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University Microfilms International 300 N. ZEEB RD.. ANN ARBOR. Ml 4B106 8129017

H o e h n , W il u a m T o d d

THE BALLET MUSIC OF CONSTANT LAMBERT: A STUDY OF COLLABORATION IN MUSIC AND DANCE

The Ohio State University PH.D. 1981

University Microfilms International300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106

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University Microfilms International THE BALLET MUSIC OF CONSTANT LAMBERT:

A STUDY OF COLLABORATION IN MUSIC AND DANCE

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

SY V illi am Todd Hoehn, B.M., M.A.

The Ohio State University

1981

Reading Committee: Approved By

Dr. Herbert Livingston

Dr. P e te r Gano

Dr. Keith Mixter ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people vere of assistance in providing research information

for this study. I should like to thank Sir Frederick Ashton, Dame

Ninette de Valois, Ivor Guest, Jean Bedells, Cyril Beaumont, Angus

Morrison, Michael Somes, Joan Lavson, Isabel Ravsthorne, Dmnanuel Young,

Belinda Qulerey, Mary Clarke, and Richard Shead for granting inter­

views. For making scores available, thankB are given to Alan Franks of

.Oxford University Press, Boris Skedelsky, archivist of the Royal Opera

Rouse, London, and Sir Michael Wood, Royal Ballet School, London. At

the BBC Written Archives Center, Reading, England, Dorothy M iller was

extremely helpful in providing information and source material. For

additional research assistance and for making his extensive private

collection open to me, my thanks to George Verdak, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Dr. Richard Koppin functioned as my advisor for the in itial stages of

this study. Dr. Herbert Livingston served as my advisor for its com­

pletion. I extend my gratitude to both professors for their patience

and wisdom. Thanks are also given to Norma F. 0. Stefanclosa for hours

of copying examples.

Throughout the course of preparing this work, my wife, Carol, has

endured both my presence and absence. She has guided, supported, chided,

and loved me. Her compaBBlon and understanding have been boundless and

her faith in me unswerving. She provides the foundation of my life and

its gre&teBt joys. It is to Carol and our life together that I dedicate

thiB work. * .. VITA

December If, 19^7 .... Born - Madison, Wisconsin

1970 . . . B.M., magna cum laude, Butler University, Indianapolis, Indiana

1970 - 1971 Fellov of the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1971 - 197*f ...... Teaching Associate, School of Music The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1973 ...... M.A., The Ohio State University, ColumbUB, Ohio

1975 - 1976 ...... Teaching Associate, School of Mub I c The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

PUBLICATIONS

”ln Memoriiun: Constant Lambert!' The Dancing Times. London, 1976.

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Music History

Minor Fieli: Music Theory Undergraduate Field: Music Education - Choral Emphasis, Piano Major

i i i TABLE OP CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... i i

VITA...... i i i

CHAPTER

I . INTRODUCTION ...... 1

I I . SURVEY OF ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES OF COMPOSERS AND CHOREOGRAPHERS IN THE COLLABORATIVE PRODUCTION OF BALLETS ...... 7

Noverre and the Beginnings of Modern Ballet ...... 7

Romantic CompoBerB and Choreographers ...... 1?

Tchaikovsky and P e tip a ...... 31

Diaghllev's Composers and Choreographers of the Ballets Russes ...... 1*2 Tventieth-century English Composers and Choreographers ...... 78

I I I . CONSTANT LAMBERT: A BIOGRAPHY...... 100

IV. AN ANALYSIS OF THE ORIGINAL BALLET MUSIC OF CONSTANT LAMBERT...... 125

Romeo and Juliet (1925) ...... 125

Pomona (1927) 168

Horoscope (1 9 3 8 ) ...... 195

Tiresias (1951) ...... 217

V. CONCLUSIONS...... 252

iv I

Page

APPENDIXES

A. G lossary o f Dance T erm inology ...... 2 6 l

B. Early Version of Tiresias L ibretto ...... 262

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 265

v CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Constant Lambert vas a twentieth-century musician of unparalleled importance in the development of English ballet. He vas a collaborator in the production of ballets, an accomplished conductor, composer, arranger, editor, author, and critic.

As an author and critic, Lambert expressed his opinions in books, in newspapers, and in such prestigious periodicals as Apollo and

The New Statesman and Nation. His literary efforts were frequently polemic in nature and withering in tone. For instance, in his widely read book, Music Ho!1, he penned a corrosive attack on those composers whose music appealed to coterie audiences. However, his writing could be constructive as well as destructive. He gave vigorous support to those composers who he felt responded to dictates of form rather than mode., In all his writings, he wrote with an encyclopedic knowledge about then-current musical developments.

As a conductor, Lambert served as a Professor of Conducting at the

Royal College of Music, held the post of principal conductor and Music

Director of the Sadler's Wells Ballet, and appeared as guest conductor with orchestras throughout Eh gland and Europe. Over fifty recordings of his performances with five orchestras have been produced. Lambert

^■Constant Lambert, Music Hoi A Study of Mub I c in Decline (London: Faber, 1931*: 2nd ed., 1937, (Penguin, 19^): 3rd ed., F ab er, 1966 ). 1 also gained international stature as the composer of such vorks as

The Rio Grande (1927)* Summer *b Last Will and Testament (193?)* and as the editor and arranger of eight symphonies of V illi am Boyce.

Despite the vide range of his activities, Constant Lambert made his greatest contributions through his life-long involvement vith ballet and ballet music. In fact, no other musician has had a greater impact upon the course of development of ballet in Bigland than he had in his capacity as the first musical director of The Sadler's WellB

Ballet. His colleagues credit him vith providing the musical founda­ tion of modern Ihglish ballet.*5 He composed and arranged music for ballets. He also vas the most knowledgeable musician vith whom choreographers collaborated in matters pertaining to the combination of music and dance. His involvement began in 1925, when he vas chosen to be the first of only two English composers to receive a commission for a ballet score to be produced by Diaghilev's Ballet b Russes and continued until his death in 1951. Although he composed in a variety of genres, Lambert's ballet scores and arrangements form the most im­ portant core of his musical output.

The following study focuseB attention only on those ballet scores that are completely of Lambert's own composition, namely Borneo and

J u l i e t (1925), Pomona (1927), Horoscope (1938), and T ireB ias (1951). A discussion of theBe vorks, vhich span the entire twenty-five.years of his ballet career, offers the strongest promise of understanding

^Ninette de Valois, interview at the Royal Academy of Dancing, London, July 37, 197^. 3 Lambert *s style of writing for the ballet and the manner in which his attitudes towards collaboration and the relationship between music and dance are reflected in his ballet music*

Constant Lambert's effectiveness as a composer and collabor­ ator stemmed not only from his creativity, but also from his under­ standing of the nature end construction of ballet and of the means by which composers and choreographers in collaboration could link music and movement into a mutually enhancing, homogeneous unit. His ballets illuminate the way dancers and musicians can work together and the effect such collaboration can have on the design, construction, and style of both the music and the dance.

In order to establish a context for this aspect of Lambert's contributions, material will be presented that illustrates the atti­ tudes and work habits of representative composers and choreographers.

This survey w ill describe how these attitudes and practices affect the function of choreographic and musical collaborators, and also w ill identify how the relationship between collaborators has affected the nature and function of music and dance in ballet productions. In thiB study, the point of view is taken that perceptible relationships and correlations between music, dance, and drama are positive attributes and are indicators of effective creation.

In conqpiling information on Constant Lambert and his work, this author uBed several kinds of sources. One of the most helpful was the biography of Lambert by Bicbard Shead.^ She ad's biography is a balanced study that both chronicles Lambert's life and describes his

%ichard Shead, Constant Lambert (London: Simon Publications, 1973). accomplishments in a brief but thoughtful manner. However, the vork iB a study and does not include an in-depth, scholarly examination of

Lambert's vorks or his attitudes and practices regarding collaboration.

It does Include an extensive bibliography of sources dealing vith

Lambert, a discography of vorks recorded by Lambert and recordings of

Lambert's vorks by other conductors, and a lis t of compositions by

Lambert.

In order to fill in various lacunae in Shead's information, and to obtain previously unrecorded details regarding Lambert's attitudes, habitB, character, personality, and contributions, this author conducted interviews vith many of the composer's friends and relatives. These taped interviews vith Sir Frederick Ashton, Dame Ninette de Valois,

Cyril Beaumont, iBabel Ravsthome, Angus Morrison, Emmanuel Young,

Michael Somes, Joan Lavson, Ivor OueBt, and others vere conducted in

197U-75 in England and vere designed to explore Lambert's roles of composer end collaborator in the production of ballets.

Another source for valuable information vas the BBC Written

Archives Center in Reading, England. Lambert vas a frequent contri­ butor to programs broadcast over the BBC as vere many of hiB friends and co-vorkers. The Written Archives Center is an extensive library of transcripts, production flleB, written commentaries that suppliment broadcasts, and all other information pertaining to programs trans­ mitted by BBC radio and television. Its collection of primary Bource material for a study of Lambert and his vork is unparalleled and, in many instances, provides the only first-hand information on the thoughts, attitudes, and practices given by Lambert and his co-vorkers. Because the material contained in the Written Archives Center is not reproduced In other sources* the services of the center are essential to any

study of Lambert. The most Important source of Lambert's music is Oxford University

Press* the publisher of most of his compositions. Of the four ballets under consideration in this study* Oxford University Press has pub­

lished the composer's piano arrangements of Romeo and Ju lie t,** Pomona.5

and Horoscope.^ The publisher also possesses unpublished manuscript

fu ll scores of Romeo and Juliet? and Pomona.^ A surprising discovery vas made vhen* after investigation* it vas learned that the publisher

also possesses an autograph full score of Horoscope.9 a score that is

consistently reported to have been lost. Oxford University PreBS

kindly provided reproductions of the full scores for analytical study

in this dissertation. The fourth ballet score* Tlreslas.1° is held by the library of the Royal Opera House, London. The original* unpublished autograph

^Constant Lambert, Romeo and Ju liet, piano arrangement by the composer (London: Oxford University Press* 1926). 5Constant Lambert, Pomona. piano duet arrangement by the composer (London: Oxford University Press* 1938). 6 constant Lambert, Horoscope. piano arrangement by the composer (London: Oxford University PreBS* 1938). ^Constant Lambert* Romeo and Ju liet, full score, autograph copy* held by Oxford University frees* London. ®Constant Lambert* Pomona. full score, manuscript copy* held by Oxford University Press* London. ^Constant Lambert, Horoscope, fu ll Bcore* autograph copy* held by Oxford University Press, London. •^Constant Lambert* Tiresiaa. full score, autograph and partial fair copy* held by the Library of the Royal Opera House, London. 6

score and a partial fair copy vere loaned to this author and permis­

sion to reproduce the Bcore and copy vere given.

Information regarding the attitudes and practices of musicians

and choreographers of h&llets can he gleaned from a vide variety of primary and more numerous secondary sources. But, vith few exceptions,

this subject is addressed only marginally, and rarely in detail.

Notable exceptions include Noverre's Lettres sur la danse, et sur lea

b a lle t s.Van Praagh and Brinson's, The Choreographic Art. 12 Li far'a

Ballet Traditional to Modern.*3 and K irstein's A Short History of

Classical Theatrical Dancing.I1* Despite the rarity of pertinent infor­

mation on the subject, it is possible, hy a comparative study and

analysis of the various sources, to identify major attitudes and practices Involved in the collaborative production of ballets that

establish a context for Lambert's own thoughts and deeds and substan­ tiate his significance as a ballet collaborator.

^ Lettres sur la danse, et sur les ballets, par M. Noverre ... A. Stutgard, et se vend a Iyon, chez A.Delaroche, I960, translated as Letters on Dancing and BalletB, trans. by Cyril Beaumont (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1951)* A^Peter BrlnBon and Peggy Van Praagh, The Choreographic Art (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1963). ^serge Lifar, Ballet Traditional to Modern (London: Putnam, 1938). ^Lincoln Kirstein, A Short History of Classical Theatrical Dancing (New York: Dance Horizons, 1935)• CHAPTER I I

SURVEY OP ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES OF COMPOSERS

AND CHOREOGRAPHERS IN THE COLLABORATIVE PRODUCTION OP

BALLETS

The history of collaboration between composers and choreographers is essentially a history of the changing attitudes and work habits of the artists involved in the production of theatrical dancing. What the creators think and do in collaboration with each other has a direct influence on the function, character* and style of both the music and dance of any given ballet. Significant alterations of the thoughts or practices of either collaborator can produce significantly different outcomes in music and choreography.

The purpose of this chapter is to identify how choreographers' attitudes and work habjLts have affected the function of the musical collaborators; to identify how composers' attitudes and work habits have affected the function of the choreographic collaborators; to identify how the relationship between composers and choreographers has affected the nature and function of music and dance in ballet productions; and, finally, to establish the context for the work of Constant Lambert both as a composer and as a collaborator.

Noverre and th e Beginnings of Modern B a lle t

Jean Georges Noverre (1727-1010) is generally regarded as the

Father of Modern Ballet. This title has been applied in response to 7 Noverre*s important vork as a choreographer, teacher, reformer, and writer vhose ideas vere known throughout Europe.in the eighteenth- century.^ Beginning his career as a dancer in Paris at the age of sixteen, Hoverre later served as maltre de ballet in theaters and courts in London, Paris, Xyon, Stuttgart, Vienna, and Milan. During his travels, he came in contact vith most of the leading dancers and choreo­ graphers of his day and vas thus able to disseminate his ideas. By tracing teacher-pupil relationships, a lineage from Noverre can he extended to current choreographers and teachers.

The clearest, most concise source of Noverre1s thoughts is his

Lettres sur la Danse et les B a lle tpublished in 1760. This vork, contrived as a series of letters to a fictitious correspondent, is an exposition of the principles and theories governing ballet and theatrical dancing of the time and describes the reforms of ballet advanced by Noverre. He insisted that dance vas not merely a divertissement. but a vehicle for expressing a theme. In efforts that parallel developments in opera, be restored the art of mime, reformed stage coBtumes, demanded that all ballets have a good plot, and emphasized the need for good, expressive music.

In these letters, Noverre bitterly described the manner in which ballets vere conceived by ballet masters in the mid-eighteenth century.

Derek lynham. The C hevalier Noverre (London: Dance BookB, 1972). p. 5.

o LettreB sur la danse et sur les ballets, par M. Noverre ... A. Stutgard, et se vend a Xyon, ches A. Delaroche, I960, translated as L e tte rs on Dancing and B a lle t, tr a n s . by C y ril Beaumont (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1951)• 9 Noverre wrote:

Let u b see what the maltre de ballet usually does at this spectacle, and let us examine the vork he is given to do. He is presented with a prompt copy: he opens it and reads: PROLOGUE: t>assented for the dancers representing Games and Pleasures: gavotte for the Laughs, and rlgaudon for the Pleasant Dreams.. FIRST ACT: march for the Warriors, second air for the same, muBette for the Priestesses. SECOND ACT: loure for the people tambour in and rlgaudon for the Sailors. THIRD ACT: march for the Demons, lively air for the same. FOURTH ACT: entry of Greeks and chaconne. without counting Winds, Tritons, Naiads, Hours, Signs of the Zodiac, Bacchantes, Zephyrs, Shades and Fatal Dreams—because there is no end to them. See how well the mattre de ballet is instructed: Witness him entrusted vith the execution of a truly magnificent and ingenious plan. What does the poet demand? Simply that the members of th e b a lle t dance are made to dance; from this abuse are born ridiculous claims.3

It is evident that little if any collaboration occurred between the creators of the different elements of a ballet. Moreover, dances did not illustrate the text or action in any meaningful way. Dances vere created to permit Individual dancers to demonstrate their own tech­ nical speciality without proper regard for demands of expression.

One reason for Noverre's criticism of his contemporaries stems from a difference in the conception of what a ballet should be. A ballet, as Noverre conceived it, vas

...a picture, or rather a series of pictures con­ nected one with the other by the plot which provides the theme of the ballet: the stage is,

3lbid.. p. 6 B-69 . 10

as It vere, the canvas on vhich the choreographer, vho is the painter, egresses his ideas; the mechanical movements of the dancers are his colours, their physiognomy is the brush and the ensemble and variety of the scenes, the choice of music, the decor and the coBtumes are the tones.^

The operative ideas in this definition of ballet are the intercon­ nection of the choreography vith a continuous plot, the subjugation of the dancers to the plot as Interpreted by the choreographer, and the collaboration of all the artlstB and art forms to produce a unified, cohesive vork. For Noverre, all art forms, painting, poetry, music, and dancing should be united to make the action of the ballet an imitation or creative synthesis of natural realistic men and events. He ad­ vanced a break vith the conventions that fostered disunity of artistic function and design, as veil as the use of Zephyrs, Zodiacal signs,

Hours, and other unnatural characters. Instead, Noverre pleaded for a return to ordinary emotional situations portrayed by ordinary mortals.

Before developing his own thoughts on the ideal collaboration involved in ballet production, Noverre continues his description of the poor conditions that existed. Of the musician composer, Noverre v r i t e s : The musician, in turn takes the libretto vhich he hurriedly peruseB and then, determined to rely on his own resources of invention, composes a score vhich is meaningless, because he has not taken the trouble to understand vhat he has merely skimmed vith his eyes. Or else, sacri­ ficing everything in order to flatter his own vanity, he produces music entirely unrelated to

^Noverre, Lettres b u t la Danse et b u t les Ballets, cited by Iynham, The C hevalier N overre, p . 131. 11 the theme. Suppose an overture is required. What does it matter whether it he relative to the action about to be presented? After all, is he not sure of success so long as it makes a sensation? Melodies suitable for dances are B till lesB trouble to compose, for in this case the composer follows old models; his predecessors are his guides; he does not take the slightest trouble to introduce a little variety into these kinds of pieces in order to give them an appear­ ance of novelty. The monotonous chant vhich he should beware of, since it enervates the dancing and sends the spectator to sleep, is the very one which captivates him since it is the easiest to compose, and servile imitation of old melodies demands neither taste, talent nor a superior g e n iu s.5

The intervals between acts vere normally filled with orches­ tral music. Noverre complains that the orchestra music is usually inappropriate to the action that has past and shifts in mood and style so quickly and abruptly that any sense of dramatic continuity is destroyed. Hence, responsibility for the poor quality of ballets and the lack of collaboration vas sb much th e f a u lt of th e composers aB it was of the poets and choreographers.

A musical composer must have a knowledge of dancing, or at least be familiar with the time and possibilities of the movements proper to each kind, to each character and to each passion, in order to employ features approp­ riate to the various situations vhich the dancer must successively present, but, so far from taking the pains to acquire the firBt elements of this art and to learn the theory of it, he avoids the maitre de ballet, he imagines that it is his art vhich elevates and gives him superior­ ity over dancing.

^Noverre, Letters. trans. by Beaumont, pp. 6l-62. ^Ibid.. pp. 61 - 62 . 12

Noverre continues his discussion of the necessity for a change o f attitudes tovardB the composition of hallet music by stressing the motivational aspects of music in relationship to dance.

Music is to dancing vhat vords are to music; this parallel simply means that dance music corresponds, or should do so, to the written poem and thus fixes and determines the dancer's movements and actions. He Cthe dancer!) must therefore recite it and render it intelligible by the force and vivacity of his gestures; con­ sequently dancing vith action 1 b the instrument or organ, by vhich the thoughts expressed in the music are rendered appropriately- and Intelligibly.*

In a later letter, Noverre continues to emphasize the importance of music in choreography. ... expressive, harmonious and varied music such as that to vhich I have composed ballets recently, suggest Esicl to me a thousand ideas, a thousand details; it transports, exalts and inflames me, and to the different impressions it has made me experience and which have entered my soul, I owe the harmony, homogeneity, superiority, novelty, passion and that multitude of striking and singular characters vhich impartial Judges have been able to observe in my ballets. These are the natural effects of music on dancing, and of dancing on muBic, when two artist are attracted to each other and when the two arts blend, unite, and mutually exchange their charms to captivate and please.

Clearly Noverre is not speaking of ballet music vith closed forms, chordal harmonies, set rhythmic patterns, and non-descriptive orches­ tration. The music vhich inspired the choreography of Noverre vas freer in form, harmonically varied to suit the mood of the plot, and orchestrated expressively in accordance vith the action. At a time in

. f p. 60 , Aphid., p< lM, 13 history of ballet vhen reforms vere being effected to bring about a closer relationship among all the arts, similar efforts at reform vere being attempted in the realm of opera by the composer Gluck. In

Bluck's music, Noverre found an ideal medium both for his dances and alBo designs for a drama-ballet-pantomime-opera. Historians are for­ tunate that a description of the collaborative process betveen Gluck and Noverre has been recorded. In the Preface of his letter, Noverre v r i te s :

... before selecting melodies to vhich I could adapt steps, before studying steps to make them in to v h at v s b then knovn as a ballet, I sought subjects either in mythology, history or my ovn Imagination vhich not only afforded opportunity for the introduction of dances and festivals but vhich, in the course of the development of the theme, offered a graduated action and inter­ est. My poem once conceived, I studied all the gestures, movements and esqareBsions vhich could render the passions end sentiments arising from my theme. Only after concluding this labour did I Bummon muBlc to my a id . Having explained to the composer the different details of the picture vhich I had just sketched out, I then asked him for music adapted to each situation and to each feeling. In place of vrlting steps to vritten airs, as coup­ lets are set to knovn melodies, I composed, if I may so express syself, the dialogue of my ballet and then I had music vritten to fit each phraBe and thought. Thus I explained to Gluck the character­ istic air of the ballet of the savages in Inhlgenie in Tauride: the steps, gestures, attitudes and expressions of the different characters vhich I outlined to him, gave to this celebrated composer the theme for that fine piece of music.*

Noverre Is referring to the ballet at the end of the first act of Gluck's opera Iphigenie en Tauride . 10

* p * 10Christoph W illibald Gluck, SBmtllche W erke.ed. Rudolf Gerber, Vol. 9: Inhigenie en Tauride (Kassel: Barenreiter, 1973), pp. 97-100. 1U The ballet most specifically identified vith Noverre*s reform is

Gluck’s Don Juan (1761), choreographed by Gaspare Angiolini, a disciple of Noverre. In the Preface to the program, Angiolini vrote:

Mr. Gluck has Bet the music. He has fully grasped the terrific elements of its plot and has tried to express the passion as veil as horror vhich dominates the catastrophe. In pantomime, the music is the major thing. It is the music vhich speaks, ve dancers make only the movements In the style of the actors of the old tragedies and comedies (vho had stanzas of the play recited by others) and only make the gestures. It vould be almost impossible for us to make ourselves understood vithout the music, and the better the music fits that ve vish to express, the better ve are understood.

Gluck's music consists of thirty-one numbers titled vith tempo markings or dance-form names. In analytical studies by Einstein and

Gertman, close coordination of action and music, including rudimen­ tary theme vith character association, are verified and described in d e t a i l . ^ Before Noverre, responsibility for ballet productions had passed from poet to musician to dancer, vith the choreographer bound either by the vhims of the court, the conventions of the musicians, or the requisites of the vain dancer. However, by asserting the right of the choreographer to guide the direction of dance, music and text, Noverre moved the choreographer to a place of prime importance in the collabora­ tive process in ballet production.

H

Incumbent upon them to be veil versed In the arts they v lll be direct­ ing as veil as in ballet. It is, perhaps, unreasonable to eiqpect choreographers to be masters of all the arts Involved in ballet, but, according to Noverre, a working knowledge of these* arts vas mandatory, especially in music.

Owing to the intimate affinity between music and dancing, there can be no doubt, sir, that a mattre de ballet w ill derive marked advantage from a practical knowledge of this art. Be will be able to communicate his thoughts to the com­ poser, and, if he Join a liking to knowledge, he w ill write the music himself or supply the composer with the principal ideas vhich should inspire M b vork these being expressive and varied to dance cannot fail to be so in its turn.^3

Romantic Composers and Choreographers

As is so often the case vith reform movements that advocate a new sense of freedom, those idead vhich Noverre believed would create a truly dramatic ballet d*action hardened into absolute canons as

Noverre Mmself became extremely doctrinaire in M b methods. In the end, many of Noverre*s ideas vere ignored by later choreographers.

However, one idea that endured vas the supremacy of the choreographer in a ballet production. From this point in history until the early

20th century, it 1b the choreographer that dominates the ballet. With few exceptions, the responsibility for selection, arrangement, and even composition of the music for the ballet rests vith the choreographer.

^ N o v e rre , L e t t e r s . trans. by Beaumont, p. 37* 16

Choreographers accepted this responsibility in a variety of ways

and vith varying degrees of success. Zn reference to Gaeten Vestris

(1729-1808), named by his contemporaries f,Le dieu de la danse,"

Lillian Moore has noted: "He had no talent for composition but he vas

so vain that he refused to collaborate vith his assistants. "I1* Conversely, it vas said of the choreographer Charles Didelot, ( 1767 -

1836) that:

Di delot vas fully aware of the need for complete harmony between music and movement, and t h is made, him a keen and helpful collaborator vith his musicians. After he had carefully divided up his ballet and studied each Individual scene, he would te ll the composer the exact length of each item, its tonal form, its orchestration, the various crescendi, etc.^5 Vithin these two extremes lies the more common practice of the age, namely the creation of musical pastiches or scores compiled from the music of several composers or several compositions. In the case of

La F i l l e Mai OardeS ( 1787 ), th e o ld e s t TVench b a ll e t in any c u rre n t repertoire, the score was an arrangement of music by unknown composers.

It has been speculated that the choreographer Dauberval (17^2-1806) may have produced the score himself, borrowing tunes from muBic hallB, entertainments, popular operas as veil as other sources. In certain

Instances, these borrowings vere from the vorks of major composers.

^ L illian Moore, A rtists of the Dance (Mew York: Dance Horizons, :(1938), p. 16.

15Serge Idfar, A History of Russian Ballet from itB Origins to the Present Day, trans. by Arnold Haskell (London: Hutchinson, 195*0, 'p . 51. 17 Of the choreographer Salvatore Vigand (1769-1021) it has been noted :

Vigand's choreographic ideas vere so complex that he did not usually commission the music for them from a single composer ... his normal practice vas to select exactly the music vhich fitted his ideas tram existing music by any one of a number of com­ posers (Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Rossini, Spontini, etc.) and if necessary to compose melodieB himself. I f constructed in a crude manner Buch a patchwork vould have heen intolerably "bitty1*; but Vigand vas a very skillful musician, and von the respect of the moBt sensitive spectators.16

Vigano has the distinction of choreographing Beethoven's The

CreatureB of PrometheuB. The tvo-act version performed in 1800 vas unusual because Vigand used only that music vhich Beethoven composed for the occasion. More typical of the choreographer's habits vas the six-act version of 1803 that included music by several composers and retained only four numbers from Beethoven's original score.

The art of choreography received nev direction and meaning in the vorks of Filippo Taglioni (177S-1S71). Father of the dancer Marie

Taglioni,vho vas noted both for her expressive dancing style and for being the first to riBe sur les u o l n t e B . Filippo vas responsible for the production of La Sylphide (1832). Unlike many other ballets of this age, La Sylphide had great historical significance.

La Sylphide sealed the triumph of Romanticism in th e f ie ld of b a l l e t . The B a lle t o f th e Nuhb Ca danced divertiBsment in Meyerberr's opera Robert le Diablel had indicated the supernatural as a nev and promising source for choreographers but La S ylphide. though in sp ire d by i t , vas a much profounder manifestation of Romanticism. Its plot introduced to French Ballet the situation of a spirit falling in love vith a mortal epitomizing, vith haunting effect, the queBt for the Romantic

^Fernau Hall, World Dance (Nev York: A.A. Vyn* En.d.D), p. 32* 18 artist for the infinite and the unattainable. The discovery of this situation, which was to recur with frequent regularity in future years, was a turning-point of the greatest significance in the history of ballet. It ushered in a golden age — an era of moonlight and ethereal sprites, and La Sylnhlde was to become the proto­ type of many other masterpieces which were to._ embellish this period of the Romantic ballet. ' The music fo r La 8ylT>hide was composed by Jean-M adeleine

Schnietzhoeffer (1785-1852). In his score, Schnietzhoeffer tried to match the atmosphere of mystery of the libretto and evoke some sense of local color. In these attempts, the composer not only indicated new directions for ballet music but also broke with established practices of previous ballet composers. The noted dance historian,

Ivor OueBt has described the nature of ballet music and collaboration in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in h lB classic book, The

Romantic Ballet in Paris:

Although ballet was not universally regarded as a very serious occupation for a composer, the standard of ballet music improved considerably after 1827. Before that time few composers had looked on ballet as a vehicle for descriptive music, and a ballet score was often a hurredly assembled accompaniment, thiB of original ideas and packed with borrowed melodies. Indeed about the only original muBic which the ballet composer was supposed to contribute was the music for the dances. As for the mime passages, if the ballet were based on a comic opera, the composer would adapt the airs to fit the appropriate scenes of the ballet, but even if there were no such obvious foundation to fall back upon, it was the accepted practice to interpolate melodieB which

^■Tlvor Gue s t. The Romantic B a lle t in P a ris (Middletown: WeBleyan U n iv ersity P re ss , 1966), p. llF . 19 vould be associated with the words of some well- known song, to illustrate the action on the stage. In this way, i t was claimed, the composer was aiding the choreographer in making the hallet more easily comprehensible.*® At first, critics opposed the composition of a homogeneous ballet score on the grounds that scores which did not make U B e of carillons (borrowed tunes with well-known lyrics) amounted to nothing more than orchestral tedium. After 1820, however, a new generation of * ballet composers like Adam, HalSvy, Thomas, and Delibes brought more than their arranging abilities to bear on ballet composition with a resulting rise in the expressive quality of ballet music.

In the history of Romantic ballet, the one most frequently cited as typifying the best aspects of Romantic ideals in dance is Giselle. ascribed to Jean Coralli (1779—185^ )* The word "ascribed11 is neces­ sary because it is known that a great deal of the choreography was done by another choreographer, Jules Perrot (1800-1890). This ambi­ guity in ascribing the authorship of the dances for Giselle results mainly from a compromise made hy the Director of the Paris OpSra,

Leon P illet. In his study of GlBelle. Beaumont explains the circum­ stances as follows:

... having one maitre de ballet, Coralli, in hiB employ, he CPilletD was not disposed to incur the additional expense of engaging another. I suggest, then, that P illet, being well aware of Perrot's ambition to become choreographer to the Opera, turned that knowledge to his own advantage. He therefore allowed himself to be persuaded by CAdolphe3 Adam and accepted P e r r o t's s e rv ic e s ,

l SI b l d .. pp. 10-11. which, in the event of the ballet's success, were to be rewarded not with hard cash, but with the vague promise of a possible future appointment as mattre de ballet .^9

In any event, the most important sections of the ballet, including all the scenes and danceB performed by Giselle, are ascribed to Perrot.

The music for this ballet was composed by one of the first great ballet composers, Adolphe Adam (1803-1856). His fourteen ballets in­ cluding Lea Mohicans. Giselle. La dlable a quatre and Les Coursalrs

B p a n two decades from 1830 to I 856.20

According to Gautier who conceived the idea of the ballet GiBelle from a legend recounted by the famous poet Henri Heine, the score and indeed the entire ballet was completed in an extremely short time. In a letter to Heine dated July 5» ld^l, Gautier related that he vent to the OpSra and met the lib rettist Vernoy Saint-Georges. Three days later the ballet Giselle w s b written and accepted. By the end of the week Adolphe Adam had improvised the music, the sets were almost com­ pleted, and the rehersals had begun.^ Gautier continued:

The music of M. Adam is superior to ordinary music for ballets; it abounds in melodies, in • orchestral effects: it even contains ... a very well-conceived fugue.“

19Cyril W. Beaumont, The Ballet Called Giselle (New York: Dance H orizons, 1969) , pp. 23-2U.

20A full list of Adam's balletB is contained in Arthur Pougin, Adolphe Adam, sa vie, sa carriere. sea memoires artistlque (Paris: C h arp en tier, 1&77)» pp. 273-275* 2lTh£ophile Gautier, quoted in Pougin, Adolphe Adam, p. 158. 21

Van Praagh and Brinson cite this fugue in describing the close relationship between music and dance action. The fugue in Act 11^ • . . . occurs a t th e moment when G ise lle lea d s Albrecht to the cross above her grave in an effort to save him from the wilis. The queen of the wilis sends wave after wave of wilis against the cross. Each attack corresponds to a "voice" in the fugue.

Although such a mirroring of the music in the dance has often led to

disasterous confusion, the device in Giselle, produces a closely uni­

fied effect of unprecedented proportions.

The harmony of the ballet also contributes to the unification of music and action. For example, in Act I, the end of the general.dance of the villagers and the entrance of the Jealous Hilarion is marked by a shift from major mode with simple triadic harmony to a series of

diminished chords followed by the use of minor mode. The threatening

character of Hilarion is thus reinforced through the composer's place­ ment of harmonic changes.

A similar situation applies to the use of the orchestra. The return of the hunters is signalled by the horns, while trombones and other brass instruments Indicate Hilarion's threats of violence.^

These are but two examples of instances where the orchestration has a direct relationship to the dramatic action of the ballet.

23ThiB fugue can be found in Adolphe Adam, G ise lle ou la s W HIb, Ballet-Pantomime en deux-actes, piano score arranged by Vincent Cornete (Paris: n.p., ( 1968 ), p . 92.

^Peter Brinson and Peggy Van Praagh, The Choreographic Art (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1963), p. 3^

25Adam, G iselle, piano score, pp. 22-2k. 22

Another important aspect of Adam's score vas the use of recurring themes and motives in association vith certain events or characters.

In his study* Beaumont identifies five such melodic passages for vhlch dramatic associations can he made.

For instance* Hilarion's theme* a quotation of the Fate theme from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony* which marks Hilarion' b every entrance; the theme of the flower test of fidelity* and the theme of the love scent between Giselle and Loys* both of which recur during the Beene of madness; the H ills's theme which is flrBt heard when G iselle's mother warns her daughter of the dangers of dancing to excess, 1b repeated during the scene of madness, and again used to announce the entry of the Wills; and, finally the huntsmen's theme which is heard twice during the first act.2”

These recurring musical motives contribute to the unity of the dramatic content of the ballet and provide a structural organization for the choreographer as well. Unlike many other earlier ballets that used carillons as a means of unifying music and action, Adam makes very little use of borrowed m aterial, relying instead upon newly-compoBed, highly structured musical devices to achieve an even closer tie between music and dance.

While Perrot w &b working in Paris, another choreographer, Auguste

Bournonville (1805-1079)» vas moving on a parallel course with the

Royal Danish Ballet. Bournonville was especially adept at composing balletB de action, some of which have endured to the present day in the Danish repertoire, Bournonville's importance to this survey lies in the fact that he recorded his ideas of collaboration vith musicians.

S^Beaumont, The Ballet Called Giselle, p. First occurrences of these themes are found in the piano score for Giselle as follovs: Hilarion* p. h, flower test, p. 9* love scene, p. 9, W ills, p. 21, huntsman* p. 2 2 . 23

He thus provides a meanB of assessing the 19th century choreographer*B attitude towards ballet music and ballet musicians. Bournonville gives the following account of the manner in which he sets about composing the ballet:

When I have completed my libretto, I set it aside for a while. Then, if I read through it again with the same interest and every picture stands clear for me, I consider it ready for composition. I turn to the music composer, who receives a separate out­ line for each scene that makes up a musical number; he th en comes to an agreement w ith me as to rhythm and character. Usually, by means of gestures and pas. I manage to give him a rough idea of what is to be performed; I Improvise a melody to it; some­ times this melody contains a useful theme, which may be picked up, shaped, and modulated. Now the composer works until an entire piece is finished ... it is completely different from my original conception; I need to become familiar with it, but it 1b lovely and good music. The length and character are determined ... From the music, I get ideaB for details of which the composer has not even the faintest notion. I become thoroughly ac­ quainted with his composition, find an episode in evexy measure, and then, ... it appears as if both the composers had agreed on evexy note and as if they had been of one mind. This mainly applies to original music. Arranged muBic, expressive melodies, the national themes I myself specify according to the needs of the ballet ... Only when a major portiontof the music has been finished in thiB form does the composer begin to orchestrate it.^7

In his careful attention to the details of the original ballet compo­ sition, in his use of music as a means of inspiration for ballet movement, and in his stated ability to compose or arrange music for ballet, Bournonville seems to incorporate the ideas first stated by

Noverre. In fact, Bournonville wsb linked to Noverre through his father, who studied under Noverre. Although not necessarily an

^August Bournonville, My Theater Life, trans. by Patricia McAndrew (Middletown: Wesleyan University PresB, 1979)* PP* 30-31. 214 innovative choreographer, preferring Instead to be the guardian of

French academic ballet, Bournonville excelled as a teacher.

In contrast vith Bournonville, vho spent most of his active years vith one ballet company concentrating upon teaching more than choreo­ graphy* Arthur Saint-l£on (1815-1870) vas in great demand as a dancer- choreographer all over Europe and 1 b noted for his talents as a skilled ballet master and choreographer of Coppella. Although Coppelia is perhaps hiB most famouB ballet, other Salnt-L^on balletB of Importance are La Source. Le Vlolon du Liable, and the Hump-backed Horse. In addition to his ability as a choreographer, Saint-Leon vas an accomp­ lished violinist vith Paganini-like virtuosity and a composer of over forty pieces for violin. His ballet Le Vlolon du Dlable served as a vehicle for bis choreographic ability and offered him the opportunity to dance and play the violin as veil. In his ballets, Saint-LSon dealt vith three veil-known ballet composers, C£sare Pugni, Leo Delibes, and Ludwig Mink us. Of the three,

Delibes vas by far the most original and respected master. Delibes 1 reputation vas such that his muBic vas the standard by vhich

Tchaikovsky Judged his own muBic and found it to be inferior. Delibes

{1836-1891), studied under Adolphe Adam before beginning his career by composing operettas and comic operas. His first opportunity to com­ pose ballet music came in 1866 when he vas commissioned to compose the music far Saint-LSon's La Source in collaboration vith Minkus. Delibes vas to compose the second and third scenes of the ballet and Minkus the first and fourth scenes. In a review published by La France

Music ale, the critic noted the difference in style between the two composers. 25 The style of the two composers Is essentially different and easily recognizable at a first hearing. Mlnlcus*s music has a vague, indolent and melancholic character, full of grace and languor. That of Delibes, fresher and more rhythm ic, i s much more com plicated in orches­ tration, and sometimes a little more ordinary. I should add that this difference in style is perfectly Justified by the contrasting charac­ ter of the two parts of the ballet. ®

Another critic of the time wrote of the ballet:

The first act, despite Beveral pretty details, seemed a little thin, but the music of the last scene contains some charming and often very expressive melodies. The second act is brilliant and does great credit to Delibes: it la certainly the most successful and noteworthy portion. The whole score could have been en­ trusted to the young composer, and this will doubtless be done on another occasion.29 C oppelia. ou La F i l l e aux Yeux d 1 Bn ail. first produced in 1870, was Delibes" first full-length ballet. In this work, the choreo­

grapher Saint-Lfion made the innovative decision to include a number

of national dances of Eastern Europe. National dances have always

served as inspiration for choreographers, especially those Romantics

who sought to strengthen the foreign flavor and naturalistic settings

of their works. Saint-L^on's use of these dances went beyond such

normal Romantic thought and, because he understood the stage and his

audience, he vas aware of the dramatic impact national dances could

have. Salnt-L€on seems to have used such dances mainly for their spectacular value. Although he understood the value of a good story, he

2®Cyril W. Beaumont, Complete Book of Ballets (London: Putnam, 1937)* p. »*3 8. 29lbid. 26

understood still more his public's interest in spectacle. Bence he used his dancers' virtuo­ sity to develop spectacle vithin the framework of the ballet d*action. In doing so he became the bridge between the romantic ballet and the great displays of classical virtuosity which Petipa created in St. Petersburg.3°

In order to complete the color and flavor of the dances, Delibes wrote his music in the same national veins. In Delibes' score, one finds music on a Slavonic theme, os&rd&s, a bolero, a Scottish dance, mazurkaB, as well as other music especially tailored to the demands of the libretto. The score is highly sectional but, as.his teacher

Adam did, Delibes unified the score and bound it to the action by means of recurring melodic material.

