese—and even of exited or disappeared—not a few via not uncommon. The consecrated wine friendly foreigners—to work together prison. Their crime was, like many is often kept reserved in private homes strenuously to achieve their primary others, “high treason.” They were so that people can communicate. In goal of “modernization.” To this end judged to be against the revolution fact, baptism and private Masses are they are willing to guarantee in their and/or to be in the service of a not unknown even in prison and labor constitution “the freedom to believe foreign power. camps where sisters have in the past in religion.” There is, however, an successfully smuggled in the hosts explicit guarantee only to propagate Present estimates of Catholics in and wine. Local cadres (leaders) are atheism. Vice Premier Yao Ilin China today range from a conservative now becoming more tolerant of assured us that the right to propagate one-and-a-half to a wildly optimistic clandestine religious practice provided, belief was included implicitly five million, with little hard evidence as everywhere else, that economic production b ut this was not the understanding to substantiate these apparent guesses. quotas are met. Indeed, some the Catholic priests we met. The only Catholics highly visible to observers claim that there are still the visitor are those found in the remote Catholic villages that have What I write here about the Catholic Beijing Patriotic Church whose been little touched by either Mao or Church in China is not the result of leaders claim three to six thousand the cultural revolution—but this scholarly study but only of impressions members, but not more than 250- assertion is contested by others. gathered during our short visit 300 attend Mass on any given Sunday. 20

Whatever the present sum total of Fr. Richard McCormick and I visited For the Catholic Church the deep these active, invisible Catholics, it is Fr. Vincent Chu, the only Jesuit who split between “patriotic” and clear that the Patriotic Church has not has been totally “rehabilitated,” “ Rom an” Catholics becomes immediately gained many members among them. that is, restored to citizenship. He acute, and is crystallized in In fact, many of them, especially has been given an I.D. card and ration the recent nomination of Michael Fu priests, have endured long years of coupons and is, therefore, free to Tieshan as bishop of Beijing without prison rather than join it. To be live and work outside of prison and any reference having been made to specific, Bishop Ignatius Kung still the labor camps where he spent Pope John Paul II. Any discussion languishes in Shanghai’s central twenty-three years. In the coming with “patriotic” priests quickly re- prison. Personally, I met three Chinese m onths as the religious thaw continues veals that for them, as for the government Jesuits who had served sentences of I am sure that other Christian , the root of the problem is the fifteen years on charges of “high groups will be able gradually to complete Vatican’s continued recognition of treason” and are still confined to the story of what happened Taiwan, even though the Pope has labor camps nine years later. They are to their members during and since presently no official delegate there. three of thirty-six Jesuits we know the revolution of 1949 as well as during Moreover, the bishops of Taiwan to be still in labor camps and these the more recent cultural revolution continue to be officially identified thirty-six represent only a third of . Until now, few if any foreigners as the “Chinese Catholic Bishops’ the Chinese Jesuits who disappeared have been allowed to visit many more Conference” and to argue strenuously, from sight at the time of the remote regions of China. as does their government, that any revolution. dialogue with China’s present regime What are the future prospects for is “a fatal dialogue.” Christianity, and, in particular, for the Catholic Church in China? In These “patriotic” priests believe that recent months we have several exam if the Vatican could reach an agreement ples of government officials urging with Beijing the possibility of priests and ministers to get back to reconciliation among Chinese their task of reorganizing and/or Catholics would be greatly enhanced. rebuilding their com m unity of believers They were encouraged by the Pope’s . This has been advocated on recent call for reconciliation, and the the grounds that a Chinese citizen has new bishop-elect, who is a validly ordained a right under the constitution to priest, seems in no hurry to believe and to practice that belief if be consecrated. An easy reconciliation he/she chooses—a quite unusual initiative with the new bishop-elect and other for an atheistic government. The leaders of the Patriotic Church would Patriotic Church especially in the seem, at least at first sight, a great more central cities has been the first scandal that would render useless all beneficiary of this new benevolence, the long years of suffering of many but I heard of Catholic churches in Chinese Catholics. However, it would more remote areas being transformed nevertheless, offer the government from sawmills and warehouses back a chance to “rehabilitate” many into churches, with little apparent priests who now remain unjustly and concern whether the available priest ambiguously without citizens’ rights was “patriotic” or not. in labor camps, unable to exercise Imperial Palace, Beijing. 21

their priesthood publicly. In the post- Vatican II era, China could now have its own truly national and indigenous Catholic Church and no longer have to continue the evident contradiction of championing independence from Rome while clinging tenaciously to the Latin Mass and ritual. Even aside from the anguishing issue of Taiwan, such reconciliation will require heroic virtue and trust not only on the part Chinese “who have suffered for their faith,” but also of those who despise the present leadership of the Patriotic Church. One very hopeful sign of reconciliation was that the Jesuits whom I met from the labor camps were neither b itter nor judgemental concerning these “patriotic” priests.

An old temple, surrounded by a cornfield However urgent this challenge of re- conciliation and “rehabilitation” is any success in the future, then its knows what the spirit of the Lord is for the Catholic Church in China, carriers must give compelling and preparing in China quite independently it seems to pale in importance in the credible witness to the Gospel’s clear of Christian church structures. We face of more long run considerations bias in favor of the poor, and that must be as ready to learn as to teach. concerning the future of Christianity human advancement and social justice At the very least, as Fr. Hans Kung in China. Active Christians presently are integral to this message. In the suggested in his paper read before represent less than one-half of one immediate future the Chinese will the Chinese National Academy of percent of the population. Even open their doors and their hearts only Social Sciences, their own unique allowing for ten million Muslims to those people who are as preoccupied socialist experience will undoubtedly and millions more “ lingering” Buddhists as they are with overcoming help shape our evolving concept of , modern China is, in fact, the the poverty of their masses. God in the next millenium because He most secular of states, for whom is after all primarily “the God of the belief in God is not a threat but only Fortunately for all of us, their solid poor.” Only such long thoughts as a superstition for the old and a curiosity progress towards building a more these will help us meet the incisive for th e young. If indeed Christianity's sharing society of people-whose challenge of our Chinese guide, “My mission is truly universal, basic moral premise is to serve the friends, religion is no big thing in then we must still be very early in people wholeheartedly may be pre- China today!” our human history, since more than paring more fertile ground for the a quarter of humankind remain almost basic Gospel message of serving our totally untouched by revealed Christianity neighbor than is found in our own . If evangelization is to have individualistic, consumer society. Who 22

Rev. Hans Küng for discussion, nine to be exact, because I understand that for the Chinese nine is a perfect number. I shall not speak from a specifically Christian viewpoint, but rather from Nine Theses on a viewpoint which could also be shared by a number of people, Religion and Science including, for example, those Chinese who come from a traditional Con fucian or Islamic background. Pope Jo h n Paul II, in a recent announcement I am extremely grateful to the to the College o f Cardinals Academy of Social Sciences for this A. C L A R IF IC A T IO N OF C O N C EP T , stated that increased attention very extraordinary opportunity to 1. We have to make a distinction should be devoted to the problems participate in this discussion, the between religion and superstition. involved in the coexistence o f science first discussion in the last thirty years and religion in the modern world. on “Religion and Science” in China Religion claims absolute authority between believing Western Christian for nothing w hich is relative, conditioned The relationship between science and and atheist scholars. It is a difficult , human, but only for the religion has long been a concern o f task. But I have to give you information Absolute itself, which from time the Kennedy Institute, and has been rather than to try to convert immemorial we have called God. addressed in several o f Georgetown you, information as to how educated I mean that hidden, absolutely University’s Rose F. Kennedy Lecture people in the West, among them many ultimate, absolutely primary reality Series. In the spring o f 1978, Rev. scientists, presently understand this which not only Jews and Christians Hans K ung delivered a series o f lectures relationship. This is, of course, an worship, but which also Muslims on the meaning of Christianity extremely complex question which worship as Allah, which also Hindus in the modern world. Rev. Kung’s has a long, long history. I have done seek in Brahma and Buddhists in the keynote address “Nine Theses on scholarly research on the modern Absolute, and, of course, traditional Religion and Science,”presented to period of this history with all of its Chinese in heaven or in the Tao. the Chinese Academy o f the Social difficulties, the result of which is Religion is certainly one of the most Sciences, is therefore a tim ely contribution this book of over 800 pages: E xistiert important factors in the history of as it marks the first opening Gott? Antwort auf die Gottesfrage your great country; it is a social and o f a dialogue on religion and science der Neuzeit (Munich, Piper Verlag, political factor not only in Tibet but between Chinese and western scholars 1978; English translation;Does God also elsewhere. in over 30 years. exist? A Response to the Problem of God in Modem Times, Doubleday/ Superstition claims absolute authority Collins 1980). The book also contains for (and blind obedience to) something an extended analysis of the thought which is relative and not of Hegel, Feuerbach and Marx. I absolute; it worships either material have inscribed a copy for the Institute things or a human person or a human of World Religions in Beijing. organization. In this respect, all personality cults, for example, Today I would like to propose, in a manifest themselves as a kind of very simplified manner, a few theses superstitution. 23