Delibes vas an anomaly for his time- in that his music vas original and of much higher quality and Interest than most ballet music. At a time.when critics, upon hearing an exceptionally good ballet score, encouraged the composer to write more seriouB music than that for ballet, Delibes standB as an example of a man who wrote scores w ith both muBioal in te r e s t and fu n c tio n a l a p p lic a tio n . Humphrey S earle accurately defined the reason for Delibes' continued success when he w rote: ... it is no wonder that the critics acclaimed Delibes' work, for it combines successfully the art of pure ballet music — music which is solely concerned vith the dance and is incapable of standing alone without it — vith that of attrac­ tive dramatic music of the lighter kind.31

3°Brinson and Van Praagh, The Choreographic Art. p, 1*2.

^Humphrey Searle, Ballet Music (New York: Dover Publications, 1973), p . 6 1 . 27 The Bcore for CoppSlia Includes both dramatic and pure ballet music.

Because of Its tunefulness and effectiveness in terms of its coordina­ tion vith the dance, the music retains its vitality to this day.

Delibes1 originality would not be mentioned were it not that normal methods of collaboration and the lack of stringent artistic demands upon ballet composers made originality the exception rather than the rule. Ivor Guest has quoted a description of collaboration by the composer and critic Alphonse Duverncy in the production of a la te 19th century ballet.

The Bcenarist began by finding a choreographer ... Between the poet and the dancer a close collaboration was formed. Once the plan of the piece and danceB were arranged, the musician was called in. The ballet-master indicated the rhythms he had la id down, the steps he had ar­ ranged, the number of bars which each variation, must contain — in short, the music was arranged to fit the dances. And the musician docilely improvised, so to Bpeak, and often in the ballet- master^ rooms, everything that vas asked of him .... No sooner vas a scene written or a pas arranged than they rehearsed vith a violin, a single violin as the only accompaniment. I for­ got to Bay that even after having servilely done everything the ballet-m aBter bad demanded, the composer had to pay attention to the advice of his principal interpreters.^2 As Duverncy points out, vith all the demands of the ballet-master and dancers placed upon him, the composer would be hard pressed to create a score vith great musical interest when the primary interest is merely upon the accompaniment of the dance.

Another practice which had a detrimental effect upon the quality of ballet music in the Romantic period vas the uBe of multiple composers

S^Guest, The Romantic B a lle t in PariB. p . 11. 28 for one ballet score. For example, the ballet La Gypsy, choreo­ graphed In 1839 by Mazilier In Paris, made use of three different composers, each o f vham worked independently o f each other* The result vas a score that varied not only in quality but in style as veil. Although warned by the critics that the use of multiple compos­ ers vas an innovation not to be recommended for the future, one need only recall the division of the score for La Source between Minkus and l}elibes to realize the longevity of this idea.

A more typical ballet composer than Delibes vas C€sare Pugnl

(1802-1870). Pugnl began his career in Milan, composing masses, operas, symphonies, and ballet scores. He Journeyed to Paris end soon became an expert in the craft of composing music to order for any ballet. Pugnl vas a sort of servant to the choreographers to whom he completely subordinated his own imagination and artistic ideas.

The reasons for Pugni's success can be found in the brio, the imaginative fancy, and the expressive quality of his music, rather than in its style, also In its subservience to the functional requirements of the choreographer, a subservience vhich is, at the same time, its greatest artistic limitation.33

It is perhaps unfair, according to Ivor Guest, to criticize Pugni too much for the rather "Tinkly" quality of M b ballet music because

33Andrea Lange, ’’Pugnl, Cesare,” The Hew Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians. (London: MacMillan, 1980), 15* M8. 29 he vas required to produce three or four large ballets a season and as many as six divertlssments (he vrote over 300 ballet scores)?** Until he died in 1070, Pugni provided music for almost all the ballets choreographed by Perrot and Marius Petipa. Llfar BayB of him,

t "... he bad the gift of finding tunes that vere harmonious, eaBy, pleasant, nicely orchestrated, and sometimes even full of brio, Just like Adam’s muBic for instance.

llfar*s description of Pugni ' b attributes also gives an indica­ tion of how he composed his scores. He vas Incredibly adept at selecting "drawer music",arranging it and possibly re-orchestrating it to produce a score to the needs of the dance. "Drawer Music" is a mildly derogatory term used by ballet commentators to describe music of styliB tlc commonality that pieces can be pulled from a file drawer and matched to form a larger opus. In a review published in MfritSstrel,

July 12, 1063, a critic vrote concerning Pugni’s score for the ballet

D lavolina;

As for the music of the new ballet by M. Pugnl, ... on the pretext that the action passes at Naples, he has thought fit to pillage the cele- oollection of airs called Passatempl Muslcall. which starting from NapleB, itB birthplace, has toured the world. M. Pugni, vith admirable candour, has literally transcribed from it half

3**lvor Guest, interviewed in his office, London, September 9 , 1971*. Not all of the 300 ballets have been accounted for in biblio­ graphic sources. A list of ninety-five ballet vorks is given in Donald Smith Fiyer, "Pugni, Cesare," Enelcloned!a dello Spettacolo (Rome: Casa E d itrie e le M aachere, 1961 ), 8, 507-589.Fifty scores are held in the private collection of George Verdak, Indianapolis, In d ian a . 35Lifar, Russian Ballet, p. 100. 30 a dozen well-known airs. He has added others no lesB well-knownt such as Le Hoi Dagobert and Marlborough, a proceeding which cannot be excused on the ground of local colour. At least, let It be recognized that a ll the music which M. Pugnl has written or which has passed through his hands is essentially danceable.3°

By the 1870*s, the so-called Golden Age of Romantic Ballet, begun around the turn of the century, had diminished and was gone.

The public no longer felt the need for high-quality ballets. As Lifar put it , "People were too seriouB-minded to appreciate dancing, which for them had become a mere exercise for the le g s , without any u sefu l or philanthropic purpose, and consequently of no account."^

The blame for the decline of ballet's importance waB due to conditions and attitudes prevalent among dancers and choreographers as well as to public apathy. The degeneration of ballet can be under­ stood by studying conditions in Russian ballet companies.

The best dancers did not bother about daily claBBes, and the average standard of technique vas feeb le. The s ty le o f dancing vas winsome and affected: the danBeuses paid little attention to the Interpretation of their rdles, being mainly concerned vith casting alluring smiles and ro­ guish glances at their friends in the audience; their gestures and their facial expressions were arch and coy, while their arms drooped in a soft sentim ental manner. Male dancing vas unimportant, except in character r o le s ; the main task o f the serious male dancer vas to support the ballerina. The corps de ballet worked in a careless manner, dragging their feet and hardly bothering to use their arms. Ballet vas treated by the public as something of small importance ... In fact it vas considered as being rather questionable from a

3^Cited by Beaumont, Complete B allets, p. 1*23.

37gerge L ifa r, B a lle t T ra d itio n a l to Modern (London: Putnam, 1938), p. 118. 31 Moral point of view, and the relatively small number of halletomances vho attended the per­ formances were known to be interested in the personal charms of their favorite ballerinas rather than in ballet in general. One of the few remaining attractions of the ballet vas the legs of danseuses: shoulders and bosoms were also important, but it was only at the ballet that the female leg vas shown in public in quantity.

Tchaikovsky and Petipa

The most prominent master of the late nlnetheenth century vas

Marius Petipa (1822-1910). After vorking in Paris, Madrid, and

Bordeaux, Petipa accepted the post of premier danaeur in Saint

Petersburg and became the maitre de ballet four years later. He did not retire from active vork with the Russian ballet until 190?, vhen he vas eighty-six years of age. During this period, Petipa created fifty-four new full-length ballets, provided danceB for thirty-five operas, and reconstructed seventeen older balletB.39 Among hiB best known ballets are La Fllle du Pharaon. La BavadSre. La Belle au Bois

Dormant (The Sleeping Beauty). Raymonds. Le Lac des Qygnes (Swan Lake), and Casse Noisette (The Nutcracker).

Although most dance historians agree that Petipa vas a gifted and imaginative choreographer, he vas not always able to present vorks which reflected these attributes.

38Hall, World Dance, p. 52.

39a list of Petipa's ballets and data regarding first performan­ ces can be found in D.I. Leshkov, Marius Petipa, ed. by Cyril Beaumont (London: C.W. Beaumont, 1971). Additional information is available in Lillian Moore, ed., The Memoiirs of Marius Petipa. Russian Ballet Master, trans. by Helen Whittaker (London: Dance Boods, 1956). 32 ... the real dictator of Russian ballet at the time vas not Petipa, but a blase public, the "management's decrees." To satisfy the direc­ tors Petipa had to let himself be carried alon£ by the stream, destroy his own principles, be­ tray his choreographic creed, borrowed the most monstrous tricks from the fairy-shows of the Paris boulevard. ...Petipa vas a fine dancer himself and could appreciate the true range of male dancing as a complement to female, as a partner in a perfect union; and this he abolished, and, to quote the great critic Volynski, he "squeezed the vhole of dancing into a woman's cn no r rset. n A f _ WI| 0

Petipa's loss of artiBtic principles can be seen in lis attitude b

towards music as well. When choreographing a new ballet very little of

his interest vas devoted to the theme of the ballet, to the particular

character of the roles, or to the music. Instead, the main empahsls

of his concern vas upon developing the maximum posBible effect vith the technique, physique, and personality of the individual ballerina.

Given this primary concern. It Is easy to understand how Petipa could place very little priority upon the relationship between music and

choreography. At its lowest level, music was a means of ;!lxing the meter and tempo of the dance with little regard for peculiarities of rhythm, melody and phrasing. It vas generally the case that the choreo­ graphy vas not constructed to fit the music but rather all elements

of the ballet vere constructed independently of each othef. Hall described the method of production as follows:

Before giving his instructions to the cotqposer, Petipa vorked out the ballet in elaborate detail, decided which solos vere to be given to the various ballerinas and making plans for the mimed scenes, processions, group dances, etc. He thsn

^Ollfar, Russian Ballet, p. 126. 33 ordered music from the composer to fit this project specilying for each dance, mimed scene or procession the number of bars, the time-signature, and tempo, together vith a vague indication of the character of the various scenes (lively, sad, gay, etc.). He made no specific demands for the evocation o f d is tin c t moods o r th e ex act de­ lineation of the personages, knowing quite veil that the composers vere incapable of such refine­ ments. When he started to rehearse a dance he knew the steps he vanted to use, suited to the particular soloist in question, and fitted these steps in a rough-and-ready manner to the music. Sometimes they fitted quite veil, but they vere quite likely to fit badly. Their actual relation­ ships to the music vorried him very little : his main concern vas that the steps should fit the bars of the music, and should end at the same time aB the music vith an appropriate climax. He vorked to a piano score provided by the composer, and took no interest in the orchestration (vhich vas some­ times quite out of harmony vith the dances he arranged).

After 1887, the official post of 11 ballet-music composer" vas

abolished, and Petipa, freed from vorking vith a civil-Bervant composer,

began his' most productive collaboration vith Tchaikovsky. Far from

accepting the prevalent attitude towards ballet music held by most

critics and composers, Tchaikovsky once said, "I can never understand

vhy 'ballet-music' should be used as a contemptuous epithet. The

music of a ballet is not invariably bad — there are good vorks of Jip this class ..." Although Petipa respected his talent, he did not

allow Tchaikovsky any more latitude’ than any other composer vith whom

he vorked. Complete Instructions were given for every detail of the

^H all, World Dance, p. 51. **2Modeste Tchaikovsky, The Life and Letters of Peter Ilyich , Tchaikovsky (London: The Bodley Head, 1908). p. 292. 3»» 'ballet as can be seen by examining a memorandum from Petipa to

Tchaikovsky regarding the music for Casse Noisette;

1. Soft music 6U m easures. 2. Hie tree is lit up, sparkling music for 6 measures. 3. The entrance of the children. Exciting and joyful music — 2k m easures. h. A moment of astonishment and admiration, Tremelo of a few measures. 5. March of 6k m easures. 6. Qatrance of the fops. 16 measures rococo (Tempo — m inuet), 7. G allop 8. The entrance of DrosBelmayer. Music rather terrifying and at the same time comical. A broad movement o f 16 to 2k measures. The music changes character gradually — 2k measures. It becomes less melancholy, brightens and finally passes to gaiety. Fairly serious music for 8 measures, & rest, h measures chords of surprise.**3

This note regarding the construction of the music for Casse

Noisette clearly indicates that Tchaikovsky vas required to follow a

detailed plan vhich strictly limited any inventive contribution he

might have viBhed to add. That he vas able to produce music vhich

fitted the demands of the dance and s till vas emotionally expressive

is a tribute to Tchaikovsky's genius.

It is generally agreed that in the histoxy of ballet there have

been few composers vhose music vas aB suited for combination vith

dance as the music by Tchaikovsky. The potential for movement abounds

in his ballet music not only because be vorked in close collaboration v i th choreographers b u t alBO because he knew how to make th e music

aid the dancers. Kirsteln has noted:

^Moore, A rtists of the Dance, pp. 172-173. 35 ... Tchaikovsky enthusiastically studied the difficult problems of dance music. Be under­ stood that the cadences for a symphonic poem are not necessarily those vhich determine the symphonic combinations of a corps de ballet. He adapted himself to the rhythms of the human body's mobility* regulated as they vere by the lav of danse d'ecole. The liberty he abandoned as an Independent composer, the lim its he assumed in agreeing to invent dance tunes, measure by measure, and pantomime, gesture by gesture, vere more than compensated for by a triumphant collaboration. He provided Petipa v ith . the b est music vhich vould ever prompt him .14*1

A different assessment of TchaikovBky'B music by Constant Lambert supports Kirstein's statement and offers additional information regarding the characteristics of the music.

Tchaikovsky vas a genius, but an undisciplined one ... The classical ballet — a form vhich many composers might have found hampering — not only Imposed the necessary discipline, but pro­ vided exactly the righ t framework for hiB par­ ticular genius. ... The reasons why Tchaikovsky’s genius vas ideally suited to the ballet are obvious. The classical ballet offers no opportunity for long- drawn-out symphonic development, the in te lle c tu a l expositions and summings up vhich were notoriously Tchaikovsky's veak spots. On the contrary, it calls imperatively for vhat I have described as his three great gifts — lyricism, colour, and a sense of dramatic effect. Tchaikovsky's melodies are essentially tunes rather than symphonic themeB. They are direct and final statements not the premises of a lengthy argument.... In the ballet his times come to a natural close, and then some new variation or piece of action demands a different tune, vith the result that his ballets are devoid of padding... And not only are his tunes good in themselves,... they

lili Lincoln Klrstein, A Short History of Classical Theatrical Dancing (New York: Dance Horizons, 1935), P* 350. 36

are ideally written for the "body. No composer would sit down to write an opera without some knowledge of a consideration for the human voice yet he w ill blithely sit down and write a ballet without any consideration for the limbs that are eventually going to execute it. Tchaikovsky' b tunes not only sing themselves, they dance them­ selves and they present an unparalleled combine-, tion of musical value and practical suitability.^?

In e ffe c t what both Lambert and K irstein are implying i s that

in addition to esta b lish in g a su ita b le mood and emotional framework

for the drama and movement, Tchaikovsky's melodies are capable of

arousing a kinesthetic response. Because he was aware of the human

lim ita tio n s o f dancers and the range o f movements p o ssib le in choreo­

graphy, Tchaikovsky wrote music that could be responded to in the

style and within the scope of danse d'Scole movements.

After Tchaikovsky's death, Petipa began to produce more revivals

pnd arrangements of earlier Romantic balletB. In many instances, the

classic works of Didelot, Saint L&on, and Perrot are known today only

through the Petipa revivals. Although he originally tried to present

faithful renditions of the older works, Petipa soon learned that choreo­

graphic alterations were necessary if the public vas to accept them.

In 1901, the directorship of the Imperial Theaters was changed vith the result that a cavalry officer, Teliakovski, assumed authority.

Petipa was coerced into producing a ballet destined to become a sensa­

tional failure due to hideous costuming, and inappropriate d£cors.

When the public cried against "the antiquated choreographer,"

Teliakovski demanded Petipa's resignation. Humiliated, Petipa vas

^Constant Lambert, "Tchaikovsky and the Ballet," in The Bleeping PrlnccBS. Camera S tu d ies, ed. Gordon Anthony (London: George Routledge and Sons, 19^0), pp. 20-21. 37 forced into retirement In 190*4. Although he was given a sinecure, the choreographer vas not allowed to set foot on the stages of the

Imperial Theaters.

The belief that Petipa vas outdated had been voiced as early as the l880*s and, vith the exception of his works produced in collabora­ tion vith Tchaikovsky and Glazounov, the claim could be. supported.

At the end of the nineteenth century, the audience vas no longer prepared to be given a second- or third-rate ballet Bcore as long as it vas danceable: the cry vas for good symphonic music and the choreographer added that it had to fulfil the particular re­ quirements of his art. Tchaikovsky and Glaxounov found a perfect answer to these problems — but they vere exceptions. And again the dancers proved incapable of under­ standing their music; they danced it exactly like a score by Pugni or Drigo, aB if it vere nothing but a rhythmical support, a kind of metronome. ®

At the beginning of the twentieth-century, the relationship betveen choreographers and composers altered dramatically. The assump­ tion that the composer vas obliged to write music to fit the dance vas largely replaced by the idea that it was nov the choreographer's obligation to Interpret the music. This change placed the composers in a much more dominant position than they had previously enjoyed.

Among the factors vhich brought about this change in attitude and relationship vere the vorks of Isadora Duncan and Jacques-Dalcrose.

Isadora Duncan (1878-1927) vas a pioneer of expressionism in dance and, although untrained in technique, she had an enormous impact

^L ifar, Russian Ballet, p. 17*4. upon twentieth-century ballet. It vas her dream to rediscover the shape and style of ancient Greece from a study of decorative designs on Greek artifacts and to regain the "naturalness" of dancing. Her dancing vas not founded in any academic system and her repertoire of movements vas so impoverished that even the ballet schools bending towards reform could not extract any usable new additions. In an effort to restore naturalness and return dance to its primitive context,

Isadora divested herself of contrived costumes and shoeB, preferring

Instead to dance barefoot in flowing loose robes. On the surface it would seem that Isadora's Influence vas bound to destroy ballet and the academic traditions to vhich It has been attached. Were it not true that choreographers, dancers, producers, and musicians are capable of great flexibility when the situation demands it, Duncanism could have Indeed contributed to the demise of academically oriented ballet. However, ballet traditionalists extracted the best parts of

Duncan's ideas — namely vith regard to music — and built an adapted ballet structure around them.

As with movement, Isadora Duncan sought her inspiration In

Ancient Greek music. Recognizing that the music of the ancients has virtually been lost to modern civilization, she turned elsewhere for alternate inspiration.

... up to the present, geniuses alone have understood rhythm, that is why I have founded dancing on their works. That is why I have danced to the rhythms of Bach, Gluck, Beethoven, Chopin, Schubert, and Wagner. Because these are almost the only ones who are acquainted vith and follow the rhythm of the human form . 39 Vagner la the nan vho approaches nearest to what the composer for dancing should be* but vith him music absorbs evexything. Indeed, it is an artistic crime to dance to such music: I have done b o from neces­ s i t y , because the music awakens rhythm* I have danced 'under* that music, carried by it as a leaf is vafted by the wind. After many years of study I have come to the conclusion that the natural rhythm of the body and the rhythm o f contemporary music are in complete disagreement; the simplest gesture cannot find in such noteB a line vith vhich it can agree.

In e f f e c t , Duncan did not use music as accompaniment but rather danced the music: she interpreted the emotional content of the music.

Her use of music by the masters often provoked as much indignation as enthusiasm , but choreographers soon picked up her ideaB and avowed that they could dance to any music. Herein lies Isadora's best and worst contribution to the development of ballet. On the one hand, her actions forced a recognition that the musical repertoire available for use vith dancing vaB much larger than previously Imagined. Music for the dance need not be of inferior quality, and composers of ballet music need not be derided. On the other hand, Isadora's beliefs, as interpreted by other choreographers and dancers, encouraged the domina­ tion of the choreographer by the musician.

As a choreographer, himself, Li far felt impelled to point out the dangers Inherent in Duncan's Views*

Ehe would dance to music of the first order and many ballet masters followed her in thiB. Ot vas a powerful but tvo-edged weapon: the music increased

^Duncan, quoted in Llfar, Ballet Traditional to Modern* pp. lM-lU?* the t o ta l value o f the work and would Borne times save a piece of poor choreography by fillin g out the ballet, by giving it more expression and an increased impressionistic effect, by a trans­ ference of emotion; but on the other hand, the music vas unfortunately selected for its sym­ phonic value and not for itB dancing qualities *.. This had the disadvantage of reducing danc­ ing to its simplest expression particularly when the music created Insuperable difficulties, through its lack of "danceability" and its dis­ regard for the movements o f the human body . . . And again there vas another danger of inter­ preting a piece of music Instead of dancing to it; instead of waiting for a free inspiration from the music the choreographer went out of his way to illustrate it. Instead of searching for original creative matter in his own domain, he transferred the music's language into his own vocabulary, he submitted his own inspiration to the composer's, he looked for vain equivalents, tedious parallels between music and dancing, and correspondences that vere clumsy, sterile and non-existent.^® Duncan's thought on music could not have been so effectively put into practice were it not for the work of the minor composer Emile

Jacques-Dalcroze (1865-1950). Trained in Paris under Delibes and In

Vienna under Bruckner, he was by profession a practicing teacher, composer and critic of music. Dalcroze vas disturbed by the lack of real appreciation for music and musical expression among his studentB and the audience he observed.

The students were taught to play instruments, to sing songs, but without any thought of such work becoming a means of self-expression, .... while able to read accurately or to play pieces memorized, they had not the s lig h te s t power of giving musical expression to their simplest thoughts or feelings, in fact vere like people

lift Llfar, Russian Ballet, p. 192. vho possess the vocabulary of a language and are able to read vhat others have written, yet are un­ able to put theirown simple thoughts and Impres­ sions into w o r d s . ^9 In an effort to correct these ineptitudes, Dalcroze invented a method for musical and rhythmic education based on a set of bodily exercises designed to Intensify a basic awareness of musical rhythm through phy­ sical movement. In any discussion of Dalcroze and his system (called

Eurhythmies), it must be remembered that his work was directed towards music education and not toward creating a new form or repertoire of movements for dance as is so often believed. His basic principle was that for each musical symbol there is a uniquely associated corres­ ponding movement. By using these correspondents, one can assign de­ tailed movements to each note, rest, syncopation, and phrase of any piece of music. Hence one can realize a complete Bach fugue in the movements of the various parts of one person's body* Too often

Dalcroze*s method has been used to translate music into dance as an end product, when Dalcroze never intended to establish a link between his rhythmical exercises and dance performances. His exercises were intended to demonstrate a command of rhythm and rhythmic coordina­ tion but never to be a final artistic dance form. Unfortunately, ballet masters and producers misunderstood vhat Dalcroze vas try­ ing to do and used his Eurhythmies to devise productions that con­ tained neither aesthetic egression, emotional depth, creative inspiration, nor even theatrical dancing. No matter whether they are

^D alcroze, quoted in Kirstein, Short History, p. 286. 1*2 performed in a school or on stage, Dalcroze*s movements remain mecohanical exerclBes and can not he construed as artistically valid in any other contest.

The vorks of Duncan and Dalcroze gave choreographers of the early tventieth-century the idea that any music can be used for danc­ ing* In works by Fokine, Massine, and Nijinsky, one can observe

Duncan's idea in the selection of the music and Dalcroze*s misunder­ stood methods in the creation of the movement for new ballets. Whereas the requirements of the dance and the demandB of the choreo­ grapher and the dancer dictated the form and style of the music for ballets in the nineteenth-century, the fonn, rhythm, and style of music, and the demands o f the composer and the muBic dictated vhat the dance would be in many balletB of the early tventieth-century.

D iaghilev*s Composers and Choreographers of the BalletB Russe

In any survey of ballet history, the name of Serge Diaghilev 1 b frequently mentioned as being singularly responsible for keeping ballet alive In the early years of this century. Diaghilev (1872-1929) was trained as a musician despite his parents' deBire that he become a civil servant. After an unsuccessful attempt to impress Rimsky-

Korsakov with his talent as a conpoBer, Diaghilev began to doubt his musical ability and to involve himself in aesthetic discussions and A consideration of the need for reforms in the whole realm of artistic enterprises. With his painter friendB, Alexandre Benois and l£on BakBt, he propounded his views on artistic matters in his review.

The World of Art. During Its six yearB of existence, this magazine made a great impact on contemporary attitudes towards art by opposing

academic sterility in Russia and by advocating stronger ties between

European and Russian art. During this period, Diaghilev not only edited

the magazine but arranged exhibitions of Russian art in Paris, where he

produced a season of Russian opera as well. HiB introduction to ballet

production occurred in 1909 when, as a result of a revolt among the

dancers at the Imperial Theaters, he was able to assemble many of the

rebellious dancers and the choreographer Fokine for a performance in

Paris. ThiB was the beginning of a great era of ballet known as the '

Diaghilev period lasting from 1909 to 1929 — a period unsurpassed in the number of experiments and Innovations carried out by an Independent

artistic organization.

Through sheer force of w ill, Diaghilev was able to engage patrons,

assemble a company, select collaborators to carry out hiB ideas for the

libretto, music, decor, and choreography of new ballets, and produce

performances of unparalleled diversity and scope. Among the artists he

engaged to work together were Picasso, Bakst, Benols, Cocteau, Mir6,

Stravinsky, Debussy, Ravel, Satie, Fokine, Nijinsky, Nijlnska, Massine

and Li far. One of Diaghilev's most important innovations was replacing the

traditional three-act, multi-scenic ballets of the Marinsky Theater with

shorter, one-act ballets. Instead of presenting ballets that occu­ pied a full evening, Diaghilev introduced the short ballets as a means

of displaying the versatility and variety of his company. By uBing

three ballets in a single performance, the way was opened for intro­

ducing the audience to many artistic experiments and the performance of

a greater number of artists. Ill*

The choreographers vho worked for Diaghilev vere enticed by the promise of freedom to try new approaches to ballet, hy the promise of excellent dancers to interpret their creations, and,in some cases, toy sexual attraction to Diaghilev himself. Once associated with the

Impresario, they all ran the risk of virtual destruction in their car­ eers should they fall into his disfavor. In the present study, the five choreographers to he considered from the Diaghilev period are Michael * Fokine, Vaslav Nijinsky, Leonide Massine, George Balanchine, and Serge

L lfa r. Bom in i860, Fokine was a product of the Imperial school in St.

Petersburg and became a teacher in the same institution in 190b. His first important work, Acis and Galatea, was produced in 1905 for a private show given by his students at the Imperial school and gave indi­ cation that Fokine was not a choreographer of the Petipa mold. Of this work, the dancer Gorchkova wrote: He was an extremely gifted man, with a keen rhyth­ mical sense, a great taste for music, and plenty of imagination. All his choreographic movements were closely linked to the jdub I c, almost pedantically so at tim e s. Sometimes a movement o f th e arms, th e le g s , or the head corresponded not merely with a phrase of music, but with a single note in the score. Any­ body trained in his principles found it hard to work afterwards with other teachers.50 In this ballet, it had been Fokine*s wish to have the dancers bare­ foot in the Greek manner popularized by Duncan but the inspector of the school forbade it. The ideas of Duncan remained a vital part of

Fokine*s style throughout his career and found their clearest egres­ sion in a later ballet, Danhnis et Chloe.

^Gorchkova, quoted in Li far, Russian Ballet, p. 2lh. Us In many ways, Fokine has been compared with the older reformer,

Noverre in that hoth men sought to revive ballet as an expressive art form. Fokine*s ideas on choreography were defined in a famous letter to the London TlmeB that outlined five basic principles of choreography.

Not to form combinations of ready-made and * established dance-stepB, but to create in each case a new form corresponding to the subject, the most expressive form possible for the representation of the period and character of the nation represented ~ that is the first rule of the new ballet. The second rule is that dancing and mimetic gesture have no meaning in a ballet unless they serve as an expression of its dramatic action, but they must not be used as a mere divertissement or entertainment having no connection with the scheme of the whole ballet. The third rule is that the new ballet admits the UBe of conventional gesture only where it it required by the Btyle of the ballet, and in all other caBeB endeavors to replace gestures of the hands by mimetic of the whole body. The fourth rule is the expressiveness of groupB and ensemble dancing. In the older ballet, the dancers were ranged in groups only for the purpose of ornament, and the ballet master was not concerned with the expression of any sentiment in groups of characters or in the principle of expressiveness of the combined dancing o f a crowd. The fifth rule is the alliance of dancing with the other arts. The new ballet, refusing to be either the slave of muBlc or of scenic decoration, and recognising the alliance of the arts only on the condi­ tion of complete equality, allows perfect freedom both to the scenic artist and to the musician. In contradistinction to the older ballet it does not demand ballet music of composer as an accompaniment to dancing: it accepts muBic of every kind, provided only that it is good and expres­ sive. It does not demand of the scenic 1*6

artist that be Bhould array the ballerinas In short skirts and pink slippers. It does not impose any specific "Ballet" conditions on the composer or the decorative artist, but gives complete liberty to their creative powers . . . 5*

One can again see the influence of Duncan in Fokine*s statement regarding the choice of music. For his ballets, music by Rimsky-

Korsakov, Weber, Ravel, Stravinsky, Gluck, Chopin, Borodin, and

Schumann vas chosen not for ltB "balletic" quality but because the vorks qf these composers could excite spectators and add to the in­ terest in the balletB. One common criticism of Fokine*s ballets is that without the good music, the choreography tends to be lacking in interest. An additional influence of Duncan can be noted in Fokine*s choice of music that vaB not intended for combination with dance but vas arranged and altered for such a use.

Among Fokine'8 greatest ballet creations vere Chopiniana (later renamed Lcs Sylphidee). Petrouchka. Daphnis et Chloe. L'Oiaeau de Feu.

Don Juan. Le S pectre de l a Rose, and P av lo v a's The Dying Swan. In each of these vorks, the music served as a major influence upon the in­ spiration of the choreography.

Music is not the mere accompaniment of a rhythmic step, but an organic part of the dance; the quality of choreographic in­ spiration is determined by the quality of the music.52

^Michael Fokine, Letter to The Times. London, July, 191^*

5®Fokine, quoted in Tamara Karsavina, Theater Street (New York: Dutton, 19^1), p. 169 * 1*7 Once the score has become part of me, images are formed, vhich I occasionally fix in little drawings. That is the general plan, but the fantasy comes during the rehearsals.^3

Fokine vas the first of several choreographers to collaborate vith Igor Stravinsky, When the latter first began to vrite music for

Diaghilev, Stravinsky vas virtually unknown but soon became a major force for change in the nature of ballet muBic and, as a consequence, in the nature of dancing ltBelf.

In 19Hf Diaghilev had commissioned a ballet score from * Stravinsky and, upon his arrival in Switzerland to hear what Stravinsky had begin, found that nothing had been written for the ballet.

However, Stravinsky instead played him a piano concerto he had recently completed; . . and Diaghilev found this so attractive that he suggested its conversion into a more elaborate work for orchestra, of vhich the theme, he thought, might be something such as Petrushka, the Russian equivalent of Punch. Thus it vas that Stravinsky's Petrushka vas first conceived. Acting on Diaghilev*s advice he amplified M b o rig in a l score w ith muBic in s p ire d by a Russian carnival ... including an attractive peasant dance. 5 **

In his version of the genesis of Petroushka. Stravinsky recounts that prior to the arrival of DiagMlev he had already given the title

"Petrushka's Cry" to the piano concerto having recalled the story of the puppet. He does confirm that Diaghilev suggested converting the concert work into a ballet.55

^?Fokine, quoted. In-H all.• World Dance♦ p. 92.

-^Serge I>. Grigoriev. The DiagMlev B allet. 1909-1929 (Middlesex: Penguin Books, I960), p. 56. 55igor Stravinsky, Autobiography (New York: Simon and SchuBter, 1936), pp. 1<8-1*9. 1*8

The production vas planned in detail by Stravinsky and Benois»

the artist and designer. When Fokine started his rehearsals, Benois

vas on hand t o d ir e c t every d e ta il including some o f th e crowd move­ ments. Although the choreography vas entirely hy Fokine, the influence

of the other collaborators greatly affected the style of the dance

movements. At first, the discordant music did not appeal to Fokine,

but he later came to understand it and derived his choregraphy from it.

Often forgotten in the process of collaboration is the role dancers play in the creation of choreography. The dancer vho vas instrumental

in this process during the production of Petrushka vas Vaslav

Nijinsky. Of the interaction between choreographer and dancer, Fernau

Hall wrote:

The choreographer cannot create something organic and emotionally expressive except by vorklng through the understanding personal­ ity, and technique of the dancer vho creates the rSle, and the dancer cannot bring the movement to life unless he is allowed to do them in a way vhich feelB right to him. During rehearsal there is a continuous process of mutual stimulation: the choreographer devises an image, the dancer seizes upon it and builds it up (under the guidance of the choreographer) into something vhich satisfies his own conception of the role, and this In turn inspires the choreographer to create another image in a similar or contrasted mood. Nijinsky vas God's gift to any choreographer, for he not only brought out every nuance of feel­ ing asked by the choreographer, but fitted the various aspects of the r8le together into an or­ ganic unity and added something magical of his own. HiB versatility vas so phenomenal that there seemed no mood or character vhich he could not assume to perfection, but for a number of reasons the r$le of Petrouchka appealed excep­ tionally strongly, and be made it into one of the most powerful myths of our time.56

5% all, World Dance, p. 93. Nijinsky vas destined to assume Fokine's position as chief choreo­

grapher vhen the latter vas forced out of Diaghilev's circle in 1912.

Fokine*s last ballet for the Ballets Russe was Daphnis et Chloe set to

Ravel's music. It vas this ballet that afforded Fokine the oppor­ tunity to create a Greek ballet based on the classical improvisations of Isadora Duncan. Unfortunately, it vas by frustrating Fokine's rehearsals, denying him the proper sets and costumes, and other under­ handed tactics that Diaghilev sought to get Fokine's resignation from the company — an act that took place only after the choreography and staging had been completed. Diaghilev realized that Fokine'B choreog­ raphy had become tepid in light of the more expresslonistic vork

Nijinsky vas being encouraged to produce. In Fokine, Diaghilev had

a link vith the great romantic traditions of ballet, because, despite his experiments in choreography, Fokine remained more attuned to the past than to the future. When Diaghilev forced Fokine out ot the

Ballets Russe the lmpressario began the pattern that characterized e f f o r ts o f th e company u n til h is d eath , namely, a constant search fo r the nev, the experimental, the exotic, and finally the bizarre.

Throughout his life, Vaslav Nijinsky (1890-1950) vas a tragic figure. Trained in the Imperial Schools under Legat, he danced in the Marinsky Theaters until the "Nijinsky scandal" of 1911 that re­

sulted in his re8ignation-dismissal. Acting on the advice of

Diaghilev, Nijinsky did not vear a part of bis costume in a per­ formance of Giselle given before the Russian nobility. Incensed by this affront, the management of the Marinsky fined Nijinsky, vho, pressed by Diahilev and his circle to retaliate, handed in his 50 resignation. According to plan, he vaa then free to Join Dlahllev's

Ballets Russe as premier danseur. His first attempt at choreog- raphy vas the short but controversial essay L'Apres-midi d'un Faune.

Of much greater significance vas the ballet Le Sacre du Prlntemps. produced in close collaboration vlth the composer Stravinsky. For this work, Nijinsky used, or misused, Balcroze eurhythmies to provide a literal translation of the complex rhythm of the music. Grigoriev reportB that the task of choreographing Le Sacre required not only- time but additional personnel.

In the meantime ve devoted every spare moment to th e re h e a rs a ls o f Le S acre. The music once again vas Inconceivably diffi- cult, full of constantly changing rhythms; and even vlth Stravinsky’s anxious assistance Nijinsky's composition progressed very slowly indeed. Stravinsky, moreover, vould not, ve found, be able to stay vith us much longer. Diaghilev therefore began looking for someone else to help vith the choreography; and since it vas based largely on ’’Eurhythmies", he asked Dalcroze to recommend one of his pupils for the purpose. Dalcroze sent us Marie Rambert; and the particular dutleB she vas charged vith were, firstly, to help Nijinsky and the dancers in disentangling the various rhythmB o f th e muBic and, secondly, to b eat time for the dancers in the more complicated passages of the score for vhich Nijinsky-had already composed their movements.57

To Stravinsky fell the difficult task of trying to explain his music and his conception of the content of the ballet to the choreographer. Even when the ballet vas completed the composer v s b not satisfied. ... vhat struck me then, and still strikes me most, about the choreography, vas, and is,

•^Grigoriev, The Diaghilev Ballet, pp. 88-89. 51 Nijinsky's lack of consciousness of vhat he vas doing In creating it ... How far it all vas from vhat I had desired. In composing the Sacre I had imagined the spectacular part of the performance as a series of rhythmic mass movements of the greatest simplicity vhich would have had an Instantaneous effect on the audience, with no superfluous details or com­ plications such as would suggest effort. The only solo vas to he the sacrificial dance at the end of the piece. The music of that dance, clear and well-defined, demanded a correspond­ ing choreography — simple and easy to under­ stand. But there again, although he had grasped the dramatic significance of the dance, Nijinsty vas incapable of giving intelligible forms to its essence, and complicated it eigher by clumsiness or lack of understanding.5° In addition to using Dolcroze's exercise movements, Nijinsky used the stage as a "blackboard" on vhich to display the music in great detail through the dance. Nijinsky's wife described how the music vas trans­ lated into dance:

The choreography vas the most amazing and correct visualization of the score. Each rhythm vas danced, the counterpoints were built up choreor- graphically in the groups. It is through the rhythm, and rhythm only, that the dance identifies vith the muBic. The rhythmical counterpoint b 1 employed in the choral movements. When the orchestra plays a trill on the flutes, movements th in o u t, and so do th e dancers. Then th e tune begins on woodwinds two octaves apart, and on the stage two groups of three dancerB each detach themselves from the lines and dance, correspond­ in g to th e tu n e .59 Throughout the ballet, the dance vas determined by the music. The intensity and quality of the music would be reflected in the number

5^Igor Stravinsky, Chronicle of My Life (London: Gollancz, 1936), p. 62. ^Romola Nijinsky, Nijinsky (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1931*), p . 2CA. 52 and intensity of the dancers. Even the colors of the costumes vere coordinated vith the music. Red groups corresponded to the horns or trumpets and vhite or grey groups vere used vhen violins or flutes vere dominant. The movements of classical dancing vere not to he found in Le Sacre; they vere replaced hy contortions, stampings, and other non-continuous motions. Faced vith the nature of Stravinsky's score, tfijinsky could not have used traditional ballet enchainment because, although the Bcore vas highly rhythmic, it vas hardly appropriate to the danse d'&cole tradition. * The first performance of Le Sacre caused a riot and the ballet vas completed only because Diaghilev had anticipated such an occurrence and had instructed the conductor, Pierre Monteux, on no account to let the orchestra stop playing. Although the attacks vere mostly directed against the music, the prlmltave and barren style of the dancing vas found to be offensive as veil. Lifar quotes the famed critic and historian AndrS Levinson and conmientB on LevinBon's reactions to the first performance of the ballet:

Only Andr€ Levinson had the insight to criticize it properly; he found a "disastrous fallacy" in the choreographer's interpreta­ tion of Stravinsky's "refined Hottentot music", "vhich pierces our ears vith un­ bearable disharmony, vith loud and dominant rhythms." "The only rational end of the choreographer'8 imagination is rhythm. To him rhythm is the one brutal, terrible force vhich had a hold on the primltave mind." He goes on to say that the ballet's steps and movements inevitably call to mind the principles of Dalcroze's rhythmical exercises, and he expresses his regret that ballet's psychology and symbolism should have been replaced by academic formulae. "I should like to believe," 53 be says,nthat this nev rhythmical formal- lsin is only a false eclipBe of movement's true meaning; it is empty and leaves us cold."GO

In another critique, Levinson expanded bis idea that the slavish bond

to rhythm vas a great mistake.