The consequence is that not all The positive answer, one on which B. SELF-CRITICISM OF THE superstitions are religions; there are many great thinkers in the West CHURCH AND THEOLOGY also other superstitions, even very (Hegel) and East (many Chinese) can modem ones. Nor are all religions agree, is the following. God is not the 3. God was rejected in modern superstitions, but any religion can world and the world is not God, but times because the churches and become a superstition whenever it G od is in this world and this world theology opposed science. makes non-essential things absolute. is in God. To think of God in this way presupposes not any dualistic, but a The Life o f Galileo by Bertold 2. The God of the old world-view is uniform understanding of reality, Brecht was the second foreign play obsolete. The God (or the Ultimate) God is not to be thought of merely to be performed in Beijing, with great the new world-view is an open as a part of reality, a (supreme) infinite success, after the decline of the “Gang question. alongside finite things. Instead he of Four.” We have to agree that the must be thought of—to paraphrase condemnation of Galileo and, later If God existed, how would he have to it in some of the great classical on, the opposition to Darwin’s theory be conceived of against the back- formulas—as the infinite in the of evolution have been colossal errors ground of modern science? First of finite, the unconditioned in the on the part o f the church. This opposition all we must make two negative demarcations conditioned, the absolute in the has poisoned the relations . God must not be thought of relative, transcendence in immanence. between religion and science right up as a “supreme being” dwelling in a God, then, is the here and hereafter, to the present day. It was claimed that literal or spatial sense “above” the all-embracing and all-permeating, most it was a question of defending the world, in a “higher world.” It is real reality in the heart of things, in faith in God, but in fact what was especially this naive, anthropomorphic man, in the history of humanity, in defended was the Graeco-Medieval idea of God as a supermundane being the cosmos. Hence he is to be under- world-view and the authority of the above the clouds in a physical heaven stood as the simultaneously close church in questions of science and life which has prevented scientists from and distant, worldly and unworldly and, in the final analysis, quite simply reflecting seriously on the question of God, a God who does not make a blind obedience to the ecclesiastical God. freedom of man impossible, does not system. (I may add here in parentheses restrict it, does not play it down, but that a similar colossal error was the But neither may God be conceived of makes it possible, sustains and condemnation of the Chinese rites as an objectified, hypostasized perfects it. and the Chinese translation of “God” “Opposite” existing in a metaphysical by “T’ien” and “Shang-ti.”) sense “outside” the world in an extra- All this means certainly that the mundane beyond, in a world “behind” question of the God of the ancient A great new synthesis—as in the high our world, withdrawn from the world-view is obsolete: G od as a Middle Ages-between faith in God concrete life of world and man. This miracle-working helper in need, as and the new sciences would have been rationalistic-deistic idea of a God as a stop-gap, who is always invoked possible and was in fact expected by extramundane being beyond the when we cannot get further with our the leading scientists and philosophers stars, in the metaphysical heaven, can human science or technology or of modern times: by Galileo himself no longer be an impediment to raising cannot cope with our personal life. and by Descartes, Pascal, Copernicus, the question of God for serious discussion But the question of the God of the Kepler, Newton, Boyle. But the even among scientists. new world-view described is n o t opportunity was missed and, for obsolete. many, science replaced religion, and 24

became itself a quasi-religion. Today, Notre Dame in Paris in 1792 were 2. Recent developments also pose however, more and more people in scarcely surprising. For the first time questions to the socialist countries the West realize that science and in world history, in France but later which have forbidden the propagation technology cannot resolve all the also in Germany, atheism had become of belief in God, just as in earlier questions of life and society, that a political program. This was a times Christian and other countries science and technology cannot replace bourgeois-liberal atheism which then have forbidden the propagation of ethics and religion. developed into a real power in world atheism . politics after the Russian and the 4. God was rejected in modern times Chinese revolutions through the M aybe—and I hope it is not presumptuous because the churches and theology communist movement. to make such a suggestion—a opposed democracy. fifth modernization of China will be There can be no doubt that Christian necessary, not only the modernization This morning I heard the word churches in Russia and China committed of agriculture, industry, science and “democracy” a number of times, errors very similar to those of the technology and defense, but also the and rightly so. Now unfortunately, church in Western Europe. The often modernization of ideology, of thought the history of Europe, even up to the unconscious alliance of many foreign beginning of this century, makes it missionaries with colonialist and C. EVALUATION OF THE abundantly clear that secular and imperialist forces seriously diminished CLASSICAL CRITICISM OF spiritual rulers, throne and altar, the undeniably positive contributions RELIGION state constitution and church constitution of missionaries (since the time of , provided one another with Matteo Ricci) to Chinese education 5. It is regrettable that so many mutual support. The heretic was also and social welfare. false battles have been fought in an enemy of the state; the political modern times between science and opponent also counted as a heretic. The blunt condem nation o f communism belief in God, between theology and As in the field of science, so too in as atheism , the excommunication atheism . the field of politics a continual of all communist party members strategy of defense and withdrawal and other disciplinary measures taken, No thinking person today can dispute was practiced. especially in China, by Pope Pius XII, the fact that the critique of religion were serious mistakes which have by Feuerbach and Marx was largely Belief in God was opposed because only been partially corrected by justified. Feuerbach was absolutely it was used by princes ruling by God’s Pope John XXIII, the Second Vatican right in thinking that religion—like grace as a means of preventing the Council and the World of Council all human faith, hope and love- diffusion of the “light of reason,” Churches. contains an element of projection. liberty, equality and fraternity, and But this is not to say by any means of keeping the people in tutelage and But it is precisely recent developments that Feuerbach proved that religion servitude. which demonstrate two points: is merely a projection. It can also be a relationship to a wholly different After churches and clergy had come 1. The opposition of the church and reality. Marx too was absolutely to be the main support of the unsocial, theology to democracy has been right in suggesting that religion can corrupt and bankrupt Ancien Regime, changed; a more constructive relationship be an opium, a means of social the cry of the Jacobins, “Priests to of the believers of all religions appeasem ent and tem porary consolation the lamp posts!” and the public to socialist systems is now possible. , of repression—and it often deposing of God in the cathedral of was such. It can be such, but it need 2!

not be. It can also be the means of secularization process of m odem times. D. P O IN T S OF PROSPECT comprehensive enlightenment and But does this in itself mean the end social liberation. of religion? Nietzsche’s prognosis of 8. I must put it briefly: that God the death of God has turned out to exists can be accepted neither on the 6. Thus both the strength and the be a wrong prognosis. On the contrary, basis of a rational proof, nor on the weakness of the psychological argument we see: Instead of the “abolition” of basis of an irrational feeling, but only for atheism are clearly seen. religion by atheistic humanism, as on the basis of a reasonable trust announced in Feuerbach’s projection (rooted in reality itself). God is said to be a pure projection of theory, there is now (despite all man’s wishes. Is he really a projection? secularization) in many places a new That is to say, I can reasonably must certainly be admitted that humanism both theoretical and commit myself to and rely on the belief in God can be psychologically practical which is fostered by believers fact that the reality which we can explained. But there is no question of in God. The atheistic-humanistic experience, which we see, hear, a simple choice between psychology belief in human nature and in human measure, weigh, calculate, manipulate, and not psychology. From the progress is itself now suspected of does not explain itself. It is not the psychological viewpoint, belief in being a projection. ultimate and primal reality. No, this God always displays the structure reality of world and man is substantiated and substance of a projection and Instead of religion “withering away” and embraced by a primal is always open to the suspicion of with the advent of atheistic socialism, ground, radical support and final being merely a projection. But the as proclaimed in Marx’s opium theory, purpose. Belief in God then is a fact that it is a projection by no there is now (despite all violent suppression m atter o f trust. The ambivalence means decides whether the object to , e.g. under the “Gang of of the whole reality of world and which it is related exists or does not Four”) a new religious awakening man forces a decision on us. We exist. A real G od can always correspond in many places, even in the socialist are expected to decide, without to the wish for God. And countries. The atheistic-materialist intellectual restraint, but also without why should I not be allowed to wish belief in the rise of a socialist society rational proof. Belief in God is a ven th at death is n o t the end o f everything, seems to countless people today, e.g. ture which cannot be proved rationally that my life has a meaning, that there in the Soviet Union, to be itse lf a from the outset and from outside, but is meaning in the history of humanity, form of consolation serving the whose reasonableness and meaningfulness in a word, that God exists? If a vested interests of a new class of dawn on the person from German child thinks his father might cadres; the revolution can also become within in the very process of deciding still be alive in a Russian concentration the opium of the people. (inner reasonableness) against a last camp, this might be wishful thinking, meaninglessness, insignificance, but it can also be true. Instead of atheistic science leading to nothingness of human life and human a “ breakdow n” o f religion, as history. Faith has reasons which 7. Both the strength and the weakness prophesied by Freud’s illusion theory, reason itself does not know: it is a of the often repeated argument, there is now (despite all hostility to reasonable trust. based on the philosophy of history, religion in certain sectors of science) that religion has come to an end, are a new understanding of ethics and 9. Nobody should be forced physically also clearly seen. religion. The atheistic-scientistic or morally to accept a certain religion belief in the solution of all problems or a certain ideology. The strength of the argument lies in by rational science itse lf now seems the indisputable, all embracing to many to amount to an illusion. 26

There has not always been freedom for race, class, science, progress. People Dr. Paul Lauby a th eists; atheists must be allowed have always believed in some kind of freedom of thought, speech and God if not in the true God, then in propagation also in Christian countries. some kind of idol. But after so many Religion in There has not always been freedom crises, surprisingly much has been for believers; believers must be allowed clarified and many difficulties against Chinese Academia freedom of thought, speech and belief in God have been cleared up. propagation also in socialist countries. It is not necessary to be against belief This full freedom would help many in God just because we are for heliocentric Our visit to China came at a time of believers (Christians, Moslems, Jews, and evolution, for dem ocracy unusual excitement and activity as the Buddhists, Confucianists) to overcome and science, for liberalism or socialism. Chinese people rapidly move away their discomfort in socialist societies. On the contrary, and let me state this from the devastating cultural revolu clearly, we can be for true liberty, tion into a new era of modernization Obviously the answer to the question equality and fraternity, for humanity and nation building. of God is in no way an answer to all and social justice, for humane democracy the urgent economic, political and and controlled scientific This new dynamism was particularly social questions of the day. The question progress, just because we believe in evident on the university campuses of God can, however, have a God. This, I think, is a new situation, we visited. Administrators and deeply positive effect from below, very different from that of Feuerbach, scholars are making strenuous efforts as it were, on these questions, namely Marx and Engels. to catch up after a fifteen year loss by bringing basic convictions, basic of productive research and teaching. attitudes, basic values to bear on During the Cultural Revolution the them. There is not only a dependence university was a favorite target for of ideas upon the economic base, but the radical Maoists. They believed there is also a dependence of the that the powerful intellectual elite economic development upon ideas. had to be humbled in the interests of This can become a negative influence, social egalitarianism . Professors, b u t there can also be a positive influence especially those educated abroad, as has been proved by many suffered harassm ent, humiliation believers in west and east who are and at times imprisonment. Many fighting for social justice, liberation scholars were sent to the countryside and peace. With this basis, believers to work in the communes or were have a foundation for the answer to hindered in other ways in their why love is better than hate, peace academic pursuits. The universities is better than war, freedom is better were turned over to revolutionary than servitude, and non-violence is committees made up of workers, better than violence. peasants and soldiers. Academic standards suffered, untrained faculty In recent times we have gone through were hired, and students were admitted so many forms of superstition, so largely on the basis of political many kinds of blind faith in allegedly loyalty rather than intellectual supreme values like nation, people, capacity. 27