In Le Sacre. ve sav first of all Nijinsky ... making frantic efforts to translate the rhythmical veb of the music, that musical blank verse vith its vaxying rhythms, that ceaseless beating vhich stirs the vohderful poetry of the primitive soul. There is no moire pointless taste than to point out this rhythm by corresponding movements, vhen Stravinsky does it by himself vlth incredible vigor. The dancer, now nothing but the slave, the playthisg of the rhythm, is reduced to nothing. He clings to gestures that are full of meaning, of Bymbolism, a hybrid mixture of Dalcrozian exercises and imitative grimaces, the choreo­ graphy is betrayed by its own performers, vho hover between anxiety for the coming beat and a nervous deBire to laugh. And caught in the hereditary traps of all vho depend on rhythm, they pay the penalty for ignoring Terpsichore by stumbling into every snare laid by Le Sacre's deceptive and complicated rhythm.

It is obvious that the creation and performance of Le Sacre du Prlntemps vas an extremely Important event in the history of dancing and ballet.

From it, choreographers became aware of an entirely nev mode of expression and quality of movement that could be used vith even the most complex music or aural accompaniment. To many-people, Nijinsky *b choreography vas proof of Isadora Duncan's belief that anything could be danced to. Unfortunately, the price for UBing music such as that

^ ^ L ifa r, RuBBlan B a lle t, p . 2U6

6lIbid.. p. 280. composed for Le Sacre vaa the subservience of the choreographer and dancers of the form, style, orchestration, end rhythm of the music.

LIfar, for one, questions the propriety of this approach.

Consnentlng on Stravinsky*s discussion regarding the Ignorance of

Nijinsky, Lifar states:

M. Stravinsky Is right vhen he observes that tais task (^choreographing Le Sacre] vas un­ familiar to Nijinsky, but doeB he believe the task of the maltre de ballet vas familiar to him, a musical composer? A question arises: vho is responsible for the fact that eleva­ tion, the most precious of all gifts possessed by Nijinsky had been eliminated from the ballets produced by him in collaboration vith M. Stravinsky?®2 If the choreographer vas to maintain his integrity and freedom to exploit all the possible meanB o f expression available through movement, the Duncanlsm "We can dance to anything" and its translation into practice, "We can illustrate anything" had to be repudiated. Not all music is suitable for combination vlth dance. As Llfar explained:

M. Stravinsky’s music, richly and fundamen­ tally rhythmic, vas by a curious misunderstand­ ing, taken for dance music — not everything rhythm ic b 1 necessarily danceable, not all that makes our muscles contract is necessaruly dancing. I shall go even farther — nothing is more opposed to dancing than M. Stravinsky’s music of the first period, vlth the exception of Petroucka, in vhich popular dance-music is largely used, and that is because of its non-dancing rhythm and above all on account of its changes of rhythm, truly opposed to dancing. A score by M. Stravinsky enfeebles dancing and veighs it down and enslaves it rather than serves to embellish it; on the other hand, dancing

^L ifar, Ballet Traditional to Modern, p. 285* 55 never enhances M. Stravinsky's music, as it doeB that of WBber or Adam. Stravinsky's music is so beautiful in itself that it is all-sufficient; it has no need for dancing addition, and dancing only serves to distract the listener's attention, here ve touch on an important question — Why are the beat ballets never those arranged to the most beautiful music?°3

One need only survey the list of ballets produced since the turn of

century to Bee that as a generalization, all that remains of most vorks is the music -- the original choreography has been either scrap­ ped or significantly revised if it exists at all. This generalization applies to Nijinsky'8 vork more than to that of any other modern choreographer.

In 1913, NiJinBky married and, because Diaghilev had lost his lover to a woman and his powerful influence over him as veil, he ban­ ished Nijinsky from the company. Although Nijinsky continued to vork as a dancer and choreographer for several years, nothing he did vas as spectacular as vhat he accomplished while under the influence of

Diaghilev. In 1919* the final tragedy of his life, a hereditary disease that causes insanity, resulted in Nijinsky being placed in a sanatorium for the rest of his life. Peggy Van Praagh points out that Nijinsky's importance lleB not in his choreography,

... but in the effect his ballets had on public and critical conceptions of choreography. It cannot be shown th a t N ijin sky influenced any subsequent choreographer. No part of hiB idiom has entered the classical vocabulary. Never­ theless, he re-empha8ised Fokine*s teaching that choreography in ballet can explore nev movements

folbid. . p. 280. 56

Tar outside orthodox classical positions and classical pas, Even If his idiom vas too chaotic and too lacking in method to influence choreo­ graphic language, it cleared the air, so to 8peak. It posed the possibility of fresh direc­ tions, other languages,6b

Contrary to the fears of many balletomanes, the Diaghilev ballets did not stop vlth the expulsion of Nijinsky. In his usual but uncanny ability to recognize and develop nev talent, Diaghilev selected

LSonide Massine (1695-) to be the leading dancer and, at the age of eighteen, the company*s prime choreographer, Grigoriev records the details of Massine’s Initiation into choreography:

It vas nov Diaghilev*s hope to develop Massine and make a choreographer of him; but after his experience vith Nijinsky he vas vary. Instead of vesting his ovn energy before he had proof of Masslne*s ability, he charged Larionov vlth the task of Instructing him in choreographic theory, and made Massine begin modestly vlth the composition, in the manner of Fokine, of some simple dances on music from Rimsky- Korsakov's opera The Snowmalden. Nevertheless he could not resist vorking on Borne of his ovn pet ideas in composition. He vas still much attracted by the principles of ’Evuythmics*...65

It seems odd that Massine should have Larionov, a modernist painter for a teacher of choreography, but such vas the vish of Diaghilev.

It has been observed that Larionov's Influence is responsible for the bizarre quality of Massine's early ballets and for the extreme angular­ ity, broken lines, and irregular groupings in his choreography.^6

^Brinson and Van Praagh, The Choreographic Art. p. 71«

^G rigoriev, The Diaghilev Ballet, p. 111*.

6611 far, Ballet Traditional to Modem, p. 171. 57 In the beginning of his choreographic career, Massine explored the realm of character dancing in Le Tricorne, the tradition of the

comnedla dell*arte in Puldnella. Russian folklore in Contes Russes

and a revised version of Le Sacre du Prlntemps. and a humorous genre

in Lee Femmes de Bonne Humeur. Because he vas trained by Diaghilev*s

artistic representatives, Massine vas subject to pressure from col­

laborating painters and musicians. Vet his ballets have alvays had a unique end somevhat experimental quality that has appealed to critics

and audiences to the present day.

MasBine's choreography has often been described as neo-classical

expressionism. Parade (1917) is a prime example of the extreme use of this style, but more in line vith his normal choreographic Btyle is the b a ll e t Les Femmes de Bonne Humeur (1917). Of th e a p p lic a tio n o f neo­

classical expressionism in this vork Hall says: ... here he developed his characteristic style of neo-classical expressionism. He made con­ siderable use of classical stepB, establishing in this vay a period atmosphere appropriate to a ballet based on a comedy by Goldini; but he used the classical Bteps in a definitely expressionist vay, exaggerating every angle and giving the vhole ballet a Jittery sort of animation, fitting some movement ot every note of the muBic. Another important aspect of MasBine's choreographic style vas the use of national dances vith movements adapted from the classical vocabu­ lary. Le Tricorne (1919)* set to music by De Falla, typifies

Massine's use of national materials based on a careful study of the

^H all, World Dance, p. 127. 58 local dances as veil as the history, art, and temperament of the people of Andalusa.

The most significant and controversial vorks by Massine vere his symphonic ballets. These four ballets (Les Presages. Chore- artiu m , Symphonle F a n tastiq u e . and Seventh Symphony) c o n stitu te a nev genre of ballet using large scale symphonies as the background for dramatic dance lntexpretation and illustration. Only in the

Symphonle Fantastique. created to Berlioz's score and libretto, did the ballet follov a set program. In the other three ballets, there are « non-dance ideas vhich provide an emotional focus for the dancing but these organizational ideas do not form a cohesive program. In his autobiography, Massine explained hov he conceived the ideas for Lea

Presages, the first of his symphonic ballets:

Ever since ay visit to Sicily I had been pondering over the problem of hov to create a correct ballet interpretation of a symphonic vork. I had often listened to Tchaikovsky's Fifth Symphony and I felt nov that its theme of man and his deBtlny could provide me vlth the right material 6n vhich to base my experiment. But I knew that my vork ought not to be simply an abstract Interpretation in visual form. In using Tchaikovsky's muBic for my ballet, I envisaged ay interpretation as corresponding in b a lle tic form to the symphony in m usical, form. In short, I vas taking on nyself the responsibility of In te rp re tin g the meaning o f Tchaikovsky's symphony through plastic statement, exposition and denouement. I visualized a series of movements and groupings vlth varying asymetrlcal masculine and feminine elements ... I deliberately chose to follov the movements of the symphony in a logical evolution or choreographic phrases successively amplifying and regrouping them­ selves into nev shapes and patterns. I conceived the production in four sections: firBt, life, vith its ambitions and temptations; then passion, and the contest betveen sacred and profane 59 love; thirdly, frivolity; and lastly, the culmina­ tion of man’s destiny through conflict.

Although not specifically defining a theme. Lea Presages did have more

thematic unity than the next symphonic ballet Chore artium. In his

attempts to interpret the music through dance, Massine decided to

allow the music to dictate the mood and form of the dance more than

he had done previously. Of Chore artium he wrote:

Although I had been pleased with Les Presages on the whole, I felt I had relied too heavily on a clearly defined theme, and I wanted to try and achieve a more abstract choreographic inter­ p re ta tio n . Brahm’s Fourth Symphony seemed to offer me the opportunity I was looking for* Mow that I felt more confident, I decided to do the choreography of the ballet, vhich I entitled Choreartium. according to the instrumentation of the score, using women dancers to accentuate the delicate phrases, while men interpreted the heavier, more robust passages. The music vith Its rich orchestration and itB many contrasts, lent itself admirably to this kind of interplay between masculine and feminine m o v e m e n ts .

Although he states that he wants to develop more abstract interpre­

tations in dance, Massine drew support for the symphonic ballets from

people vho saw in them dramatic if not programmatic content appropriate

to the music. Other supporters, like Ernest Newman, felt the dance was a welcome and fitting physical demonstration of the musical score.

Conversely, many people, especially musicians, believed Massine had

committed sacrilege ty imposing dance upon superbly self-sufficient musical masterpieces. To these critics, the combination of Bysphonic

^®Leonide Massine, My Life in Ballet (London: MacMillan and Co., 1968), pp. 186-187.

69Ibid., p. 191. 60 music vith dance vas an unwanted Intrusion upon the integrity of the music and an expression of the choreographer's ego to think that the music vould fare better for his efforts.

The question of vhether or not music Bhould or even can he translated into dance is at the core of the controversy surrounding

Massine's symphonic ballets. In articles for The Sunday Tiroes, the critic Ernest Nevman addressed himself to this question. With refer­ ence to Choreatlum. on October 29, 1933 Newman wrote:

Massine Bhoved th e comroonsense ve might have expected of him when he put aside all thought of * reading a story into Brahm's symphony and de­ cided to approach it as music pure and simple ... If music is to be ruled out from ballet vhen it is 'pure' music, vhat justification is there for LeB Sylphldes. for example? There 1b no more pro­ gramme in Chopin's music than there Is in Brahm'si yet the enduring success of Les SylnhldcB proves that choreographic figures can be devised that are felt to be not in the least alien to the spirit and the build of the music. We are bound to grant that there is nothing a priori incongruous in the mating of 'pure' music ... vith the lines and masses and movements of the ballet ... The only question is, to vhat extent the choreographer has succeeded ... There can, of course, be no question of a translation of the 'meaning' of this music as a whole into termB of another art: this kind of music is just Itself, the expression of something to vhich there can be no real equivalent, But ... surely there can be parallelisms; surely certain elements in the musical design, certain gestures of the music, certain softenings and hardenings of th e c o I o u t b , can be suggested quite veil in the more o b jec tiv e medium? . . . The opening e n try o f thoBe two figures, for instance, vith their curious gliding, undulating motion, seemed to me as perfect a translation into visible motion of the vell-knovn dip and rise of the first phrase in the violins aB could possibly be conceived. I could cite similar felicities of parallelism by the hundred . •. In the finale, vhich is in nassacaglia form — a series of variations upon a ground fugue Csicl 6 l

— Massine seems to me to have done wonders. He typifies the commanding main theme by bI x hlack figures that persist through the vhole movement as the ground bass ltBelf persists in the music; and he intensifies or thins out the action and the groupings in accordance vith the changing texture of the variation.70

Newman vas Massine's strongest supporter defending the symphonic ballets against attacks by musicians and unsympathetic choreographers.

In another Sunday TlmeB article he vrote:

We can sympathise vith the perturbations of thoBe musicians vho deny that anything so 'abstract' as Brahm's Fourth Symphony can be tra n s la te d in to terms of action, but ve beg to be excused from sharing them. Strictly Bpeaklng, no art is trans­ latable into another, even poetry into music. The most ve can get are convincing parallelisms be­ tween the tvo; and the fact that some parallelisms a re much more d i f f i c u l t than o th e rs , and have con­ sequently not been attempted hitherto, is no reason for denying a choreographic genius like Massine the right to attempt them .... The rational thing to do when w atching Choreartium i s not to concen­ trate stubbornly on vhat is exclusively musical in the muBic, and therefore alien to this or any other action, but to seize upon, and delight in, the many things in the music that can be paral­ leled in choreography .... In a truly extraordinary vay, Massine has given us a transvaluation into choreographic values of a hundred musical features of the symphony; the ballet vorks Itself out con­ sistently, for example, as a design reproducing in the subtlest vay the design of the music in the matter of subjects, repetitions, balancings, treat­ ment of episodes, and so on. In the last resort, then, the more musical ve are, and the better ve know Brahms, th e more p leasu re ve derive from Choreartium — if only ve can nut aside all academic prejudices and prepossessions.”1

7®Nevman, quoted in M assine, My L ife , pp. 193-19**•

"^Newman, quoted in MasBlne, My L ife , pp. 19**-195» 62

The fact that Newman vas forced to use the terms "translation” or "transvaluation" in his description leads one to question as did his

contemporary cirtics, whether the purpose of the ballets vas really

to do that vhich Nevman denied, namely to translate music into dance.

One of Massine's critics vho believed this to be the case vas Xdfer.

Lifer*s comments have been echoed by many o th e rs vho are opposed to symphonic b a lle ts . L ifar vrote: I f one may rejoice and be astonished at Massine's mastery, maturity, and novelty,' one may also question his choreographic mysticism and above all his system, vhich consists in transposing an • orchestral score into a dance pattern, the result of asBiduouB labour, MasBine, in fa c t, never idealises material pictures, he has completely surrendered him self to the power of the feelings evoked in him by the symphonies of vhich he visheB to be the translator and illustrator in terms of choreography. In short, he applies himself to the study of the technical structure and not the soul of the musical vork. He dissects the orchestration and the polyphony. He vlshes to find an adequate visual and dynamic expression for each instrument, and is satisfied thus to construct a choreographic replica of an orchestral symphony, instead of enriching it as a creator. Although few people would agree th at the only appropriate music for combination vlth ballet is music unable to stand on itB ovn merits, the danger of using totally self-Bufficient music in combination vith dance seems clear. Ballet music historians are fortunate in that they can read

Massine's account of how he sets about composing a ballet. As might

be expected, the method differs according to the situation concerning

72iifar# Ballet Traditional to Modem, p. 175* -63 the creation of the idea for the work. Likewise, many details are lacking because the creative process is not one that is open for inspection or, for that matter, even understood by the creator since much of the process takes place on a subconscious level. However, even a general description is of benefit in a survey of collaboration.

Massine revealed the following:

I have no fixed method of arranging my ballets or dances* It is quite individual if I prefer to arrange them to music specially composed to my choreographic idea. If I have to work with a new composer with whose vork I am not familiar, 1 prefer the first way. If, on the other hand, the composer and the style of his music are known to me, I like to get my choreographic idea first and then discuBs it with the composer in detail. The next person I consider very important is the designer of the setting and costumes, for, if he is a man of ideas, he can be of great assistance. I keep constantly in touch vith my collaborators to ensure the closest co­ ordination in our work, and I discuss all my plans and ideas vith them. The actual scenes and dances I do not vork out before I commence my rehearsals; but I generally visualise them in my mind and form Just a hazy out­ line of them, somevhat like the outline of houses Been through a London fog. I do not discuss th e ballet vith my dancers, unlesB it is of such an unusual character that I find it imperative for them to understand it, in order that they may graBp the situation. I regard the dancers as the.elements for the realisation of my ideas, and as such I must be able to inspire them vlth the same feeling for my vork that I have. ... I prefer modern music to arrange to, but I am also fond of classical music. In some sort my method of arranging ballets has many points of .similarity vith musical composition. I regard solo dance as melodies written for a single instrument; Just as group dances correspond to a piece orchestrated for a given number of instruments. And, Just as an orchestration should contain colour and contrast, so do I seek to invest my group and mass dances with similar qualities. 61*

It is not always the music that inspires me to arrange a ballet; sometimes it is the theme, or the period in vhich the action takes p la c e . To make my meaning c le a r e r , I must mention a few of my ballets. In Lfe Sacre de Printempa. the predominant element vas the music, then the theme; in Les Femmes de Bonne Humeur. the period vas the principal consideration; in Parade, the music vas supreme, although the theme, too, interested me. Vhich ever element Influences me the most, that is the aspect from which I vork. If it is the music, I commence by studying the score and receive my choreographic inspiration from that source; if it is the theme, I concen­ trate upon that and afterwards arrange it to the music . . . . To my mind th e g en eral movement I s th e most important part of a ballet. Light and shade are essential. My style of ballet composition is cloBely connected vith the musical theme, and I have my ovn method for contrasting the movements. If the music does not give it to me, I contrive opportunities for the introduction of light dad sh ad e.^ 3

Until recently, Massine vas an active choreographer creating dramatic and abstract ballets. But nothing he has produced has sparked such controversy as the symphonic ballets. Although he has hiB de­ tractors, few w ill deny him an important place in the development of dance in the twentieth centruy.

One of the last choreographers to vork for Diaghilev vas the

Russian, Georgi Melitonovich Balanohivadze {l90ti- ). Renamed

George Balanchine by Diaghilev, this choreographer has been responsible for significant ballet vork in Europe but more importantly in the United

States for the Nev York City Ballet of vhich he vas the founding choreographer. Among the artists Diaghilev employed, Balanchine is

"^Massine, quoted in Beaumont, Complete B allets, pp. 81*0-81*2. 65 unique because his background from an early age vas a musical one, although he did receive dance training at the Imperial Theaters in

St. Petersburg. George's father vas a noted composer of Georgian music (often called thetfeorgian Glinka") and encouraged his son to 7li study piano and theoxy at the State Conservatoxy of Music.

Balanchine vas also different from the other young choreographers

Diaghilev had chosen in that he had already had experience in creat­ ing dances. This fact vas somevhat disquieting to Diaghilev. As

Grigoriev recalls: • The third candidate, tfor becoming a choreographer under Diaghilev! Balanchine, vas obviously gifted as he had shown by some dances he had already composed, vhich had been performed by his vife Tamara Gevergeva. Moreover, since he vas fresh from Russia, Diaghilev vas interested in all he had to say about the ballet at Leningrad, and in particular about the productions of the choreogra­ pher Golizovsky, vhoBe main aim vas the achieve­ ment of sculptural effects, for vhich he vas vont almoBt to denude his dancers of all clothing. Diaghilev greatly enjoyed these conversations, in the course of vhich he came to consider that of a ll the available dancers Balanchine vas the most lik e ly to make a choreographer Buch as ve needed. At the same time he perceived, vhat vas less welcome to him, that Balanchine's ideas vere already, so to speak, crystallized, and that he would conse­ quently prove too independent to act as a mere instrument for the realization of Diaghilev's ovn conceptions. ’5

Although he created many ballets for Diaghilev, the most impor­ tant vork vas the Apollo Musagete (1926), because it brought Balanchine

^^Moore, A r tis ts o f th e Dance, p . 239*

"^Grigoriev, The Diaghilev Ballet, pp. 207-208. 66

together vlth Stravinsky for the first time. Given his background

and closeness to music* It is not surprising that Balsnchlne extracted

ideas on choreography from the style and construction of the music.

In his biography of Balanchine, Bernard Taper commented:

It vas Stravinsky's music for this ballet that shoved Balanchine the vay to the technical and aesthetic discoveries he made in Apollo* and to Stravinsky he gratefully admits M b indebted­ ness. Balanchine recalls that in M b previo us ballets it had been Ms vont to heap all-styles of movements together* as in a sort of goulash. The Bcore that Stravinsky provided for Apollo — re s tra in e d , d is c ip lin e d , y e t uncommonly l y r ic a l — taught BalancMne the most useful lesBon of Ms * career: that he, too could clarify Ms art by reducing all the multitudinous possibilities to the one possibility that vas inevitable, that he could, as he has since put it, 'dare to not use all sy ideas.' As he studied the score, vhich left Mm the strong impression as of a vMte-on- vhlte canvas, BalancMne for the first time realized that, like tones in music and shades in painting, gestures have certain family relations vMch, as groups, impose their ovn lavs. All the choreography he has done since then, Balanchine says, has been affected by tM s realization.'

More even than Massine, Balanchine has tied Ms choreography to the music* For Ms ballets, he has chose "first-rate" muBic by such com­ posers as Brahms, Handel, Bach, Stravinsky, Prokofiev, Schubert, Gluck,

Mozart, and Strauss, to name but a fev. As opposed to many choreogra­ phers vho feel that it is inM biting and more difficult to vork vith mastervorks, BalancMne prefers such music, When asked if the com­ plexity of Stravinsky's music made it more difficult to choreograph.

^Bernard Taper, Balanchine (Nev York: MacMillan, 197*0, P» 10** 67 Balanchine replied:

Bo. It Just takes longer. Bothlng 1b d i f f i ­ cult really, vhen you know It. But it takes lo n g er t o make bo many people move to c e rta in strange divisions of tine. When you're working with straight music that's divided into four hars, it's simpler.

As with Massine's symphonic ballets, Balanchine's vorks which illustrate the music have been criticized by many vho first of all dislike the use of musical mastervorks for such balletic treatment, and secondly, dislike the apparent abdication of the choreographer to the composer, whether the composer be alive or dead. Writing in the newspaper Canaide. the critic Andr£ Levinson noted:

By a phenomenon as regrettable as it is curious ... this artist, having proved himself last year by guiding his world in the direction of a choreogra­ phic classicism rejuvenated by fortunate audacities, abdicates his role of leader and resigns himself to the auxiliary role of a kind of illustrator vho comments by vague dance Bteps on th e m usical concepts of composers or the pictorial concepts of designers ... It is for us to hope that this almost total eclipse of a choreographer in whom ve founded the most Justified hopes, is only temporary; more­ over it is necessary that he be taken in hand again by a patron capable of orienting his vacillating w ill.T o

There are many examples of Balanchine's attempts to. illustrate the music through his choreography, yet not all of them are obvious to the audience. They remain the private Jokes or games of the creator and become known only vhen he talks about them. For example, in the ballet

TTGeorge Balanchine, "Work in Progress," in Dance as a Theater Art. ed. by Selma Cohen (Nev York: Dodd, Mead, 197*0» P» 190.

T®Levinson, quoted in Taper, Balanchine. p. 151*• 68

Episodes. set to Webern's music, at one point the dancers do entrechats with their heads down and their feet in the air. Balanchine's explanation for this vas that he had to do it because Webern had in­ verted the theme at that point as v e i l . 79 This example is not meant to suggest that every time Balanchine comes across a thematic Inversion he choreographs a physical inversion of the dancers; rather that indivi­ dual formal or Btylistic items in the music elicit special related responses from him in his choreography.

To one particular composer, Balanchine's work vas welcomed and t praised. Far from being disturbed by the choreographer's attempts to illustrate the music, Stravinsky found that many thingB about the music he himself had composed were made clear only after he vatched the dancing. To see B alanchine's choreography o f th e Movements is to hear the music vith one's evey; and this visual hearing has been a greater revelation to me, I think, than to anyone else. The choreography emphasizes relationships of which 1 had hardly been sware ... the performance vas like a tour of a building for which I had drawn the plans but never explored the result. Balanchine approached the music by identifying some of the more familiar marks of my style and as I heard him fastening on my tiniest repeated rhythm or sustaining, group, I knew he had Joined the work to thr corpus of my music, at the same time probably reducing the time lag of its general acceptability by as munh as a decade.80

Because be does follow the music so closely, Balanchine has often been accused of using many repetitions of a dance motive to the point

79Balanchine, quoted in Taper, Balanchine, p. 226.

®9stravinaky, quoted in Taper, Balanchine. p. 268. 69 that critics occassionolly vender If he has run out of steps to use.

Taper noted nothing could be more untrue!

Balanchine often likes to show a dance motif or section twice, because he knows that the audience often fails to grasp vhat they are see­ ing the first time. His choreographic repeat frequently serves a parallel function to that fulfilled by the musical repeat in the score. He knows that in dance, as in music ... a repeat is not a repeat, in its effect. One experiences th e same th in g d if fe re n tly th e second t i m e . 81

Agaln, one must be vary of making a generalized assumption that

Balanchine's choreography repeats every time the music repeats. It is * often the case that vhen the music repeats, Balanchine w ill create a dance counterpoint to the musical line and thus avoid a repetition of the dance figure.

Balanchine's ballets can most often be described as abstract, ie ., they do not seek to tell a specific story through the medium of dancing. Even in titling his works, this choreographer prefers to uBe the name of the musical composition rather than any fanciful title vhich might carry programmatic connotations. Yet he rejects the notion that his ballets are completely abstract. In an article called

"Marginal Notes on the Dance," Balanchine explained his thinking on the nature of abstract works:

I said on another occasion that no piece of music, no dance can, in itBelf be abstract. You hear a physical Bound, humanly organized, performed by people, or you see moving before you dancers of fleBh and blood in a living rela­ tion to each other. Vhat you hear and see 1 b completely real. But the after-image that

®^Taper, Balanchine. p. 265* 70

remains with the observer may have for him the quality of an abstraction. Music, through the force of its invention, leaves strong after­ images. I myself think of Stravinsky's Apollon. for instance, as white music, in places as white- on -white ... For me whiteness is something positive (it has in itself an essence) and is, at the same time, abstract. Such a quality exerts great power over me when I am creating a dance; it is the music's final communication and fixes the pitch that determines ny own Invention. Some choreographers seem to be so uncertain of their own medium that not only do they seek the ballet that "has a Btory" but they also have the story told in words. To me these are no longer ballets, they are choreographic plays. Any ampli­ fication necessary must come from the music which may, at times, make use of a choruB. Much can be said in movement that cannot be expressed in words. Movement must be self- explanatory. If it isn't it has failed ... Music is often adjectived as being too abstract. This 1b a vague and dangerous use of words and as unclear to me as when my ballets are described that way. Neither a symphony nor a Bonata ever strikes me as being abstract. It is very'real to me, very concrete, though "storyless." But Btoryless is not abstract. Two dancerB on the stage are enough material for a story; for me, they are already a story in themselves .... My imagination is guided by the human m aterial, by the dancers' personalities. I see the basic elements of the dance in its aesthetic manifesta­ tions , that is, in the beauty of movement, in the unfolding of rhythmical patterns, and not in their possible meaning or interpretation; I am less interested in the portrait of any real character than in the choreographic idea behind the dance action. Thus the importance of the story itself becomes reduced to being the frame for the picture I want to paint.

There iB every indication that Balanchine has willingly given much credit to the composers of the music he has vised for his ballets.

George Balanchine, "Marginal NoteB on the Dance," in The Dance Has Many Faces, ed. by Walter Sorrel (New York: Columbia University P re s s , 1971*), pp* 98-100. 71 However, to say that he has abdicated his role of creator and assumed the role of illustrator is to do him a disservice. One can point to the

128 ballets he has produced in the fifty years he has been choreograph!] g

and his long career with the New York City Ballet as indications that his work has been well-received and viewed as artistically valid and % significant.

Certain elements of the music are necessary for Balanchine's ideas to work, one being rhythm.

Vhat I mainly expect from the composer vhoBe work I am to visualize 1b a steady and reas b u t - • ing pulse which holds the work together and which one Bhould feel even in the rests. A pause, an interruption, must never be an empty space between Indicated sounds. It must, in fact, act as a carrying agent from the last sound to th e next one. The s e c re t fo r an adequate rendering of the musical score into visualization lies in the dynamic use of silence and in the utmost consciousness of time. The composer 1 b able to give more life to a bar, more vitality and rhythmical substance than a choreographer, or a dancer for thet , matter. The musician deals with time and sound in a h ig h ly s c ie n tif ic way, h is medium o f creation lendB itself to a Btrictly definable method, to organization and translation of a formula into artistry. It is far more complicated for the dancer to recite a formula* The choreographer w ill never be able to achieve such precision in the expres­ sio n o f movement as th e composer through sound effect. Hot that we do not know vhat we are doing. Our technique certainly has method, but it is far more interpretive than subject to mathematical rules. Whenever I feel I have found the "inevitable" movement, I can never be as sure as in muBlc that it might not need some clarification after all. In my choreographic creations, I have always been dependent on music. I feel a choreographer can't invent rhythms, he only reflects them in movement. The body is hiB Bole medium and, unaided, the body v ill improvise for a short breath. But the organizing of rhythm on a grand scale Is a sustained process* It is a function of the musical mind* Planning rhythm is like planning a house, it needs a structural operation. « Balanchine's works are closely tied to the music, a fact acknowledged by the choreographer with no apologies. He has admitted that he gained many of his choreographic ideas from the music and sound to visualize the music in his ballets. This is a part of Balanchine's approach to his art — an approach that was rejected by another Diaghllev dancer/ choreographer, Serge Li far. Lifar (1905 - ) came to the. Ballets

Russe in 1923 a virtually untrained dancer but, with the training of

Nljinska end Cecchetti, managed to become an acceptable performer by

1927. His active career as a choreographer began in 1930 when he be­ came maltre de ballet of the Paris 0p£ra after Balanchine, to whom the post had first been offered, became critically ill. Although he has produced many ballets for the Opfira and other dance companies, Lifar's most controversial work was I care presented in 1936.

Icare was the ballet demonstration of Lifar's ideas as he stated them in a pamphlet entitled Le Manlfeate du Choregranhe Issued as part of his pre-performance publicity for the ballet. The main item in the

Manifeste was Lifar's statement that ballet should have a life indepen­ dent of music. To this end, Icare was accompanied only by percussion inBturments playing the rhythms Idfar had indicated to the composer,

J. E. Szyfer.

63I b i d .. pp. 1 0 1 -1 0 2 . 73 In Ballet Traditional to Modern. Li far explained why he felt

compelled to try his experimental hallet:

In ay Manlfeste du ChorSgraphe I said that ballet could exist without music. Sever shall I assert that it must, and in fact, in Icare. I have dispensed with it, because the percussion orchestra which acconpanles this ballet is not music, but rhythm, almost in itB purest form, a rhythm which belongs equally to music and dancing, because it is their essence, their first and common foundation. To me Icare was a genuine spiritual liberation, it allowed me to discover a solution to the opposi­ tion between dancing and music, that conflict whose difficulties I had realized from my first attempts at choreouthor. Music, which made my whole being vibrate, which inspired me with ideas and dance emotions, stifled my dance creation, compelled me to cut Bhort movements in the full tide of their de­ velopment and, on the other hand, to prolong an idea which, from the viewpoint of dancing, had already been fully exhausted. Our two muBics (for dancing is also music) did not harmonise. I admit a very definite preference for musical ballet, but that did not prevent my purposely dis­ pensing with music in Icare. I wished to throw into relief all the secret singing and melodic possibi­ lities in dancing and that is why I wished to avoid musical elements mingling with the music of of the dancing and distracting the spectator's attention. ^ Clearly Llfar has some unusual, if not debatable, ideas and expresses

them with a good measure of poetic license. In particular, the idea

that "dancing is also music" is somewhat cryptic. Similarly, the

* statement, above, "I wished to avoid musical elements mingling with the

music of the dancing," demands explanation. Perhaps Id far is using the

term music when he means to say rhythm. If that is his meaning then one

can perhaps accept M b ideas. But Lifar also talks about the "secret

®**11 far. Ballet Traditional to Modern, pp. 208-209. 71 * singing and melodic possibilities in dancing." From this it does seem that he is really thinking of dance as having the same components and qualities as music*

In B a lle t T ra d itio n a l to Modern. Serge Id fa r comments on th e importance of rhythm in dancing. "In the Beginning vas Dancing, and

Dancing vas w ith Rhythm. And Rhythm vas Dancing. At th e commencement vas Rhythm, all vas made vith it and vithout it nothing vas made."^

Li far claims the real accompaniment of dancing is not the music hut the rhythm of the music. To prove this statement, he cites the following

* example: Observe the effect of a strongly marked march or valse, of indifferent musical quality, upon the majority of men and note hov much more direct is its action than a march or valse in symphonic form. The simpler the march or valBe from the musical standpoint, the more It induces our bodieB to adopt dancing movement corresponding to the march or valse. On the other hand, the richer they are in musical qualities, the less they dominate the human body by direct action; sometimes even the dancer loses all contact vith th e rhythm i f i t be overloaded v ith to o many em­ bellishments. In other vords, ye do not dance music but its internal rhythm.”®

The basis for dancing's independence 1 b rhythm — the rhythm of the individual stepB, the rhythmic pattern of the enchainment. Llfar has written:

... I have defended the self-Bufficiency of dancing in relation to all the other art.s, par­ ticularly in respect to that of music. Ry its own rhythm, dancing is self-sufficient; music is not fundamentally an indispensable support

85 Ibid., p. 3. 86Ibid.. p. 9. 75 vhich it cannot do vithout. The rhythm of dancing has no need of the concurrent rhythm of music; perfect coincidence feeing impossible, a r iv a lr y between th e se a r ts feecomes apparent. Dancing has feut to strengthen its rhythm at certain times, feut his accession of strength need not necessarily fee musical; It is poBslfele to dance Just as veil to the accompaniment of a tambourine, castenets, or hand-claps. ... The first principle of the new ballet, self- sufficient in regard to the other arts is the feallet-dance (ballet must fee essentially dancing), vhich must feorrov its rhythm from nowhere, be­ cause it finds it in its own devine essence. It must not fee understood from this that I wish to Impoverish ballet fey depriving it of its musical embellishment ... Nevertheless, I wish to affirm the possibility and legitimacy of the ' existence of a ballet, free from all musical accompaniment. Further a ballet, vhether it fee musical or non-musical, must fee born of its own sources and not of music. I am a choreauthor; I create a ballet by means of plastic and > rhythmic movements. I transcribe it and read it to the public — particularly to the composer vho can construct a musical score.in accordance v ith my rhythms and dancing plan.'

It must fee clearly understood that Lifar did not vant to do avay vith

music entirely as accompaniment for dancing, merely to proclaim the

possibility of dance vithout music. Of the many ballets he has created,

only three are, to use Lifar’s phrase, ”in the path of Icare” and use

percussion or synthetic sound as the background for-the vorks. Al­

though he vas not the firBt to do so, Lifar felt be must do something

to break the power exercised over the dancing fey the music. The in­

fluence Stravinsky and composers like him had on the ballet vaB enormous..

£y asserting the independence of dance through its own rhythmic feasiB,

STibld., pp. 26-27. 7 6 Li far hoped to bring the relationship betveen music and ballet into i a more balanced partnership.

Much of what Lifar has said is highly debatable because of the language he UBed to present his ideas but* in recognizing the dangers of musical dominance of the dance, Lifar was most perceptive. Music functions best in combination vith ballet if the creators of both

art forms are willing to compromise for the good of the end product.

Lifar gives the following assessment of the dangers involved in allowing musical demands to dictate the form and activity of the b a lle t:

Ve have stated that the nineteenth and twentieth centuries first saw the subjection of music to ballet, then that of dancing to musical score. The ninteenth century had been, for ballet, poor in musical resources ... Suddenly several adroit adaptations of works by Chopin, Schumann., Weber, and Debussy com pletely altered this Btate of affairs. Why? Because dancing vas resigned to being no more than an illustration, because our chorauthors proclaimed: "There is no musical work vhich we cannot dance." ThiB creed gave absolute freedom to the musical composer: "You can dance everything, good, dance sy musical work" — the composer has no longer to follow the requirements of the ballet. ... The composer had no longer to consider whether the human body could interpret his music, from then on it vas the choreautbor who had to rack his brains. The musical composer paid no heed to the limitations of the human body, be wrote variations lasting six or seven minutes to a rhythm vhich could not be danced for more than two or three. Ignoring the special properties of a man's body and that of a female, he allotted a male dancer a woman's variation and vice versa. And that was not his only fault. The e v il 1b not in these mistakes, however serious, nor even in the capricious rhythm, im­ possible of being rendered through the human body* but in the changes of rhythm, in the sudden break­ ing off when the gestures should have had time to diminish, in all that 1b Jerky and chaotic, and 77 consequently opposed to the continuity of the ever-vlslhle lines of the body. The first two defects can he remedied by acquiring a more pro­ found mastery of technique, or by avoiding or breaking through the obstacles resulting at times from the composer's lack of knowledge. The same thing is not true of the changes of rhythm which must fatally separate ballet and dancing. A dance, no matter whether it lasts three minutes or twenty minutes, is constructed to a plan, to an unchangeable rhythmic design and on rhythmic patterns, which return periodic­ ally and harmoniously. In freely accepting a despotic bondage, ballet has moved counter to dancing. In other vordB, it has moved counter to its own essence, to Itself, it is hindered In its own creation. In order not to disappear, and to develop freely . itB creative urge ... ballet muBt throw off the yoke of music, however beautiful and captivat­ ing it may be. In my desire to free dancing from the gilded cage in vhich music has long held it captive, I said, "we cannot dance everything" in answer to the motto of the great choreographers at the beginning of the century. I have relied on the principle that dancing is the first embodiment of rhythm to assert that it is the composer's duty freely to derive his inspiration from the choreau­ th o r 'b rhythm s.”®

Because he wished to prove a point vith regard to ballet, Lifar vas bound to create the dances for Icare and the other similar ballets out of material from the dance d'Scole. If he had invented a new style o f dancing o r re s o rte d to th e Laban-Wigman modem s ty le o f dancing he would not have been able to demonstrate the possibility of an indepen­ dent ballet. Unfortunately the steps and choreography were not effec­ tive, resulting in severe criticism. Feroau Hall wrote:

Lifar could not have studied the methods of the Central European free dancers Laban and Wigman with any assiduity, for the rhythms vhich he

B8Ibld. . pp. 28-30. 78

assigned to J.E. Szyfer for orchestration had the maddening banality and repetitiveness of the singing of a small child. Lifar*s choreography consisted for the most part of a series of repetitions of a single classroom Btep, followed by a series of repetitions of another step: the percussion section of the orchestra simply h a m n e r e d out the obvious rhythms of each step in t u r n .89

Icare vas almost entirely a pas Beul for Lifar as dancer. In this regard, the ballet has a common bond vith most of the vorkB he has produced. Not only did Lifar vish to have complete control over the dance creation and the music, but over the realization of his work on Btage as v e i l .

Twentieth-century English Composers and Choreographers

Up to this point, little has been said about Fhglish choreogra­ phers, dancerB, and musicians. For the most part, foreign personnel like Noverre, Dauberval, Saint-LSon, Perrot, Taglloni, and Didelot were imported by impressarios to stage ballets in English theaters.

Few efforts vere made to establish either a national school or national company and those that vere made did not receive support, by the end of the ninteenth century public interest in ballet waned to the point that the theatrical dancing vas found primarily in muBic halls. The arrival of Diaghilev’s company in 1911 not only began a rever­ sal of public attitudes regarding ballet but also provided new

®^Hall, World Dance, p. 180. 79 possibilities for artists, musicians, and dancers. As Mary Clarke, editor of Hie Dancing Times said of the event:

The arrival of Diaghlleff's Ballets Russe at Covent Garden in 1911 profoundly and com­ pletely altered all former ideas about the art of ballet. It cannot be over-stressed that the Diaghlleff Ballet vas all-important in shaping our modern conception of vhat might be achieved by true collaboration of the arts of music, painting, and dancing, and vithout the example of that greatest of all companies, ballet vould probably never have risen above the level of a music-hall entertainment in this country. It vould certainly not have developed along its present lines.90 * Although the Ballets Busse vas another foreign company, its presence in England provoked a response that lead to the establishment of a national ballet movement largely through the efforts of Marie Bembert,

Frederick Ashton, Ninette de Valois and Constant Lambert.

Although Diaghilev's ballet aroused videspread Interest and con­ versation, it did not immediately change the opportunities available for English dancers. For the average dancer, a living could be earned only in the musical shows presented in music halls, revievs, pro­ vincial variety shovB, and the ever-popular annual Christmas pantomime.

This vas the kind of dance career from vhich one of the principle archi­ tects of the tventieth-century British ballet, Ninette de ValoiB, sought to escape by Joining the Diaghilev company.

Bom EdriB St annus in 1698, De Valois vas ablQ to enter the corps de ballet of the Ballets Russe in 1923. In her book, Invitation

9^Jary Clarke, The Sadlerts Welle Ballet: A History and Appreciation (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1955), pp. 31-32. 60 to the Dance, she tells the reader exactly why she entered the corps and vhat she hoped to achieve:

The following Is written by one who Joined the Russian Ballet with a miscellaneous set of aims and aspirations; a working knowledge of existing ballets, and, last but not least, to escape none to o soon from the commercial theatre, vhich, after twelve years, had led to a cul de sac of llstlessness and disillusionment. That there vas a natural ambition towards promotion as a dancer goes vithout saying, but fate decided that, at a later date, the knowledge acquired and exper­ ience gained should be put to another purpose .... The writer can say that everything of value to do vith the presentation of ballet, the study of choreography and the development of the artist, that Bhe has ever learned came from this apprentice­ sh ip in th e most famous o f companies; a company whose existence for some twenty-five years was the fruit of the mind and will-power of one Individual.91

Ninette de Valois left the Dlaghilev company in 1925 and founded her own studio, The Academy of Choreographic Art, in 1926.

After establishing her school, De Valois began her active quest for a choreographic outlet that might be developed into a permanent repertory ballet company. A lack of monetary support, few choreogra­ phers, and a dearth of real public interest made the establishment of any self-supporting, independent ballet company unfeasible at the time.

De Valois' solution vas to try and attach her own dancers to a reper­ tory theater in which they might gain theatrical experience working in the dramatic productions. Her effortB in this direction brought her in contact vith the manager of the Old Vic Theatre, Lilian Baylis,

It is primarily through the auspices of the Old Vic and MIbs B aylis

^N inette de Valois, Invitation to the Ballet (London: The Bodley Head, 1937)t PP* 33 and 58. 81

that the first permanent ballet company in tventieth-century 111 gland

has been given a home. During the 1927 season, De Valois' dancers

and choreography vere seen in approximately six dramatic productions

at the Old Vic. Ry 1928, Misses Baylis and De Valois felt enough sup­

port for ballet had been garnered to risk presenting a short, curtain-

raiser ballet before the dramatic play. Lea Petits Rlens set to

Mozart's music vas the first ballet to be given as an independent

entity at the Old Vic and afforded De Valois the first opportunity to

collaborate vith Constant Lambert.

The year 1930 vas extremely important in English ballet history

because it vas in this year that the ballet company formed at the

Old Vic found a permanent home in the Sadler's Wells Theatre, Marie

Rambert's Ballet Club vas formed, and the Camargo Society began its

a c t i v i t i e s . The Camargo S ociety produced b a lle ts in London th e a te rs

four times a year and drew upon the talented members of both the Ballet

Club and the Vlc-Wells ballet. The famous economist John Maynard

Keynes vas a member of the society as vere Arnold Bax, Arthur Bliss,

Malcolm Sargent, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Constant Lambert, Edvin Evans,

Marie Rambert, Ninette De Valois, Tamara Karsavina, Anton Dolin,

Frederick Ashton, and the editor of The Dancing Times, the man vho sug­

gested the fonsation of the society, Philip Richardson. ^ The vork done by the Camargo Society aroused sufficient public Interest in English b a ll e t t h a t when th e Russian b a ll e t company retu rn e d in 1933, (o ften

^Clarke, Sadler's Wells Ballet, p. 56. referred to as "the Russian invasion"), the pattern of English ballet history vas broken and the foreign artists did not capture the complete attention and control of the ballet scene* For the first time* a native English ballet company vas compared to a foreign ballet company and vas not found vanting.

In order to explain the significance of the formation of The

Eallet Club, it is necessary to digress for a moment. The Ballet Club vas the organization of dancers, choreographers, and artists gathered together and led by Marie Rambert. This grande dame of British ballet vas bom in 1888 as Qyvia Rambam in Warsaw. Her first real dance in­ spiration came from vatching the free movements of Isadore Duncan.

Although she had been exposed to classical ballet, in her early days nothing moved her as much ob the dancing of Duncan.

What I had B e e n as a child in Swan Lake in Warsaw, probably a rather provincial production, had not r e a lly moved me a t a l l . The bodies o f th e dancers had seemed so rigid, their movements so stilted vith their formal poses and fixed Bmiles. They had stirred in me no desire to dance. It vas only much later that I understood vhat classical ballet meant and vhat a powerful means of expression it could be. With Isadora I felt an absolute communion, and it seemed to me I could speak her dancing la n g u a g e . 93

In 1910, a second strong influence upon her dance ideas began to exert itself. Although she intended to stay for only tvo weeks, Marie

Rambert studied vith Emile Jaques-Dalcroze for over, three years and became one of his best pupils. After seeing her perform vith

Dalcroze in Rubb I s , Diaghilev Invited Rambert to work vith his company

93|4arie Rambert, QuickBilver (London: MacMillan, 1972), p. 36. 83 and use her knowledge of eurythmics. She was reported to have said in

reply to the offer, nI am an enemy of the Ballet, which I consider a

false and preposterous art, in fact outside the pale of all art?^*

But join she did and proved her worth by helping Nijinsky lmmeasureatty with hiB creation of Le Sacre du Printemps. It was she who unravelled

the complex rhythms of Stravinsky's score, counting out each bar for

Nijinsky and helping the dancers memorize their parts. So closely did

she work vith Diaghilev's lover that she aroused the impresario's

jealous anger.

After leaving Diaghilev's company, Rambert moved to London and

opened her own studio. Despite her earlier disdain for ballet, she

had become aware of its ejqpressioniBtic possibilities end, more impor­ tantly, how to pass her knowledge on to others. Although she freely

admits that she is not a choreographer, Rambert has had the ability to

encourage and develop a great number of noted ballet choreographers.

ThlB ability to draw an undeveloped talent from a student she attri­ butes to her method of teaching.

I taught by insisting on the classical line with all my might. This line is almost geomet­ rical in its precision and to such a degree a standard of perfection that the slightest devia­ tion is immediately visible as a fault. When I saw a pupil continually repeat the same fault I tried to understand why he did so. Why did it happen? Sometimes it happened because they were too lazy to do well. Sometimes it hap­ pened because they were too anxious to do veil, and sometimes because they were too ambitious, sometimes because they were too contented. In this way I tried to read their characters. And if they had originality and strength of charac­ ter I knew the more I insisted on their doing a classical exercise the more their inner being rebelled against that line and sought to find a line of their own. My1 absolute Insistence on the classical correctness gradually pro­ duced a conscious rebellion vhich gave each choreographer his own style. My own exer­ cises were very academic, and I stuck to them deliberately. I had no ambitions to create choreography. But X am quite sure that his discipline helped to develop the personalities of such creative artists as Ashton and Tudor.”

Over the years, Bambert has been responsible for encouraging the choreographic talents of many famous choreographers including Sir

Frederick ABhton, Anthony Tudor, AndrSe Howard, and Valter Gore.

Many first attempts at choreography by these individuals were per­ formed in the small Mercury Theatre, a rebuilt church purchased by

Bambert and h er husband Ashley Dukes in 1927* ThiB th e a tre seated only

190 persons and had a stage only eighteen feet deep vith an eighteen foot high proscenium. This intimate theatre provided the forum for fledgling choreographers to experiment vith their ideas on dance and on how to capture and hold the attention of the audience. The

Mercury vas a beginning from vhich most choreographers moved to larger more spacious theatres that could accommodate a greater number of dancers and more elaborate stage sets and machinery.

Just as the leading choreographers moved on to larger theaters, so the leading dancers seemed to move to larger organizations for the promise of more pay and greater opportunities for bigger productions.

Since its inception, the Ballet Club, later renamed Ballet Bambert, has functioned as a proving ground for dancerB. This is not to say that the Ballet Bambert today does nbt have a more or less permanent staff,

^Rambert, Quicksilver, p. 108. 85 merely that in Its early days it served a great function by supplying ballet companies all over the vorld and especially England with highly trained personnel.

Although she is not noted for her choreography* Marie Rambert does have definite ideas on the nature of choreography and the role of music in combination vith the dance. Her ideas are influenced by the growing availability of notational systems for recording dance in score Just as music is notated in score. Both the Benesh and

Labanotation systems are used to record every subtlety of movement of every dancer enabling one to study the total dance movement* analyze it* and extract from it just as one does with a score of music. With this extremely brief preface* one can understand Rambert's assessment of the relationship between music and dance.

Is the art of dance really an equal to that of music and poetry* or is it a derivative art? When a choreographer has an idea for a ballet, the first thing he doeB is to find music suit­ able for it* so that he can compose sequences of movements and fix them in the memory of his dancers by the association vith a musical phrase. Thus* his work is mainly an illustration. In the case of great choreographers his work can become an illu m in a tio n . . . But when w atching th ese b a lle ts we always hear the music too — so even if the music is specially written to the choreographer's requirements it s till is the composer's invention that creates the atmosphere and rhythmic pattern of the ballet. We can listen to Agon and Kindertotenlieder and Franck vithout the ballet and be transported. But we don't perform these ballets vithout music. It is an art that hardly exists yet. Would even the best ballets we know make their appeal if we saw them in silence vithout the underlying music? There are some amongst the musical public who only go to opera* others who only go to concerts. They don't want to see* they cloBe their eyes to hear better. nowadays, vhen many choreographers "begin to create a few silent phrases in a ballet composed to music, one suddenly realises how much more clearly one seeB when not lulled by hearing. This problem is nearing solution because there exists at last a notation of dancing — in fact there are two systems; ... Attempts to w rite down movement have been made in th e seven­ teenth century and even earlier, but at that time they could only write down simple sequences of Court dances made of very primitive steps. I th in k th a t when th e n o ta tio n o f movement becomes as natural a subject of study for dancers as writing music for musicians, there w ill emerge choreographers who w ill feel the need to express themselves completely on their own without borrow­ ing even a part of their inspiration from music. . . . More and more choreographers o f today compose short possages without music, and in general they are moving away from the Dalcrozlan ideal of following the score exactly to the more indivi­ dual way of fusing it, as an atmosphere in which the dancers move freely. Sometimes when the music sto p s and th e movement continues in s ile n c e , one*s a tte n tio n to movement i t s e l f i s stim u lated by th e change in atmosphere. Usually though, at a good ballet, one, as it were, 'hearB with the eyes, and sees with the ears' — and it is a delicious sensation — so long live ballet with music. ... Today a poet needs only a paper and pencil to say what he wantB; a composer needs almoBt as little , and perhaps a piano as well. But a choreographer today needs all the paraphernalia of a company, and a studio, and some musical accompaniment. Only when w ritin g movement has become a matter of course for the choreographer, Just as the writing of music is to the composer, will he be able to say all he longs to express — in pure movement — resulting from his own experience of life, of happiness and misery, of depression and elation, of matter and spirit. And only then w ill my muse Terpsichore be equal to her noble s i s t e r . 9° 87

Marie Rambert la s till an active spokeswoman and dynamic force behind British ballet. The Ballet Rambert began receiving state # support in 19^3 to continue its work, programs, and performances.

As vas noted previously, the third important event of 1930 was the establishment of a permanent ballet company at Sadler's Wells

Theatre. The dancers were still expected to perform in the plays at the Old Vic but their permanent home and school was at the Wells.

This move may seem to be of little consequence but it represented a major step in the development of ballet in England. As Mary Clarke has noted: The important point about the foundation of the Vic-Wells Ballet vas that it had to be entirely Belf-supporting; it received no grant, donations, or financial support from the day it started and had to prepare to pay itB own way and Justify 1 its existence in the t h e a t r e . 9?

The f i r s t f u l l evening program p resen ted by th e Vic-W ells company vas given in May of 1931 and Included two balletB vhich Constant

Lambert, the company's musical director, had arranged — Leg Petit Rlens and Hammage aux Belles Vlennoises to music of Mozart and Schubert re s p e c tiv e ly . The permanent company about t h is tim e numbered only twelve, vith extra personnel drawn from the Ballet Club and other companies. By 1935» the group grew to twenty-five members.

In 1935, Frederick Ashton Joined the company as a dancer and choreographer. Ashton, originally a part of Rambert's group had perviously provided choreography for De Valois. With Ashton as a per­ manent member of the artistic staff and primary choreographer, the

9TClarke, Sadler's Wells Ballet, p. 67* 88

foundation of the Vic-Wells Ballet vas firmly established. Details of

his life and method of vorking in ballet will be discussed In a later

portion of this chapter.

Another future choreographer, Robert Helpman, had joined the

cospany in 1933 as a young dancer interested in a ballet career. In a

very short time he became the leading male dancer. He did not emerge

as a choreographer until 19^2 vith the production of Oonus. As vith

* Ashton, the choreographic method used by Helpman v ill be discussed

later In this chapter.

The entire history of the development of the Sadler's Veils Ballet need not be recounted in detail. It has been fully described in other

so u rces. The company obviously survived th e war y e a rs , although th a t

survival vas not vithout trials and actual fear for the lives of the

dancers. After the end of the var, the company vsb moved to the Royal

Opera House In Covent Garden and, in 196U, vas given a Royal Charter making it a truly national ballet supported by the state. Only in recent years have De Valois and Ashton retired from the management of the Royal Ballet, although both individuals exert a great deal of

Influence over the activities of the organization.

As the firBt choreographer of the ballet company, Ninette De Valois

deserves prime consideration in an examination of her choreographic method and her attitudes towards collaboration in music and dance, in

all, she has been responsible for the creation of some twenty-nine ballets varying in length from short dances for plays at the Old Vic to full-length ballets. 89 Dame Ninette is a disciplined person. She believes in discipline

from her associates end dancers, and enforces discipline. With regard

to ballet and choreography she once said, "There is too much inspire-

tion and not enough discipline."^® It is her belief that out of dis­

cipline springs freedom and, for for example, if one disciplines oneself

to study a score, break down the structure of the music for a ballet,

one can gain knowledge to be forgotten and used. She knows the score

so veil that the Information becomes internalized and available as a

source of inspiration for the dance.

Discipline is expected of the dancers because De Valois believes

that "dancers should be so much the Instrument of choreography that

the choreography should Bpeak for itself and not rely on interpreta­

tive or emotional additions from individual dancers.Her choreo­

graphy iB so constructed that each detail of the dancers' perfozmance

has been vorked out before the rehearsal. Robert Helpman has com­

mented on this pre-rehearsal work vhich De ValoiB does:

Gifted vith a wonderful understanding of physical capabilities ... she is able to imagine her choreography very fully in the study before she even calls the first rehearsal. It is very rare for her to have to alter her original ideas to meet the needB of a dancer. After she vorks out a dance, step by step in her mind, she teaches it to a dancer in a few minutes at rehearsal. 0

9fiDame Ninette De Valois, interview at the Royal Academy of Dancing, London, July 3?* 197b. ^Brinson and Van Praagh, The Choreographic Art. p. 206.

1^°Robert.Helpman, quoted by Michael SomeB, interview at the Royal Opera House, London, November l b , 197b. 90

In other words, nothing in left to chance in her choreography and the end result of her work should he the same re gar die bb of whether the first or second cast of dancers is used. Dy demanding objective per­ formances from her dancers, her choreography w ill be no better or no worse than she herself has made It.

De Valois1 attitude towards music for the ballet haB a similarly objective aspect to It. After having selected music which is suit­ able for the premise or libretto she has worked out, she carefully analyze b the music count by count from a piano score. Rarely does one find any mention of a piece of music inspiring Dame Ninette to do a ballet. The music is selected for its utilitarian function as a necessazy Ingredient in a ballet production. Once selected, the music may suggest a type or style of dance that vould be appropriate, but these considerations are secondary to the realization of the libretto.

Michael Somes, who vas a leading dancer under De Valois and currently serves as the Principal Repetlteur of the Royal Ballet, has stated that Dame Ninette vorka in an almost unemotional way vith the music:

She imposed on the music more than she took from it, I vould say. She didn(t take from the music, she used the music. What music that vas there had to be adhered to and she found out vhat it vas and she just sort of did it in a much more objective way. She counted it out and vrote it all out as counts She faithfully followed the music but she vould^t take from it.

When it came to actually putting steps to the counts of muBic, De Valois, in ty p ic a l D alcrozlan fash io n , lin k ed each movement to a d e fin ite

^01Somes, in te rv ie w , November 18, 197^. 91 musical item and associated some movement to every note or group of

notes. Musical repetitions vere mirrored by repetitions in the dancing.

This close, almost mechanical relationship between the music and the

dance has often caused critics to say that her choreograph/ is "de- pressingly prosaic and monotonous."102

Because De Valois has a more dogmatic approach to choreography and a utilitarian attitude towards ..music, her relationship with a musical collaborator is different from that of a choreographer who seeks more inspiration from music. This is not to say that the col­ laborators do not work closely together in an effort to arrive at the best combination of music and dance, merely that De Valois was much more self-sufficient when it came to understanding the music* Dame

Ninette, describing her collaboration vith Constant Lambert has said: < Lambert knew music and where to get It. Some­ times he vould come up with the idea for a ballet and present it to me. Other times I vould have an idea for it and he vould go out and find the music — put it together — as many pieces as I needed. If X did not like something, I vould say, M0h I can*t work vith that." There vas no problem. When you all know your Job, there is no problem. 103

Although she has unquestionably contributed to the repertoire of the English ballet and provided many moments of excellent choreography,

De Valois* most successful activities have been in teaching and or­ ganizing ballet companies. The noted critic P. W. Manchester vas one

l ^ H a l l , World Dance, p . 156*

10^De V a lo is, in te rv ie w , Ju ly 30, 197^* 92

of the first people to give this assessment of Dame Nanette's vork and capabilities. Manchester vrote:

Ninette De Valois * vork as a choreographer to the Sadler *s Wells Ballet does not seem to me to be anything like so important as her activities in other directions. She generally likes to tell an extremely complicated Btory vhich Involves a lengthy scenario In the programme, vhich I think I am right In saying puts the audience off for a start. It also often means splitting the ballet up Into scenes, each one causing a delay vhich breaks the continuity, and frequently the action on the stage voudl be incomprehensible of ltB elf vithout the programme noteB. Unless a story can be told in terms of ballet vithout the aid of either the vritten or the spoken vork, then It is not a balletic subject. Neither does she Bhov her dancers off to the same advantage as does Ashton, being alvays it vould appear conscious of past limitations rather than present capabilities ... She is alvays neat and often ingenious, but too frequently this is, allied to a finicky restlessness and triviality. ^

Dame Ninette vas fortunate in that Bhe did not have to produce choreography for a l l the balletB o f the company. She found in Frederick

Ashton a man vho could create the kinds of ballets she could or vould not and vho, in many vays, vas her canplement.

Born in 1906 in Ecuador, Ashton's first acquaintance vith ballet came in 1917 vhen he vas taken to see Pavlova and h er coinpany perform .

He had a short career as a part of an iron and steel import firm before he began to take .dancing lesson s from MaBsine in London. I t vas

MaBBine vho recommended that Ashton join Marie Rambert's classes. Dame

Marie recognized that his talents lay not in the dancing vhich he hoped to do but rather in the area of choreography.

^*P. W. Manchester, Vic-Wells: A Ballet Progress (London: Victor G ollanz, 191*7), p» 6?* 93 Ashton acknowledges his debt to Rambert not only Tor his early training and encouragement in choreography but also for giving him his ♦ first opportunity to create a ballet in 1936.

Of course Marie Rambert did contribute an enormous amount to my career because she's a remarkably in­ t e l l i g e n t woman, w ith an immense knowledge o f literature and poetry and she influenced me tremen­ dously in what I read — she cultivated me a great deal. Z always was moBt aware of the intellectual qualities she had to offer and I was conscious that her analysis of things and her reasoning were very good. I wasn't nearly bo aware of the musical side, although she did have Dalcroze training but she certainly had a passion for dancing and she was extremely energetic and a great stimulus and it was in the early days with Rambert that X really Btarted to get g o i n g .^ 5

Ashton first came in contact with the Vio-Wells Ballet in 1931 when he was invited to produce a small work for the company. In 1935 he accepted a permanent contract with the organization as a choreogra­ pher and dancer. He remained the principal choreographer until 1969.

Since he first began his creative activities, he has been responsible for over seventy different productions.

Ashton's choreographic method is almost entirely different from that of De Valois*. He is as subjective in his approach as she is objective. Where she leaveB very little to chance in rehearsals, he draws upon his dancers for creative inspiration in the midBt of re­ hearsals . Since be has been the doyen of the Biglish ballet public, he has been called upon to explain how he goes about creating balletB.

l0^Ashton, quoted in Zoe Dominic and John Gilbert, Frederick Ashton (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1973), P* 29. 9*4 In a series of BBC radio broadcasts, Ashton described "The Production of a Ballet” as follows: CSpeaking of Scenes de Ballets3 The first thing I did vas to learn the music thoroughly. Thie 1 did by playing it continually over and over to myself until gradually a sort of plastic con­ ception began to take shape ... Once I have assembled the company for the first rehearsal and have learned the music thoroughly I then have to set the wheels of production in motion. I have a phrase of the music pleyed to me and counted out loud and, before I do anything elBe, I have the dancers llBten to the music and the counts; and once I feel that they know this music and these counts I then proceed to show them the stepB to go with it. These they pick up slowly or quickly according to the difficulty of the Btep or the newness. Then when they have grasped it, they dance it to me. Sometimes I am satisfied with the result but more often than not I change it all again ... So in this way, phrase by phrase, bar by bar, the ballet gradually grows ... until it is fin is h e d . When the ballet is all set to music, I then to through further process of purging so to speak. I take out all the roughness, all the things that are not clear, and generally embellish everything down to the smallest detail paying particular attention to the beauty of line of the dancers and everything is placed and controlled. And only after this is achieved am I satisfied that the ballet is ready to show the public — after which one usually feels like a martyr being thrown into the 1100*8 den. One knows that one's work is good as a m artyr knows th a t he is good but i t does not stop him from being devoured by the lions* This ^ is what so often happens to us poor choreographers.106

One result of his thorough study of the music 1 b that Ashton 1b able to grasp both the immediate rhythm and what he callB the pulse rhythm of the music, the bar by bar content of the music, and the

10^Sir Frederick Ashton, "The Production of a Balle t»” Ballet in England. BBC radio transcript, pp. 2-3* 95

content of each phrase. His awareness of the rhythm often provides him v it h the m aterial he needs to devise movements which correspond to the foreground, middleground, and background rhythm o f the music.

This three-dimensional structure of the dance can also be related to the texture and orchestration of the music.

Unlike so many other choreographers who are extremely responsive to music, Ashton has been able to avoid making his choreography a mere illustration of the m u B lc . The critic Clive Barnes, in a lengthy study of Ashton and his works, has commented on the choreographer's combination of music and dance:

ABhton does not tie himself to the quivering ‘ quaver, and to my mind no really musical choreog­ rapher does adopt this minimal approach. He uses the m usic's rhythm as a sh eet anchor for h is choreographic variations, a point of departure and a point of return. He has a very sensitive feel for the shape of the music -- for example at one point in Daphnia and Chloe. the b allerin a is supported by her partner who turns slowly in time with the music; as the music increases in tempe his turns get faster and Chloe floats upward in to the a ir , th is upward movement seem­ ing to parallel the increasing volume of the orchestra so that Daphnis i s suggesting the quickening rhythmic climax, while Chloe suggests the crescendo of Bound.

The difference between movement that illustrates the music exactly and movement that runs over the music like a solo voice over an operatic chorus is extremely fine and difficult to identify. But moBt critics agree, and personal observation has demonstrated, that Ashton avoids slavish Illustration by alternating illustrative movement with

ciive Barnes, "Frederick Ashton and his Ballets," Dance Perspectives (Winter, 19^1), p. 59* movement counterpoint to the music. Such balance demands an absolute

and complete knowledge of the music and the natural talent for music.

Because he does the necessary vork and has the requisite talent, Ashton,

can create ballets that please and excite both musician and balletomane.

One reason for the strength of Ashton's choreography in relation to music is his belief in the absolute dignity and eaqpresslveness of dancing. Because of this belief, he has consciously sought to draw attention to movement. He has said:

Just as the greatest music has no programme so I really believe the greatest ballets are the same, or at any rate, have the merest thread of an idea which can be ignored and on which the choreographer may weave his imagination for the combination of steps and pattern. I consider that my own moBt successful ballets come under this category. The first ballet that I tried in this s.tyle was "Lea Rendezvous" to the music of Auber. To this gay and spirallng music and to the merest thread of an idea, X wove, I think, a rich pattern of danc­ ing which worked up to a climax, as did the music itself. And consciously, all through ny career, X have been working to make the ballet indepen­ dent of literary and pictorial motives, and to make it draw from the rich font of classical ballet; for to my way of thinking, all balletB that are not based on the classical ballet and do not create new dancing patterns and steps within its idiom are, as it were, tributaries of the main stream.1®”

Although Ashton is dedicated to using BtepB drawn from the repertoire of classical ballet, be is a master at adapting these steps

10®Sir Frederick Ashton, "The Principles of Choreography," Ballet in England. BBC radio transcript, June 25, 19^8, p.* 2. 97 to people and movements be observes in real life. Michael Somes

has noted:

Fred is enormously observant. With a choreographer lt*s all a question of the eye and he uses his all the time. He stores up impressions and all sorts of ideas for vhen he needs them and as a result he has a tremendous sense of style and a very visual memory. When he suggests something he often says, " I saw ay mother do it like that” or”I used to see people do it like that” or ”1 used to see people walking in the park like that,” even now he'll go and watch people and pick up what they do and embellish it and he's very clever In making use of all the sources of inspiration which there are. He always listens to casual conversation in the Tube and he puts all that into his ballets.109

As to the matter of form in ballet, Ashton has generally seemed

to prefer that of the divertissment with its short, varied sections

rather than long, complex sections. Like many choreographers, he

has flirted briefly with symphonic ballets, moBt notably in Dante Sonata

and Symphonic Variations, but in the main, his workB, be they long or

short, are in divertissement format. This means that the scores

ohoBen for his ballets must be of matching form and duration, combining

in one unit several different compositions or sections of compositions.

Because very few individual works can fu lfill the requirements of thiB

form, arrangements with occasional reorchestration provide the best

source of scores for Ashton ballets. One major factor in the Buccess

of Ashton's collaboration with Lambert vaB the fact that they spent many afternoons playing through scores, building up a repertoire of music to be drawn upon vhen a new ballet Bcore was needed* Due to the

109somes, quoted in Dominic and Golbert, Frederick Ashton, p. 60. 90 close contact betveen the tvo men, the process of collaboration in selecting music for the ballet vas quite Informal and by mutual con­ sent. However, on the rare occasions vhen Ashton needed a newly com­ missioned score, the process vas considerably more exacting. The instructions he gave to Hans Werner Henze regarding the score for

Ondine indicate not only the exact duration of each dance in mlnuteB but also the quality of the action, size of the cast, and the function o f th e music.Commenting on his method of dealing with a composer commissioned to write a nev ballet score, Ashton has said:

I am more adamant than Caraboose on these occasions. Not only do I prescribe the amount of music I want, but also the sort of music. The danger, of course in commissioning a score 1b that one tends to get too much music. It is much easier for a musician to sustain the interest of an audience than for a dancer to do so. The problem of continually delighting the eye by variations on the comparatively fev movements of which the human body is capable is one which forever besets the choreographer. It is also diffi­ cult to explain to composers that dancers get tired and cannot keep on dancing nearly so long as an or­ chestra can keep playing. I found the best method is to ask the composer for slightly leBB music than I want} as he automatically writes more we usually arrive at about the correct amount.1^

There la virtually no way to define what makes Sir Frederick

Ashton's ballets successful and in what his genius lies. Many know­ ledgeable critics and dance observers have been able to discern recurring patterns and traits in his vorkB and many young choreograph­ ers have attempted to copy his style. But, as Michael Somes said,

"Frederick Ashton has a great genius, and what's so damned irritating

^°Ashton's minutage is given in David Vaughan, Frederick Ashton and His Ballets (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1977)» pp. aSS-Ual. m-Ashton, quoted in Mary Clarke and dement Crisp, Making a Ballet (London: MacMillan, 197*0* pp. 72-73. Is -that it's impossible to put your finger on it and find out vhat it consists of* If only one could, one could try to get it for oneself. # Ashton's ballets vere the mainstay of the Sadler's Wells Ballet and have the same importance in the repertoire of the Royal Ballet today. Because he vorked so closely in collaboration vith his musical director, Constant Lambert, Ashton must be considered a major figure in any study of the combination of ballet and music.

H^Somes, quoted in Dominic and G ilbert, Frederick Ashton, p. 9* CHAPTER I I I

CONSTANT LAMBERT: A BIOGRAPHY I Leonard Constant Lambert vas Lorn on August 23* 1905 In St.

Cleinent,8 Nursing Home, London, the second son of George Washington

Lambert and Amelia Beatrice Abseil Lambert. George Lambert, an

Australian artist of some fame, possessed a vide variety of artistic and musical friends vho often met at his home for eveningB of dis­ cussion and lively, impromptu performances. The boy vas not a strong child, suffering from a number of potentially fatal maladies that re­ quired repeated surgery and resulted in his being lamed and in almoBt constant pain. Yet another illness left him deaf in Mb right ear.

Beyond these obvious effects, these early traumas are said to have had a further, more destructive consequence in Lambert's later life. Ab

Richard Shead has pointed out:

MorpMa vas used in M b treatment and at one stage, Ms diet consisted of champagne and burgundy. There Is a family theory that this early and enforced in­ take of alcohol laid the seeds of Lambert's heavy drinking as an adult.^

The majority of Lambert's illnesses occurred vMle he vas enrolled in

The Preparatory School for Christ's Hospital. One positive aspect of this early unpleasantness vas that Constant vas forced to spend a great

^Richard Shead, Constant Lambert (London: Simon Publications, 1973), p. 32. 100 101

amount of time recuperating — time spent reading and studying art,

literature, and music, thereby contributing to the exceptional level of

understanding and literacy possessed by the boy.

From an early age, Lambert had been studying the piano and ex­

perimenting with composition. It is reported that as early as fourteen

years of age, he vas expressing a preference for Liszt and Weber in M b

compositions, having already undergone a period during which he sought

to emulate Stravinsky's style.2 In 1922, a scholarsMp for the study

of composition at the Royal College of Music vas awarded to Lambert.

Notable among his professors vas Ralph Vaughan Williams, Ms major

composition instructor, Sir Malcolm Sargent for conduction, and

R. 0. Morris for composition and counterpoint. As Edward J. Dent re­

calls, it vas Vaughan Williams who first discovered the talent of his

p u p il.

It vas Vaughan Williams who first discovered his marvelous musiciansMp ... He called me ode day at Cambridge gloving with excitement to show me Constant's first attempt at a fugue written without previous Icnowledge of the rules. It vas a most unorthodox fugue on a most unorthodox subject but there could be no doubt that it vas the product of an original and MgMy in telli­ gent mind.^

Despite the fact that Ms teacher vas recognized as one of the most vocal exponents of the UBe of folk music as a basis for English national compositions, Lambert felt absolutely no such inclination in

2Ibid.. p. 35. ^Edvard J. Dent, "Constant Lambert," Covent Garden Book 6, 1950-1952, n.p. 102

his own composing even in his student days. Statements "by Lambert

such as *The only thing to do with a folk tune ... 1 b play it again,•"

helped to make the teacher-pupil relationship a lively one as a fellow

student at The Royal College of Music, Patrick Hoddley, recalled:

Ve used to get amusing accounts of M b CLambert*si difference of opinions with Vaughan Williams ... always good natured. I mean they never had a quarrel but they were constantly arguing over maybe quite small points.^

Several years later, Lambert reviewed M b treatment at the hands of

Vaughan Williams and in doing so accounted for the disparity between

their musical styles.

I well remember the trepidation whth vMch I waited o u tsid e M b door ... for ny first lesson with Mm at the Royal College of Music. My admiration for Mm was as profound as my knowledge of my own tech­ nical shortcomings and I shall never forget the extraordinary kindliness with which he listened to the rag-bag of compositions I had produced ... Vaughan Williams was above a ll a psychologist and realized that a strict and suddenly imposed course of theory would have been fatal to a student such as nyself at that moment. Instead he encouraged me to go on composing at an alarming rate ... Two things above all Btand out in my memory of those weekly sessions in that somewhat gloomy crypt filled with th e smoke o f h i s p e rp e tu a l pipe and l i t t e r e d w ith the match boxes he had stolen from M b p u p ils , First, that he never encouraged Ms pupils to imitate Ms own style or mannerisms and secondly, that in the long run he had not only taught you but more importantly s till, had taught you to teach yourself.5

^Patrick Haddley, "Constant Lambert," BBC radio transcript, June 25, 1966, p. 1*.

^Constant Lambert, "Vaughan Williams as a Teacher," Music Magazine. BBC radio transcript, October 12, 19^7* PP* 5-6.

4 103

During this school period, the lively vlt and far-reaching vladorn

that vas such a dominant characteristic of Lambert's adult personality

vas vividly in evidence. Angus Morrison, Lambert's relative by

marriage and himself an advanced Btudent at The Royal College of Music

during Lambert's residence, commented upon this characteristic:

Looking back on Constant as he vas during his student days, the dominant impressions that remain are of his amazing artistic erudition, the vldeness of his Intellectual range and — there Is no other vord for it -- hie precosity. Precociousness often Im­ plies preciousness as veil but there certainly vas never anything precious about Constant. His tastes and sympathies vere far too vide and his great sense of humour alvaya enabled him to see hov ab­ surd It vas to follow exclusively any one aesthetic,, theory or formula, however attractive or plausible.®

Morrison and Lambert spent many hours together playing as many

duets and tvo-piano arrangements of modern vorks as vere available, visiting art exhibits, plays, films, musical comedies, and music halls.

On one such excursion in 1923, both Btudents v en t to the London

Pavilion to be entertained by a series of song and variety acts in­

cluding Florence Mills and the Plantation Orchestra. This group of % b lack perform ers ( la te r known as The B lackbirds) may n o t have received

the acclaim of the audience but the Jazz style of the music, the color-

1 btic harmonies and exuberant performance qualities of the band buried

themselves deeply in the memory of the seventeen-year old Lambert.

Without a doubt, this performance vas one of the key experiences in his life, beginning not only his long preoccupation with Jazz and the possi­ bilities of fusing and blending many of its

^Angus Morrison, "Obituary: Constant Lambert," R.C.M. Magazine, November, 1953.* P* 108. 1 0 l|

rhythmic inventions and subtleties into the texture of more serious music, but also moving him in a far deeper vay emotionally than any other music he had hitherto heart ... Hie arrest­ ing start of the whole performance vas a sort of fan-fare on the tune of Carry me back to Old Virginia. The Delius-like harmonies were made to sound even more lush and gloving by the clear unin­ hibited playing of this magnificent negro band. It vas Indeed the memory of this opening flourish ... that remained with Constant all through his life. Its echo can be heard somewhere In almost all his vorkB .. . ?

In addition to the Jazz of the American Negro, Lambert's musical preferences lay vlth the Russian school, especially Olinka, Borodin, and

Moussorgsky, end vith French composers like Satie, Delius, and Chabrier.

Among the English composers to whom be vas attracted vere Boyce and

Purcell. Such musical predilections vere by no means the norm among his student colleagues. "His taste in music for so young a man vas unusual. He did not really like the classics, or indeed ever come to *•8 care for them, but preferred moreothe highways and byways of music.

Lambert destroyed most of his student vorks, composed during his years at the Royal College of Music, includign at least seven sym­ phonic poems. However, he did preserve several large compositions including Green-fire orchestral rhapBody (1923), a piano concerto (192b), and three ballet scores — Prize-Fight (1923-2U), Mr. Bear Squash-You- •

All-Flat (192b), and Adam and Eve (192U-25). It is unfortunately the case vith the first tvo ballet scores that the music library into whose

TMorrison, quoted in Shead, Constant Lambert, pp. 3B-39*

®William Walton, "Constant Lambert," Mub I c Magazine. BBC radio transcript, October 7* 1951, pp. 2-3. care the manuscripts vere entrusted by Lambert's vidcw, has recently lost the only copies of these manuscripts. The only Information on * these tvo ballets comes from Richard Shead who did manage to see the scores before they vere lost.9

Most of the music for Adam and Eve, the one ballet remaining from college days, is found under the title Romeo and Juliet. It vas

Adam and Eve that Lambert played for Diaghilev'vho accepted a revised score as the musical baBis for his ballet Romeo and Juliet (1925).

The international prestige and notoriety vhlch vere Lambert's as a result of the events surrounding the production of the ballet gave him a reputation far beyond that normally accorded young English composers.

Although the era of the greatest Diaghilev ballet vas past, it vas s till an honor that Lambert's vas the first score ty a modern English composer to be chosen hy Diaghilev.

Despite the fame and publicity, steady employment did not come to

Lambert until 1931. During the intervening years, he eked, out a sub­ sistence by accompanying dance classes — an extremely useful exper­ ience in preparation for his later activities. He also conducted an occasional concert and vrote film and music criticism . Beginning vith his articles for the imposing art magazine Apollo in 1926, Lambert established the pattern he adhered to in all his critical vritings of attacking the artificial and irrational.adherence to current fashion.

Never one to avoid the truth as he understood it, Lambert could employ his barbed vit to ridicule and goad vith just the barest measure

^Richard Shead, interviev in his home, London, July 6 , 197^. 106 of civility Bad good taste. One such example written for Apollo decries the lack of genuine artistic discrimination in musical circles: For some months past* those critics vho would he more at home in the concert hall, and those compos­ ers vho vould he better employed forecasting dress fashions then attempting to follow musical ones have vith suzprlsing unanimity predicted "a romantic revival." ... If one takes the trouble to enquire into the causes of this revival, one is told that "every­ body^ beginning to get frightfully bored vith all this neo-classical music. It's so 1920 to try and write like Scarlatti." It's typical of this dreary age that the reason given should be a negative one. The romantic revival will be due then to the fact that it is considered ”1920" to try and vrite like Scarlatti. (Of course, one has only to reduce this type of criticism to absurdity -- one might Just as veil say, "How very June of you to vrite a fugue! How Tuesday to go to the ballet!")^®

Not surprisingly, every opportunity vas taken to guide public opinion towards an appreciation of Lambert's favored composers including

Balakirev, Boyce, Cbabrier, Auber, Liszt, Sibelius, Duke Ellington, and

John Philip Sousa. In another article, Lambert's vehement sarcasm mocks the image of English Jazz: Nothing typifies the decadence of England more than the average English Jazz band ... The orchestration is feeble and monotonous to a degree and the execution, though efficient enough, is rarely outstanding. There is practically no attempt to make use of the Jazz band as a new medium and i f o ccasio n ally one o f th e p lay e rs is so rash as to "put a little dirt in it," it is done so vith an arch and apologetic air as if to say, "Oh I could shake a loose leg if I liked, but I realize that that sort of thing does not go down vith a nice solid British audience like yourselves." As the play­ ing is not good enough to hold our musical interest for

^Constant Lambert, "A Forecast of Spring Fashions," Apollo. n . d . , p . 201* 107

any length of time, the tine Is padded out vith incompetently sung sentimental favorites (real art numbers there) ... To finish up, ve probably get a potted version of " 1812" or a "patriotic melody ."^1

Between the years 1926 and 1932, notes, musical criticism , and other articles by Lambert appeared in Apollo. The Musical Bulletin. The

Radio TlmeB. The D aily C hronicle. The Dominant. The L is te n e r. The

Daily Telegraph. The Saturday Review. Nation and Atheneum. John

OtLondonls Weekly. The Sunday Referee, and The New Statesman and Nation.

The late 1920's vere also the years of Lambert's greatest musical output. Included among the vorks produced during this time ore Eight Poems of Ll-po for voice and piano or orchestral accompani­ ment, incidental music for Ashley Dukes' play Jew B\1 bb. the short piano piece Elegaic Blues, as veil as the Rio Grande and the ballet score for Pomona.