Now the universities have been colleges created out of a merger of There is evidence that m any professors returned to the scholars. Rigorous the Cheeloo Christian Medical College of the Christian colleges continued entrance examinations have been and a provincial medical school. to teach in the government reinstituted. Attempts are being made universities following the revolution. to upgrade the poorly trained instructors In Shanghai I had the pleasure of We met a few of them still in active and to provide opportunities visiting the campus of St. John’s service. It is gratifying to realize that for older faculty to catch up with University, a former Anglican institu the Christian contribution to Chinese developments in their fields. Libraries tion, now accommodating a law higher education lives on through the severely out of date need to be college and a school of nursing and use of the old campuses, the service strengthened and facilities and medical technology. Reports indicate of Christian professors and the equipment restored and expanded. that the other Christian college influence of the alumni, some of campuses are being used in like whom occupy places of unusual I was particularly interested in observing fashion. responsibility. the place of religion and religious studies in the current academ ic com m unity. In prerevolutionary China the Christian church had made a significant contribution as a pioneer in higher education. In the early 1900’s western missionary educators established sixteen Christian colleges and universities, thirteen of them Protestant and three Catholic. Despite their so-called elitism and western oriented curricula, these schools provided high quality liberal education and produced many effective Chinese leaders.

Our group had the opportunity to visit the campuses of two of these former Christian universities, Yenching (Yenjing) in Beijing and Cheeloo (Qilu) in Jinan. We were entertained by the Vice President of Beijing University and a faculty group the former President’s home on the Yenching campus. The lovely old Yenching buildings, of traditional Chinese design, are now part of the University of Beijing and are fully utilized. The former Cheeloo campus houses one of China’s finest medical Cheeloo University, Jinan, Shantung Province. 28

We had helpful conversations with the deputy director of the Institute, Professor Zhao Fusan, a respected scholar and committed Christian. He articulated convincingly the importance of a strong Christian presence in the Institute.

We also had the opportunity to visit with Dr. K. H. Ting, who was an Anglican Bishop in pre-revolutionary days and who has served for the past thirty years as President of the Nanking Theological Seminary, a united Protestant institution. The seminary and its faculty remained intact during the Cultural Revolution, although students were not allowed to enroll. The faculty occupied its time in pursuing valuable research which it now may be allowed to publish. The biblical scholars are completing a new Chinese translation of the Bible which the government has promised to publish in the near future.

In January the Nanking Seminary However, it is even more exciting important institutes in the new became a Center for Religious Studies to witness the place of religion in the Academy of the Social Sciences is in the University of Nanking. Bishop current university system. Religion devoted to the study of world Ting was appointed director of the appears to be widely accepted as a religions. The Institute of Religion Center and, to symbolize its importance necessary and important academic has a staff of fifty research scholars, , was also made a vice president discipline. There is common agreement Christian, Buddhist, Moslem and of the university. The seminary that religion is an essential atheist. There are ambitious plans for faculty has become the center’s staff component of traditional cultures a much larger staff who will be and future plans call for the employment and that it remains a vital part of capable of studying all aspects of of Buddhist and Moslem scholars many modern societies. Chinese religion using accepted scientific The faculty already is offering religion scholars recognize that an adequate methods. The Institute hopes to build courses to university students. The understanding of world history and a strong religion section of the Bible as literature and Christian culture requires a knowledge of Academy’s library as a national history are being taught in the first religion as a significant phenomenon. resource for students of religion. term of the 1979-80 academic year. Thus we discovered that one of the 29

Much of the valuable seminary library Clearly the North American churches indicate an openness to explore ways was destroyed by the Red Guards, but and mission agencies must seriously in which Christian agencies might the faculty was able to safeguard some consider in what ways they can be of become helpfully involved. For 3,000 volumes which now form the genuine service to the Chinese people example, we were given to understand nucleus for the university’s religion and how they can foster understanding that competent Christian scholars will collection. and friendship in the 1980’s. Perhaps be welcome in China, that fellowships one effective mode of service might to enable Chinese faculty members to Dr. Ting stressed the importance of be the support of the Chinese higher study abroad would be appreciated, Christian scholars fully participating education enterprise. The Chinese and that help in building stronger in the life of the university and the government faces the impossible task library collections would be a valued opportunity they have to influence of providing quality higher education contribution. It will also be important academic decisions. There is hope to millions of eager Chinese young to find ways of enabling Chinese that fruitful religion-Marxist dialogues people, and there is evidence that it scholars to share their knowledge and might be possible along with the would welcome the help of people insights with North Americans, freedom to examine all of the salient of good will in other countries. Our particularly in the church-related world-views. conversations with Chinese educators colleges in the United States.

Currently in the United States and Canada there is much talk in church circles about the possibility of a new Christian mission to China. I came away from China seriously questioning this new enthusiasm. We found evidence in China that the Christian church is very much alive and that with the new-found religious freedom, it may emerge as a significant religious force despite its comparatively tiny membership. However, Chinese Christianity seems to have altered its prerevolutionary image as a foreign religion dominated by western missionaries and to have established itself as an indigenous movement, firmly rooted in Chinese soil. There appears to be a strong feeling of self- confidence and a reluctance to reestablish close ecclesiastical ties with the West. Certainly there is no clamor for the return of the missionaries, and in any event, it is doubtful that the government would allow it. 30

Dr. Ruth Faden administrative units within CASS apparent to us that Professor Fei is that correspond to what many would the preeminent social scientist at consider the classic social sciences of CASS. It was also readily apparent sociology, anthropology, and social that Professor Fei deserved his pre- Social Science psychology. When we raised this con- eminent status, and that he would be fusing omission with the Vice President treated with respect and deference in China of CASS, we were told that an as a senior social scientist in any institute of sociology is now being academic community. But in all, we Among the most frequent questions established under the direction of met only one Professor Fei—and that I’ve been asked since returning from Professor Fei Xiaotong. was disturbing. China have been, “What are Chinese psychologists doing?” I have no simple In subsequent discussions with CASS What accounts for this state of affairs? answers to these questions. Although colleagues, we were to be referred In many respects, the status of the the Kennedy Institute delegation again and again to Professor Fei. social sciences is not much different was invited to the People’s Re- Whenever any issue relating to demography from the current status of other public as the official guest of the , program evaluation, normative scientific and scholarly activities. Chinese Academy of the Social structures, cultural values or behavioral Throughout our trip we were constantly Sciences, we met very few Chinese predispositions was raised, reminded of the high cost to social scientists. we were told the issue fell in Professor Chinese progress of the recent activities Fei’s area. It soon became of the Gang of Four and the Now on the surface this may seem a earlier Cultural Revolution. We were bit odd. So let me attem pt an explanation . The Chinese use the term “social science” very broadly to include disciplines addressing all questions of social phenom enon and hum an behavior . Thus, the Chinese Academy of the Social Sciences (CASS) includes many disciplines which we would be inclined to classify as humanities. For example, there are within CASS two institutes of philosophy, three institutes of literature, and one institute each of world religion, archeology, and journalism. Closer to what we might call social science are their three history institutes, four economic institutes, three institutes of inter- national problems and world affairs, and their institutes of law, national minorities and “social science infor- mation.” Notice that there are no Sargent Shriver and Dr. Reich presenting the Encyclopedia of Bioethics to a representative of Beijing University, at the Kennedy Institute’s farewell banquet. 31

repeatedly told about the long term not be possible for the Chinese to some fear that social science will be disruption of universities, the per train new social scientists in any large encouraged only to the extent that its secution of scholars, and the eventual numbers. In addition to the problems research can be used to justify and painful recognition by the Chinese inherent in their thirty years of isolation support government policies. At the that the extreme idealism or repression from mainstream social science, moment, there seems to be no interest (depending upon your point of it is not clear how many older qualified in establishing an institute of view) of this period had resulted in social scientists exist. Remember, anthropology. Social psychology, the loss of one, and in some cases these would have to be people who I am told, will fall under Professor two, generations of trained scientists had survived the traumas involved in Fei’s institute of sociology. An and scholars. university disruptions and forced institute of psychology exists in the relocation to the countryside. I have, Academy of Science, but it is While it is certainly true that the of course, no first hand knowledge dominated by experimental and period encompassing the Cultural of the number of social scientists physiological psychologists. Revolution and the fall of the Gang resident throughout the university of Four negatively affected the system in China. A t the several universities Whatever form this new Chinese entire academic com m unity, difficulties we did visit, I do not recall social science will take, whether it with the social sciences being introduced to any social scientists conforms with our notions of an actually precede this period. In the . I did have a chance to speak independent scientific enterprise or early days of the People’s Republic with a Chinese speaking American not, it seems clear that its development most social science was outlawed as anthropologist who was a visiting ought to be strongly encouraged bourgeois and useless. This position Professor at a provincial university and assisted by western social was analogous to the view taken regarding her impressions of the scientists. After a visit to China, it towards social sciences during several status of social science in China. is impossible not to be impressed periods in the history of the Soviet A lthough her contacts were substantially with the tremendous successes that Union. Thus, I did not expect to find wider than mine, she had the Chinese have achieved in meeting many young social scientists in the not yet found a community of practicing the basic needs of their overwhelming People’s Republic. My hope was that Chinese social scientists and population. At the same time, I was with the fall of the Gang of Four and she herself had not been asked to also clearly impressed by what appears the opening of the Academy of the teach anthropology in China. to be a fairly dramatic change in Social Sciences in 1977, social scientists policy towards the recognition of such as Professor Fei (now in This brings me to a most important failures and the tremendous problems their sixties and seventies and trained question: What exactly is the commitment and challenges yet to be faced. These before the revolution) would have o f the Chinese to reestablishing problems include: population control, gotten the first crop of “graduate the social sciences? Certainly, the development of new social services, students” underway. This process establishment of an institute of sociology and the assimilation of cultural is apparently now beginning. and the obvious high regard paid minorities. These are exactly the kinds Professor Fei is suggestive that the of problems that could benefit from It is my understanding that Professor Chinese, at least at the moment, are social science theory and research. Fei has asked for American assistance seriously interested in promoting the The Chinese are asking for help. in teaching the first set of courses in social sciences. Active exchange of scholars and the social science methodology to CASS training of young Chinese in the social staff members. It may be that it will What direction this new Chinese social sciences in western countries would be science will take is unclear. There is a good beginning. 32

Yao llin Greets the Visiting Delegation of The Kennedy Institute

Peking, Xin Hua, Agency, August 28, 1979-This after- philosophers, educators and statesmen. Their leader is noon, Vice Premier Yao Uin greeted the Kennedy Institute Sargent Shriver, the head consultant for the Kennedy Institute delegation from America. The Kennedy Institute, founded . Upon greeting the delegation, Vice Premier Yao discussed by the family of the late President Kennedy, is located at in a friendly manner the Chinese population issue, Georgetown University. The delegation, which is touring religious questions and policies, the democratic system, China, consists of scientists, physicians, lawyers, theologians, medical practices, and Sino-American trade relations. The People’s Daily 33

Vice Premier Yao llin with The Kennedy Institute Delegation in the Great Hall of the People, Beijing, August 27,1979

Front Row (left to right): Dr. Julia Ching; Dr. John C. Harvey; Deputy Minister of Education, Huang Yinbai; The Hon. Sargent Shriver; Vice Premier Yao llin; William Alford, J.D.; Deputy Director of the China Travel Service, Ye Daiheng; Dr. Warren Reich; Deputy Director of the Institute of World Religions and representing CASS, Zhao Fusan. Middle Row (left to right): China Travel Service Guide; Professor Patricia King; Dr. Conrad Taeuber; Dr. H. Tristram Engelhardt; Rev. William F. Ryan, S.J.; Mr. Edmund Meuwissen; Rev. Hans Kung; Agnes Williams, J.D .; Dr. James Childress; China Travel Service Guide. Back Row (left to right): China Travel Service Guide; Dr. Roy Branson; Mr. Peter Robinson; Rev. Richard A. McCormick, S.J.; Dr. Paul Lauby; China Travel Service Guide; Dr. Ruth Faden; China Travel Service Guide; China Travel Service Guide. 34

William Alford, J.D. Democracy Wall

My most poignant experience in China came at Democracy Wall. I had gone there early one morning with Roy Snapshots Branson and John Collins Harvey to read wall posters. As we walked along the wall examining the posters, our of China attention was suddenly drawn to a crowd of 50 gathered around a large poster which was composed of a number of bed sheets sewn together and tied between two trees near the Wall.

In carefully drawn characters, supplemented by photographs and drawings, the poster told the sad story of a Chinese peasant from a western border region some 3,500 miles from Beijing whose wife had been beaten to death in her home three years earlier by politically radical police under the influence of the Gang of Four. As we stood there talking in hushed tones about the poster, it became apparent that its author’s eyes were fixed on us, three foreigners. At first I was not sure what to do but finally, at Roy’s urging, I went over to the author and told him that I was quite moved by the awful chain of events described in his poster.

The author looked at me with very heavy, sad eyes and then began to pour out in increasingly emotional terms an account of how he had sought -to no avail—to have the grave injustice he had suffered righted. Imperial Palace, Beijing. First, he had gone through the proper 35

channels in his province. When that Dr. Tristram Engelhardt during the Cultural Revolution and failed, he had come to Beijing where the reign of the Gang of Four. I he had gone first to the Great Hall of understand the pain of our hosts when the People, then to the Headquarters QoFu, Birthplace they spoke of that period. But the of the Communist Party, then to impression was more general. I was other government offices, and finally of Confucius reminded as well of the destruction to the compound in which Deng and of temples and of art in the latter days other leaders lived. None of these had My trip through China was marked by of the Roman Empire, when philosophers provided him with the redress he many moving experiences. The most were at times killed in the sought. intrusive experience occurred at Qo streets. It struck me how fragile our Fu standing in the precincts of the hold is on civilization, of how easily W ith tears welling in his eyes, he told temple of Confucius. The temple an established culture can collapse me that he now believed his injustice grounds contain a number of large into barbarism, and that this problem would not be righted but that he had inscribed stones which were over- is not one unique to China, but marks come to Democracy Wall, in any turned and broken by Red Guards the human condition. event, to let the world know' his story. He was not worried about the police doing anything to him, he continued, because after what he had been through, there was no remaining harm they could do to him.

With that, he stopped and stared at me. At a total loss for words, as there was nothing we could do to help this man, I asked Roy and John what they would want to say to him. John told me that, given his own religious convictions, he would tell him that he would pray for him. I translated John’s message and added that although we could do nothing to help him directly, I would do what I could to retell his story in the hope that it would engender further support abroad for the movement in China toward a more democratic society. With that he thanked me, I touched him on the shoulder, and we left.

Noodles set in the sun to dry. Mushrooms Sargent Shriver anyone? buying mushrooms.

36

Dr. Conrad Taeuber been instructed by the Party to convey to you that the two criticisms of your new population theory before Population Theory 1958 and after 1959 had both been erroneous. Practice [actual events] Yesterday and Today has validated the correctness of your new population theory of controlled An event that occurred about a month fertility. The Party wants to institute before our arrival illustrates the a thorough rehabilitation and restore current efforts to undo the excesses your reputation.” of earlier periods. Professor Ma Yinzhu, an economist, was President of Beijing University. In June, 1957, he published a “New Population Theory,” arguing that population growth in China needed to be con- trolled. He called for efforts to persuade the masses that fertility regulation was important and that early marriage was harmful. He stated also that stern and effective administrative measures may need to be invoked if the efforts at persuasion were not adequate. It was his position that the State should have the power to intervene in reproduction and to control population. He was denounced in press and other public statements, and in 1960 was removed from his post as President of Beijing University.

On Ju n e 5, 1979, The People’s Daily referred to Professor Ma’s “New Population Theory”—the first public mention since 1960. On July 10, it called for his rehabilitation and this call echoed in other newspapers. In mid-July, the Vice Minister of the United Front of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party called on Professor Ma at his home in Beijing and stated: “Today I have The egg market.

37

Father McCormick and Peter Robinson playing with children in an elementary school in Shanghai.

The Great Wall attracts tourists from everywhere, including Wesley Unseld of the Washington Bullets. 38

Dr. Julia Ching

esteemed and carefully upheld—by the family as well as the state. Indeed, the rigidity of the social structure in Moral Values the early 20th century in which a fossilized form of Confucian ideology was imbedded, led eventually to a in Today’s China movement calling for the overthrow of old values, the introduction of Western ideas, and eventually, to the establishment of the Chinese Dr. Julia Ching chose the topic o f The Images: Traditional and Modern Communist Party in an endeavor to “Moral Values in Today’s China” save Chinese society from Western because o f the importance o f the Traditional China called herself, and imperialism as well as from what was subject in itself, as well as within was known by her nearest neighbors, considered China’s feudal past. the context o f the aims and purposes as the Land of Virtue (li-yi zh i bang). of the Kennedy Institute o f Ethics, Her high ethical standards were During the Great Proletarian Cultural Georgetown University. Dr. Ching evident in the Confucian classics, Revolution, which lasted for roughly based her judgments and conclusions and knowledge of them was spread a decade from 1966 on, China was on information and observations by Jesuit and other missionaries to once more virtually closed to gathered and made not only during Europe in the seventeenth and outsiders. Yet she projected, by her the group tour of the Kennedy eighteenth centuries. As a result propaganda, the image of a Land of Institute o f Ethics in China, but such great philosophers as Leibniz, New Virtue, where the Chairman’s also during her other preceding visits Wolff, and Voltaire all became ardent ethical appeals- especially his dictum, in the country, July/August 1978, Sinophiles. This does not mean that “Serve the People”—were almost February 1979, and July 1979. In the images necessarily conformed well universally, and even lovingly, carried sum, Dr. Ching spent roughly one to the realities. As is now known, out. Once more the West envisaged in month in the country in 1978, China’s European admirers frequently this seldom visited country a land another month in summer 1979, with projected into her the image of w here th e right kind of socialism, about 10 days in winter 1979. Twice accomplished virtues, even though the especially socialist ethics, triumphed— she travelled as an individual and Classics merely extolled and a land not only without drug addicts tw ice w ith a group. encouraged the practice of these and prostitutes, but also where high virtues. This image was the result of and low collaborated in living a code wishful thinking, of the desire to of puritanical ethics covering every discover a realized, moral Utopia. aspect of life: love (never public, never abused), marriage, work (always Nevertheless, morality was at the core willingly and joyfully done), and even of Chinese philosophy, which, in turn, entertainment (only “revolutionary” constituted the basis of traditional ones). China’s educational program. Such virtues as filial piety, fraternal respect, But the image would not outlast by courtesy and hospitality were highly long the Cultural Revolution. Until 39