Possibly the most significant event of his life occurred in 1929 when Lambert vas introduced to Ninette De Valois. Shead quotes Marie

Nelson, a dancer and friend o f Lambert, ob she recalls the circumstances of his introduction to De Valois:

Niuette wanted some music for a ballet orchestrated and as none of the conductors at the Vic-Wells Theater could be bothered vith ballet, asked me if I thought that young man Lambert vould do it. If so vould I give her an Introduction? ... Both Constant and I vere exceptionally shy in thoBe days so muttering something I put her into his room and fled. She Joined me a few minutes later looking

^Constant Lambert, "English Jazz," The Nev Statesman and Nation. February 27, 1933, p. 27*». 12The music for The Rio Grande vas later used for the ballet A Day in a Southern Port, produced in 1929* 100

rather worried and vhen X asked if Constant vould do it said, "I don’t know, a very vague young man." Lambert did orchestrate Mozart's Lee Petit Rlen causing Madame to say vith more conviction, "A most efficient young man — he's going to conduct for us to o .”*3

De Valois needed a musician to he closely and sympathetically allied vith the fledgling Vlc-Wells ballet, A musician could select and arrange music, copy parts, play the piano for rehearsals, conduct per­ formances , and serve as musical advisor. Vhen Lambert expressed his

Interest in fulfilling these needs, Ninette De Valois and the

Camargo Society rejoiced.

The Camargo Society vas a group of Interested balletomanes, critics, dancers, musicians, and private citizens vho felt that after the death of Diaghilev, the time vas right for an organization to support the development of ballet groups based on native English talent.

Although the Society functioned until 1936, itB resources vere essen­ tially given over to the Vic-Wells ballet after 1931. As a result of the Bupport and funding from the Society, Lambert vas able to have his b a l l e t 8 Pomona and A Day in a Southern Port presented.

In 1931, Lambert vas offered the permanent post of Musical

Director of the Vic-VellB Ballet. He devoted his life to the fortunes o f th iB company ( l a t e r known as th e S a d le r's V eils B a lle t and s t i l l later as The Royal Ballet) and remained its musical director until 19^7*

Although h is a sso c ia tio n v ith th e company vas n o t e s p e c ia lly fin an ­ cially rewarding, it did provide an extremely useful channel for his talents as an arranger and conductor as veil as another means for him

^Nelson, quoted in Shead, Constant Lambert, pp. 85-86. to popularize the neglected composers to vhom be vas attracted. Isabel

Ravsthorne, Lambert's second wife, said his.choice of music for balletB

or for the interval between ballets vas consciously used for "propa­

ganda” purposes. ***

On December IT* 1930, Lambert's friend and mentor Phillip

Heseltine, alias Peter Warlock, died, perhaps the result of a suicide.

Lambert conducted a memorial concert for Heseltine and shortly there­

after (1931) wrote and dedicated his Plano Concerto to the memory of

his friend. Heseltine had an important and lasting effect on Lambert,

vhom he met vhen Lambert vas sixteen years of age, for it vas he vho

led the boy to appreciate Elizabethan music and culture. One ancil­

lary result of the friendship vas that it did nothing to discourage

Lambert's heavy drinking habit since HeBeltine vas a notorious tippler

and reveler. It is commonly held by Lambert's friends and relatives

that Heseltine vas the worst person vith vhom Lambert could have been

associated. 3-5

Lambert's preference in women vas as unusual as M b eccentrici­

ties of taste in music and life style. Passing through infatuations

of great intensity with the black entertainer Florence Hills and the

Oriental actress Anna Mae Wong, in 1939 Lambert met and vas passion­

ately attracted to the fourteen-year old Florence Chuter. After two years of courtBhlp, Lambert married her. They raised one child,

Christopher, born in 1933. The marriage vas not long lived and

3-^lBabel R avsthorne, interview in h er home, Cambridge, November 8, 19714. 15 Ibid. Ravsthorne refers to Heseltine vith the greatest sneer as "that horrible man, that ridiculous Heseltine." 110

terminated in 1937 after Lambert began a long affair with a young

dancer. Throughout his lif e , the vomen with vhom he sought Intimate

relationships can be viewed as a mirror of his basic ramantlclBmt his

interest in the bizarre, the unusual, the exotic, regardless of social

acceptability.

The 1930'8 vere years of diversity for Lambert, Be continued

his journalistic contributions, especially to The Sunday Referee, and

conducted the BBC orchestra and orchestras in Denmark, Holland, Scotland,

France, and Italy. In 1930, Lambert was appointed Professor of Con­

ducting at The Boyal College of Music, a testament to his ability at

the age of twenty-five. It is reported that in this capacity he

drilled his students in the standard symphonic works including those * o f th e German Romantics he d is lik e d . He vas regarded as a kind and

fair professor, and his students vere greatly concerned about his

frequent collapses into spasms of coughing brought on ty drinking and

chain smoking.^

In 193b, Lambert' b only book, Music Ho! A Study of Music in

Decline was published.1? This work epitomizes the withering attacks

Lambert could make on cosposers and "iBms" he disliked as well as the generous praise he lavished upon those he preferred. In his analysis « of the state and style of contemporary musical affairs, Lambert's basic assettion was that, if music in the twentieth-century vas to

1^Bsmmanuel Young, interview at The Royal Opera House, London, October, 29. 1971*. ^Constant Lambert, Music Ho! A Study of Music in Decline (London: Faber, 1931*: 2nd ed., 1937* (Penguin, 19**fc)i 3rd ed., Faber, 1966). Ill achieve any distinction and integrity, it vould he achieved hy com­ posers vho, unconcerned vith current fashion, go their own vay in styles that please themselves rather than pleasing the populace. In making this assertion, Lambert discounted the usability of the eighteenth- century classical style, the ninetheenth-century Romantic style,.and even the nationalistic trends of the late nineteenth- and early tventleth-centuries, on the basis that none of these styles had either the social, Ideological, or political relevance to make them viable vehicles for contemporary composers. After revolutionary attempts to viden the language and scope of composition had been made by men like

Schoenberg, Webern, and DebusBy, fev other composers made efforts to synthesize these developments and relied Instead on the techniques of pastiche and noteBpinning to create endless streams of music. As examples of men vho have remained faithful to their own musical opin­ ions, Lambert cites Sibelius, van Dleren, Busoni, early Bartok, and cer­ tain vorks of Elgar. Considered forty years later, it nov appears that although Music Hot Is interesting musical criticism and is genuinely reflective of Lambert as a thinker, critic, and historian, history has not borne out his highly individualistic assessments of his own age and its achievements. Many of those vhom Lambert condemned

(Stravinsky being one example) have been given much higher critical acclaim. Conversely, many of those he praised have all but diBapr peared from contemporary performance literature.

Several years earlier, Edvin Evans, music critic of The Times. praised Lambert in the same terms that Lambert praised the composers 112 he admired. Evans wrote:

As a representative of the newest generation of composers, Constant Lambert offers the paradox of being at the same time typical and heterodox, typical for instance is his impatience with the kind of musical "Tall Tales" which was the vernacular of young composers at the beginning of the century and is still favoured by those who continue to give allegiance to the up­ lifting ideas of those days. Heterodox is his immunity from current obsessions. Of these there are many — obsession with procedure, with idiom, with "economy" and so on and there are few com­ posers of his stage of development who are not heavily incumbered with one or other of them. But Lambert has been fortunate enough to preserve his freedom. As to procedure, he is working out his own solution and is the very opposite of doctrinaire. As to idiom, he is guided by hiB own Inclination ... This immunity from slogan, shibboleth, and tabu, whether of the past or pre­ sent, is very rare among musicians today .... It results in a correspondingly rare freedom of ex­ p r e s s io n .^

During the late 1939*b» Lambert was s till active as a composer and and arranger. Due in part to the mood of gloom brought about by the death of King George V just prior to itB first performance, Lambert's

Summer's Last Will and Testament, a masque for orchestra, chorus and baritone solo, did not receive the acclaim anticipated by either the composer or hiB friends. This large work, plus a small piece for piano,

Elegy, composed in 1938, were Lambert's only non-ballet scores pub­ lished before the war. In the realm of ballet, Lambert wa3 con­ siderably more active. In collaboration with the dhoreographer Sir

Frederick Ashton, Lambert arranged the score for two ballets using music by Liszt. Apparition waB produced in 1936 followed in 1939 by Dante

Sonata. To the delight of the collaborators, both ballets were

^Edwin Evans, "Constant Lambert," The Chester!an, June, 1931, p. 181. exceptionally veil-received. Ashton end Lambert shared a passion for the more obscure music of Liszt and spent many hours together playing it. As Musical Director of the ballet company, Lambert vas most for­ tunate to have in Ashton a man sim ilarly responsive to those composers championed by Lambert and a man vho vas villing to risk critical dis­ pleasure for using unfamiliar music for his ballets.

Up to this point in his musical life, Lambert had not yet been given the opportunity to conduct an 1 opera a t Covent Garden. In 1937«

S ir Thomas Beeoham in v ite d Lambert to conduct th re e perform ances of

P u c c in i ' b Manon Lescaut. Puccini vas one of Lambert1s favorite opera composers, despite the fact that It vas fashionable to viev

Puccini's music vith distates as being rather vulgar. Lambert's in- infectious enthusiasm must have had a positive effect because the critic and composer Francis Toye vrote about the performance:

His interpretation had the great merit of bringing out all the life of the score ... he played the music as if he loved (as I am sure he does) eveay bar of it; and that is the only vay to do proper Justice to Italian music in particular.^-?

It has already been noted that excessive alcoholic Intake vas one of the most pervasive problems vith vhlch Lambert had to contend. As is often the case, the older he grev, the greater the alcoholic problem and its consequences became. Lambert's friend Denis Aplvor, a medical doctor, expressed his opinion regarding the possible causes for the erratic behavior Lambert often exhibited as follows:

^Toye, quoted in Shead, Constant Lambert, p. 115• Ilk

... he was really ill equipped to have to contend with the appalling life of drudgery of the work­ aday hallet conductor, and in that sense he was as much or more the victim of fate as any of us who have to grub a living and find time to compose. Be was extraordinarily sensitive and nervous. If dipsomania is a real illness, either of psycho- neurotic or metabolic origin, as is believed in many quarters today, Constant was never fit to contend with life the way he had to. He used to say that he enjoyed drinking, and bo to all appearances he did — yet he always seemed to me to be of all people the one who really needed to drink to dull a sort of over-awareness and over-sensitivity. He had fits of terrific depression, and when he was not depressed his frequent bane was boring circumstances or boring people. The volatile and uproarious Bide of his character, of which I have never seen the like, was probably at least fifty per cent of himself, but on the above analysis at least part of it waB due to the urgent necessity of avoiding the ever-present abyss of annul, leading to a vortex of depression . 20

Lambert's stability v sb not improved by the dissolution of his

first marriage in 1937 and h is a f f a i r w ith a young member of th e dance

company. The break-up occurred while Lambert was in the process of com­ posing his most successful ballet score. Horoscope. The affair begun

at this time lasted until 19l*7 when Lambert remarried.

One little known aspect of Lambert's association vith the Sadler's

Wells Ballet vas his role as cultural advisor to the younger dancers of the company, Robert Helpman and Margot Fonteyn in particular. Of

Of t h i s r o le Helpman has sa id :

Constant Lambert .was possibly one of the greatest Influences of Fonteyn's life as an artist. He developed her taste, not only in painting but in literature as he did mine. I think that Fonteyn

20ApIvor, quoted in Shead, Constant Lambert, pp. 1 1 7 - 1 1 8 . 115 vas lucky, as Indeed vas I, at the "beginning of our career to have such an advisor as Constant Lambert.

The e ff e c ts o f t h is e a rly experience upon Helpman and Fonteyn cannot

be minimized, neither can it be considered unique. Everyone vho know

Lambert acknpvledged a similar cultural as veil as personal enrichment

as a result of the acquaintance.

With the advent of the var, the male population of the ballet

company vas uprooted and taken into the aimed forces by conscription.

Even Ashton vas finally forced to Join the H.A.F. As part of the var

effort, the Sadler's Wells Ballet performed throughout Great Britain

and unoccupied Europe. On one to u r o f H olland, th e company b arely

avoided being trapped "by the Invading Germans by escaping in the hold

of a tramp cargo steamer. During these nerve-racking and frequently

dangerous excursions, Lambert provided music by playing the piano vith

Hilda Gaunt, a rehearsal pianist, since an orchestra could rarely be

assembled. The lack of male dancers forced Lambert and Ninette De

ValoiB to devise a nev ballet that could rely upon the female members of the company. The Prospect Before Us. set to music by Boyce ar­ ranged by Lambert, vas the result. This ballet, vhich describes the antics of rival stage managers,became one of the three balletB upon vhich De Valois' fame as a choreographer nov rests.

One further effect of the var and Ashton's absence in parti­ cular vas that it gave Robert Helpman, the company's premier danseur, an opportunity to develop his choreographic abilities. His mentor in

^Robert Helpman, "Building of a Ballerina," Omnibus-Margot Fonteyn...BBC television transcript, May 18, 1969, p. b. 116

the art of choreography nay have been De Valois hut for theatrical and

musical advice he turned to Lambert. Vhen asked to suggest music for

a new “ballet dealing vith Milton's character Camus, Lambert chose a

selection of pieceB from the works of Purcell despite Initial reluct­

ance from Helpman. After Beeing the superb results of this endeavor,

Helpman vas more receptive to Lambert's choice of music for the next

ballet, Hamlet. Helpman*s recollections of Cornua give an insight into

the persuasiveness and speed vith vhich Lambert could work.

Michael Benthall ... suggested to Constant that ComuB vould be a good bet so Constant said yes he thought it vould be and suggested Purcell. How I didn't particularly like Purcell. I said "Oh no, no it'B very untheatrical ... it's all on one note," and he said "Well that just Bhows you know nothing about it. I w ill arrange thiB ballet," and of course two weeks later he came with this exquiBite arrangement of Purcell ...

From 19*12 until the end of his life, Lambert's activity as a

ballet collaborator diminished and his activity as a conductor increas­

ed. He appeared as conductor vith the HallS orchestra, as conductor

and lecturer on the newly created BBC Third Programme, and as an

associate conductor vith the popular Henry Wood Promenade Concerts.

During the 19^5-1*6 Prom seasons, Lambert conducted a to tal of tventy-

seven concerts — not an insignificant number. Of one concert, the

critic of the Evening News wrote: The most arresting aspect of the "Proms" season •.. is I suppose the advent of Constant Lambert as associate conductor. Joint conductors are Basil {vhom Sir Henry Wood chose as his deputy) and Sir Adrian Boult. Both are

22Robert Helpman, "Constant Lambert," BBC radio transcript, January 196?, p. 8. satisfying interpreters tut Lambert is more exciting than ever. He is espert and authorlt. tive and gets what he wants from the orchestra. His urgent, ardent spirit on the rostrum is inspiring. Rather bulky with a massive hand and broad shoulders, he soon reduces his collar to limpness and his hair to disorder ....23

In the course of his term as conductor for the Proms and the BBC,

Lambert specialized in introducing new workB by contemporary composers and little known works by earlier composers, although he was required to conduct the standard classics as well.

Lambert's reduced activities with the ballet company vere due in part to his ever-increasing drinking problem. The problem became so acute that once, when asked about a performance of Bleeping Beauty he had conducted the night before, Lambert did not even know he had con­ ducted the performance. After the first or second performance of a new work, Lambert allowed himself to drink to the point where hiB faci­ lity with the baton and his attention to the problems of the orchestra in performance declined rapidly until real musical disasters vere likely to occur. Such lapseB of consciousness were bound to cause co n stern atio n among th e o rc h e stra members and producers a lik e . These lapses also affected Ashton's trust and dependence upon Lambert vhen i t came to c re a tin g new b a lle tB .

Angus Morrison recalled that upon his discharge from the R.A.F.,

Ashton wanted to do a new ballet to the music of Franck's Symphonic

Variations. The normal chain of events vould have been for Ashton to

23Evenlng Hews (London), Ju ly 21, 19^5* lie

consult Lambert for whatever musical assistance he needed. However,

Lambert was drinking to such an excess that little he said or did made

sense, and Ashton turned to Morrison for help and advice.21*

Having tolerated Lambert's unreliable condition for at least five years, the management of Sadler's WellB Ballet Company felt obliged

to terminate his contract as Musical Director. By some means, Lambert

found out that he was about to be fired and sent the following, letter

of resignation:

As I explained to you this afternoon, I have with the utmost regret decided to leave the Sadler's Wells Ballet Company with which, as you know, I have been associated intimately for the last fifteen years and whom, if I may say so, I helped to carry through the very difficult war years at the expense of giving up my composing and conducting career. I feel now that the work is running on its own wheels and no longer needs the help of my experience. Among the many reasons which have Induced me to take this decision have been the productions of The Fairy Queen and Puccini's Turandot in which, in sharp contradistinction to the balletic approach, I have received intimate collaboration and personal g ra titu d e . As Z told you the other day, I have taken on an important film ... so, apart from the preliminary work which I propose to start immediately after going abroad I w ill obviously be unable to give the hundred per cent siipport to the ballet which I have been able to give in the past. Since the situation has Inevitably arisen, I think it better that how­ soever regretfully, I should retire from my position as Musical Director and Conductor of the Sadler's Wells Ballet — though, as someone who has been connected with it intimately for so many years, I shall alvayB be pleased to give them my m usical advice. I am truly very sorry to have made this heavy decision. Please convey my regret b to the Trustees

2l*Angus Morrison, Interview in his home, London, October 26, 197^* vho I am sure viH appreciate the sincerity of my inevitable decision**?

The management overlooked the b itter sarcasm and accepted the letter of resignation. That Lambert stayed in his position as long as he did vas due in part to the intense loyalty of De Valois. Whereas friends and companions mlgbt be inclined to overlook bad performances* however, foreign artists felt no such compulsion to accept substandard work. One disastrous performance conducted by Lambert caused the French choreog­ rapher Massine to run screaming to the administration. It vas this action that finally brought Lambert's dismissal-reslgnation.

Although relieved of his duties as Musical Director, Lambert did not cease work for the ballet company as conductor, and, in less than a year, he vas rehlred as an Artistic Advisor. This position allowed the company to make use of his artistic knowledge and advice without having to rely upon him to conduct consistently good performances night after night. As a face-Baving gesture, it vas extremely beneficial to all parties concerned. In a letter to his mother, Lambert described his reaction to his first return to the ballet after his resignation:

Just off for the opening of the ballet at Covent Garden, a place where I feel still slightly ill at ease, being received with the mingled welcome and suspicion that greetB a cat that has been lost for a week. 26

^constant Lambert to David Webster, July 2, 19^7* Archives of The Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, London. In the letter Lambert re­ fers to the 19^6 production of The Faiiy Queen, the first opera to be performed in Covent Garden after the war. This production was almost entirely Lambert's brainchild and occupied his attention for over six months.

, quoted in Shead, Constant Lambert, p. 199* 120

In October, 19^9» the Sadler's Wells Ballet began its first American season In New York vith Lambert as its leading conductor. The season vas an enormous success and Lambert the hero of the event. After the first night performance, Lambert vrote:

Opening night last night. Naturally great strain. First night nerves, no stage rehearsal, orchestra not too familiar vith the music and a damp heat of over 8? degrees. But absolutely fantastic success from the start. Applause almost hysterical and record number of curtains. To one's great relief and surprise New York has been knocked Bidevays by the ballet as a whole and Margot In particular. Notices exceptionally good particularly for this tovn vhere critics are notoriously "snooty."2?

In hlB day, Lambert was vithout peer as a ballet conductor and his handling of the Metropolitan orchestra bore witness to this bril­ liance* The critic and historian Lincoln Kirsteln vrote:

The hero of the occasion, according to Balanchine and myself vas Lambert; he had a fine band and the score never sounded so veil: and he supports the dancers on the huge stage by giving them assurance vith his authority. He whipped people up into applause, purely by sound: when nothing vas really happening from a dancer he secuced everyone into imagining that she vas devine. Anyvay, he got an o v atio n , many people knew vh at he had done . 20

Despite the success of the Sadler's Wells Ballet and their con­ ductor's vork with the first American tour, drinking soon became a problem again, and Lambert vas not invited to participate in the com­ pany's Becond American tour. As might be expected, the decision hurt

Lambert deeply.

2?Ibid.. p. 157.

2®Kiratein, quoted in Shead, Constant Lambert, p. 159* 121

The topic for Lambert's last original composition, recounting the m isfortune b of the blind seer, Tiresias, had been on his mind since the early days of the CSmargo Society. The subject captivated Lambert's imagination and appealed to his sense of the bizarre. The original idea as proposed to the Sadler's Wells administration vas for a thirty- minute satire, but the project vas completed as a full-length score for a serious ballet tragedy. During the vritlng of the music for the ballet, the composer gave up his habitual drinking of spirits and re­ gained some of his former stability.

When he vas doing that composing TireSlas it vas like a nev Lambert; it vas a sort of return of vhat he used to be; he didn't drink so much, he only drank cider at that time; he vorked extremely hard and you knov vas really right Into it and it vas a great pleasure to see him like that againi Although he vorked hard at his project, many details vere left to the last minute vith the result that the score vas finished on the floor of the Royal Opera House during dress rehearsal. Several musician friends vere recruited to orchestrate sections of the vork under these confused conditions.

The premier of Tiresias took place on July 9, 1951 in a Gala

Performance before Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth. Despite set and c o b - tumes designed by Lambert's vife, iBabel, choreography by Ashton, lead­ ing roles danced by Margot Fonteyn and Michael Somes, and Lambert's cam efforts, the ballet critics' responses ranged from veak acceptance

2?Frederick Ashton, "Constant Lambert," BBC radio transcript, January 21, 1965, P* **• 122 at 'best to total condemnation at vorst. The most antagonistic critics vere Bichard Buckle of The Observer and Richard Johnson of The Hev

Statesman. The former had previously expressed his skepticism about the projected ballet.

Vhen Ashton had first told me of Constant Lambert's idea for the libretto nearly tvo years before, I had said I thought he would be utterly mad ot do it; the story seemed utterly unsuited to ballet.3°

The dlsasterous reviews not only Incited Lambert to seek legal action against the critics for certain allegations, but also consolidated the sentiments of company members behind Lambert. The vitriolic counter­ attacks by his supporters took on an added intensity far beyond the importance of the event because of Lambert's death on August 21, 1951*

After the premier of Tjreslas and before his death, Lambert vas heavily involved vith conducting duties. He collapsed at a party given by Humphrey S e a rle on August 15th but apparently recovered. However,

Denis Aplvor reports that a few days later, he vas called to the Lambert home and found his friend "In a state of delirium tremens, seeing fiends and terrible visions and threatening to Jump out the vindow."

Lambert's supporters did go to extremes in laying the blame for his death on the critics, but there can be little doubt that the strain of preparing a ballet production and the terrible disappointment over the reception of M b first ballet for Sadler's Wells coup any in fourteen years set up conditions that contributed to Ms death.

3°Richard Buckle, Adventures of a Ballet Critic (London: CreBset Press, 1953)t P* 2lU. 3lApIvor, quoted in Shead, Constant Lambert, p. 172. 123 Lambert’s death vas a terrible blov to the company and to Ashton

In particular. Besides having lost a friend, all concerned acknow­

ledged the loss of a man on vhom they could ordinarily rely for saga­

cious- advice and sound artistic judgements as veil as the essential

services of a sympathetic arranger, composer, and conductor. In the

days before alcohol destroyed his reliability, few conductors could

match Lambert's ability to work effectively vith the orchestra and

dancers to create a cohesive performance. William Chappell, a dancer

in th e company s ta te d :

Well, he vas a marvellous conductor for dancers. He understood dancers absolutely thoroughly: you know he knew exactly vhat to do. He vas a great assistance to the dancer always. He lifted them; he helped them; he made the whole thing marvel­ ous . . . kept th e whole th in g liv e ly and knew when to quicken up, when to slow down. He knew p e o p le 's ’ weaknesses and strengths and hov to emphssize them and this is of course a very rare thing.32

As a dancer and choreographer, Robert Helpman's statements vith regards

to Lambert's abilities carry added weight. When asked vhat it was like

working w ith him, Helpman re p lie d :

Well it vas a terrible shock to work with someone else because as in everything else Borne nights you're on form or some nights you can pirouette more or Jump higher and there was never, you never had to think would Constant be with you; he WAS with you; it was a curious relationship that he had, felt for; dancing that I've never seen in another conductor before or since.33

32Robert Helpman, "Constant Lambert," radio transcript, January 11, 1965, p. 1*.

33Robert Helpman, "Constant Lambert," radio transcript, January 11, 1 965, p. 2. Perhaps the best assessment of Lambert’s contributions as an

arranger, composer, and collaborator comes from Dame lUnette vho said

I vould say that he really vas the musical foundation of the Etaglish Ballet* He vas the one vho put us on the right path in the very beginning in our teste and style and approach. Our roots lie in the vork that Constant Lambe^ did for us in the first years of our

^N inette De Valois, interview at The Royal Acadeny of Dancing, London, July 30, 197**• CHAPTER IV

AN ANALYSIS OF THE ORIGINAL BALLET MUSIC

OF CONSTANT LAMBERT

During the two decades Constant Lambert was involved with the

activities of the English ballet, he produced four original scores

for ballets and collaborated in the production of eleven other scoreB.

The original scores are Romeo and Juliet (1925)* Pomona (1926),

Horoscope (1938), and Tiresias (1951). These ballets are all nar­ rative ballets in that they have a dramatic scenario portrayed through movement and music. Vith the exception of Romeo and Ju liet, they were performed by the Sadler's Veils or Royal Ballet Company In England.

In this chapter, the events that led to the composition of the ballets will be chronicled, and any known details of collaboration will be noted. The music will be analyzed for the purpose of identi­ fying major elements of Lambert's style of writing for ballet and to

describe specific relationships between the music, dramatic action, and dance movement.

Romeo and Juliet (1925)

Constant Lambert's first staged ballet was Romeo and Ju liet, commissioned by Dlaghilev and choreographed by Bronislava Nijinska

(Nijinsky's sister). Although the published musical score stateB

125 126 that it vas composed In 1925 and 1926* parts of the score have a

longer history. In 192lj, Lambert began to compose music for a ballet

he called Adam and Eve, based on a subject suggested toy Angus

Morrison. In the latter part of 1929, Diaghilev vas In London and,

through the painter Edmund Dulae, he met Constant Lambert. During

the course of the meeting, Lambert played his music for Adam and Eve

and impressed Diaghilev sufficiently for the latter to give a com­ m ission t o Lambert vho, a t th a t tim e , vas r e la tiv e ly unknown as a

composer. Pram Diaghilev's point of view, this action vas a wonder­

fu l course of a c tio n designed to a t t r a c t London audiences.^- To make the ballet even more appealing to the EhgllBh, he suggested that the

subject be changed from Adam and Eve to a subject of greater appeal

to the Ehglish, namely Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet.

The scenario eventually adopted bore only the slightest con­

nection to Shakespeare's play and contained vhat Morrison describes as

a "Pirandellian tw ist.”2 The synopsis is as follows:

1. The action takes place in the class-room of a ballet. Enter the premier danBeur and the premiere danBeuBe, vho seeing that they are late, quickly change their clothes and get ready for class. The p ro fesso r teaches them a p s b de deux, during which, forgetting their proper steps, th ey make no s e c re t o f t h e ir a ffe c tio n . The loverB are separated by their Bcandalized friends, vho carry them off to the theatre where a rehearsal is due to start.1

^Angus Morrison, ”Obituary—Constant Lambert," R.C.M. Magazine Vol. U7, No. 3 , November, 1951* P« 109*

2 Ib id . 127 2. The stage Is being prepared for a rehearsal of scenes from Borneo and Juliet. (a) The first meeting of Romeo and Juliet at th e b a lle t (b) The nurse and the servant. (c) The duel betveen Romeo and Tybalt (d) The balcony scene (e) Paris enters, accompanied by musicians, and searches for Juliet, his fianole. (f) The death of Juliet. The curtain falls and the enthusiastic audience imitates and applauds the principal actors. The curtain rises, but Romeo and Juliet are not there to take their call. The spectators rush on to the stage and vainly search for the lovers, vho elope by aeroplane.3

This scenario, devised by Diaghilev, vas not received by either Xambert or members of Diaghilev's staff vith any great enthusiasm. Grigoriev, the r€giBseur of the BalletB Rusae de Monte Carlo, believe that

The vhole concept of the ballet indeed seemed to be based on a desire to shock. Thus it vas in tvo parts, betveen vhich, though the curtain vas levered, ltB bottom vas kept some feet above the stage so that the audience could see th e d an cers' leg s as they moved acro ss i t ; and a t th e end L lf a r , as Romeo, appeared dresBed as an airman, ready for elope­ ment vith Juliet by aeroplane. These 'modem' touches vere apparently to Diaghilev's taste. Lambert did not like the changes and agreed to the refashioning of his music vith great reluctance. This alteration proved to be but the first of many difficulties involved in the production of the ballet.

^Constant Lambert, Romeo and Ju liet, piano arrangement by the composer (London: Oxford University Press, 1926), preface.

^Berge L. Grigoriev, The Diaghilev Ballet. 1909-1929. trans. by Vera Boven (Middlesex: Penguin Books, Ltd., I960), p. 226. 128

Leaving aside the problems vith the cast, problems that are by no means uncommon In the production of any new ballet, the most presBing concern from Lambert's point of view vas Diaghilev *b d esire to change the music and choreography after both vere completed.

Lambert arrived in Monte-Carlo only tvo or three days before the first performance. Rljinska had completed the choreography and gone. In a letter to his mother, Lambert described the events end h l B rea ctio n s upon his arrival.

... Diaghilev has Introduced disgraceful changes In the choreography, altering bits that Rljinska declared Bhe would never be .induced to change. For example, at the end of the 1st tableau, Instead of the dance of 3 vomen, which Rljinska designed, the lovers (vho are supposed to be dragged apart) return and do a pas-de-deux, vith all the rest staring at them. Can you Imagine anything more stupid and vulgar? Of course I sent Rljinska a telegram immediately. I vas so upset by all this that I asked for and vith great difficulty obtained an interview vith Diaghilev. In stead o f giving i t to me alone he had Kochno and Grigoriev (the stage manager) vith him. To frighten me, I suppose. He started off by saying that my letter to him vas so rude that he didn't viBh to speak to me, but as I vas young he would pardon me. After a short pause in which I did not thank him I asked vhy he had rejected Kit Wood's decor. He became very angry and said "I forbid you to say a word about the decor". I then tried to Bpeak about the choreography but he 8 aid "I have known Madam RijinBka for 20 years and I forbid you to mention her name in my presence". I naturally lost my temper and said I would withdraw the music entirely. I'm afraid it vas rather a dreadful scene but then it vas impoBBible to remain calm vith a man like that. The next morning I vent to see a lawyer in Rice, vho told me that unfortunately there vas no way out of my contract. I vent back to Monte-Carlo, quite calm by now, and vent into the salle d'orchestre to listen to the only rehearsal for orchestra alone. To my surprise, they tried to 129 stop me getting in, and vhen at last Z "effected an entry" I found all the orchestra vaiting hut no music put out. After about half an hour a sort of military funeral came in vith the score and parts, and all during the rehearsal there vere 2 concierges on each side of me to see I did not tear the vork to pieces. After the rehearsal the parts vere collected, carefully corded and Bealed and taken up into a strong room! This ridiculous business haB gone on ever since, and nov Diaghilev has spread the report that I vent quite insane at Monte-Carlo and had to be vatched by 2 detectives! The orchestra vere so annoyed by all this that they made a special point of cheering me at the dress rehear­ sal and at the 1st performance.5 Not only did Diaghilev usurp the prerogatives of his music and dance collaborators but he altered the collaborators' choice of scenic artlB ts, and In doing so brought on himself yet another major problem.

Originally, he had agreed to hire Christopher Wood, a close friend of

Lambert, to do the d£cor. However, Diaghilev had Just discovered a new group of artists — the Surrealists, including Miro and Ernst.

Diaghilev's enthusiastic attachment to these artlBts vas so strong that he completely disregarded the counsel of his Btaff. Grigoriev

■’Constant Lambert to Any Lambert, May 2b, 1926, quoted in Richard Shead, Constant Lambert (London: Simon Publications, 1973), pp. 36-57. Although Lambert's letter is a valuable document, it muBt be noted that in at least one other account, certain factB are open to interpretation, lydia Sokolova, a member of the Romeo and Juliet caBt and a noted dancer, reports that Lambert accompanied at least one of the rehear­ sals before the first performance. Furthermore Sokolova said: "... I know that Constant vent into the orchestra pit and removed im­ portant parts of the music. Poor soul, he did not realise that he could not vin against Diaghilev. Those parts vere back on their stands before the opening night." Iydia Sokolova, Dancing for Diaghilev. ed. by Richard Buckle (London: John Murray, i 960 ), pp. 2bb-2i*5. 130 has described both the d£cor end his reactions to it*

This ballet had no d£eor in the accepted Bense of the vordt The curtain rose on an entirely bare stage — an effect that tended to embarass the public* who imagined that it had been brought up by m istak e. However* as th e dancers began appearing, and from vhat vas stated in their programmes* the spectators soon realized that vhat vas to be enacted vas the rehearsal of a play. Such scenery as there vas consisted of small flats* moved about by the dancers themselves* and represented* say* part of a hall* or a courtyard* or a balcony. The costumes vere all alike and nothing if not simple — yellow tunics for the ladies and practice clothes for ■ the men. The only characters vho wore period costumes vere Romeo and Juliet themselves. To make up for the absence of scenery there vere no less than tvo act-drops* by the SurrSallste painters Max Ernst and Joan MirS; but their design had no relation to the subject* the music, or the choreography. Diaghilev took enormous palnB over lighting these act-drops; and at one of these lighting rehearsals ... he asked me if I did not think that the first act-drop vas particularly lovely. What 1 saw hung In front of me vas a huge plain pale-blue expanse of canvas, in the centre of which vas painted a - la rg e disc* resem bling a grammophone record* o f which three-quarters vere distinct and the re­ mainder lost in a haze. I certainly could not go into ecstasies over it and said so; at vhich Diaghilev all but lost him temper .... "I ju s t don't care for it," I answ ered, "And as fo r Surr£alisme — it seemB to me both pointless and u g ly .o

These details regarding the d£cor are important because they indicate

how Diaghilev vorked (or in this case, did not vork) in collaboration vith his artistic staff. And, vith respect to Romeo and Juliet, his

choice of d€cor precipitated the stormy reception the ballet received vhen It vas performed in Paris on May lBth* 1926.

^Grigoriev, The Diaghilev Ballet, p. 225. 131

Prior to the Parle performance, the company vas varned that a group of surrealist artists vho disapproved of Ernst and Mir6 working for the "capitalist" lmpressario planned a demonstration.. Lifar says of that riotous event,

The first hallet, Stravinsky's Pulcinella. vent off calmly, and vas received vith universal applause. But after the interval, the curtain vent up on ... "a curtain" which, as the critic V. Svetlov describes it "disclosed only a few commas and smudges, which any scene painter 'b assistant‘could have produced, without in any way claiming relationship to the surrealist community." We, the dancers, vere discovered in our working clothes, busy at a dancing lesson on the stage, vhen suddenly Buch a din of howls and whistling vas heard that not one note of the music could pierce through. Nevertheless, ve began our performance, though met by this per­ fect hurricane of mad cries and incredible yells. Nobody, however, paid the least attention to the stage, vhlle from the gallery white leaflets, proclamations, began fluttering down till the house looked as though there had been a snow­ storm. Meanwhile, in the auditorium, a pitched battle seemed to be raging. X saw one of Diaghilev's great friends ... slap a man's face, and a t th e same moment someone to re h er d re ss. Then plain-clothes policemen began to appear from all sides, seized hold of the "demonstra­ tors," and removed them from the house. During all this, someone was trying to lover the curtain, but I managed to push it aside, heavy though i t v s b , the management's orders being that on no account vas the curtain to be lowered. Desormieres, the conductor, had stopped the o rc h e stra . It only took tvo or three minutes for the Paris police to quell the "riot" after which the curtain vent up, a new start vas made, and the ballet vas safely enacted. All this had but one result, that Paris did nothing but talk of the new ballet, so that whenever it vas given ... ve played to crammed houses.?

?Serge Idfar, Serge Diaghilev. His Life. His Work. His Legend. An Intimate Biography (Mew York: Putnam. 19U0), p . 313. 132

Lambert vas understandably disturbed by the riot because his music vas

n o t g iv e n a proper hearing and because he did not vant to become asso­

ciated In the public*s mind vith **10th rate incompetent charlatans like

Max ErnBt and Joan Mir6."® There is every evidence that he carried out

his threat to inform the Ehgllsh papers, prior to the London premiere,

of his attempts to vlthdrav the music on account of the d£cor and

choreographic changes. Almost every reviev in the papers made mention

of the disparity betveen the music and the revised Btory, d€cpr, and

choreography.

Perhaps Lambert should have been grateful for the odd series of

events surrounding the production of Romeo and Ju liet, even though they

vere traumatic. He vas only a tventy-year-old student and the notoriety

he gained as a result of vorklng vith Diaghilev greatly advanced his

reputation. Grigoriev said, "the score by Constant Lambert vas much

lik e any o th e r example o f B econd-rate modern muBic and made no im pres­ sion on the public vhatever."^ That his music vas regarded as second- rate is of less importance than the fact that he is one of tvo English

composers vhose music vas ever selected by Diaghilev for uBe vith

ballets. Only Lord Berners, vho vrote The Triumph of Neptune in 1926, vas similarly honored.

When one examines the details of hov Romeo and Juliet came into

being as a ballet, a number of aspects in the collaborative process

are strikingly odd. For example, before Lambert vas ccsmnissioned to

Bcanstant Lambert to Any Lambert, quoted in Bhead, Constant Lambert, p. 59* ^Grigoriev, The Diaghilev Ballet, pp. 229-226. write the score, the main body of music vas already in existence.

With regard to the scenario, the music vas written to fit one dramatic

subject and then fitted to a different story over the composer's ob­

jections. This meant that there could be no close relationship

betveen music and dramatic action as one might expect with a narrative

ballet. Similarly, there vas little close contact betveen the composer

and the choreographer, even though the composer vas on hand during

rehearsals and performances presumably for the purpose of rewriting

or revising the music to make it more fitted to the dance. As little

as Lambert vas consulted, or, more precisely, as little as his wishes vere fulfilled, he can hardly be considered an active participant in

the collaborative process involved in the production of Romeo and

Juliet. In effect what happened vas that Diaghilev destroyed any

semblance of collaboration by usurping the decision-making responsi­ bilities of the contributing artists. It is no wonder then that the

composer felt so little satisfaction vith the end product of his

la b o rs .

When Diaghilev first met vith Lambert to hear the Adam and Eve ballet music, he did make several suggestions for cuts and slight

alterations. According to Shead,

The moBt important of these vere tvo in number; a rather 'noble' Passacaglia intended for the appearance of the Angel was taken out and even­ tually saw the light of day in Lambert's second ballet, Pomona, where it accompanied the entrance of the god Veturamus in drag. The fin a le of Adam and Eve (Unexpected Entrance of the Serpent and Scene of Mutual Reconciliation •— General Dance), vhich had originally been written out for piano duet and called simply Overture .vas revised and 13U

rescored in 1927 as the overture The Blrd-Actors. th e t i t l e tak en from an unpublished poem "by Sacheverell Sltvell. Romeo and Juliet has a different — and most vivacious — f i n a l e .

One further alteration of the Adam and Eye score vas the Entr'acte that begins the second tableau. This vas added at Diaghilev's insis­ tence after the first performance in Monte-Carlo. Lambert recounted th a t

Kochno came to see me and asked if I had any music for an entr'acte as they thought it would be more "vivante" if there vas a pas­ sage of dancers from the classroom to the theatre. I vas vexy annoyed at their trying to spoil Nijinska's vork any more, so I said I vould give him music for an entr'acte but only on the understanding that not a note of it vas to be danced. So they have now added a sort of comic march-past of the characters (vithout music) in vexy dubious taste and in a style vhich is the complete opposite of nijinska's. It is really too sickening about the ballet — at one time it vas going to be the best since La Boutique Fantasque or Tricorne but now it is Just a dismal failin’e as far as I am concerned.H

Vith the exception of these fev omissions and additions, the music for

Romeo and Juliet is essentially the same as that for Adam and Eve.