last summer it was not openly all the same to throw some light upon swept, if at all, and dining orders not criticized, but during this past summer this question. well attended. Much, of course, could visitors heard an outpouring of stories be attributed to the lack of proper recalling painful and shocking What the visitor now finds: the Real training for service personnel. But the experiences of the 1966-76 decade, China? occasional overseas Chinese who confirming information gathered by undertakes to tackle personally the professional Chinawatchers. Instead Today’s visitors are no longer treated red tape involved in the purchase of of a reign of virtue, the years to boring, official propaganda an air or rail ticket usually lines up witnessed a long nightmare. The comparing the accomplishments of with a crowd of local people pushing young missed schooling; the more the Communist regime with the evils one another in their attempts to were forbidden to do work of the feudal past. Rather, those who cope with a discourteous travel staff which they were trained; books care are able to meet and converse officiously asking for documents. The were burnt; scholars sent to feed pigs. with local Chinese much more proverbial Chinese “love of labor” Indeed, violence and sporadic chaos informally and casually, although becomes suspect in light of newspaper were the order of the day. Many socialist ideology has not given way. revelations of the low work morale houses were ransacked, people were In formal lectures, one still hears prevalent in the country’s factories tortured—sometimes to their deaths. expositions of socialist morality and and productive units and the Over 100,000 cases of miscarriages of the revolutionary heroism it produces. difficulty of developing an effective, justice have been recorded for that We heard tales of heroic self-sacrifice proper bonus system. And what of period, while one could only hazard in efforts to save state property such the traditional virtues—of family guesses for the number of suicides. as factories, which also represent the devotion, respect for elders, courtesy The so-called puritanical morality fruit of the labor of proletariat masses. and hospitality—those extolled in the was only a farce, as burglaries and If the casual listener finds reflections Classics, those practised certainly by a rapes went frequently unpunished. of Western, Christian heroism, let him great number of people, regardless of pause and beware: the accent was on whether they were “class virtues” I have not set out the traditional/ the saving of material property—even (shown only to one’s own social class) modern, images/realities contrasts in though human lives were also saved, or not? order to suggest any proportional on the side. The big characters correlation. Nor do I wish to representing the dictum, “Serve the Here and there, the occasional visitor exaggerate the moral havoc created People,” remain ubiquitous, even if it sees evidence of a touching witness by the Cultural Revolution—which is no longer vaunted in conversation. to the durability of traditional family many in China openly describe as a Foreign visitors who are overwhelmed virtues: the young respecting, helping near-fatal blow to Chinese culture. by the devotion of the Travel Service and even serving the aged. Nearly I wish rather to examine the post- are also overcome by exaggerated everywhere one is impressed by the Cultural Revolution rhetoric of efforts to make their tours solidarity of the family system, ethics, presuming that the virtues comfortable—while local Chinese are certain attacks upon it notwithstanding today will reflect the moral pushed aside to make way for the . But there are also immense virtues now considered im p o rtan t. A nd tour bus. On the other hand, the problems under the surface. China’s I also wish to ascertain, so far as quality of service offered even in the young senses itself “equal” to the possible, how people live these virtues. best of China’s hotels compares very older generation. Many had been Of course, my several visits to China poorly with that known in the outside brutalized by what they had seen or remain brief when considered against world: rooms are only superficially even done during the Cultural the vastness of this subject. But I hope Revolution. They are less willing to 40

act passively according to parental may now have in Chinese society. If life and death and the meaning of advice. What is more, and what is the Cultural Revolution has created each. They are more eager to improve obvious to all is that the young hardly a kind of “moral vacuum” in today’s the quality of their lives here and ever mutter thanks or express regrets China, is there perhaps a desire for now. orally. Yet their demands are many. and openness to Western religious and Overseas Chinese are asked by young moral values? In my opinion, I find it Conclusion relatives who hardly know their difficult to respond affirmatively. I elders, to bring in pocket calculators, should say there is intellectual There are definite “generation gaps” tape-recorders, television sets. Parents curiosity about Christianity, as in Chinese society, gaps that are and elders are far quicker to offer perhaps about all religions now that perhaps deeper than in the West. In gestures of hospitality and service. these are no longer, intellectually the cities we visited, children appear speaking, “forbidden fruits.” There is to be attending schools normally. But The Anti-Confucius Campaign (1972- recognition also th a t th e technologically there is ostensibly a “lost generation” 74) is of course over. It is now advanced West still harbors (those aged twenty-five years and criticized as an effort to overthrow many people who are believing under) who missed much of their Premier Chou En-Lai by associating Christians. There is also sincere effort, schooling during the Cultural Revolution him with the moral philosopher so it seems, by the government to . There are also the middle-aged, Confucius, as well as Confucius’ allow more freedom of religion at (forty or above), many of whom admired Duke of Chou. Older people, least for those adhering to the actively worked for the advent of a including the country’s higher cadres Patriotic Churches (Catholic and utopian society only to emerge are once more referring to Confucius’ Protestant). The government has disillusioned and chastened, them Analects, as well as other works, and stated its willingness to guarantee a selves the victims of power struggles. are even quoting from them to constitutional right to freedom of The elders who were the young illustrate a point. Confucius’ birth religious belief. But the educated patriots and revolutionaries of the place in Shantung is once more open people, whether they be convinced decade of China’s war with Japan to the public (since April, 1979), and Marxists or disillusioned experimental and the ensuing civil struggle remain, our group was privileged to visit there. Utopians, usually declare themselves being far removed from younger Confucius himself is now said to have materialists and atheists with some generations in many ways. made some mistakes, but to have also respect for “the preternatural.” made contributions to the social order Christianity is still alive among those I find that the older generation has and culture. While he is no longer who have always been Christians, preserved much more of the considered a sage, neither is he a mere including those who nominally gave traditional sense of morality, of villain. He has become a human being, up their faiths during the Cultural courtesy, and of family devotion. prone to both merits and demerits, as Revolution. But the majority of They have suffered much and remain indeed has the deceased Chairman educated Chinese seem too the most self-sacrificing. The middle- himself. disillusioned with the cult of the aged appear often cynical, but eager Chairman, who became semi-divinized for their own advancement. They Has Christianity a Place? during his lifetime to desire any more know little of traditional moral values, cult. Politics still sound too much like but desire the benefits arising from For many Westerners, especially religion and dogma. People who have the family system, which are often Christians, the question emerges as to passed through the Great Crucible (of material benefits overseas relatives how Christianity has fared during the the Cultural Revolution) are not asking might bring. The young appear the past few decades and what place it many “eternal” questions about most morally deprived, and while 41

less cynical, they have fewer ideals for Among the assets of her people is Dr. Roy Branson which to live. While older generations their openness to the true and good. experimented with revolutionary As China becomes more and more a idealism, and were themselves part of the one world, we may hope exploited and persecuted for it, that she will grow to fulfilment, Chinese the young have no such background. morally as well as otherwise. China The old are quite vocal about the will yet have much to teach the rest of Protestantism faults of the young, such as their lack the world. of courtesy (quite real), their propensity for conflict and confronting Christians, particularly Protestants, rather than filial consideration, are buoyant about the future of the their downright dishonesty. (Yet Church in the People’s Republic of who could be counted to tell the China. In Beijing, the Kennedy truth when everyone has been Institute of Ethics’ delegation met required to cry political slogans which prominent and long-time leaders of changed with the political weather?) the Three-Self Movement, the official Protestant church recognized by the The above account has perhaps government. (The three “self’s,” overdrawn certain contrasts, but this which emphasize the indigenous, non- was done in order to delineate more im perialist nature of official Protestantism clearly the moral contours of a society in China are self-government, in rapid political change. There is self-support, and self-propagation.) much that is good and beautiful in In Shanghai, contacts were also made China and human relationships remain with unofficial but actual leaders of warm, vital, and important. In Protestants who continue to identify contrast to the West, which many themselves as members of particular Chinese consider decadent, there is denominations. As freedom increases as yet no evident drug or sex so does debate among Protestants problems. In spite of a low living about the nature and role of the standard and poor housing, they Church in contemporary China. appear disciplined and tolerant. People are clean (although few houses Bishop Ting is a quintessential leader have baths), and they keep their city of the Three-Self Movement. Members streets and country roads free of of our delegation met with him two rubbish. The children are happy and days before he flew to Princeton often generous, as witnessed by us University where he gave widely a child offered his apple to one reported speeches concerning the state o u r delegation. of Christianity in the People’s Re- public of China. Ting, who was con- While China has real problems in the secrated an Anglican Bishop and economic as well as the moral order, served on the staff of the World it is my belief that China possesses Council of Churches, returned to the solutions to these problems. China after the Liberation and became but when we were in Beijing it still speakers, delivered his own lecture head of the Protestant Seminary in had not had a national meeting. Even on the history of Chinese religion, Nanking. His description of the in- those who would certainly be present and accompanied the Kennedy creasing centralization of seminary did not know when such a meeting Institute delegation to the Great Hall education coincided with other would take place or who would be of the People to see Vice Premier accounts we heard, of the general invited. Yao Ilin. consolidation of Protestant institutions after 1951. Those accounts helped us One of the leaders of the Three-Self From Ting and Zhao we learned concretely to understand why the present, freer Movement who was banished during how the government is serious environment is so exhilarating. the Cultural Revolution and who has about allowing more religious freedom. been rehabilitated made the only The government has approved the From 1951 to 1957 the government public criticism of present official allocation of enough paper to publish insisted that the leaders of the Three- policy that we heard during our two thousands of copies of the Bible. In Self Movement be acceptable to it, weeks in China. Zhao Fusan was Fukien Province, south of Shanghai, but some denominational identity ordained by the Anglican Church entire brigades within a commune persisted as it does within the National and now is the Deputy Director of (about 7,000 people comprise a Council of Churches. There was even the Institute of World Religions brigade) have declared themselves to maintenance of separate church within the Academy of Social be Christians. Since the time of buildings. From the time of Mao’s Sciences. He was prominent through- liberation, Christians in the country- Great Leap Forward in 1957, until out the formal academic meetings of side have enjoyed greater liberty than 1966, the Three-Self Movement was the Kennedy Institute with the those in the cities, including the molded into a more organically Academy. He translated for other unified Protestant Church, with common worship services and assignment of state-paid clergy without reference to denominational affiliation . The many Protestant seminaries in China were reduced to four, one in each geographic part of the country. Finally, the only seminary faculty that remained was Bishop Ting’s in Nanking. The last class graduated from the seminary in 1966. In 1966 the Cultural Revolution began and even leaders of the Three-Self Movement were thrown into prisons or banished to hard labor in remote areas. The Nanking Seminary managed to retain a faculty devoted to translating the Bible, but it still has not admitted any new students. The Three-Self Movement has recently begun to re-emerge in local areas, The first Christian public worship service held in Shanghai in thirteen years. The Three-Self’s:

• Self-Government • Self-Support • Self-Propagation

43

opportunity in certain areas of con- had a friendly voice.” He went on to ducting worship services. Freedom has explain in a matter-of-fact manner also begun to return to urban areas. In that Beijing had never had many Beijing one Protestant Church had Christians. “The south had more.” He already been opened, although at the translated my question for the other time we were there it was the only workers, but none knew or had heard one in all of China. of any Christians in Beijing. I later found that the Protestant Church in While Bishop Ting and Professor Zhao Beijing was a few blocks away, within Fusan are very hopeful about the easy walking distance. Weekly attendance future, o ther conversations and exigences there was reported to be about in Beijing highlighted persistent forty people. problems for Christianity in China. During Vice Premier Yao The virtual invisibility of Christianity Ilin’s hour-long meeting with our away from the coastal cities and delegation, he was asked why the new southern countryside was underscored constitution of the People’s Republic by Ambassador Woodcock in his of China, promulgated in 1978, does conversations at the American Embassy not grant equal freedom to atheism with the Kennedy Institute and theism. We knew that during a delegation. He suggested that in meeting of the National People’s addition to the government’s commitment Consultative Congress, comprised to constitutional guarantees of primarily of individuals not belonging freedom of religious belief, the leadership to the Communist Party, government may be allowing increased leaders had been challenged on that religious liberty because it has observed specific point. Vice Premier Yao the minimal success Christianity replied that the government under- historically enjoyed in Japan and groceries. A young night crew at a stands that freedom of belief in either China. They may have concluded small typewriter repair shop detained atheism or in God implies freedom to that a few thousand freely worshiping me for about an hour. One of the propagate that belief. However, in Christians would pose a minimal machinists in his twenties studied China theists remain uneasy that the threat to one billion Chinese. government’s current interpretation English at night. With the help of his two Chinese-English dictionaries, we has not yet been embedded in the Another disturbing fact is that struggled phrase by phrase through a wording of the constitution. C hristianity, particularly Protestantism couple of sentences at a time. Periodically , continues to be identified he paused to translate our conversation Another aspect of the challenge facing with Western culture. When I asked for the five other workers Christianity was dramatized for me by Zhao Fusan what contribution the other conversation in a very different who had gathered around. Finally, I tiny Christian community could make asked him if he heard of any Christians setting. One evening I left the to the future of Chinese society, he in Beijing. “Christmas? Christmas?” delegation to walk two or three miles pointed out that Christianity is the away from the Beijing Hotel down he kept repeating. Once I had clarified most important religion in the West. various commercial streets and to the word Christian, he said, “I know Chinese Christians can therefore help poke into restaurants, bakeries and only a man on the radio from Hong their countrymen to understand a Kong who said he was a Christian. He 44

significant aspect of Western culture. will not be a unified Church, analogous During 19 of the last 25 years (1954- Ambassador Woodcock recalled to the United Church of Canada 1979), Pastor Xu Hua has been either another remark that revealed a similar or the Church of South India. Differing in jail or under house detention. I perception. At a diplomatic reception patterns of ordination and saw him only three months after his a high Chinese official noted that “It’s liturgy could probably not be merged. final house arrest was terminated in interesting, isn’t it, that the West, A closer analogy would be the May, 1979. Since then he has been which is so advanced technologically, National Council of Churches. How free to visit with Chinese and overseas has been deeply influenced by Christi- ever, cooperation would be essential church members. An indication of a anity.” If the identification between in the use of church buildings. The changed official attitude toward him Christianity and Western culture persists government would simply not allow and his family is the fact that a new , Christianity will continue to be each Protestant denomination to edition of a Chinese encyclopedia i hostage to shifts in the political and convert a different church building include an article about Pastor Xu diplomatic relations between China from its present use as an office or Hua’s grandfather. After working as and the West. workshop to use for a weekly worship a business agent for foreign companies, service. his grandfather established his own Greater freedom allows another basic shipping company which sent the first dilemma to reappear. Will the government Events during our visit to Shanghai ships flying the Chinese flag into form and sponsor a single drew us into both the excitement European ports such as Liverpool and Protestant Church, or will Protestants and perplexity experienced by Southampton. The Sunday morning identify church buildings with particular Protestants in China. Taking a taxi that I saw Pastor Xu Hua happened denominations, choose their to his one room apartment, I visited to be his 74th birthday, but far from own pastors, and support them with Pastor Xu Hua, the President of the reflecting on the past with its painful their offerings? Zhao Fusan anticipated China Division o f Seventh Day Adventists prison experiences, Pastor Xu Hua was that when the national Three-Self at the time of liberation. exhilarated by the future opportunities Movement is reorganized the result for Christians in China.

He was clear that Chinese must be the leaders of Christianity within the People’s Republic of China. Neither foreigners nor overseas Chinese can determine policy or provide funds for Christians within China. On the other hand, Christians inside China should be allowed to identify with particular traditions. Cooperation of the various Protestant groups under the umbrella of a Three-Self Movement recognized by the government would be less of a problem if it were similar to the early years of the Three-Self Movement when denominational identities were not wholly obliterated. Adventists,

More Memorial Church. 45

he felt, would be happy to share church buildings and cooperate in many joint projects. But Seventh- Day Adventists should certainly not be forced to meet on the same day as other Protestants. Pastor Xu Hua was encouraged by reports that in different communes two production teams (each team usually consisting of 400-600 members) identified themselves as Seventh-Day Adventist Christians and insisted that they would not perform routine labor on Saturday. Each commune agreed as long as the Adventist team continued to exceed its production quota. More than 1000 people attended the thanksgiving service.

Without question we gained our most Although we did not have invitations, On the left of the platform a man in dramatic and moving impression of Dr. Lauby and I were still warmly his late twenties played an ancient Christianity in China from attending, welcomed into the gothic sanctuary. upright piano. The congregation was September 2, what was the first As we were gently hurried down predominantly over 55 years of age, Christian public worship service held the right aisle, Dr. Lauby and I could but many young married couples were in Shanghai in thirteen years. Sunday see that we were the only non-Chinese also in attendance. As in any church morning, Pastor Xu Hua volunteered in attendance. We quickly discovered around the world, teenagers and in our conversation in his apartment that over a thousand people had more young adults had found their way to that invitations had been distributed than filled the main floor and balcony. the balcony. To my left, above the to a thanksgiving church service that An extra wooden bench was placed balcony, were three large gothic would be held within two hours. Dr. next to one of the already filled pews windows. Rocks had smashed huge Paul Lauby had heard in Beijing of by a middle-aged man who insisted on holes through each of them. this service, but the official government sitting behind a pillar so that I could guides that met our delegation see the platform. Behind me a young For the congregation the most fervent when it arrived the previous Saturday man who spoke a little English identified part of the service was the opening night denied that any such service was the four men in their seventies prayer. To my right, my benchmate planned. I quickly returned to the sitting on the platform. He indicated swayed, his head tilted back, weeping, hotel and found Dr. Paul Lauby. Our the denomination with which each occasionally joining others in responding taxi driver had no trouble finding the participant had been affiliated: the aloud. I still remained the crowd entering More Memorial Methodist minister offered the sympathetic observer. But when the c hurch, which had originally been welcome and benediction, the Presbyterian congregation swept into “Holy, built by a Methodist congregation pastor read the scriptural Holy, Holy” and “Joyful, Joyful, and subsequently occupied by a lesson, the clergyman from The Little We Adore Thee,” I became a fellow school. Flock (an indigenous Chinese Church) worshiper, sharing the congregation’s gave the pastoral prayer, and a Baptist emotion and tears. It was easy to pastor preached the sermon. believe in that moment that even if 46