The vork is a hybrid betveen a ballet based on a previously vrltten score, a commissioned score, and an arranged score.

The ballet opens vith a Rondlno in 3/8 vith a tempo marking of

Won troppo p re s to . The movement 1 b thinly scored primarily for strings and voodvinds and is meant to accompany the entrance and dance of the

^ S h e a d , Con btant Lambert, p. 53. ^■Constant Lambert to Amy Lambert, quoted in Shead, Constant L am bert, p . 59* 135 corps de ballet and the entrance of the late arrivals — the premier danseur and the premiere danseuse. In concordance vith the title of the movement, the overall form is that of a rondo (ABACB'A coda) based on the following these. 12 Examplem 1. Rondino, measure 1-15• £

* T - -

This theme and its subsequent repetitions are ideally suited to the beginning action in that the strongly accented downbeats of the first tvo phrases signal logical points for dancers to enter onto the stage and begin dancing. The succeeding tvo phraseB leBS strongly emphasize the tonic key and avoid any emphatic accentB on the downbeat and seem

« more a p p ro p ria te ly lin k ed to the continuation o f dance movement than to the initiation of the same. Having musically established vhere dancers make their entrances, it follows then that the late arriving soloists, Romeo and Juliet,

3-^All examples are drawn from Lambert, Romeo and Ju liet, piano arrangement by the composer. begin their active participation in the class vith the final statement of the theme (m. 130). Lambert provides harmonic preparation for this * event ty suspending harmonic progression first with a pair of phrases over a 0 pedal (mm. 96-111) and then with the return of the B theme

(m. 112) in which clear cadencing in the tonic is avoided. When the strongly accented C chord that begins the first theme returns* the anxiety and anticipation generated by the avoidance of tonic is alleviated and the sense of movement* both harmonic and melodic* is revived. The linkage of the action* namely the anticipation of the

4 coming of the principle dancers, their subsequent arrival and partici­ pation, is clearly reflected in the music of the movement.

The music for the Gavotte and Trio was intended to accompany a women ' b ensemble dance. The movement is in three parts; Gavotte (aba), ,

Trio (cdc), Gavotte (ba') and coda. In accordance with the traditional construction of a gavotte* Lambert begins the dance vith a two quarter- note anacrusis in U/U Allegretto and ends the first period in the middle of the bar. The meter Bhifts to 3/** in the trio and returns a to U/l< for the altered repetition of the gavotte. Several aspects of the construction of the movement suggest congruence betveen muBic and action. In his commentary on the ballet, Grigoriev noted that

Nijinska's choreography was basically classroom exercises.^ With th is in mind and remembering that the action does indeed take place in a classroom situation, the sectional format* shifts in articulation from staceato. pesante, legato eBpressivo, cantabile, and back to staccato*

^Grigoriev, The Diaghilev Ballet* p. 226. 137 and changes in rhythmic and harmonic texture are important because such musical aspects afford the choreographer the needed flexibility to deviBe a variety of dance combinations one vould expect to find in a class. By comparing three phraseB from the opening of the gavotte, one can observe a variety of textures, rhythms, and articulations and can visualize a corresponding variety of probable classroom exercises, plies. frappes. and grand battement en cloche, for example.

Example 2 a . Gavotte, measures 1—h.

fpPFrf fg j\rTTT vJ-LL*=w-u ;.f r -f -4----1 4

Example 2b. Gavotte, measures 13-1^* 138

Example 2c. Gavotte, measures 17-20.

As expected, the Trio provides an extended period of contrast to the Gavotte. Basically, the Trio 1 b a simple valtz with clearly defined regular phrases and, vith the exception of those found in measures 52-60, metrically congruent rhythms. In the exceptional pas­ sage, the rhythms and phrasing provide a duple-triple conflict between the melody in the outer voices and the inner accompaniment.

Example 3. Trio, measures 52-55. 139 In measure 75, the Gavotte returns in truncated form followed hy a coda consisting of a dynamic, accented h/1* version of the SQrio melody*

The third movement of the ballet, Scherzetto is described as a men's ensemble dance. In the music for this dance it becomes obvious that, in 192?, Lambert vas s till very much a student composer lacking experience and maturity in his compositional style. Richard McGrady, writing in Mu b I c and L e tte rs , has s a id o f th e movement:

The score is at its weakest vhen the composer seems unable to find convincing Images and turns to fugal techniques apparently for the sole pur­ pose o f extending a movement beyond i t s n a tu ra l length. In the Scherzetto ... a striking open­ ing figure, spiced by a series of consecutive thirds and seconds, gives way to a dull fugal section after about 20 bars. The device can, of course, have a considerable merit in generating an increase of dramatic tension but so often here, and in other vorks, the inclusion of a fugal Bection appears to be arbitrary.*1*

Within the fugal section Lambert presents a variety of melodic counter melodies that are generally dissonant vith the subject. However, the collage-like grouping of seemingly unrelated itemB lacks a sense of direction or purpose and quioly becomes tedious.

Despite weaknesses, the music does adequately fu lfill the require­ ments of the action. Beyond its sectional!ty and diversity of melody and rhythm, the Vivo tempo* dynamics and rhythmic strength of the music corresponds easily to vhat is considered to be appropriate

^Richard McGrady, "The Music of Constant lambert," Music and Letters. 51 (July, 1970), pp. 2h3-2l*0. accompaniment for male dance exercises. When separated from the women, male dancers usually perform steps that are more space con­ suming, utilizing elevation, strength, and speed. These characteris­ tics are accurately reflected in the content of Lambert's music for the Scherzetto.

As McGrady mentioned, the movement, in ABA form, begins vith a fanfare (Example U) that announces the start of the men's ballet class being presented on stage. The subject of the fugal B Bection

(Example 5) begins in measure 19 as a solo statement by the strings.

Example b. Scherzetto, measures 1-1**

Example 5. Scherzetto, measures 19-251 lUl

The subjects.is quite traditional vith clear harmonic implications

and design* One is therefore unprepared for the dissonant accompany­

ing part that occurs as the fugal section progresses. Ro real counter*

subject is ever given although parts accompanying each entrance of the

subject could have functioned as such had the composer so desired.

Instead, each entrance becomes more harmonically dissonant (Example 6)

and serves as a slightly varied repetition rather than as part of a

formal fugal design.

Example 6. Scherzetto, measures 31-3?.

£ £

The central portion of the fugal section is an episode built around the repetition of tvo nev melodic figures obviously derived from the subject and its accompanying material (Example 7)*

Example 7* Scherzetto, measures 36-39. Ib2

After one final statement of tbe subject (m. 56 ) th e re fo llo v s

transitional material which builds in dynamic intensity, texture, and

rhythmic complexity leading to a return of the fanfare that began the movement. The Scherzetto ends vith a coda that includes final state­ ments of all the melodies found in Examples b through 7*

The Sicilians (Scene b) is generally regarded as typical of

Lambert's ability to vrite effective mood music. Throughout his life,

the siciliana, vith its languid, sentimental character, remained his

favorite musical dance. As used in Romeo and Juliet, it establishes the proper atmosphere for the pas de deux during vhlch the principle

dancers forget their steps and "make no secret of their affections."

The music falls into three major divisions, ABA, vith a codetta.

The form of the last division is a mirror image of the first. Con­ sidering both large and small formal units, the scene is organized as follows: A B A codetta mm. 1-lb mm. 15-20 mm. 21-33 mm. 3b-bl (a b c) (d) (c b a)

The large formal units are defined more by their rhythm and character than by thematic considerations. The outer portions of the form are in 12/8 meter vith changes to 9/8 and have the traditional rhythm of the siciliana )• The central portion (pocd piu mosso) has a meter of 12/8, but the rhythmic ostlnato in the accompaniment ( J O J I u j ) not only breaks the prevailing 1 pattern of the Biciliana but also creates the feeling of 6/b meter.

In the melody for B, Lambert organizes the rhythm into a duple meter

3 1 . ( «j. 1 j. n j. j. ) so that a tvo against three relationship exists 1U3 between melody and accompaniment . VIth the return of the A section, the rhythm and metric organization of the Blclliana resumes.

The main melody of the movement la stated alternately by the oboe and clarinet (Example 8). Although it is generally consonant with the accompaniment at the beginning of each group of three beats, the dissonant combinations between these points create an extremely coloriatic harmonic fabric.

Example 8. Sicilians, measures 3-6.

The short B section, with i t s clearly defined melody (Example 9)» is set against a rhythmic and harmonic ostinato and is such a Bharp departure from the preceeding and succeeding material that Borne pointed­ ly dramatic event in the action on stage would seem obligatory.

According to the libretto, in the midst of learning the pas de deux. the lovers m ak e no secret of their mutual affection. This extra­ ordinary event would most likely be linked to a correspondingly Ikk contrasting musical passage. The B section of this Sicilians con­ tains a ll the elements,including thematic contrast, harmonic tension and a lack of any strong senBe of progression, to complement the dramatic action.

Example 9* Sicilians, measures 16-30. g r A ± x 1*11

M x w m

Considered sb a vhole, the Sicilians is one of the moot effective sections of the score. The expression of mutual affection by the lead­ ing couple is the dramatic climax of the firBt tableau, and although the climax is subtle and understated, it is in contrast to the charac­ ter of the preceeding action of the ballet. The music of the

B lcilian a s I b o constitutes a high point of the tableau. In contrast to the first three movements with their rather brisk tempi, well- defined melodies, and Bomewbat pungent harmonies, the fourth scene has a slower tempo, a fuller coloristic harmony, and the lilting rhythm of the siciliana to establish an atmosphere complementary to the action. ll»5

After the tender pas de deux of the Slciliana. the "lovers are

separated by their scandalized friends vho carry them off to the

theatre where a rehearsal is due to start." This then is the action

that takes place during the finale of the first tableau. Lambert

called the music for this finale a Sonatina and indeed it is a single

movement combining elements of both sonata and rondo forms.

The movement opens with a vivacious theme whose rhythm, despite

the duple meter signature, alternates between patterns that fall more

comfortably in a 3/8 meter with others in a clear duple organization.

The affect of this manipulation is first a halting movement followed by striding movement. It is this opening theme that recurs through­

out the movement in the manner of a rondo.

Example 10, Sonatina, measures 1-?.

The second theme of the exposition (mm. 9-lM is presented

fugally. (Example 11). FlrBt stated in the tonic C major, it Is then restated vith the countersubject on the aupertonic and finally on the

mediant level vith the countersubject and free counterpoint.

Example 11. Sonatina, measures 9-16.

After three additional entrances of the subject's first tvo bars over

a chordal accompaniment, the first theme returns in the original key.

This time, however, it is Joined to material that is reminiscent of

a melody from the opening Rondlno movement (Example 12). Once again

Lambert uses a rhythmic pattern in both melody and accompaniment that

conflicts with the prevailing meter and produces a valtz despite the

duple time signature. Even when the meter does change to 3/2, the lower voices conflict vith the rhythm of the melody that maintains a

3A organization. This particular rhythmic characteristic is found throughout the movement.

Example 12, Sonatina, meters 38-bO. ll*7 A developmental section (nun. 53-95) begins vith a direct re­ statement of the first theme and quickly takes on a predominantly minor cast. The bulk of the development is Involved vith manipula­ tion of the valtz and contrapuntal material. Over half the develop­ ment includes restatements of the fugal subject in single and double augmentation over a £ pedal. When the pedal is not present the harmony is unstable and modulatoxy, Incorporating both tonal and modal am biguity.

The recapitulation, like the e?q)Osition and development, begins vith the first theme followed by the quasi-waltz first found in measures 37-58* The thematic material is then presented in reverse order from that of the exposition, creating an arch within the overall sonata form.

In this movement, Lambert makes uBe of contrasts in all musical elements to create variety and diversity within a clear formal design.

The loud dynamic levels and more forceful presentation in the outer portions of the form contrast sharply vith the softer treatment in the development. Similarly, the repetition of the pitch 0, which func­ tions as a long dominant pedal in the development produces increas­ ingly strong harmonic tension not found in either exposition or re­ capitulation. What does remain constant, however, is the sense of conflict derived from the simultaneous use of triple and duple rhythmic p a tte r n s .

The active outer actions of the form are appropriate accompani­ ment for the strenuouB action of the full cast and lovers getting . ' iue themselves to the rehearsal. Similarly, the softer, less forward- moving development fits action relating to the lovers vho seek con­ tinuation of the actions and feelings of the previous movement. With the tension and anticipation produced by the music over the dominant pedal and the escalating dynamic level, the period of reflection ends and the two are forced back into the company and activity of the rest of the cast.

Ab has been noted, the Entre-acte that begins the second tableau was written at Diaghilev's requeBt despite the composer's reluctance to do so. Lambert Insisted there be no dancing during the new move- t ment; but his demand was largely ignored and the characters did a comic march and prepared the stage for the ensuing rehearsal of Romeo and Juliet.

The movement, in binary form, is strongly tinged with a Latin

American dance flavor. The music suggests the style of the .lota — a traditional northern Spanish dance resembling a waltz. Prominent throughout Is an organization of six-bar phrases consisting of pairs of three-bar melodic motives. Ab braoketted in example 13* Lambert makes use of material that contains conflicting rhythmic implications in alternation with material clearly congruent to the meter. This rhythm-meter flexibility, found throughout the movement, creates a feeling of constant motion, a feeling heightened by the lack of strong cadences to break the motion. 11*9 Example 13* Batre-aete, Measures 1-6.

Allay*

In addition to rhythmic considerations! one additional aspect o f the music can be d ir ec tly rela ted to the action o f th is movement.

The bulk of the Entre-acte is punctuated with accents and employs fo rte dynamic le v e ls . Only when moBt o f the performers have crossed the stage and the level of activity diminishes does the muBic become soft,diminishing to pianissimo, with indications that the moving partB are to be leggiero e staccato and the less active parts are to be per­ formed legato cantablle. As the dancers assume their plaoeB for the next Beene, the music concludes vith a final soft statement of the most Latin figu re (Example lb)*

Example lb. Entre-acte. Measures 109-llb.

H i f t 150

As originally planned* the second tableau vas to have begun vith the rehearsal of scenes from Romeo and Juliet. beginning with the first meeting of the pair at the ball* Because this music vas meant to be the introductory movement of the tableau* Lambert labelled it Blnfonla and cast it in a three-part form. Diagrammed* the form is as follows: A B A mm.~i-55 mm, 56-96 mm. 97-132 Fanfare aba Fanfare c d.c d Fanfare aba Fanfare

As if to announce the resumption of the main activity of the ballet,

Lambert begins th e movement v ith a pompous fiv e„b ar fanfare

(Example 15). This material reappears throughout the Slnfonia as a harmonic transition from 0 to 0—flat and from 0—flat to C. The highly accented rhythm of the fanfare coupled vith the open-voiced harmonies used in conjunction vith it effectively establish the ,lrlBol_uto_e_ nonrposo” character of the movement.

Example 15. Binfonia, measures 1-6. 151 In the limited amount of serious criticism pertaining to Lambert's compositions is an uncomplimentary commentary on the music of the middle section of the Slnfonia. David Drey has singled out the polytonal passage in Example 16 as an inconsistency between Lambert's statements in his critical vritlngs and his ovn practices in composition.

Example 16* S ln fo n ia , Me astir es 88-91*

ij.fcr.- cif.L’Uii

In Music Ho? Lambert wrote

If a tune depends for itB vitality on the unsuit­ ability of its harmonic background, it Is impos­ sible to develop it, uBe it contrapuntally, or add anything to it after Its first statement ... This type of writing 1 b seen at itB worst in the ballets of Auric, which consist for the most part of strings of boy-scout times with an acid harmonic accompani­ ment , hopelessly lacking in either development or continuity.15

15ConBtant Lambert, Music Ho.» A Study of Music in Decline (London: Faber, 193^: 2nd ed., 1937 (Penguin, 19^8): 3rd ed., Faber, 1966), p. 175. 153 With this statement in mind, Drew notes:

On pages 31-32 of the published piano score for Romeo, there occurs a fanfare-like theme In C m ajor stro n g ly suggestive o f The Boys Brigade” , which is saddled with an accompanying figure In 0 flat major. This extremely and mechanically dissonant passage occurs two timefe framing a ' contrasting section harmonised with blameless conventionality and providing a perfect example of the kind of music Lambert himself derided for oscillating desturblngly between pretty- pretty and ugly-ugly. 1° .

Given the drama occurring at this time it is possible to view the

dissonant combination and the conventional passage as an accurate re­

flection of the contrast between the courtly ball and the underlying

conflict between Romeo and the Capulets.

Following the pompous formality of the ball, the scene Involving

the nurBe and the servant provides a period of comic relief. Set to

music labelled Alla Marcia, which according to Lambert is to be per­

formed mechanicamente. it is in an ABA form. In this movement,

Lambert again demonstrates his ability to write rhythmic and melodic

patterns that transcend barlines to the point of making the Btated

time signature extraneous* The opening theme, for example, consists

of a combination of a repeated three-note motive in eighth-noteB and a

pair of four-note scale figures in sixteenth-notes which, though notated

in 2/1*, would fall more neatly into 6/8 and J*/8 measures (Example 17)*

At various other points in the movement, Lambert uses written accents

to clearly delineate groupings contradictory to the prevailing m eter.

■^Drew, quoted in Sbead, Constant Lambert, p. 62. 153 Example 17, A lla Marcia, Measures 1-5*

>t<4nUm

w m

The second theme of the first section is hardly more than a repeated motive, but in combination vith the accompaniment. It too produces a rhythm-meter conflict. The melody of the eight-bar passage can be organized into bars of 2.2-?^2. 3 3 while the accompaniment remains firmly rooted in 2/1* meter. That this vas the intention of the composer is clearly indicated by the written accents and the shape of the melody (Example 18).

Example 18. Alla Marcia, measures SU-31.

9*—* ------w - m— f One characteristic of the A section is the dry hollowness of the

harmonization of the melodic figure (refer Example 1?). Chords with­

out thirds, scalar figures in contrary motion, and series of paral­

lel ninths all contribute to the stark mecanlcamente quality of the

section. As an element of contrast, the harmony of the B section

generally avoids open chords and makes more extensive use of thirds

and sixths in chordal and scalar passages. Since there are two dif­

ferent characters performing and two different contrasting musical

sections, an appropriate correspondence exists between the music and

stage characters.

Also in contrast to the first section,.the melodies of the B

section fall into eight-bar divisions and employ metrically congruent

rhythms. However, all the melodic material of the movement tends to

be more motivic than lyric with little If any transition from one melody to another. This lack of connecting material suggests that the music is less appropriate for continuous dance movement than it is

for a combination of dance and mime. Changes of motives and rhythmic patterns occur repeatedly and quickly, shifting from conjunct to dis­

junct rhythms, from duple to triple patterns b o that time for the presentation of a cohesive ballet enchainment is limited. Iydia

Sokolova has said, "I played the NurBe, and I had to come onto an empty

stage carrying a scroll which I then had to open and read."1*^ This statement confirms that mime or other non-dance activity was Involved

^Sokolova, Dancing for Diaghilev. p. 2Uh. 1 5 5 In the scene and helps explain vhy this particular dramatic situation * and music vere combined. 0 The music for the duel betveen Romeo and lybalt captures the sense of strong, physical conflict betveen the characters and the boyish but deadly taunting that occurred. The movement is labeled

Toccata and is organized in a three-part form.

The beginning theme immediately establishes the mood of the scene.

Over a strong accompaniment vith a rhythm that closely conforms to the

1|/U meter, the upper voices enter Just as strongly on the offbeat* The tension betveen the tvo parts is further accentuated by dissonant clashes of secondB, sevenths, and tritone intervals and an apparent polytonal relationship betveen the bass line and the upper parts

(Example 19)*

Example 19* Toccata, measures 1-U.

After eight bars, the sense of conflict abates and, vith the intro- « duction of a nev theme in simple floving valtz rhythm, the mood changes

completely. Dissonance and apparent polytonality are used in the middle of the movement to create feelings of conflict and to turn vhat would 156 otherwise be an innocent time into an acid parody of innocence* The four-bar melody is set against a sparse accompaniment to form clash­ ing 2nds, 7ths, and 9ths (Example 20). Another element of contrast is the skipping trip let rhythm of the melody and the more austere quarter-note pattern in the accompaniment.

Example 20. Toccata, measures 50-53,

fflaHa

« • • a ------f ■■■■1, 1*4------. f ■m ----- 1 — i i k . T . , ■■i"i n

------f ------r J |T " } w ‘i------*

In setting this music to the action of the duel, the choreographer has several aspects to respond to to make the linkage viable. Lambert's music intensifies both the conflict and the opposition of the charac­ ters by the use of dissonance, apparent polytonality, and contra­ dictory rhythmic patterns. Similarly in moving from Beetion to section and theme to theme, one finds an alternation of mood and character that builds opposition into the music. These factors coupled vith the strong dynamics and sharp articulations used throughout create a musical environment complementary to the strong action of the duel Involving serious taunting and open conflict betveen tvo men. 157 In this version of Romeo and Juliet, the scene following the duel

takes place on Ju liet’s balcony* although in Shakespeare*s version the

scenes are reversed. The music is labelled Musette and in several

re sp e c ts i t f i t s th e d e sc rip tio n o f th e dance. I t has a Bmooth

character (Lento, dolce e legato) vith upper parts containing rapid

passages over a constant B-flat pedal. Like many older pastorale

dances* it is in the two part (ARAB) form.

One of the most striking aspectB of the music is the preponder­

ance of dissonance used in a movement that one might presume on the

basiB of the title and dramatic situation to be more gentle and dolce.

Such Is not the case vhen* as demonstrated by Example 21* melodic lines

in G-flat end C are combined vith a B-flat pedal.

Example 21. Musette* measures 11-12.

Vith the exception of the dissonant harmony, all other structural

aspects are ‘conventional. Phrases are in tvo or four bar units.

Unlike previous instances* the rhythms are congruent vith the meter

I 1 5 8 ' and are uncomplicated. The dynamic level remains soft and no changes of articulation Interrupt the legato flov of the music. There is little in this movement vhloh vould'indicate any relationship to any specific dance movements or action beyond providing a steady rhythmic base.

According to the scenario, after the balcony scene, Paris enters, accompanied by musicians, and searches for his fiancee Juliet. The music for the scene, Burlesca, to be performed Allegro Vivo, is highly rhythmic end falls into a. three-part form vith an extended cen­ ter section in a three-part arch form. The opening melody is rooted in C major and is accompanied by the kind of coloristic harmony that hnn been found throughout the Bcore (Example 22, measures 1-8). The light, boisterous character of the burlesca Is immediately suggested by the rhythmic pattern that begins on the off-beat of the first 2/1* bar and ends abruptly four bars later.

The second melody (Example 22, measures 9-16) is very sim ilar to the first in that they are similar in character and share several rhythmic pattemB. Hovever, the syncopation that partially establishes the character of the beginning theme glveB way to rhythms congruent vith the meter. From the outBet, the music suggests movement involving strength and virtuosity. This suggestion results form the combination of fast tempo, melodies blending intervallic leaps and scale pasBageB supported in th e accompaniment by a Bteady even rhythm th a t accents the b eat, as veil as by the pattern of long and Bhort note values associated vith turns and leaps performed by male dancers. 1 5 9 The center of the movement consists of a series of eight-bar units

of antecedent and consequent phrases sharing similar melodic and

rhythmic characteristics vith the opening section. Underlying almost

the entire passage is a pedal c_ incorporated Into the accompaniment

patterns or sustained beneath the accompaniment. In this center section

the C harmony assumes a dominant rather than tonic function, although

the tonal center of the passage Is less obvious than in the preceding

one. The most prevalent melody begins in measure 17 (Example 22) vith

a repeated sixteenth-note rhythm strongly suggesting imitation of a

plucked string instrument such as the guitar, lute, or mandolin. The

accompaniment employs an even eighth-note rhythm vith a c pedal on

the beatB and a descending chromatic progression from B-flat to £ on

the off beatB. This accompaniment is repeated in the next eight bars

but in support of a nev melody that grows out of the last two meas­

ures of the preceding theme (Example 22, measures 25-28). This new

theme 1b similar to those found in the beginning of the movement in

matters of rhythm, form, and general movement.

In measure 33* the melody found in measures 16-23 returns, thlB

time without the repeated sixteenth-note rhythm but paired vith a nev

accompaniment and a countersubject having the rhythm J73 j i m n

that has been used extensively throughout the movement (Example 23). In subsequent repetitions of this passage both the octave registration

and the vertical placement of melodic and accompanimental material are transposed. In every repetition, the c. pedal is obvious. 160 Exeuaple 22. Burlesca, measures 1-28. f e p p a r J ^ 3 ' - r J 3 ^ i f r n f- i 4 f 4 r - l i*- - f - # f = r~ - C r t --T- - p = ' f ' % ...... '

ft

- ^ S 3 j j J 3 ]J U i s s i t e

BP C J - f -~ h f f - - » -

1 '"" TM ~ F T ~ J = ^ T------r - 7 ,— — •J - . _ w j - 7- j^LJ J----- J* 5 * 5 t f : i - „ v £ 1 4 - - r • 4 r « •

y = p p

^pai>;£C C toJ3=

mSi l U Jlr j l 6 l

Example 22 continued.

■ £ .

MM

Example 23* Burlesca* measures 33-36.

...... a i . . e t i f ,. %m * i

The Burlesca is unified stylistically ty several aspects of musical construction. Rhythmically* the movement maintains a light hut constant flow based on the basic m rhythmic motive set against even eighth-notes in the accompaniment. The presence of the tone c. 162 throughout the movement provides a focal point in the midst of an

ambiguous, flexible harmonic context* Lastly, each melodic phrase

alternates disjunct and conjunct movement. The total effect of these

factors is light and non-serious and appropriate to expectations

aroused by the title Burlesca. On the basis of the title and the

corresponding light-hearted treatment of melodic and rhythmic mater­

ial, PariB* search for Juliet must have been handled choreographically

implying comic rather than serious futility.

The final scene in the staged rehearsal of Romeo and Juliet is the

death of Juliet. The affair is not protracted since there are only thirty-one bars of accompanying music. The movement, entitled .

Adagietto to be perforated dolce e legato, makes use of tvo bitter­ sweet melodies (Example 2 k). The harmony of the first of these includes polytonal effects and dissonant added notes that create points of harmonic tension.

Example 2k. Adagietto, measures 1-16.

IE i r ~ z ! z s i m 163

Lambert's music alternates betveen 5/8 and 3/6 meters, creating an organization of for six bars and tvo bars of 2t3. No 8 8 attempt la made to focus attention on these elements. Instead, the unaccented rhythms In fluid metrical grouping Join vith the repeti­ tive melodies to create an ebb and flov of movement appropriate to the overall somber mood of the scene.

Formally, the Adagietto Is a miniature ABA form. The melody of the opening (Example 2U, measures 1-8} Is repeated in the last section in a higher register, vith the accompaniment spread over a vider range. The central section, poco plu mosso, has a constant 3/8 meter and a sim plified chordal accompaniment underlying the melody given in

Example 2k, measures 9-16.

As vith the Musette, the muBic of the Adagietto contains fev identifiable implications for specific movement or coordination vith the action. Bather it establishes a mood complementary to the drama vhile providing suitable rhythmic, tempo, and stylistic accompaniment for the movement or mimed action involved vith Juliet's demise.

With the end of the Adagietto. the "open rehearsal" of Romeo and

Juliet ends, and the frame of reference in the action changes. In the finale, the dancer-audience applauds the efforts of the lead couple vho fail to acknovledge this accolade and elope in an airplane. As performed by Li far, playing the part of Romeo, the lead dancer appears on stage vith a leather aviator's helmet on hlB head.

As previously noted, Lambert composed a nev, more vivacious finale for Romeo and Juliet in place of the one that vas part of the 16 U original Aden and Eve score. ThiB nev finale is swift and breath­ less, moving from one short melodic passage to another vithout lnterup- tion by cadences. The form is loosely organized into three parts molded primarily by tonal considerations. Most noticeable is the change from C major to E-flat major betveen the first two sections and the return to C major in the third section.

The predominant meter of the entire finale is 3/8 although brief shifts to ?/8 , 7/8, and 2/U are frequent. These meter shifts coupled vith rhythmic patterns that alternately reenforce the metric organiza­ tion and conflict vith it, contribute to the variety and fragmentary character of each section and indeed the entire finale. The most frequently used lncongruent rhythmic patterns are as follows:

All or part of thiB pattern 1 b found in the main theme of each section.

In the first and third sections, it 1 b found at the end of melodic frag­ ments, acting aB a means of breaking the flow of rhythms congruent to the 3/8 meter. The action of the finale includes three different eventB. First, the dancer-audience applauds the lead couple and awaits their appear­ ance. Second, the lead couple elopes. Third, in the absence of the lead couple, the corps de ballet concludes the ballet. It 1 b thiB author's belief that the music for the first section, vith its avoidance

^■®For details regarding the creation of the finale, refer to p . 13k su p ra. 165 of cadences, accompanies the applauding dancers vho anticipate the appearance of Romeo and Juliet. The unfulfilled expectation of strong cadences in the music parallels the anticipation expressed by the dancers vho are vaiting for the lead couple.

The center section is the shortest of the three and is the most thematically concise. The change of key, meter, and rhythmic charac­ ter almost completely isolates this section from the first one. This isolation and unique style complements the action, vhich at this point involves the elopement. JuBt as the section involves less thematic material and a contrasting character removed from the main corps of the movement, the focus of the action 1 b reduced to Romeo and Juliet, vho are attempting to remove themselves from the main "body of people on stage. The parallel hetveen music and action is clear.

With the return of the melody that began the finale, the corps de ballet returns to the stage and the ballet concludes. The entire 106 measures, including material that vas originally stated in E-flat, firmly grounded in C major.

As if to Join the entire musical portion of the ballet into a unified entity, Lambert's beginning melody of the finale is closely patterned after the opening melody of the Rondlno (Example 25). One further adaptation of a melodic motive from the Rondlno can be noted

Example 25. Finale, measures 1-U»

m . i " y ...... 166 by comparing measures 36-36 of the Rondlno vith measures 85-6? of the finale (Example 26). Although the tpvard skip of a third In the

Rondlno motive has been filled In, the finale motive Is clearly assoc­ iated vith it. This linkage betveen opening and closing movements of the ballet is subtle and slight but real, nonetheless.

Example 26. Finale, measures 85- 87 .

When considered as a vhole, the score for Romeo and Juliet is hardly memorable and deathless. Lambert vas a young man and a rela­ tive novice in the craft of composition. Angus Morrison claimed,

Romeo and Juliet vas almost entirely influenced hy vhat vas then fashionable in Paris all de­ rived from the vorkB vritten by Stravinsky ... and most particularly by the first of his con­ sciously conceived musical pastiches, the ballet Pulclnella.19

Many of the veaknesses of Romeo ar.d Juliet are common to thoBe of a beginning composer -- an overabundance of melodic material coupled vith a lack of effective development of that material and an over- zealous approach to harmonic inventiveness. In Music Ho.'. Lambert cas­ tigates Stravinsky for many aspects, including his treatment of melody.

^M orrison, quoted in Shead, Constant Lambert, p. 62. 167 Bis melodic style has always been marked by extreme short-windedness and a curious Inability to get away from the principal note of the tune ... Their [Stravinsky's! melodies raison d'etre is the harmony that lies beneath them, and to use them as Stravinsky does as melodic material over a totally different harmonic base Is a complete misunderstanding of their value end function.*^

These statements can be applied directly to Lambert's own melodic and harmonic, treatment in Romeo and Juliet. In thiB score, he has not yet achieved the balance between melody, harmony, and rhythm found in memorably successful ballet scores.

Despite weaknesses in technique, Lambert's score does exemplify many characteristics of music suitable for ballet. Movements are highly sectional in form and incorporate melodic and rhythmic variety. Sec­ tions like the Bcherzetto and Toccata, during which male dancing 1 b dominant, have more dynamic articulation, more punctuated rhythms, and melodic figures with wider Intervals than BcctionB like the Adagietto and Sicilians that are paired with female dancing. Rhythmic activity

1b generally varied and m ulti-level. Lambert does demonstrate a fond­ ness for writing rhythms that contradict the prevailing meter creating duple phraseB in triple meters and vice versa. Partially due to this rhythmic mannerism, and partially resulting from melodic design, one finds phrases which, although generally well-defined, vaxy in length from two to eight bars in length. That they are clearly identifiable is more important from the dancers' point of view than is difference in le n g th .

^Lambert, Music Ho!, pp. 96-100. 168 The music for the ballet, vhlle usually apt and appropriate to the

action in some movements, lacks any significant correlation t 6 th e

scenario as a vhole. This is understandable since most of the music vas composed for Adam and Eve and not for Romeo and Ju liet.

What critical commentary there is regarding the hallet is addres­

sed more to the novelty of the plot and action than to the music.

Lifar mentioned that Parisian critics (unspecified) regarded the music

as inferior and not very danceable.On the other hand, Boris Kocho,

author of the libretto and a cloBe companion of Diaghilev, stated that

Diaghilev "found his music danceable."^® The lack of significant

commentary by later critlca is ample support for the assertion that

Romeo and Juliet is like many other scores vritten for the Diaghilev

ballet during the later 1920's which are now forgotten and neglected.

Pomona (1927) Lam bert'b second b a ll e t Pomona vas p resen ted in Buenos A ires on

September 9th, 1927* a little more than a year after Romeo and Juliet vas first performed. After hearing a performance of Lambert's

D ivertim ento in Seven Movements in November o f 1926, Thomas McGreevy,

a friend of Lambert's suggested that the idea of a ballet based on the legend of Pomona, goddesB of fruits, and Vertumnus, god of trees and fru itB . Lambert agreed that the subject vas suitable and ar­ ranged a score from several works he had previously composed. The

^Serge L ifar, Ma Vie. An Autobiography. tranB. by James Homan Nason (New York: World Publishing Co. , 1970), p. 5^*

^Boris Kochno, Diaghilev and The BalletB Russe, trans. by Adrienne Foulke (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), p. 2$h. 169 earliest of these vas the Passacaglla from the 192U-1925 score for

Adam and Eye. When the music of Adam and Eve vas adapted for the hallet Romeo and Juliet* the Passacaglla vas one of the deleted movements.

The second source for Pomona vas the Divertimento In Seven

Movements. This vork vas performed only once as an independent compo­ sition "before it became part of Pomona. The Intrata of the Diverti­ mento had itse lf been an independent vork for chamber orchestra under the title Champetre. first performed in October of 1926. The

Champetre had previously been vritten as Pastorale for Plano.

A synopsis of the ballet printed in the published tvo-piano arrangement by the composer is as follows:

Intrata. At the rise of the curtain, Pomona, goddess o f f r u i t s , and h er nymphs a re d is ­ covered in an orchard in a vood near Rome, the nymphs in l i t t l e groups, Pomona a p a rt.

No. 1. Courante. The sound o f a hunting horn is heard. The god Vertumnus and his train of immortals all vearing hunting attire, enter. Vertumnus makes attempts to gain favor vith Pomona but she repulses him and then, frightened by the bolder advances of Vertumnus and the ismortals she and her nymphs fly into the vood, Pomona vlth the eldest. Vertumnus vatches her depart; then, disgusted vlth the failure of his disguise expresses his chagrin in a dance. But it is vith new decision that he leads his train avay.

Ro. 2. Pastorale. Pomona comeB back timidly and expresses her sense of isolation in a dance. She goes.

No. 3* Menuetto. The nymphs re-enter timidly but are disappointed to find the hunters gone and dance vith melancholy. They are interrupted "by the return of the immortals vho, having discarded their hunting attire, make a gentler entry this time. Pomona comes back quietly, and unnoticed, looks on vhile the ismortals succeed little by little in 1 70

gaining favour v lth th e nymphs and lead in g them a way, one by one. At the end she is again a lo n e. Ho. U. Passacaglia. Vertumnus returns disguised as a lady of uncertain age. He endeavours to comfort Pomona. He succeeds. They go.

No. 5. Rigadoon. Divertissement danced hy the nymphs and immortals.

No. 6 . Sicilians. Vertumnus having put aside his disguise comes back to the orchard vith Pomona. They dance a pas de deux expressive of their love for each other.

No. 7 Marcia (Finale) Joyous return of nymphs and immortals. Nuptial dance. Procession. Solemn entry of Flamen Pomonalis, vho gives the nuptial benediction and receives as a precious relic the voman's costume worn by Vertumnus. C u rta in .23

As David Vaughan has said, "The theme afforded the pretext not only for

dances in th e n e o -c la s s ic a l mode b u t fo r some f a ir ly broad comedy as veil when Anton Dolln as VertumnuB at one point appeared en travestl.1^*

The ballet v s b first choreographed by Bronislav NiJlnBka, the

choreographer of Romeo and Ju liet. This choreography vas used only for the early performances of Pomona in Buenos Aires. In 1930, the entire ballet vas redone by Frederick Ashton and it is on this produc­ tion that the reputation of the ballet lies. The first English per­ formance of Pomona in 1930 vas of signal importance, not only to

Lambert but also to Ashton and those vho supported the development of

^Constant Lambert, Pomona, piano duet arrangement by the composer (London: Oxford University Press, 1938), preface. ^David Vaughan, Frederick ABhton and His Ballets (Nev York: Alfred Knopf, 1977). pTH? i n native British ballet. The first performance, sponsored by the

Camargo Society, vas successful largely due to P o m o n a . ^5 The c r i t ic s responded vith enthusiasm to Ashton's nev choreography. P.J.S.

Richardson, critic and founder of the Dancing Times wrote: "That hitherto mystical personage, a British choreographist of the first rank, is amongst us."28 Although generally gloving in his praise the

critic did qualify that Ashton "introduces movements and poses very reminiscent of some of the bizarre postures of the late Diaghilev productions."27 Richardson vas nonetheless Impressed with Ashton's

"strong sense of design in his groupings and its CPomana'sl brilliant pas de deux ... truly interprets the score.1,28

Pomona vas restaged vlth nev cast in 1933 for the Vic-Wells Ballet th a t grew out o f th e Camargo S o ciety p ro d u ctio n s. Hie l a s t re sta g in g took p lac e in 1937* v ith Margot Fonteyn dancing th e ro le o f Pomona and Robert Helpman as Vertumnus.

In the orchestral score, Lambert calls for an orchestra of thirty-

four players Including: Woodwinds - piccolo , flute, clarinetB, oboe, bassoon Brass - trumpets in c, horns, tenor trombone Percussion- tympanl, triangle Strings - 1st and 2nd violins, violas, cell!, double basses.2^

2**Ibid., p. 1*6.

^Richardson, quoted in Vaughan, Frederick Ashton, p. 1*6.

27Ibid. 28Xbid.

^Constant Lambert, Pomona, full score, unpublished manuscript copy held by Oxford University Press, London.

# 172 The ballet opens vlth the Intrata which Is narked Andantlno

pastorale in the piano score, begins In h/U in the key of F. The

entire movement resembles a pastiche of separate melodies and accom­

paniments In an ABA form, vlth sections defined more by harmonic

organization and rhythmic considerations than by differences of

melodic material. In the outer sections, the meter remains U/h and

the harmony remains tonal, moving from F to D in the opening section

and from A-flat to F in the closing section. In both passages, the

harmony is generally major but vith added colorlstic dissonant notes.

The central B Beetion is preceded by nine bars of transitional

material during vhlch the meter Bhifts first to 3/U and then to 6/8

and the dominant rhythm of the section is established. Unlike the

opening part of the movement that stays closely related to the given

key signature, the second formal unit is harmonically varied and

comples. The antecedent phrase of the melody, stated by the oboe,

indicates a modal organization centered on D, while the consequent

phrase is related to E-flat. The ostlnato figure in the celli outlines

an F-sharp minor chord throughout the Bection (Example 27). This mixture of harmonic centers and organizations creates extremely

pointed dissonance -- a characteristic of the B section that sets it

off from the balance of the movement.

The section ends vith modulatory transitional material that

establishes the nev key of A-flat and rhythmically Indicates a return

to h/U. The music of the Intrata relates veil to the action of the move­ ment. The flowing dolce e cantablle melodies of the outer section, the 173

Example 27. In tra ta * treasures 32-1*0.

gently rocking rhythm of the B section, and the use of muted strings

and delicate orchestration throughout the movement establish a pastoral

quality in the music. The physical separation of Pomona from her

nymphB is reflected musically in the stylistic isolation of the center

section, vlth tis discordant harmonies, meter changes and poignant theme.

The second movement of the ballet 1 b the Courante. In the manner

of an Italian courante, it begins in 3 A, with the tempo Allegro deciso. According to the libretto, the sound of a hunting horn is heard as

Vertumnus and his party enter. Hovever, the horns play only one 171* eighth-note as the violins acconpanled by the balance of the strings take up the opening melody. Vith one exception, every occurrence of this melody includes an accompanlmental part that moves predominantly in parallel in thirds vith the melody (Example 28). The inclusion of one bar in 5/k at the end of the antecedent phrase not only addB an

Example 28. Courante, measures 1-7.

AIIhm la.

m» ■ * 9 + * - 9 + m ------9 V 9------Alley*. 4e«W • ------■j y ■ .--I ¥ »r ‘r r t r,rf— r """' i l / ri t 7. .7— 9 -1— !— 1—1— I— u - T ■ r -

Uftei , j , JT. J

•

■

K . .... X • - 175 element of variety but also adds to the rhythmic drive that is a major aspect of the entire movement.

Throughout the movement, Lambert combines rhythms that are con­

gruent vith the prevailing meter vith others that are conflicting. The

most notable and prevalent example of this procedure combines a rhythm

in the melody that is clearly in 3/k vith a chordal accompaniment

suggestive of 6/J* vith duple subdivisions (Exanple 29). This type of

rhythmic manipulation is also a characteristic of Romeo and Juliet.

Example 29* Courante, measures 1*5-148.

The c en ter o f in te r e s t in the actio n o f the movement la th e god

Vertumnus and the progress of Ms advances upon Pomona. It is approp­ riate that the music have a strong dynamic quality to match the robust masculinity of Vertumnus. The music, in a three-part form vlth rondo­ like subdivisions, provides an excellent vehicle to encompass the various details of the action yhile maintaining a clear focus on the 176 major points of that action. There are three major events in the

plot — the entrance and general chase "by Vertumnus and his hand,

Pomona's rejection of him and his ensuing melancholy, and finally his

renewed determination after the rejection. Each of these three eventB

take place in one of the large divisions of the form.

Musically, the first section includes two themes that have a

playful hut masculine character. This section accommodates the numerous " p u rs u its ” o f th e nymphs by th e im m ortals.

An abrupt change of mood and key signals the beginning of the

center section. The entire passage is harmonically unstable. A nev, * plaintive theme (Example 30) is presented In E minor, A minor, and

finally A-flat minor and although the accompaniment generally supports these tonalities, added dissonances blur clear tonal definition. Even •

cadences preceeded by passages of dominant preparation are incon­ clusively resolved. The music of this B section is appropriate to

Pomona's rejection of VertumnuB and his chagrin at her withdrawal from

him. As Vertumnus recovers and resumes his strong poBture, the am­ bivalent and tenuous character of the music giveB way to the third section which begins vith forceful restatements of the opening theme.

The third movement of the ballet consists of a Paatorale accom­ panying Pomona*8 return in a solo dance expressing her sense of isolation. The movement, only forty bars long, reflects the simpli­ city of the action and the single emotion of loneliness. 3y reducing the orchestration to one player per part in the strings and woodwinds, and by using a counterpuntal fora, Lambert succeeds in avoiding comp­ lexity and focuseB attention on a single mood. 177 Example 30* Courante, measures 75-83.

uiiyLii § = M

Hi II I N i i

I ^ —\ g— * ± FLr-T=r=at v * J I" 1 f U- tI:----- i i •j V'J" M l i ..1“F== aM d-:=fc=rf—

= p N ^ — | f - f - | jf— r ri— i <3; a u s | f r |

In the first part of the ABA. form, the subject (Example 31) is linked to two countersubjects. The first (Example 32) functions as a melodic counterpart to the subject and shares common rhythmic patterns.

Example 31. Pastorale, measures 1-3. 178 Example 32. P a s to ra le , measures 3-5*

The second countersubject (Example 33) consists of a sequential motive vhoBe contour and phrasing creates a feeling of 12/8 across the har lines in the given time signature of I*A.

Example 33* Pastorale, measures 12-lb.

(fubjtitj

II \WM

In the center of the movement, Iambert abandons the UBe of counter­ point and presents an episode based on tvo short melodies (Example 3b).

The episode la tonally organized and harmonically based on a dominant- . seventh G chord. Although movement towards the tonic C is implied, the passage and the section end vith a return of the subject in stretto re­ petitions on G, B-flat, A, B-flat and finally A. The rapid fluctuation 179 Example 3b. Pastorale, measures 20-23.

TOM

9 g g = mf

of harmonic centers creates ambiguity as to vhere the harmonic wander­

ings w ill be resolved. Although the final statement of the subject in

augmentation returns to A as the harmonic center, the accompaniment

in the last two bars remains ambivalent. The relationship between music and action is quite transparent.

The movement is Bhort but concentrates almost exclusively on a single

expressive melody, just as the dance is entirely directed towards the

expression of Pomona's loneliness. To this point in the ballet, Lambert has been able to accommodate

the demands of the action vith music cast in traditional forms. Such

is not the case, however, in the fourth section of the ballet, the

Menuetto. Lambert combines six melodic passages of varying rhythm, harmony, key, and dynamics into a single movement unified by meter, 180 tempo, and overall style. The significance of this pastiche vith six melodies "becomes clearer when the action described in the libretto is divided into six individual events. The major events are as follows:

1 . The nymphs re -e n te r tim id ly b u t a re disap p o in ted to fin d the hunters gone.

2. They dance vlth melancholy.

3* They are interrupted by the return of the immortals vho are more gentle.

h. Pomona comes back quietly and unnoticed.

5. The immortals succeed in gaining favor with the nymphs.

6. The nymphs are le a d o f f one by one.

The overriding atmosphere for this frolic is gay and light, mildly tinged vith melancholy. The combination of the allegretto tempo and character of the danceable Menuetto in 3A meter contributes to the sense of gaiety vhile melancholy is evoked by a mixture of mode and melodic character.

As vas previously mentioned, the form of the movement is highly sectional and by no meanB obviously traditional. The following diagram indicates the distribution of themes as veil as the key and dynamic level of each section.

Theme a b c d e d b Measure 1 21 31 38 52 60 68 Key D maj B min D maj D/G maj E min D maj G min . Dynamics P P f f P P P mf

Theme c d f tra n s a e ' clo se Measure 78 85 92 100 108 129 137 Key B maj B min D maj E min B min Dynamics mf f mf P PP PP 181

In this movement, three themes hold special significance in terms of the action. The first, associated vlth the entry of the nymphs

(Example 3?), establishes the fpneral mood of the movement. Its re­ appearance at the end of the movement is linked to the exit of the n y m p h s in company vlth the immortals.

Example 35* Menuetto, measures 1-8.

m In contrast to this gentle passage is the exceptionally loud and forceful theme c_ (Example 36), which Is separated from the preceding m a te ria l "by the silence of the full string ensemble that presents the theme, and from the material that follows by a full stop. Hie promi­ nent use of the Btring section and the general character of the passage

Is reminiscent of the beginning of the Courante. this relationship is significant because both the in itial melody of the Courante and the third melody of the Menuetto mark the entry of the immortals. The latter melody occupies the position within the movement and has the appropriate quality to correspond to what the synopsis describes as the interruption of the dance of the nymphs by the return of the immortals.

Example 36. M enuetto, measures 30-33*

A th ird important theme (e), in the middle o f the movement, is the most delicately scored of all the themes and maintains the strongest meloncholy quality. At this point, Pomona enters unnoticed, watcbeB the activities, and is left alone at the end of the scene. The inclusion

of this music at the end of the movement establishes a definite

relationship between the theme (Example 37) and Pomona.

Example 37. Menuetto, measures 32-39.

m

ufl w i l ¥ 4 m

In the next scene, Vertumnus returns, disguised as a lady, and

successfully comforts Pomona. The music for the scene is the

PasBacaglia that vas originally part of Adam and Eve. The four-bar

ground bass (Example 38) in the key of D major has a serious, almost brooding character vhen first stated in the lov strings.

Example 38. Pasaacaglla, measures 1—U. 1814

The bass melody Is repeated six times. Beginning vith the second statement Lambert adds faster moving lyric countermelodies that flov • uninterrrupted for twenty-four bars* vith only one four-bar phrase re­ peated. The movement ends vith the last two measures of the bass theme in augmentation extended to a grandiose embellished plagal cadence.

The movement is only twenty-eight measures long. Throughout the

Passacaglla. the dynamic level continually increases from ]>£ to ff.

This gradual increase in intensity musically mirrors Vertumnus* gradual success in comforting Pomona. The sixth scene of the ballet is the general divertisBement danced by the nymphs and immortals and is given the title Rigadoon. In the reign of Louis XV* the rigadoon vas a spirited* fast dance in duple meter meant to express pure celestial Joy. In dance terminology* a pas de rigadoon is a crossing step. Lambert*s rigadoon is a 2/2 Vivace and reflects the qualities of the crossing dance step. The salient characteristic of the movement is the division of each theme into short passages that are alternated between instruments. For example, the first theme is stated completely by one desk of the violins, but in the doubling of the melody, the first part of the beginning phrase 1 b stated by the oboe* passed to the bassoon, then back to the oboe, then in succession to the flute* oboe, bassoon, and back to the oboe

(example 39). The countermelody paired vith the first theme is stated completely by the basses (Example bO), but is subjected to a similar division in the doubling parts. This crossing of parts produces a 185 light-hearted, almost humorous effect, totally In agreement vlth the character of the rigadoon.

Example 39. Rigadoon, measures 1-8.

i PP LoW ] BU hJ » * f I J | j = j i r i CoUe] Ck««N<3

Example 1*0. Rigadoon, measures 1-8.

ViAUt

C c W .l Lv‘.*UI

In measure 9, the second theme (B) of the movement in ABA form is introduced. Like the opening melody, it is light and tuneful, hut begins vith one bar in syncopated rhythm. The sparse accompaniment includes the outline of a melody, but generally it alternates betveen outlining a Gy and chord (Example 1»1). Instead of a final cadence on the tonic at the end of the eight-bar melody, the key changes to

E major, and the voodvinds take up the melody again in disjunct fashion.

A slightly embellished version of the same accompaniment 1 b performed olzzicatto by the entire string section. The expected final cadence on 1 8 6

E is elided, and a short modulatory passage based on the opening

theme follows.

Example 1+1. Rigadoon, measures 9-12. T~tT TJf m m m j mf ■1- M - l - ^ V 1 '| -t- t --- 1— y ir-r: A-.— IT ■ " * • rrlfT—M s m m

The final statement of the opening theme (A) includes the counter- melody, and although the original key of 0 major Is reestablished, the movement ends on a uniBon E.

Throughout this movement, Lambert presents the most delightful, singable tunes he has used in the ballet. This is appropriate, given the nature of the divertissement called for in the libretto. Lambert has supported the dance of the happy nymphs and immortals vith music that is light and almost frivolous in character, cleanly scored to feature the woodwinds vith delicate accompaniment by the strings.

Every element of the music has been kept uncomplicated: the melodies are well-defined and regularly phrased, the harmonic progressions are clear and follow traditional patterns, changeB of dynamic levels are gradual, and the rhythm, while varied and multi-level, falls into regularly repeated patterns that are generally congruent vith the meter. By thoughtful manipulation of musical elements, Lambert haB 187 composed a classically styled rigadoon that matches the mood and character of the divertissement.

The emotional climax of the ballet, indeed of. most narrative ballets, is the pas de deux. For this expression of love between

Pomona and Vertumnus, Lambert has molded his music into the style of a S ic ilia n a. Angus M orrison w rite s ,

Constant vas always very fond of the Sicilians. .... The strange sadness of the characteristic 6/8 rhythm, as well as the poetic associations end overtones of the name itself, had always a particular fascination for him, and in both ballets CRomeo and Juliet and Pomona! he UBed this form for the emotional core of the vork (equivalent in a ballet to the love duet in an opera); the central pas de deux for the two leading dancers. The S ic ilia n s in Pomona . . . i s a r e a l gem vith a haunting melancholy in performance far greater than the extreme simplicity of its appearance on paper would lead one to expect. The lyrical interest grows and evolves out of itself from the first bar to the last, and the Coda is a real emotional climax in which all the different musical strands are gathered up and finally resolved.30

In his collection, Morrison has a private recording of the piano per- vormance by the composer of the Sicilians from Pomona. The recording, a Christmas gift to his friends, is poor in sound quality but conveys

Lamberts deep feeling for this music.

The Sicilians is in two part form, vith three melodies, an intro­ duction and coda. Each of the melodies found in the movement is cast in the traditional rhythmic pattern of with the note value o r XfljrU. Except for brief excursions into the predominant 9/8<:the predominant meter is 6/8.

^^forrisraj, quoted in Shead, Constant Lambert, p. 68. 188

The antecedent phrase of the opening melody (Example k2)t s ta te d by the oboe, Is set against & melodic accompaniment in the flute that generally moves parallel to the theme. The consequent phrase is scored for the clarinet and oboe. The key of G minor Is clearly defined in both voices and underscored by the strings that maintain a dominant p ed al.

Example J»2. Sicilians, measures 3 -1 1 169

After a transition, the violins Introduce the second melody of the movement. This melody (Example 1*3) Is similar to the first In terms of construction and accompaniment. However, although the key remains in

0 minor, a slight harmonic conflict produced hy the Juxtaposition of melodic parts outlining movement from 1 to v with a base part moving from iv to 1, does add an interesting point of color.

Example 1*3. Sic ill an a, measures 20-23.

Vith the entrance of the third and final theme, the meter shifts to 9/8 and any hint of harmonic tension is resolved as clear iv-i progressions are found in the accompaniment (Example M ), The Boft hut sharp staccato articulation of the material presented hy the strings gives the passage a solemn intensity not found vith the other melodic passages in the movement. At the end of this section, the introduction is beard once more, and all three themes are presented in slightly abreviated versions. 190

Example M . S ic ilia n s , measures 28-31*

w m s OT I

fa r fc tfm iTgrftTf

After the tender pas de deux. the nymphs and immortals return and perform a nuptual dance. FIamen Pomonalis enters, gives his vedding benediction and receives as a relic the vomen's garment vora by

Vertumnus, The music for this JoyouB finale is titled Marcia, marked Allegro molto resoluto e pomposo and is written in li/l* meter. The form is ASCA preceeded by an Introductory fanfare. The melodic material of the movement consists of three variations of a pair of motives first stated in the bass and celli after the conclusion of the fanfare.

{Example 1*5).

Example 1*5. Marcia, measures 7~8* 191

These motivee are inverted, altered intervallically, and transposed.

Each variation begins vlth a leap and then proceeds stepvise in a sixteenth-note rhythmic pattern.

The first variation begins in measure 10. It is the most impor­ tant structurally because it is repeated in the closing section of the movement. Combined vith this melody are lesB rhythmically active accom- panlmental parts that clash harmonically but reflect the sequential characteristics of the theme.

Example U6. Marcia, measures 10-13.

r f T f i • n r f r m - r r j

1 4 - J f *

■ y i------■ 1 - J — " ~ ~ y y •' 1

s The second variation of the fundamental motives (measure 20)

does not have sequential segments but continually returns to emphasize the key note. The accompaniment In the lover strings includes further variation of the motive. As in the previous accompanimental material,

constant dissonances occur betveen its parts. At the end of six bars, the melody is repeated in the key of D major but vith the slover moving accompaniment of the first theme (Example 1*7).

Example 1*7. Marcia, measures 22-23.

The third and final variation of the motives begins in measure 1(1 over a pompous descending sc a le in h a lf-n o te s (Example 1(8). The in te n se attention focused on this entry by the louder dynamic level (ff), by the use of the full orchestra, and by an extended period of dominant preparation preceeding the theme, indicates that there is special significance to this section. The regal character of the music is

.appropriate to the moment vhen Flamen Fomonalis enters to give his benediction to the marriage couple. After ten bars, the first melody vith the original accompaniment is restated and the ballet ends vith a sharply punctuated ff cadence on D major. 193 Example 1*8. Marcia, measures 1*1-1*5.

P

ferU 1 1 ■:u <*.i >' ~ r ~ r " t....— f . =4 i — f ■ ■ H2---"fr= t-»ilj^ —r ------1 /utfe r .1 T—y r Uk.4^-—f t~~ ips-crtf' f t= 4 f .r ^• H I- 1 -1------4---J-■l-f= "PL. / tWm ^ J J f --[----- y ■" r v fl I . j [EpSS—---*— _ :_ ^ J J J

With the exception of measures 1*1-50, there Is little specific reflection of the action in the music. Certainly a correspondence of mood is evident, hut one is left without firm musical indications as to vbere the smaller details of the action occur. However, the music does satisfy the requirements of the finale for this narrative hallet by being firm and resolute in character and strongly unified in d esign . In his article on the music of Constant Lambert, Richard McCJrady s ta te s t h a t th e music fo r Pomona

is less aggressively modernistic than Romeo and Juliet and veers its learning more easily. It has a clarity of contrapuntal line and sprightly sense of melody* shaped by echoes of the 18th century, though coloured vith mild harmonic clashes vhich rise largely from the natural movement of the contra­ puntal lines. Pomona is a superior score to that for Romeo and Juliet. Not only I s i t more " tu n e fu l” , as McGrady im p lie s , b u t th e forms are more clearly defined, the harmonleB less biting and unpredictable, and the orchestration more refined and stylized. Instead of piling melody upon melody, aB he did in Romeo and Ju liet. Lambert utilizes a smaller number of clearly phrased melodies that closely parallel the mood and style of the action. He relies heavily on careful manipulation of the orchestration and harmony to make the music colorful and varied.

In term s o f c o lla b o ra tiv e p ro ce ss, Pomona must be regarded as a hybrid. All the muBic vas composed prior to being combined with the libretto. Lambert's task, once given the idea for the ballet, vaB to select and arrange that music into a score that vould mirror and/or complement the action. Therefore, the score 1 b a cross between a newly composed vork and an arranged vork. Perhaps because he could work in harmony with the lib re ttist, Lambert vas able to securely mesh music and action.

3lMcGrady, "The Music of Constant Lambert," p. 2M. 195 Horoscope (1938)

In the summer of 1937* Lambert, his vife Florence, their son, and

Frederick Ashton were Invited to the home of Raimond von Hoftaannsthal,

son of Hugo von Hofmannsthal, the poet, dramatist, and collaborator vith Richard Strauss, vith the idea that Lambert and Ashton vould vork

on the projected ballet Horoscope. The occasion did not prove immed­

iately fruitful oving to the unexpected arrival of the host and to the

friction betveen Lambert and his vife. Shortly thereafter, Mrs.

Lambert was sent back to England leaving Lambert and ABhton to get on vith the ballet. The l i b r e t t o fo r th e b a ll e t i s Lam bert's own. The synopsis as

given in the piano score is as follovs:

When people are bom they have the sun in one sign of the zodiac and the moon in another. This ballet takes for its theme a men vho has the sun in Leo and the moon in Gemini, and a voman vho also has the moon in Gemini but vhose sun is in Virgo. The tvo opposed.*: sign S' ofuLeo and V irgo, the one energetic and full-blooded, the other timid and sensitive, struggle to keep the man and voman a p a rt. I t i s by t h e i r m utual sig n , the Gemini, that they are brought together and by the moon that they are finally united.32

Ashton said that the composer regarded the Btory of Horoscope as

autobiographical and identified himself vith the character of L e o .33

3^Constant Lambert, Horoscope, piano arrangement by the composer (London: Oxford University Press, 1936), preface. , i 33prederick A shton, lntervlev in his home, London, Januaxy 8, 1975. 196 On another occasion, Ashton verified that astrology and mysticism

vere subjects of interest to Lambert.

... he had an enormous interest in ... astrology, Yes he vas tremendously Interested in all that and he himself vas born under Leo and therefore he brought all these elements, characteristics of Leo his personal elements ... I mean it Horoscope had underneath the story a great element, a private element to it vhich possibly gave it a certain kind of. intensity in the conception of the vhole th in g . 3**

But Lambert's personality vas not completely dominated by charac­

teristics of Leo. Cecil Gray, a cloBe friend of Lambert, describes

him as fo llo v s:

... a disconcerting blend of the most opposite extremes imaginable — a fin de siecle Frenchman vith morbid faisandes tastes, and a bluff and hearty roast-beef-and Yorkshire Englishman: Baudelaire and Henry Fielding combined. Purcell and Satie ... This schizophrenic Manichean am­ bivalent dicotomy 1b attributed by its some- vhat ... harasBed possessor to the fact that the date of his birth coincides horoscopicolly vith th e moment o f th e change from the Zodiac sign o f Leo to th a t o f V i r g o .^5

This overly vordy, romanticized statement is in general agreement vith

the most common assessments of Lambert's personality offered by his

contemporaries.

The history of collaboration in Horoscope 1 b somewhat confused.

In one interview', Ashton recalled:

... vith Horoscope, I must B a y i t v s b e n tir e ly his [Lambert's] own conception, his own creation.

^ F r e d e ric k Ashton, in terv iew on The Mub I c Workshop." BBC television transcript, January, 1967.

35cecil Gray, "Constant Lambert," My Musical Chairs (London: Home and van Thai, 19^8), p. 290. 197 I didn't interfere at all in that and he pre­ sented it to me ast as a thing and I set to vork on it. But usually I collaborated vith him much, much cloBer than that ...3°

However, in another interview, Ashton stated that he gave Lambert the

time for the "rather Puccini-ish melody in the F i n a l e . ^7 G iv en the

time they spent together at von Hofmannsthal's home working on the

ballet, Ashton's first statement is most probably in reference to the

development of the idea or concept of the vork rather than to either

the composition of the music or the working out of production details.

From interviews with dancers, David Vaughan, Ashton's bio­

grapher, learned that the performers recognized a potential for great­

ness in Horoscope.

... there vas a general air of seriousness about the rehearsals of Horoscope, as though everyone knew that they were engaged in the creation of a major vork of greater depth than anything Ashton had hitherto attempted. It vas not an easy ballet for him; the score presented some problems (he felt the Sarabande vas rather static and repetitive) and also he found it difficult to portray the tension between Leo and Virgo characteristics In dance terms. To some extent it vas embodied in the cboroegraphy for the corps de ballet, the men representing the followers of Leo and the vomen the followers of V irgo.30

The muBic for the ballet can be found in two forms. The piano arrangement by the composer vas printed in 1938 and includes music for the whole vork. In spite of numerous statements that the full score

36Ashton, interview, January 1967. 37Ashton, interview, January 8, 1975.

3®Vaughan, Frederick Ashton, p. l6 l. 198

vas l o s t , 39 this author requested and received a copy of an autograph

full score at Oxford University Press bearing the composer's initials

in h is s ty liz e d monogram ( ) dated January, 1938. **0 Hand w ritten

directions addressed to the printer and copyist are given throughout

the score. Conducting notations are written in the score in a hand

that is not Lambert's. The copy of the score lacks the seventh number

and bears on the title page the instructions to use the Valse of the

Gemini from the printed orchestral suite from Horoscope.

The firBt performance of the ballet took place in Sadler's Wells

T heatre in London on January 27th , 1938. Making h is debut in a major

ro le vas M ichael Somes as The Young Man, w hile Margot Fonteyn, to whom

the score is dedicated, danced as The Young Woman.

The ballet was a success, receiving an ovation and twenty curtain

calls as well as the acclaim of the critics. It vas praised not only

for its dancing and choreography, but also for its musical score.

P.W. M anchester s ta te d :

Lambert's Horoscope might be used as a model for a ballet score. It has its own interest, but never intrudes or claims first attention. Hie changes of mood come at exactly the right time so that they flow imperceptibly vith the action. ^

The ballet vas not to have a long performance record, as it became

a victim of the German invasion of Holland in 19^0. In their frantic

39por example, Mary Clarke reported that the orchestral score, the only one in existence was lost. cf. Clarke, Sadler's Wells, p. 137•

^Constant Lambert, Horoscope, full score, unpublished manuscript copy, held by Oxford University Press, London. ^P.W. Manchester, The Vic-Wells: A Ballet Progress (London: Victor Gollanz, 19^7)* P* 80. 199 efforts to escape the bombs and bullets of the Invading Germans, the ballet company, on tour In Holland, vas forced to leave behind the sets, costumes, and music for Horoscope. The Hake’s Progress. Check­ mate, Dante Sonata. Facade. and Les Patineurs. The legend that the full score vas loBt is often cited as the reason why the vork vas never performed again. Hovever, as Btated above, this legend is vith­ ou t foundation. The ballet opens vith a prelude, entitled Palindrome. Lambert stated that the movement vas dictated posthumously by his close friend and f e llo v composer B ernard van Dieren (188U—1936). Humphrey S earle

Insists that Lambert did tell him about van Dieren's dictation of the movement and Searle accepted thiB unlikely tale as f a c t . Although the veracity of Lambert's statement is certainly suspect, the

Palindrome is quite out of the ordinary in terms of anything else that he ever vrote. The Palindrome has a brooding "nysterioBo" quality, under­ standable in view of the purported circumstances of its creation. The movement is marked piano throughout vith the additional directive that the music is to be performed Molto sostenuto ma aenza eBpresBione. The use of even quarter-notes in U/U, muteB on the strings, and a basic tvo-bar melodic pattern are elements that remain constant throughout th e movement. The music evokes a Bense o f eerie mysticism appropriate to a ballet built around the characterizations derived from astrology.

^Angus Morrison, interviev in his home, London, October 26, 1971** 200

Ihe first TuO** of the movement Includes two statements of the melody (Example 1(9), one beginning on B-flat and one beginning on E in an ABA arrangement. The material is presented in retrograde in the second half of the movement.

Example 1»9* Palindrome, measures 1-U.

~1 ft •>*•%**«

SB

The only changing element of this music is the harmony, which consists of two different patterns that accompany the single melody of the movement. When the melody beginB on B -flat, the accampanyment consists predominately of embellished minor chords for the first state* ment and embellished major chords for the second statement. When the melody begins on E, the final note of the preceding melodic group, the harmony is again divided into units of eight beats and seven beatB, as demonstrated in Example 50* Despite the fact that the intervals

Example 50. Palindrome, measures U-8,

[milt* xtiKd* m , -g —i j 11, rfriju ' '>1 "i - tf

™ | f T n 201

In the basB form dissonant combinations vith the treble, the

predominance of major 3rds gives the music a major cast but vithout

a fixed tonal center.

The first movement of the ballet designed to accompany the dance

is titled Dance for the Followers of Leo. According to astrological

tradition, a person born under the sign of Leo is an energetic, full-

blooded lea d er — a lio n among men. The music fo r th is movement

accurately depicts these characteristics.

The foundation of Lambert's musical interpretation of the leonine

character is an extremely active rhythmic fabric. In the midst of a

variety of patterns, the germinal rhythmic motive J. s y j appears as the basis for the most prominent rhythms In the movement including

the following variants: i.a j iiji n vi* j rpyjpn k/uj7f/j wnrrrnfipn

These rhythmic patterns have the effect of dividing a bar in k/k m eter

into two units of 3/8 and one of 2/8.

The movement 1 b organized into three parts, vith an introduction

and codetta. The center section is separately titled "Solo for Young

Hen." Each unit of the movement is a composite grouping of short melodic phrases generally no more than tvo-bars long that proceed one to another vithout transition or development. The music is extremely

energetic, and almost every phrase contains Bide melodic leapB, marked

accents and vigorous syncopation. The driving character is reenforced by the heavy orchestration and punctuated by use of a large complement of percussion instruments. Every aspect of the music corresponds to

the expectations of a male ensemble dance and effectively supports the

strong character of Leo portrayed in the movement.

Throughout the movement, the music alternately suggests a march

(Example 51 and Example 52), or a dance of Latin American character

(Example 53). The character of the latter Is accentuated by the use

of either castanets or tambourine.

Example 51* Dance of the Followers of Leo, measures 1*9—50•

{Alleys

w m

i

Example 52* Dance of the Followers of Leo, measures 7^-79.

» r t X 203

Example 53. Dance for the Followers of Leo, measures 59-62.

The movement provides a good example o f Lam bert's understanding o f the nature of ballet and of his ability to write music specifically designed to support the clear expression of the dance. Each major dance event is signalled by a passage in the music that creates a

Bense of anticipation. The rhythmic pattern JT53 J3 77 is the signal used when the curtain is raised, just prior to the Solo for the Young Nan, at the end of the solo, and at the conclusion of the codetta. The man's solo is further identified as a separate unit by a sudden shift from full orchestral scoring to a unison passage for boms and celli. After isolating the young man from his peers, for the purpose of denoting importance, Lambert immediately indicates that the man is kindred to his peers by weaving a previously stated melodic passage vith material from the solo to create a homogeneous context for the action. 20U After having Introduced the strong masculine rollovers of Leo,

Lambert presents the female ensemble in the Saraband for the Followers

of Virgo. The use of a saraband to accompany the followers, des­

cribed In the libretto as timid and sensitive, is particularly In­

spired because the saraband is a dance of sensuous grace. The music

for the movement is in sharp contrast to the martial flair of the

preceding movement and in clear agreement vith the mood of the action.

The movement is in 3/** in the tempo Andante espreBSlvo. Its lyric melodies are organized in regular eight-bar phrases identified both by

changes of theme and key. Paralleling the design of the preceding movement, the center section is separately titled "Solo for Young

Women,” In the outer divisions of the form, each having an internal

structure of abaca, melodies harmonized in parallel thirds and BixthB

over an even eighth-note accompaniment alternate vith melodies harmon­

ized in sim ilar fashion but over a slower moving chordal accompaniment.

As indicated by the description of the internal structure, the emphasis

is placed on the opening melody (a) of the followers of Virgo

(Example 5*0* Every restatement of this melody is presented p sempre legato in contrast to the louder dynamics of the material vith which it alternates.

As in the previous dance, Lambert carefully isolates the solo section from the surrounding material by an in itial change of orches­ tration.. But instead of integrating all aspects of the music, including melody as he had done before, Lambert avoids any reference to the solo theme (Example 55) in the solo division of the movement and maintains the isolation of the solo and , as a result, the 205 character of the young voman. This treatment is the first demon­

stration of the struggle between the two opposing forces to keep the man and woman separate alluded to in the synopsis.

Example 5U. Dance for the Followers of Virgo, measures 1-8.

i a

1 ~ f ± T 7

------/ I M , F % = * = / i J j L i — t p f ------r a n n i f r . j . i * . ' • ■ J I M I I I p L

Example 5?* Dance fo r th e Follow ers of V irgo, measures l«l—1«8 •

I The character of the two protagonists is further developed in the

next two movements of the ballet. The Variation for the Man. narked

Allegro pesante. again reenforces the virile, energetic quality of

the Leo man. The rhythm and form of the music are ideally suited to

the enchalnement normally Included in male variations. The masculine

quality of the music is not merely a product of the energy and

activity of the rhythmic patterns but of the conspicuous use of points

of reBt and patterns of accent and ff dynamics as well. More than in any other event in dance, In male pyrotechnlcal variations,one is made aware that the music must allow for the preparation, execution, and

conclusion or elision of a dance movement. Ihe opening phrase of the variation 1 b a good example of the balance between rhythmic elements needed to accompany a male variation {example 56).

Example 56 . Variation for the Man, measures 1-8. 207

Lambert's variation music exhibits a number of other traits that make it ideally suited to the type of dance. Because he recog- nized the physical demands a solo dance places upon the dancer, Lambert limited the duration of the music for the variation. The number of melodic ideas is also limited. The form is A-B-C-B-A vith a codetta based on the Becond melody.

The Variation for the Woman, which follows immediately, stands in stark contrast to that for the man and reaffirms the character of the Virgo woman. The melodic content of the variation is, for the most part, extracted from the Trio of the Dance for the Followers of

Virgo set over a new rhythmic and harmonic framework in U/U m ater

(Example 57)*

Example 57. Variation for the Woman, measures l-l4t

In the female variation, one normally expects a combination of elegant ports de bras with steps that emphasize balance and line, or conversely, enchalnements consisting of petit battement. turns, or other steps that involve fast, light footwork. The music for Lambert's female variation indicates that the dance combines both the elegant and the soubrette styles. The line of demarcation between the two is clearly defined by the alternation of Andante molto eBpresslve in 208 U/U meter (Example 57) vith Allegretto piacevole In 6/8 (Example 58).

Although the shift from one style to another Is veil marked, the con­

stancy of the soft dynamic level and light orchestration and texture provides the necessary homogeneity to make the movement a vell- integrated unit.

Example 58. Variation for the Woman, measures 12-15*

* ______1 lrv h i _____ b i - ______A ______l e £ l

Because this alternation of tenqpi Is unusual in music for a female variation, one may speculate that its inclusion is due to the needs of the plot development. Heretofore, the Young Woman has been linked to music that emphasized the introspective character in con­ trast to the open boisterousness of the music for the Leo man. The

Allegretto piacevole section is the first musical indication that the character of the Virgo voman may include an element of vitality vhich can provide a bond to the character of the young Leo man. The need to establish some aspects of commonality betveen the two main characters provides a reasonable explanation for Lambert's use of two contrasting sections in the variation.

After the solo sections, the music assumes an almost sinister n * quality in the introduction to the Bacchanale for the Followers of Leo, 209

That this music* marked Allegro barbaro. is for the Foil overs of Leo

is lm edlately established by the reintroduction of the melody first heard in the "Solo for the Young Man." However* the most definitive link is the pervasive use of the rhythmic motive J.JU J and i t s variant* borrowed from the Dance for the Followers of Leo.

Vi* r m j m u/uj.fjjtj j- ip?) Wk JTTi J- CT 7 J

There is* in fact, very little new material in the Bacchanale. Fully two-thirds of the movement's material can be traced to the second* movement* although Lambert is highly creative in altering the metric context* rhythmic patterns* and mode of the material. With the ex­ ception of a three-bar triplet and a quarter-note phrase used in the outer portions of the ABA plus coda form* and a new theme in the

B section* all other material is either a direct quotation or altered extraction from the second movement. Even the B section makes use of variants of the germinal rhythmic motive. Like the first male en­ semble dance* the Bacchanale contains melodic material suggestive of a L atin American dance. The melody found in th e c e n te r o f th e movement

(Example 59) is accompanied by maracaB* tambourines*, and harp that contribute to the Latin American flavor of the passage. The instru­ mentation* softer dynamics* and the character of the melody help define the boundaries of a section which is a colorful specimen of evocative w ritin g . 210

Example 59* Bacchanale, measures U 3-1*7. .tit! i

Many elements contained in the music for the Bacchanale lend themselves veil to choreographic interpretation. For example, the quick changes of dynamics, orchestration, and texture afford the choreographer the opportunity to mix sections for the entire ensemble vith shorter sections for fever dancers, thereby creating a varied texture in the dance. Similarly, frequent changes of mode facilitate the expression of a vide range of emotions or moods that permit the establishment of individual characterizations vlthin an ensemble con­ text. On a more technical level, a variation of the main theme of the

A section shovB hov Lambert built choreographic possibilities into * the music (Example 60).

Example 60. Bacchanale, measures 116-119* 211 The use of a rest before the dotted quarter-note establishes a strong

upbeat fe e lin g a t th e beginning o f each phrase. The dance movement

strongly Implied by this construction is a preparation for a Jump on

the rest, the execution on the dotted quarter and eighth-notes, and

the recovery on the fourth beat, the secondary accent of the bar.

Because Lambert understood both the nature of ballet and characteris­

tics of its component steps, he vas able to conpose music that

complemented the action, established an appropriate mood, and also

suggested movement. After the almost pagan frenzy of the Bacchanale Blovly dies, the

characters of the twin Gemini, representing the common point between

the young man and voman, are introduced in the Valse for the Gemini.

One constructional aspect of the music, inspired by the duplicate

characters of the Gemini, is an obvious parallelism in the harmoniz­

ation of melodies. In lighter textured sections, vhere melody and

accompaniment are clearly distinct, the melody is usually paralleled

by a second voice a third lover. In more heavily scored passages,

parallel triads in Inversion are the norm.

In thlB movement, each o f the three melodies contains eight-bar

periodB vith antecedent and consequent phrases. The first melody

(Example 6l), stated by pairs o f v io lin s and c la r in e ts, forms the b asis

for a major portion o f the movement. The second melody (Example 62),

i s o f sim ilar ly r ic a l qu ality but haB a gentler rhythm and a d elica te

orchestral accompaniment. The la s t major theme i s of a sig n ific a n tly

different character owing to its marcato articulation and the use of notes tied over the bar-line producing shifts and conflicts between 3fU and 3/2 (Example 6l). The effect produced Is that of a French valse a deux temps.

Example 6l. Valse, measures 9-16 .

S g , ri'"' ' -t < I l? It ,7 1

Example 62. Valse, measures 29-36.

Example 63. Valse, measures 81—61|

The three main melodies are presented in an ABACACABA form vhich, despite an apparent symmetry, is not accurately reduced to a three-part form. Lambert beginB each statement vith sufficient material to identify the melody and then provides altered consequent phrases that either expand on the antecedent phrase or radically depart from it.

Each variation is accompanied by changes of hey, orchestration, and 213 dynamics leading to a climactic fortissimo restatement of the opening

theme.

The dramatic and emotional climax of any hallet is usually the

* pas de deux. It is the culmination and resolution of the plot llneB

and the moment of union of the main characters. It is usually the most

touching and beautiful dance of a ballet. In Horoscope, the Young man

and Young Voman openly express their affection for each other and

subjugate the extremes of their astrological characters.

Lambert's music for the duet is functional but the least musically

Interesting piece of the ballet. It is one of the four sections

Lambert omitted from the concert suite from the ballet. The movement, marked Adagio amoroso (non troppo lento). 1 b in th re e s e c tio n s . The

outer sections are linked more by a common bass ostlnato, tempo, and

shared rhythmic patterns than they are by thematic unity. Although both sections, especially the last one, rise and fall in volume and intesity, and are in a style appropriate to a pas de deux, there is nothing that identifies the music with Lambert's style of writing or with this particular ballet.

The center of the dance does, however, clearly link the music to the ballet by quoting passages from the Valse. the Solo for Young Woman, and the Variation for the Man. The ValBc theme, stated in repeated sixteenth- notes (Example 6U), is found beneath the Woman's theme (Example 65 ) and above the Man's theme (Example 66). One can hardly miss the symbolism

Inherent in the construction of thiB section. Gemini 1b the common sign shared by the masculine Leo and the feminine Vergo. Lambert further draws attention to this construction by scoring the woman's music in the 211* treble with eapresslvo articulation and the male melody In the bass with marcato -articulation.

Example 61*. Pas de deux, measure 29*

m

Example 6?. Pas de deux, measures 31-32,

Example 66. Pas de deux, measures 33—3*4*

The title of the final movement of Horoscope. Invocation to the

Moon and Final Tableau, succinctly describes both the action of the dance and the mood of the music. Musically, the Invocation consists of 215 a fanfare-like call for pairs of woodwinds followed by two series of

parallel thirta in contrary motion stated by the strings vith a short

but ominous comment by the tympani. The progression of chords in the

strings is reminiscent of, but not drawn from the Palindrome that

began the work. The Invocation continues with an Andante tranculllo passage whose melody (Example 67 ) recallB the second theme of the

V alse.

Example 67 . Invocation, measures 2l*-29.

w f T f r j . 1 u jq

The Final Tableau is based almost entirely on the "rather Puccini-

ioh melody" Ashton gave (supra p.197) to Lambert (Example 68). From its beginning statement, marked p ma sonore. amoroso e legato, the theme grows in intensity and volume until it reaches the ffff climax fourteen bars from the end of the work accompanied by full orchestra

Including a flurry of harp glissandos and arpeggios. In each repeti­ tion, the theme remains in its original version, clearly defined over a constantly changing accompaniment.

Example 68. Final Tableau, measures M-U6. Viewed In its entirety, the score for Horoscope Is the best

original score Lambert produced. Each of the other ballets contains

elements of a successful ballet score but is marred by an imbalance, lack of significant originality, or mismanagement of material. In

Horoscope, the organization is succinct, form and harmony are veil

controlled, and the music demonstrates a mature avarenesB of the

different styleB of music appropriate to the various kinds of dances.

The theme of variety within unity, which is the essential premise of the plot, is clearly the premise of the music as well. The individual­ ity of each set of characters is given clear interpretation in the music as a distinct entity, yet is brought into harmonic concord by meanB of rhythmic and melodic motive found to be common points among diverse sections.