the Christian minority played an society. Leadership is being provided obscure role in public events, by older men whose memories are the Christianity could never be eradicated fragile membrane connecting pre- from the fabric of Chinese life. liberation traditions to the present. Foreigners are treated as friends, but According to a later translation of there is the unchallenged assumption his recorded remarks, the Baptist that the Chinese will operate their preacher gave a rather traditional own institutions. Hope, bordering on sermon, including the admonition euphoria, at the enjoyment of greater that God’s unconditioned love should freedom is interrupted by sharp re- be demonstrated in not just religious minders that the exercise of that exercises, but everyday life. It was freedom remains carefully scrutinize' announced that the next week a A tension between unity based on former Presbyterian Church would be national identity and diversity opened. Others would follow, until founded on historic loyalties remains five Protestant churches would be unresolved. reopened in Shanghai. After the congregation sang “Love Divine,” Zhao Fusan had said in Beijing that and heard the closing prayer, the “The People’s Republic of China has congregation began chatting excitedly entered its Protestant era.” He was to one another. They had attended Grilling chicken on the street. using Paul Tillich’s famous phrase Shanghai’s first public Christian to epitomize China’s recent political worship service in thirteen years. By the time I reached the front steps life, such as its increased appreciation of the church I could see that scores of individual initiative and greater Before I could leave I felt a tap on of pedestrians and as many cyclists acceptance of dissent. If the church my right shoulder. The man who had had stopped to silently watch this demonstrates how groups within been translating asked me what group large, talkative group spilling on to Chinese society can exercise some I was with. When I told him, he said, a busy, downtown thoroughfare. I independence it may be that Zhao “Oh yes, the Kennedy Institute met wondered if some bystanders did not Fusan’s bon m ot will have expressed for a long conversation with Vice even know that the building being a profound truth. In contemporary Premier Yao Ilin in Beijing.” I turned emptied was originally a church. As China, as it did previously in the West, completely around and asked care I approached the wall enclosing the Christianity may make its greatest fully how he knew about our meeting church yard, my gaze stopped at a contribution to public life simply that had take place just a few days young man in the crowd peering by being itself: an institution loyal before. He fumbled for a moment. I through the front gate. He was to a reality it believes transcends the finally suggested that “Maybe you wearing the green cap and red star claims of any particular government. read about it in the People’s Daily?” of a soldier in the People’s Liberation Freedom of religion has, in the past, Pie quickly smiled and agreed. When A rm y. accompanied the emergence of diverse, I asked him his name he gave it and autonomous groups. Historians may said, “I am the Vice Chairman of the The church service had epitomized later agree that during this period, by Shanghai Three-Self Movement.” both the hope and uncertainty of not beginning to allow institutional only the Christian community, but pluralism, China did indeed enter its many parts of contemporary Chinese Protestant era. 47

W m . Alford, Pat King with the Chinese Academy of Social The Resurgence of Legality and A g n e s W illiam s Sciences in Beijing. In addition, in- Although law was never accorded as dividual group members were able central a position in either traditional to glean further useful information or modern Chinese society as has Law, Lawyers through discussions with a range of been the case in Anglo-American individuals. These people include: culture, during the first decade of and Legal Vice Premier Yao Ilin; the leaders of the People’s Republic, the Chinese a commune on the outskirts of did attem pt to establish a new socialist Education in PRC Canton; a professor of law at Beijing legal order based in large measure University; a professor of international upon the Russian model. By the late relations at Fudan University in 1950’s, however, law began to come The Kennedy Institute’s delegation Shanghai; the author of a wall poster under fire as being a socially divisive to China was fortunate to arrive at at Democracy Wall in Beijing; Professor force, and lawyers as being reaction­ Jerome A. Cohen, the Director a time when the Chinese were once ary, elitist elements. After a brief of Harvard Law School’s East Asian again focusing on law after what respite in the early 1960’s, law and Legal Studies Center (who was in was, in effect, a hiatus of two decades lawyers were subjected to even Beijing at the same time with American ’ duration. China’s concern stronger attacks, first during the scholars of tax law, leading a seminar with the development of greater legal Cultural Revolution and then in the for Chinese officials), and others. protections is now in an incipient heyday of the Gang of Four. During stage, and still falls far short of what Through these discussions we were this period, which commenced in we in the West would expect of a able to supplement our understanding 1965 and lasted for more than a society based on the rule of law. Our of the following developments in dozen years, law schools were closed, group was able to learn from meetings Chinese law and legal education. bar associations disbanded, and many with judges, legal educators and others that the Chinese, of late, have made considerable strides toward such a society. The very fact that we were able to partake of such meetings in itself represents a clear advance from a year ago when the Chinese expressed great reluctance about allowing visiting Americans (including co-author Alford) to meet with legal officials and scholars.

The most extensive legal discussions which the group engaged came afternoon long session with two Shanghai municipal court judges, devoted chiefly to questions of criminal law and procedure, and in the course of meetings with Professor Rui Mo and other scholars affiliated A popular food vendor, Canton. 48

laws and legal procedures abrogated And, as will be discussed below, legal having committed a crime and forcing or ignored. education and lawyer’s groups have another to commit suicide major again sprung up. crimes. With the ascendance of Deng Xiaoping, law has over the course of The Criminal Laws Legal Education the past two years again become a The new substantive and procedural After having been stifled for a dozen proper subject for concern—indeed, criminal laws hold greater promise years, legal education has again surfaced more so than had ever previously of protecting the individual than have at four universities. The prestigious been the case. Some observors have previous codes. However, many law departm ent of Beijing University speculated that the present leadership's people with whom we spoke indicated currently numbers more than recent interest in law is explicable that they wished to withhold 20 faculty members and 200 student largely as a reaction to the judgment on the laws—which take (none, to date, from the U.S.). Amo arbitrary and lawless manner in which effect on January 1, 1980—until they the subjects taught are criminal law, many of them were treated during have been in operation for a while. criminal procedure, family law, labor the Cultural Revolution and Gang of law, Chinese legal history, and Four periods. Others attribute it, at One issue n o t resolved by the new W estern law and legal history. Surprisingly least in part, to the influence of the laws is that of whether an accused , notwithstanding China’s West, as expressed both by foreign should be considered innocent or increasing involvement with foreign businessmen who have pushed for guilty until acquitted or convicted. businessmen, the law faculty has few codified commercial law and by The judges with whom we met in- offerings in the area of international foreign leaders eager to promote the formed us that in the early years trade. The instruction of China’s growth of civil liberties in China of the People’s Republic, innocence future commercial negotiators is (including Senator Edward M. had been presumed, but that in the instead left largely to the government Kennedy, who during his visit with late 1950’s, this had been attacked itself and to foreign institutions Professor Cohen to China in December as a “rightist idea” and abandoned. -including Harvard Law School of 1977, stressed to the leadership Now, the issue is again the subject and Hong Kong University—to which the importance of further developing of extensive and often heated de- a handful o f officials with legal responsibilities China’s criminal law and procedure). bate—so much so that the drafters have recently been o f the new laws have left it unanswered sent. Whatever the impetus, during the past . The persona] view of the year-and-a-half the Chinese have promulgated judges we met was that a judge should In a departure from both the Confu a new Constitution, a new presume neither innocence nor guilt cian and Communist past, the Chinese criminal code, a new law of criminal but should act “neutrally.” are now also striving to inculcate at procedure, a joint venture code for least a minimal awareness of the law foreign companies hoping to engage Interestingly, a number of elements among the populace through the in partnerships with them on Chinese of the new criminal law are reminiscent publication of legal periodicals and soil, and a number of environmental of Imperial Chinese legal codes the inclusion of general features on laws. Moreover, work is presently as are a num ber of present-day administrative law in major newspaper and on radio underway on new copyright and regulations. To take but and television. Foreigners (including patent codes, new commercial and a brief example, the new code, like co-author Alford) were able to purchase corporate laws, revisions to the existing the Ch’ing Dynasty Code of a century and read such periodicals. tax and labor laws, and further ago, makes falsely accusing another of additions to the environmental laws. The Legal Profession Dr. Tom Beaucham p The members of the Kennedy Institute The resurgence of the legal profession delegation were invited to see both has been even slower than that of the Hong Kong University and also the law itself or of legal education—due Chinese University of Hong Kong. most likely to the fact that even when Bioethics in H ong K ong U niversity is a British functioning at its smoothest, the legacy, and still functions largely on Chinese legal system has far less need Japan and the British model. The Chinese University for lawyers or legally trained judicial of Hong Kong is staffed largely officials than most Western systems. Hong Kong with Chinese professors and administrators Even before the Cultural Revolution . One might think this t down legal education, many historical and cultural difference legal w orkers” engaged in prosecutorial In travelling to and from the People’s would count substantially toward divergent , defense, or judicial activity Republic o f China, the Kennedy Institute points of view being taken by had little or no formal legal training— delegation met with health care these two universities. However, we as was the case w ith one of the judges professionals in Japan and Hong Kong. did not find this particular thesis to we met who, prior to entering the Dr. Beauchamp reports here on those be borne out. The differences that judiciary at age 23, had been a laborer activities. count are always between Hong Kong and party cadre. and China, not between the British and the Chinese located in Hong Within the past half year, China’s It is no doubt a difficult question Kong. lawyers have regrouped. Bar associations how “Hong Kong Chinese,” as they have been revived in Beijing refer to them selves, are to be distinguished Consider first our visit to the Chinese and other major cities. And, if the culturally, politically, University of Hong Kong. We met new criminal law truly is followed, and in other ways from the Chinese there with a largely nonmedical set there will be far greater need for in the PRC. However, when it comes of faculty members, and had some skilled legal workers than is now the to distinguishing their involvement briefings on the health system in case. The judges with whom we spoke in medicine and problems in bio- Hong Kong and on traditional Chinese in Shanghai indicated that they presently ethics, the proverbial difference between philosophy. The briefings tended to are trying only two or three East and West is everywhere show that administrative arrangements cases a month —a small number when manifest. It would perhaps be an for health care, as well as health planning one considers that that city of more oversimplification to say that Chinese , are substantially similar to those than 10,000,000 has fewer than 100 in the PRC have no bioethical problems found in the United States. We were municipal judges. Nonetheless, the , though other articles in this given the impression that even though promise is such that students at Quarterly Report will, I predict, the scope of health care for certain Beijing University are now avidly bear out this broad claim. By contrast segments of the lower class may be looking forward to active careers , the Hong Kong Chinese have more restricted than in the United he law—a thought hardly imaginable virtually the same approach to medicine States, those from the lower class can a few years ago. and the same bioethical problems expect immediate admission to a to which we are accustomed in the hospital bed for no more than $5 per United States. This is the case I shall day. We were told that in Hong Kong try to make in this brief article. they are somewhat behind in the treatment of some kinds of diseases— mental disease was specifically me- tioned in the visit to the Chinese Sargent Shriver, did not answer the their participation in the research, University—but on the whole they question directly. Instead, he turned and who are even quite interested in see themselves as similarly advanced the question over to Warren Reich, such participation and actually follow as western countries; and, from what who presented the faculty with a the course of the research to its conclusion we could tell, this seems to be so. copy of the Encyclopedia o f Bio . They also indicated that they ethics. The subtle implication, I contacted subjects after a period of One noticeable way in which they lag suppose, was that the field of discussion a year or so in order to let them know behind is in the gathering of statistics. was to be open to every item what happened in the research as well We learned right away that it is difficult catalogued in that Encyclopedia. as to solicit further consent if they to understand how the problem were still involved in the research of abortion is handled in Hong Kong. We then went on to discover that the project. They also were well aware They tend to treat problems of four professors from the medical some of the subtleties of bioethical abortion under the category of either school who were meeting with us did problems about consent, such as the therapeutic abortion or septic abortion in fact know somewhere between a special difficulties posed by randomized , but in response to queries about little bit and a lot about virtually all clinical trials. They indicated the number of such abortions per of these bioethical topics. Moreover, that they had faced up those problems formed each year, we were told that the answers they gave were answers , and had decided to inform those statistics are only now being we are generally used to hearing in patients prior to their participation gathered for the first time. the West. We quizzed them especially that they were involved in a randomized closely about the ways in which they trial. We actually learned more about bi- handle problems of informed consent There were also indications that the ethics in Hong Kong from our discussions in doing research in Hong Kong. We Hong Kong University faculty not at Hong Kong University than were told that the consent of all subjects only had thought through the same from our discussions at the Chinese involved in a research protocol problems, but had thought them University of Hong Kong. At the had to be obtained, and that they had through to a greater extent in some Chinese University we were placed modeled their procedures for receiving quarters than have we. For example, largely in an interdisciplinary setting consent and their consent forms we discussed their institutional review which led to a discussion of m any extraneous on those currently being used in the board as a mechanism for approving topics. When we went to United States. We learned, similarly, Hong Kong University, we were greeted that many of their ethical concerns research protocols. Not surprisingly, in a session chaired by the head of the about consent paralleled our own. the system that they use is similar Department of Community Medicine. For example, they had been worried to our own. Somewhat surprisingly, It was clear from the start that his about how much the subjects they they decided to think through their faculty was interested in whatever were using in experiments actually use of anim al subjects at the same we were interested in, and the course comprehended the inform ation provided time they were establishing mechanisms of the discussion was naturally bio- . Their “volunteers,” as they for protecting hum an subjects. ethical in character. Indeed, the only call them, had come from a poorer While they did not make the claim request made in advance of the discussion segment of the population, and it that the same protections were in itself by the head o f the Department was questionable how well they order for animals as for humans, of Community Medicine, understood their participation in they gave every indication that they was “ What fields of medical ethics the research. We were told that they have far b etter conceived and attempted are we going to cover?” The person now use subjects at a “higher level” to handle the problem of to whom this question was put, who are fully capable o f understanding protecting research animals through review committees than have we. That the review for animals paralleled the lines of the review of human subjects is especially interesting. The Kennedy Institute Scholars

These findings contrast sharply with our findings in the PRC. There we RICHARD A. McCORMICK, S.J., S.T.D. found either little understanding of or Director o f the Institute little concern with what we consider Center for Bioethics Center for Population Research to be the primary problems of bio- ethics. From time to time a particular LEROY WALTERS, PH.D. THOMAS W. MERRICK, PH.D. individual with whom we were speaking Director Director would indicate an awareness of or an interest in a particular bioethical TOM L. BEAUCHAMP, PH.D. CONRAD TAEUBER, PH.D. problem —for exam ple, we occasionally H. TRISTRAM ENGELHARDT, JR., Associate Director found people explicitly interested M.D., PH.D. in problems of the allocation of scarce RUTH FADEN, M.P.H., PH.D. MARGARET BOONE, PH.D. medical resources. However, the constant JOHN C. FLETCHER, PH.D. ANDREW CHRISTIANSEN, S.J., M. impression that we received ISAAC FRANCK, PH.D., A.C.S.W. DEBORAH DAWSON, M.A. within the PRC was that there was MEHDI HA’IRI, PH.D. CAROL DEVITA, M.A. JOHN C. HARVEY, M.D., TH.M. MURRAY FESHBACH, PH.D. very little understanding of what we JOSEF KADLEC, S.J., M.D., PH.D. MURRAY GENDELL, PH.D. were asking, and even less of an awareness PATRICIA A. KING, J.D. MADUGBA I. IRO, PH.D. that bioethical problems constitute La r r y McC u l l o u g h , p h .d . HAITUNG KING, PH.D. serious social problems. Perhaps PAUL MENZEL, PH.D. JANA MOSSEY, M.P.H., PH.D. we should not be surprised about STEFAN MOKROHISKY, M.D. JEFFREY S. PASSEL, PH.D. this reaction, given the present structure ROBERT NELSON, PH.D. JEANNE C. RIDLEY, PH.D. of the government and of scientif ROBERT PLOTKIN, J.D. MAHESH SHARMA, M.A. ic and scholarly activities in the PRC. WARREN T. REICH, S.T.D. HENRY S. SHRYOCK, PH.D. After all, there has been continual disruption GEORGE SHOUP, S.J., M.D., PH.D. JACOB SIEGEL, M.A. MARY LOU SIANTZ, M.S.N. BETH J. SOLDO, PH.D. and upheaval there and moral JOAN SIEBER, PH.D. problems such as those in bioethics have simply had to take second place. Laboratories for Reproductive Biology It would, however, be a mistake to suppose that these problems have PAUL BRUNS, M.D. been given second place because the Director Chinese themselves are not concerned with such problems due to their own ROBERT C. BAUMILLER, S.J., PH.D. peculiar ethical and religious history. JOSEPH COLLEA, M.D. t we found in Hong Kong, I DESSOUKI A. DESSOUKY, M.D. believe, is that the Chinese there RICHARD J. FALK, M.D. are concerned with virtually exactly WILLIAM R. GOLD, M.D. the same set of problems that concern PETER RAMWELL, PH.D. us and are at least as well on their SAFA M. RIFKA, M.D. way to resolving those problems JOHN J. SCHRUEFER, M.D. as are we. ANITA SOSTEK, M.D. The Kennedy Institute Quarterly Report is published by the Kennedy Institute, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057

Carol Hetler, Editor

Contributing Editors: Emily Dolge Pat Schifferli Mary Ellen Timbol

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Dr. Warren Reich Table of Contents 1 The China Trip The Beijing Symposium on Sargent Shriver, Chairman of the International Advisory Board, Kennedy Institute of Ethics Ethics and Values in the Rev. Richard A. McCormick, S.J., S.T.D., Director, Kennedy Institute of Ethics Contemporary World 4 Bioethical Issues in Contemporary China H. Tristram Engelhardt, Jr., Ph.D., M.D., Rosemary Kennedy Professor of the Philosophy of “Historically significant” and “an Medicine important beginning” are appropriate 7 The People terms for describing the Beijing Symposium Conrad Taeuber, Ph.D., Associate Director, Center for Population Research, Kennedy Institute on Values and Ideologies in 11 Reflections on Socialist Ethics Science, Medicine, Technology, and James F. Childress, Ph.D., former Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. Professor of Christian Ethics; currently Law. The highlight of the Kennedy Chairman, Department of Philosophy, University of Virginia Institute delegation’s trip to the 14 Medicine in China People’s Republic of China, this John Collins Harvey, M.D., TH.M., Georgetown Medical Center and Kennedy Institute conference was hosted by the Chinese 19 The Catholic Church in China Academy of the Social Sciences in Rev. William F. Ryan, S.J., Provincial of the Upper Canada Province, Toronto, Canada Beijing, August 27-28, 1979. 22 Nine Theses on Religion and Science Rev. Hans Kung, Director of the Institute of Ecumenical Research, University of Tubingen, The Chinese Academy of the Social Germany Sciences, which was established only 26 Religion in Chinese Academia in 1977, is without an American Paul T. Lauby, Ph.D., Executive Director, United Board for Christian Higher Education in Asia counterpart. Similar to our National 3 0 Social Science in China Institutes of Health in its structure, Ruth Faden, M.P.H., Ph.D., Center for Bioethics, Kennedy Institute the Academy is made up of twenty- 32 Vice Premier Yao llin Greets the Visiting Delegation four institutes. While the research 33 The Vice Premier with the Kennedy Institute Delegation, August 27, 1979 staff of the entire Academy exceeds 1500 people (including many graduate 34 Snapshots of China students), there appear to be only a Democracy Wall few well trained senior level scholars William Alford, J.D., Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver and Kampelman in some of the institutes, and these Qo Fu, Birthplace of Confucius usually double as professors at H. Tristram Engelhardt, Jr., Ph.D., M.D. universities. Population Theory, Yesterday and Today Conrad Taeuber, Ph.D. We found a remarkably open attitude 38 Moral Values in Today's China among our Chinese colleagues during Julia Ching, Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada the Beijing conference. It was apparent 41 Chinese Protestantism that their openness was due Roy Branson, Ph.D., Ethics Advisory Board, DHEW; Kennedy Institute partly to official policy. For the 47 Law, Lawyers and Legal Education in the PRC Chinese are now extremely eager— William Alford, J.D.; Patricia A. King, J D., Georgetown Law School, and Kennedy Institu in contrast with the isolationist and Agnes Williams, J.D., Ethics Advisory Board, DHEW anti-intellectual attitudes manifested 49 Bioethics in Japan and Hong Kong during the Cultural Revolution—to Tom Beauchamp, Ph.D., Center for Bioethics, Kennedy Institute and Dept, of Philosophy explain their positions to the world 52 The Beijing Symposium and to learn from foreign colleagues Warren Reich, S.T.D., Kennedy Institute and Dept, of Community Medicine systematically in the coming years. D