Lambert's choice and use of rhythms is more controlled in Horoscope than in the ballets discussed previously. Although there 1 b a vide variety of rhythms and rhythmic textureB, the frequent appearance of what has been described as the germinal rhythmic motive in various tempi, meters, and contexts gives a tight focuB to the rhythmic content of the vork. There is less conflict between rhythmic patterns and given metric organizations. Unique to Horoscope 1 b the Latin American flavor, which grew out of Lambert's fondneBB for music and dance from t h is a re a . Perhaps the greatest contrast between Horoscope and Lambert's other original ballets Ues in the melodic content of the vork. A greater proportion of the melodieB are singable, memorable tunes. For the most part, Lambert abandoned melodieB composed of repeated two- or three-note 2 1 7 motives spanning a limited range with little character to distinguish them from the accompaniment. Instead, the motives are longer and fever in number and are orgainzed into more regular phrases.

Although all the muBic of Horoscope is never heard, it and the ballet have not been forgotten. When asked which of Lambert's ballets he would choose to revive, Ashton replied:

... I think I would choose Horoscope because I think it was really a complete dialectic story which was completely comprehensible and completely within the lim its of what the ballet can really portray. I think the. musical score is by far the beBt that he did.^

Tlreslas (1951)

Constant Lambert ' b last ballet TireBlas had been in h iB mind fo r twenty years sb demonstrated by the fact that he proposed the idea of the ballet to the Camargo Society when he vas still their conductor.

The proposed ballet vas rejected because the plot dealt with sex changes and copulation between snakes!^5 The ballet vas offered to

Sadler's Wells in 1950 and it vas accepted. Funding for the production vas received from a commission from the Arts Council for the Festival of Britain. On the basis of information received from Robert Irving,

Shead reports that "the original idea was to produce a thirty -minute satirical piece (perhaps on the line of thoBe 'send-ups* of classical mythology bo beloved by FVench dramatists) . Indeed, an early version of the libretto given to Ashton would seem to support a comic

» ^Ashton, interview, January, 1967*

^Shead, Constant Lambert, p. 163*

**gI b id . 218 1(7 Interpretation, ‘but Isabel Rawsthorae insists that the intent' vas " J.Q not comic, hut serious and in agreement with the final form. What finally emerged vas a heavy dramatic work, totally devoid of humor, that lasted over sn hour. Lambert devoted the last year of his life to writing the ballet, which vas not completed until the night of dress rehearsal. The final form of the libretto, as written by the composer, reads as follows:

Scene I In Crete, There lies the Scene. Young g i r ls in a gymnasium are attem pting to somersault over the horns of a bull. The youthful Tiresias enterB and displays his superior prowess. The young girlB leave in mockezy. Tiresias executes a dance of athletic triumph. He is joined by his warrior friendB who pay him homage. Their dance is Interrupted by a young Neophyte who tells him that priestes­ ses vlBh to give him a wand of honour. He accepts it with reluctance and is left alone. Two snakes enter. TireBias strikes the female with his wand and is transformed into a woman.

Scene II In the Mountains. Tiresias, now a woman, is discovered alone. She is joined by a group of Bhepherds and shep­ herdesses but the shepherds do not appeal to her. From behind a statue appears a stranger. They fall in love. The shepherds and shep­ herdesses celebrate the happiness of Tiresias and her lover. The Neophyte re-enters with the wand and the bacchanale is Interrupted by the presence of two snakes. Tiresias Btrikes the male snake with her wand and is changed back t o a man.

Ij7 The reader is invited to refer to Appendix B.

It 8 Isab el Ravsthorne, interview in her home, Cambridge, November 8, 197b. 219

Scene III A Palace. Zeus, the God, and Hera, the Goddess are disputing the relative happiness of the two sexes each maintaining that the other is the happier of the tvo. Tiresias is called upon for a decision. He states firmly that he preferred his life as avoman. Hera, furious at being contradicted strikes Tiresias blind* Zeus as , recompense gives Tiresias the gift of prophecy.

In an effort to finish the vork on time, a number of Lambert's

colleagues assisted him vlth the scoring. These people included

Denis Aplvor, Robert Irving, Christian Darnton, Humphrey Searle,

Gordon Jacob, Alan Rawsthorne, and Elizabeth Lutyens. One of these

friends, Aplvor, explained: "He gave full directions, and ve just vrote it out for him."50 orchestra included voodvinds, brass, a

large complement of percussion, piano, cello and bass. Ho upper Btrings vere included.

Chief among the collaborators vere Frederick Ashton, as choreo­

grapher, and Lambert's vife Isabel, as set designer. Ashton had not

anticipated nor approved of the grovth of the ballet from a half'-to

a full hour and and tried on numerous occasions to institute cutB, but to no avail.5* Lambert vas intractable and persistent in vriting the hour-long score. Hot until after the first performance vere any cutB made, but by then it vas too late to affect the critical reception of th e vork.

^Vaughan, Frederick Ashton, p. 1*23.

5®Aplvor, quoted in Shead, Constant Lambert, p. 161*.

^ A sh to n , in terv iew , January 8 , 1975* 220

Not only the length hut also the style of the music and libretto vere problematic for Ashton. The conclusion can be drawn that the 4 collaborative partnership betveen Lambert and Ashton was not an equal one at this time, but vas weighted towards the composer in matters of style, design, and character. It would also appear that because of the deep friendship the two men shared, there was an unwillingness on

Ashton's part to fully exercise hiB perogatives as choreographer and collaborator hy insisting upon revisions, cuts, and stylistic altera­ tions . Ashton choreographed Tiresias out of a sense of loyalty and duty to his friend. Davis Vaughan records that Ashton

had to call on all the resources of his profes­ sionalism, to say nothing of his loyalty, to realize his friend ' b conception and made a con­ scientious effort to find an appropriate cho­ reographic style. But Ashton was not by temperament f it te d to devise the kind of actions Lambert visualized for the outer scenes of the ballet ... Ashton found the third scene, the dispute between Zeus and his conBort particularly difficult to trans­ la te in to movement, and was fin a lly reduced to giving them a series of more or leBs unintel­ ligible hieratic gestures: the result vas, inevitably absurd — like an opera without singing. Only in the second scene did the dramatic structure and its implications draw from Ashton choreography of a really personal nature.52

This assessment of Ashton's choreography is echoed in several other sources by eye-witnesses, but most succinctly stated ty Cyril

Beaumont. He wrote: I find the movement devised for the girl athletes uninspired. According to the synopsiB they should

52yaughan, Frederick Ashton, pp. 253-25^. 221 somersault over the hull's horns, vhich they do not do ... There is an effective Llfaresque boIo for 8ernes hut the dances of the Warriors pleases me less. The pas de deux of the tvo snakes is most ingenious hut their lovemaking I find repugnant to vltn esB . The principal event in Scene II is the pas de deux for TlresiaB and her lover. This contains some lovely moments and the leap is moBt exciting. The final scene is mainly mime and overlong. 53

Mary Clarke, also an observer and critic, vrote:

Ashton dutifully created an hour of choreography to go v ith i t CLambert's m usicl hut in sp iration seemed to Hag and moBt of the hallet vas no more than honest craftsmanship, adequate tasteful, and completely u n in terestin g.

The first performance took place on July 9th, 1951 at a Gala vith the Queen Mother in attendance. In the role of Tiresias-male vas

Michael Somes and in the role of Tiresias-female vas Margot Fonteyn.

The hallet vas received vithout enthusiasm and quickly came under attack. Most notable among the detractors vere Richard Johnson and

Richard Buckle, vho used such vords in their revievs as "Boring, idiotic, interminable, pointless, and vulgar" to describe their reactions to the performance. In reply to these revievs, Oshert Sitvell Btated,

"In my opinion, and that of other people qualified to judge, TircBias

Is the moBt interesting and complete of recent modern balletB (and by recen t, I mean to indicate vorkB of the last fifteen years )."55 The critics' vie vs and adverse comments soon reflected not only on the

53cyril Beaumont, B allets of Today (London; Putnam, 1951*)» pp. 28-29.

5^Clarke, Sadler's Wells, p. 261*. 222 quality of Tiresias but also on personalities and policies vlthln the

Royal Ballet organization at the time* The var of words continued for well over a month, creating hitter feelings that are still evident today. The fact that Lambert died a month after the first performance and the ensuing revievs of it contributed to the ill-w ill between all p a r tie s .

The score for TlreslaB is unpublished and remains the property of the Royal Opera House* The full score, the one from which Lambert conducted, is written in the hands of Lambert and the seven others who completed the orchestration. It is filled vith paste-overs, cuts marked with slashes of "VI-de," notations for beat patterns, notes to watch specific performers, and other comments regarding the production. The score is signed by Constant Lambert and dated July,

1951. The library of the Royal Opera House also contains an incomplete f a i r copy o f T ire sia s in an unknown hand. The f a i r copy begins on page 30 of the complete Bcore six bars after rehearsal mark M and ends at the Interlude of Act I. The copy resumes with the first two pagsB of Act II and then skips to the last four pages at the end of the act.

The last act is completely included in the fair copy, Incorporating all the-cuts and deletions marked in the original autograph score.

The score of Tiresias is unified by motives and themes that are directly associated vith characters and situations in the manner of leitmotlves for purposes of identification and recall throughout the ballet. In most instances, after first occurrences, the themes and motives are repeated vith only slight alterations of rhythm or, 223

more rarely, melodic structure. The character Tiresias is associated

vith one motive as a male character and vith a different theme as a

female character, hut the underlying bisexual conflict is constantly

symbolized by the Interval of the tritone. First found in measure 10

as an F-sbarp pedal against a C major chord, this tritone relationship is pervasive but most powerfully dominant at climatic moments in the b a ll e t .

A large proportion of the total melodic content of the vork is

first presented in the Introduction to Act I. The movement opens vith vhat Shead describes as a "motto theme" in the trombones.56 The rising

tritone in the first bar and descending l*th in the second bar are

found or suggested throughout the melodic and aocompanimental material

of most of the score but especially vithin Acts I and III (Example 69).

Example 69* Act I, Introduction, measures 2-3?^

The second theme of the introduction is presented in unison by the entire voodvlnd Bection. It is generally associated vith climac­ tic moments and moments of triumph for Tiresias (Example TO).

5?A11 examples are drawn from Constant Lambert, Tiresias. full score, unpublished manuscript and fair copy, held by the Royal Opera House, London! Example 70. Act I t Introduction, measures 6-lb. Woodwind theme

12— * H f - - w K L iV I

B SfFff

The last phrase of the theme (measures 12-lU) Is a compressed version of

the first phrase. The former, stated hy the hornB, follows the general

contour and rhythmic design of the latter, although diminution is used

in the horn phrase. ThlB phrase often occurs independent of the rest

of the woodwind theme and w ill he referred to as the horn theme. The pattern of parallel thirds ascending hy thirds at the end of the phrase appears Independently as a motive associated with Tiresias. 235

In measure 20, Lambert Introduces a theme that is later associated

vith Tiresias-female (Example 71)* B|y accompanying this material, here

Identified as the feminine theme, vith conjunct chromatic material

suggestive of the muBic for the amorous snakeB, th e composer estab- lishes a relationship between Tiresias end the characters vhose

appearance precipitates his dramatic sexual changes. Although the

feminine theme and snake material occur simultaneously in the Introduc­

tion, they later appear independent of each other.

Example 71. Act I, Introduction, measures 21-2h. Feminine theme.

The most prevalent motive of the score is found in the bora and

cello parts (measures 27-28). The motive is used in almost every

scene and acts as an ostinato or individual statement, as part of the

accompaniment, or as a full and bombastic declaration after one of the

several climactic moments in Tiresias* epic. In future references, the motive w ill be identified as the feroce motive, so-called because of Lambert's performance notation associated vith it (Example 72).

Example 72. Act I, Introduction, measures 27-28. Feroce motive.

m m 226

During the Introduetlon. the drop curtain* consisting of rec­ tangles painted vith suggestions of snakes* snail sea creatures, and fish skeletons, is In place. With the first statement of the feroce motive, the stage is blacked out end the Act I scenery is dropped into place. It is significant that by placing the feroce motive in the

Introduction during the occurrence of the blackout, Lambert quickly associates the motive vith highly charged emotional situations.

The harmony used in the Introduction alternates between dis­ cordant passages containing numerous augmented, and diminished chords and the Important combination of a low F-sharp vith a C major triad, and more consonant passages based on p a r a lle l t r i a d movement* Where passages of strong dissonance occur in this ballet score, they are purposefully and obviously directed tovardB clarifying the dramatic action portrayed in the dance and assume a function beyond establishing an ap p ro p riate mood.

A ct'I, Scene 1 begins vith a number of girl athletes dancing before a statue of a bull. TlreBias enters and dances vith the girlB before they leave in annoyance. According to Beaumont: Hie lines of girlB cross and recross, then they dance little steps, whirl and form into a group. Sometimes the dance takes an acrobatic turn, and certain dancers perform somersaults, cartvheels, and handstands.“

Beaumont's descriptions provide vivid impressions of the production of

T ire b ! s b and, while they fall short of being a stenographic record of

^Beaumont, Ballets of Today, p. 2U. the event, they do supplement and amplify the libretto as useful aids

in relating music to stage movement.

The music to accompany this scene is constructed from extremely

short phrases, often Just a repeated melodic motive over an ostlnato

or percusslvely repeated block chord. Prior to the entry of Tiresias

an ABA form is produced by arrangements of melodic m aterial, dynamics,

and orchestration. The outer sections are fff statements of an

accented one-bar melodic figure harmonized triadieally and paired vith

another figure vhich begins vith a variant of the feroce motive. The

feroce motive, cast in a variety of rhythms and orchestrations, domi­

nates the melodic content of the dance. One particularly significant

version is harmonized bltonally and includes tritones in both melody

and harmony (Example 73). The cracking of the vhlp found in con­

junction vith this passage is later UBed in the music for the snakes.

Example 73. Act I, Dance of the Girl Athletes, measures 10-11. Bitonal version of feroce motive

In this dance, Lambert begins the process of linking musical patterns and specific dramatic conflicts. The Use of tritones and polytonality is a reflection of the sexual duality described in the libretto. The stage setting of the bull in the siidst of the female

dancers is yet another expression of this duality.

The contrasting B section of the dance Includes a melody for muted brass and piano harmonized in parallel triads (Example 7b). In the total rhythm of the passage, subtle conflicts between 6/6 and

3/b are suggested by the melodic contours, notation, accents, and durations. Such polymetric manipulations are evident in the previous ballet scores and are a characteristic of Lambert’s style. In con­ trast to the surrounding material, phrase lengths in this passage are

Increased and the dynamic level is decreased.

Example 7b. Act I, Dance of the Girl Athletes, measures 20-2b. Theme o f B se ctio n .

The entrance of Tiresias is preceeded by the percussive repeti­ tion of a dissonant chord consisting of interlocked tritones

(Example 75), and then announced by a trumpet b o I o (Example 7 6 ). The balance of the music for the dance incorporates melodic material from the motto, woodwind and horn themes freely adapted to fit a variety of changing rhythmic contexts. The orchestra, and particularly the piano Is deed percusslvely to create a strong accompaniment for the a th le tic movement o f th e dance. 1 229 Example 75* Act I, Dance of the Girl Athletes, measure 71* Tritone chord.

Example 76* Act I, Dance of the Girl Athletes, measures 8l-86. Trumpet Solo,

Just before the girlB depart, the tempo slows and the music pauses on a unison F-sharp. At this point, Lambert has noted in the score,

"Wait for position." In addition, a score notation of "con Somes," referring to Michael Somes as Tiresias, 1 b found in conjunction vith the Lento version of the horn theme that follows. The dance ends quickly as the girls exit to the same repeated chord and rhythm that marked their entrance.

Following the departure of the girls. TireBias performs a short dance of triumph. The music is in a broad, uncomplicated 3/U, The first five bars emphasize woodwinds, cello, and horns in the perform­ ance of melodic material derived from the trumpet solo that announced

Tiresias' entrance. In the succeeding three bars in Lento h/U, the 230 symbolic progression F-sharp to C is found In the chords for full orchestra that cep Tiresias' dance of triumph. The short solo ends vith tvo hars of rhythmically percussive, dissonant chords centered on A major that provide both a rhythmic and tonal transition to the ensuing Dance of the Warriors.

In his early libretto, Lambert labelled the music for the Dance of the Warriors danse guerriere. That this is the triunph of Tiresias the young man is indicated both in the early libretto and in a hand­ w ritte n n o ta tio n in th e score by th e vord "GLOIRE." Hie dram atic importance of both the feroce motive and the voodvind theme are em­ phasized as they are loudly proclaimed during the momentB of "GLOIRE" when Tiresias dances beneath a canopy of spears.

2he Dance of the Warriors, scored hy Robert Irving, is written for voodvinds, extensive percussion, and piano. In addition to the feroce motive and voodvind theme, the melodic material of the dance includes the motto theme, a warriors theme (Example 77), a second theme derived from the voodvind theme (Example 78), and a svord dance theme

(Example 79)*

Example 77* Act I, Dance of the Warriors, measures 1—1*. Warriors theme* 231

Example 73* Act I, Dance of the Warriors, measures h-7. Theme derived from voodvind theme, ,

TtlcttrpWLfQrsif iLfcfCn^2

Example 79* Act I, Dance of the Warriors, measures 15-13, Svord Dance theme.

As a hrief interjection after repetitions of the feroce motive,

• Lambert repeats a hrief passage first found in measures 32-33 of the

introduction.

Underlying the music for the dance is the tone A, heard as a bass

pedal or as the tonal center of the melodic material The presence of

this tone serveB as a fixed point of reference throughout the various

melodieB and diBsonant passages between melodic units. Such a refer­

ence is needed as an element of unification because of the rapid

changes of melody and short phrases that Lambert has written to accom­

pany thlB energetic, fast-paced ensemble dance.

Another binding element is the recurrence of the rhythmic pattern jj*j m *m j J and its variants which are performed mostly hy the timpani. This pattern underscores the strongly accented syncopa­

tion associated vith the diverse melodic unitB. 232 The center of the movement is a countrapuntal treatment of the theme identified in Example 78. Multiple entrances of the subject are found in the original rhythm and in single and double augmentation.

Throughout the section* the meter remains k/U. Because multiple ent­ rances of the same theme afford the choreographer the opportunity of having each dancer begin a movement phrase with each subject entrance, the countrapuntal format is ideal for linking music to the simul­ taneous diversity of action and unity of character in an ensemble dance.

After the "GLOIRE" passage of the feroce and woodwind themes, the tempo changes to Lento as the full orchestra at the fff level intones an E-flat minor chord followed by on A minor chord* The chords, a tritone apart, are repeated, and the movement ends vith a solo state­ ment of the woodwind theme, ending in a leap of a trltone. Similarly, the final chord is E-flat minor — a tritone away from the A tonality used throughout the movement. The reiteration of this symbolic tritone, occurring between the dance for TireBiaB-male and the entrance of the

Virgin Neophyte, emphasizes the dilemma of dual Bexuality that is at the heart of this ballet's dramatic action.

The Neophyte enters, bearing in her hands a trident wand which she gives to Tiresias. Ariestesses enter and dance among the warriors while Tiresias tests the weight and power of the wand. The varriorB cross their spears to form a seat and raise Tiresias aloft and then lower him to the ground. At the end of the dance, Tiresias is left alone on the stage. 233

From a dramatic standpoint, this dance is largely extraneous in that the sarahande-like dance of the priestesses neither enhances the understanding of Tiresias' character nor involves him in any inter­ action not previously explained, save one. The single significant act occurs at the end of the short Cortege or entrance of the Young Virgin, during vhlch Tiresias is given the vand — the veapon with which he kills the snakes. Lambert apparently recognized the superfluousness of the section because it is only eleven pages long despite his nota­ tion in the first libretto that this was a long number. Moreover, three pages of the score have been crossed out in order to decrease its le n g th .

The dance begins in 3A with a solo statement lay the English horn of the feroce motive linked to material that is reminiscent of the

Trio for Young Woman from HoroBcope (Example 80). In th is movement, the feroce motive functions first as an ostinato in the bassons, and later, in diminution, in the celeste accompanying the cantabile serabande theme (Example 8l).

Example 80. Act I, Cortege, measures 3-8. Theme related to Trio for Young Woman from Horoscope.

Example 81. Act I, Dance of the Priestesses, Measures 1-9. Sarabande theme. 2314

The number 1 b typical of lyrical music for a female dance for it

la soft In dynamics and legato in articulation, vith regular eight-

bar phrases. Beneath the surface tranquility of the movement is an

ominous undercurrent produced by the presence of the feroce motive and

a tvo-bar ostinato figure that Includes the trltone.

The scoring for the dance alBO reflects both gentility and fore­

boding. Bassoons and cello repeat the ostinato vhile upper woodwinds

present the sarabande theme of the priestesses. Only when Tiresias

is borne on the crossed spears of his peers is the full orchestra

employed. As the movement ends vith Tiresias left in solitude, the

solo piano repeatB the Tiresias motive.

Beaumont details the first entrance of the snakes as follovs:

Enter the snakes ... The male snake caresseB the female twined about him. They drop to the ground, crawl about and over each other, then about the legs of Tiresias. They separate and lie prone, vith heads upraised, fluttering their hands. Tiresias vatches their lovemaking now and again whirling his vand. Suddenly, he strikes the female snake who dies. There is a clap of thunder, a momentary blackout.. Tireslas-Man has v a n is h e d .59

The music for thiB climactic scene 1b suitably reptilian vith melodic lines for pairs of like voodvind instruments moving in con­ trary motion. Sometimes the lineB move conjunctly, vhile at other times, movement is by leaps of 5ths, bths, or tritones. In both instances, dissonant clashes and considerable chromaticism result.

Phrases vary in length from one to four bars and are primarily denoted by corresponding changes in orchestration.

^Beaumont, Ballets of Today, p. 2U. 235

Rhythmically, even eighth-note patterns alternate vith simple dotted patterns in 6/8 or 3A up t o the point vhere Tiresias contem- plates and finally kills the femal e snake. The movement begins Lento and accelerates (Violente accel.) as the lovemaking Intensifies.

The end of the scene is marke d by a return to Lento as Tiresias- female appears atop the statue of the bull. Consistent with previous occurrences, it is the feroce motive that serves as the basis for much of the melodic material and functions vith the voodvind theme as an m indication of a dramatic apogee. The dramatic significance of the scene is emphasized by Lambert's statement of the voodvind theme on

F-sharp and a restatement in C. Again, the symbolic tritone is present.

This scene clearly demonstrates Lambert's ability to write music

* reflecting the significant aspectB of the danced drama. The actions of the tvo snakeB are accompanied by duets for pairB of like instru­ ments. The ascending and descending movement of the melodic lines mirrors the reptilian twining and untvining of the creatures. The fluttering of the snake dancers is accoinpanied by flutter tonguing in the brass instruments. Tiresias* violent beating of the female snake is matched in the music by the sharp crack of whips. All these indi­ vidual facets blend together to veld music and danced action into a focused unit vith the component parts supporting each other. By strictly musical means, both apparent and subliminal aspects of the dance action are clarified.

Act II takes place in the mountains and is devoted to exploring the character of Tiresias-female and her interactions vith men. 236

Whereas in Act I the characters vere warriors and priestesses, in Act II they are shepherds and shepherdesses, as befits a mountain setting*

Scene 1, the solo dance for Tires las-female, 1b the occasion for

Lambert to vrite a Sicilians, as he has in two earlier original ballet scores. In several vays, the Sicilians in Tiresias is patterned after the one written as the pas de deux in Pomona* Both Include short passages in 9/8 and U/h within the overall context of 6/8., Both are seventy-two bars in length. Both demonstrate Lambert's fondness for harmonizing melodies in parallel thirds and triads. Finally, the first two b a rs o f th e S ic ilia n s from Pomona a re re s ta te d e x ac tly s b a sh o rt ostinato passage in Tiresias (Example 82). These common characteris­ tics provide a specific relationship between the two Sicilians beyond the shared rhythmic patterns, the emotional melancholy, and gentle simplicity that typify all three such dances Lambert wrote in his ballet s c o re s .

Example 82. Sicilians from Pomona, measure 1.

The movement, scored by Denis Aplvor, is orchestrated primarily for woodwinds, with interjections by the piano. The orchestral texture is thin enough and dynamically subdued enough to avoid overpowering 237 the solo dance, vnle s till possessing sufficient depth and diversity to provide varmth and color.

Consistent vith his previous practice, Lambert blends material

Btated before, associated vith other specific dramatic situations, vith nev material to.clarify the dramatic background of the scene.

Tiresias* motive of ascending thirds, first heard vith the entry of

TiresiaB-male, 1b prominently featured in the solo cello part. To establish a musical relationship vith Tiresias-female, Lambert repeats the feminine theme previously stated in the Introduction to Act I. The accompanying material for thlB theme is the repeated tvo-bar chromatic pattern for tvo clarinets moving in contrary conjunct motion reminis­ cent of the music for the amorous pair of snakes. by this combination of melodic material the composer is able to blend the conflicting aspects of Tiresias-male and Tiresias-female vith the catalytic agents of him/her predicament.

The remainder of the melodic material is of diverse length and design, sharing dotted rhythmB appropriate to the style of the Slliciana and vhich are generally congruent vith the 6/8 and 9/6 meters of the movement. The form is a fluid amalgam of motives and themes that allovs the choreographer latitude in constructing the solo dance de­ signed to explicate the mood and character of the female Tiresias.

Scene 2, the Dance for the Shepherds and Shepherdesses is an en­ semble dance in an ABA form. The B section is a trio for Tiresias and the shepherds. As described by Beaumont, Tiresias is

joined by eight Bhepherdesct.a and later by four shepherds, the latter dancing vith her. Some­ times she valks between tvo men, occasionally being lifted into the air. Meanvhile the girls walk ceremoniously beating their thighs vith the palms of their hands. Nov Tiresias dsnces In turns vith the four men, but clearly she takes little delight in their attentions, and soon she is left to herself.

The o rc h e s tra tio n , scored by Humphrey S e a rle , emphasizes wood­ winds and piano, the latter being treated initially as a concertante instrument and then, in the Trio, as a solo instrument. The reliance upon voodvinds facilitates the achievement of congruence between the music and the pastoral setting and mood of the action.

The movement begins in G minor vith an eitht-bar theme for flutes and horns moving in parallel triads over an OBtlnato and pedal in the strings (Example 83). Within a changing metric contest of 9/6, 10/8,

9/8, 7/8, 5/8, 3/8, the rhythm moves in a gentle combination of even and dotted elgnth-note patterns. Subsequent repetitions of the passage occur in A-flat.minor, B minor, and F-sharp minor, for trios of clarinets, oboes, and trumpets respectively*

Example 83. Act II, Dance for the Shepherds and Shepherdesses, Measures 1-3. Shepherdesses theme excerpt.

g0I b l d . . p . 25. Between each occurrence of the triadic material ie inserted a four- har passage for solo piano, incorporating parallel lines of bitonal writing (Example 89 )• The interval separating the two voices changes vith each repetition in the order tritone, major 6th, tritone, major

7th. Not only is this material Isolated from the triadic theme hy har­ mony and orchestration hut also hy rhythmic and metric organization.

Each restatement is in k/k meter followed hy 3/1* and each incorporates rhythms of even eighth- and sixteenth-notes. From Beaumont's descrip­ tion, it is logical to conclude that this music accompanies TLresias' occasional interaction with the men prior to her solo with them.

Example Qh. Act II, Dance for the Shepherds and Shepherdesses, Measures 9-12. Bitonal piano material.

The fifteen-har Trio for solo piano is in 3/1*, is marked

Appassloriata — a'tempo. pood 01*11 lento, and contains phrases of three, three, four, and five har length. Each of the four phrases has slightly different melodic material and accoinpaniment hut includes a portion of the ascending triad motive that has heen associated vith Tiresias and a statement of the feroce motive. The division of the section into four slightly different phrases is a reflection of the action of Tiresias 2U0 dancing vith each of the four shepherds. Also significant, in relation to the action, is the fact that vhen the Trio ends, and the restatement • * of the opening section begins, the dissonant bitonal passage symboliz­ ing Tiresias' distasteful contact vith the Shepherds is heard first.

Zn Scene 3, Tiresias meets a handsome young man, overcomes her former reticence, and they dance a long and passionate pas de deux.

The young man "Kneels at her feet and caresses her body. She gazes at him in admiration and returns his love.The pas de deux ends vith a brilliant leap by Tiresias into her lover's arms.

The dance is long for a pas de deux (eighty-eight bars), but it follovs classical lines of development. After a soft, tender beginning, the music builds in intensity and volume, accelerates in tempo, and thickens in orchestral texture to the moment of climax. As thiB climax approaches, the meter, vhich has shifted fluldly betveen U/U, 3/1**

7/b, 5/8, and 8/8, becomes consistently b/b. Similarly, phrase length, vhich ranged from three to five bars, becomes more consistently four b ars long.

Up to the climax, the scene 1b organized in rondo fashion.

The recurring theme 1b an almost literal quotation of the main theme of "Siesta" from Lambert's Trois Places Negrea for piano vritten in

1930.^ (The reader is invited to compare Examples 83 and 86.)

Similarly, the secondazy theme is derived from the Latin dance passage

6lIbid., pp. 25-26.

^Constant Lambert, Trois Pieces Wegres pour les touches blanches, piano four bands (London: Oxford University Press, 1950). 2hl in the Bacchanale from Horoscope. (The reader Is invited to compare

Examples 87 and 88.) Throughout the music of the nas de deux, the dynamics associated vith these tvo main themes, and the additional repetitions of sequential bridge material, are generally soft vith occasional passages of loudness to indicate moments of higher dramatic tension or significant action betveen the tvo lovers.

Example 85. "Siesta” from Trois Pieces Negrea. a) measures U-7, b) measures 7-10. arm rm- rTi b)

ttta t t ftlBiiforr-C

Example 86. Act II, Pas de deux, a) measures 1-3, b) measures b-8. First theme of Pas de deux. a)

b) m Example 87* "Bacchanale" from Horoscope. measures U 3-1*6.

I I n

Example 88. Act II , Pas de deux, measures 23-26. Secondary theme of pas de deux.

The climactic moment of the pas de deux occurs following a

sequence of musical events that greatly heighten tension and anticipa­

tion. During a five-bar passage, the dynamic level is increased from

£ to ffff and the tempo accelerates rapidly, only to be abruptly halted

vith a fermata. The dynamic level instantly drops to g]3 as the material

th a t began th e movement I s heard. Three b ars l a t e r , a f f statem ent o f

Tiresias* motive performed Vlolente leads directly to the climax of

the movement that includes fff declarations of the tritone relation­

ship C-sharp minor to F major and the feroce motive placed in the midst

of a nev melodic figure (Example 89). This rapid fluctuation of melodic and rhythmic activity at the climax of the pas de deux is

entirely appropriate because it is common for dance movements to be more overt, lesB subtle, and more rapidly executed at this point in the dance. Lambert's use of the feroce and Tiresias' motives along vith the

symbolic tritone at the moment of heightened emotion serve as a re­ minder of the complexity of Tiresias' character, despite the apparent 21+3 Bimple reality of the female personification in existence during the pas de deux.

Example 89* Act II, Pas de deux, measures 71-7fc» Climactic melodic fig u re .

The Bac chan ale, the concluding scene of the act, is the celebra­ tion of the shepherds and shepherdesses, vho return to congratulate the lovers. At thiB celebration, the amorous snakes return as does the

Neophyte, she with vand in hand. Tireaias kills the male snake, disappears, and emerges as amale.

The autograph score for Beene four is extremely messy and in­ cludes the Bacchanale as veil as a substantial repetition of music that vas previously titled Snakes. No separate title is given for the latter other than an in itial tempo change to Lento following a

ferm ata. The music for this Bacchanale. up to the reappearance of the

Neophyte, 1b composed in the classic manner of a scene or nas de action by Tchaikovsky or Glazounov, incorporating a free-form montage of a variety of themes and motives to create a diverse emotional en­ vironment appropriate to action involving separate groups of perform­ ers. To produce thiB variety, Lambert draws two themes from tbeMAubade" from TroiB Pieces Negrea. (Examples 90-93), reBtat.es the passage from

Horoscope Example 86), and presents new melodic m aterial (Example 9U). 2UU

The letter, found most often in parallel thirds or triads, is the moBt rhythmically driving and is used throughout the movement to in­

crease the sense of tension and urgency. It assumes greatest promin­

ence towards the end of the Bacchanale. leading to the entrance of the

snakeB, the second cataclysmic part of Tiresias* dual existence*

Example 90. "Aubade”, Troia Pieces RegreB, measures 22-29.

Example 91 • Act II, Bacchanale, measure T* Primary theme derived form "Aubade".

Vi/*

Example 92. "Aubade", Trots Pieces RSgres. measures 26-29*

Exanple 93* Act II, Bacchanale, measures 8 - 1 1 . Secondary theme derived from "Aubade". tfr* xnnitt\ \ \ismAxiii Example 9I4. Act II, Bacchanale, measures 32-35* Raw thematic material.

Lambert placed the altered restatement of the Horoscope melody, previously heard In the pas de deux (Example 88), in the middle of the

Bacchanale vhere it is a clear interruption of the prevailing material.

The UBe of this theme serves as a reminder that Tiresias and her lover are indeed part of the act, and focuses attention on the pair vithin the context of an ensemble dance.

As the movement progresses and tension grovB, the tempo quickens, volume increases, and the orchestral texture thlckenB. Included as part of the orchestra is a concentration of percussion instruments in­ cluding tambourines, gong, vhips, cymbals, drums, castanetB, and blocks performing with a vide range of articulations. Often the piano writ­ ing incorporates block chords in a highly accented rhythmic pattern.

In such passages, the piano functions as part of the percussion section and adds an even greater range of color to the total orchestration.

At the end of the act, the tempo changes to Lento as the Neophyte and snakes enter. The Beene is parallel to the previous Neophyte/

Snake scene at the end of Act I. Announced by clear statements of the feroce motive Including several over a series dlBsonant chords vlth a tritone between outer notes, the section includes the powerful wood­ wind theme and a repetition of the music that first accompanied the snakes. After Tiresias kills the male snake, the frightened shepherdesses run off stage only to return and hurry across the stage.

Tiresias-female vanishes. The shepherdesses again run across the stage and Tire si as-male is revealed. The act ends vlth shepherds and shep­ herdesses paying homage to Tiresias. Here, as in Act I, the music remains in U/U while final statements of the feroce motive and vood- vind theme are presented Oiusto. initially vith fff dynamics then fading t o p ian o .

In Act III, the gods Zeus and Hera in the company of shepherdesses, warriors, and the Neophyte, argue forcefully as to who has the greatest pleasure in love. Hera claims it is the men and points to the warriors who perform a martial dance. Zeus claims it is the women and indicates the shepherdesses who perform a short ensemble dance. Both groups of mortals continue the argument among themselves. Tiresias, the one person moBt qualified to decide, enters. After pondering the question, looking a t both men and women, he p o in ts to th e women. The enraged

Hera strikes him blind, prompting Zeus to give the old man the gift of prophecy as compensation.

Most of the music of thiB concluding act is material selected from the previous acts to support the arguing and decision making ejq»res-

Bed mainly through mime. Having established a leitmotive association between music and action throughout the score to this point, there is little doubt as to the programmatic significance of the material used in

Act III. The martial dance .of the warriors is accompanied by the sword dance music from Act I. The dance of the women is linked to the the music for the shepherdesses from Act II. Tiresias' entry is 2l*7 signalled by a restatement of the motto and woodwind theme that began the entire work.

Of particular clarity is the design of the music accompanying

Tiresias' decision making. As he begins his deliberations, music for the snakes is heard, replete with tritones, to remind all concerned of the dual life Tiresias has lead and of the acts that precipitated his transformation. He first regards the men, while the orchestra forcefully Intones the theme of his Act I solo. He then considers the women, as the rnuBic recalls the solo as a woman in Scene 1 of Act II.

A rememberance of the pas de deux, the dance with the lover, concludes the music for his deliberations, and he points to the woman. Lambert has written in the score "Watch Mic" (referring to Michael Somes) over a fermata rest during which Tiresias pointB. Following the dramatic rest, the music explodes in a fff statement of the feroce motive and the woodwind theme as Hera blinds Tiresias. The emphatic statement of the latter theme begins on a C major chord over an F-sharp for the low In stru m en ts. The balance o f th e movement i s devoted to vario us presentations of the feroce motive, with short passages derived from the Introductionto the first act. As Tiresias, tapping his cane, halt­ ingly leaves the stage, the piano, supported by bass instruments,softly repeats the progression from a unison F-sharp to a C major chord to a unison F-sharp, thus carrying through the symbolism of the tritone.

The Bcore for the, last act was orchestrated by Lambert and ends with the inscription "July 1951» Seine-et-Oise and London." As was mentioned previously, the score of the act includes numerous deletions.

These cuts, amounting to twelve pages, are incorporated into the fair * copy. Material has been deleted from the warriors' dance and nine pages from the fight between the mortals. Bad the latter cut not been made, the act would have emphasized the ensemble dances of the mortal

and placed the action of the central character Tiresias in a secondary position. These cuts, prompted by Ashton, were critical in terms of the consistency and focus of the ballet.

The last act can be described as a pastiche, but, given the plot, the music could have had no other shape and still retain fidelity to the action. Throughout the act, melodic material, orchestration, rhythn, and harmonies of previously stated sections are generally the same as they were when first presented. The conversation between Zeus and

Hera is rapid and direct, and Lambert chose to emphasize these a ttri­ butes by lim iting the amount of bridging material between diverse themes. To have included more bridge material would have strained both the conversation and the pantomimic choreography to the point of ineffectiveness.

The ballet Tiresias suffered greatly at the penB of critics.

Richard Buckle B ald of the muBic:

The ballet lasts an hour. Its music 1b arid; and although it varies between the folksy and the syncopated, suggestive now of an Oriental bazaar, now of Vaughan Williams in a religious mood, the main impression received is one of monotony.

Mary Clarke was more kind when she w rote: "Lam bert's score was dry, brittle, and brilliantly suggestive of the action it was to support

^Richard Buckle, Adventures of a Ballet Critic (London: Cresset Press, 1953)* pp. 215-216. 21*9 but i t vas almost an hour long."**** As evidenced by the numerous cuts indicated in the score alter the first performances, the validity of these critical assessments must have been recognized. Even more cuts in the Becond act vould not have damaged either the integrity of the score or the flov of action.

The terms "arid" and "dry", as UBed by the critics, are most likely the response to the harmony and orchestration. Lambert's deci­ sion not to use violins and violas vas prompted by a desire to produce an orchestral color at least conventionally suggestive and appropriate to the geographic setting of the drama.*>5 Although the accuracy vith vhich the scoring reflects vhat sounds might be found on Crete is suspect, its effect must have been achieved to elicit Buckle's des­ cription "Oriental bazaar." The emphasis upon the tritone as a melodic

Interval, a component of chords, and harmonic progressions also pro­ vides vhat might be described as an Eastern flavor, but this emphasis is attributable to its function as the musical symbol of Tiresias* dual sexual life. As an element of his own style, Lambert had a predilection for themes constructed from series of thirds and for harmonizations in parallel thirds and triads. This characteristic, vhile shared vith Vaughan Williams and, indeed, vlth other English composer, is hardly

Justification for Buckle's comparison of parts of T ir e s la sto Vaughan

Williams' vriting in a "religious mood."

^ C la r k e , The S a d le r's WellB B a lle t, p. 26U.

^Ravsthorne, interviev, November 8, 197^. . 250

The greatest musical accomplishment of Lambert's ballet Tiresias

Is its absolute suggestiveness of, and linkage to, the dramatic action.

In some manner, every aspect of the muBic relates directly to the action and helpB clarify vhat is being portrayed through movement on

Btage. In no other ballet score did Lambert link themes and motives to specific actions, emotions, and situations as extensively as in

Tiresias. Such melodic material, regardless of rhythmic alteration or emphasis or placement vithln the orchestral texture, consistently retains its form and character so that the programmatic implications remain intact in any given dramatic situation. Lambert's themes are succinct and definable. In response to the danced drama, the form of individual scenes is sectional, but rarely cast into binary, ternary, or rondo molds. The tendency is towards free forms vhlch may include repeated material.

In Tjreslas. the Btyle of writing is appropriate for the kind and emotional situation of the dance. To verify this observation, one need only recall the music for the snakes or that for TireBias-female vith the shepherds and shepherdesses. The music for the latter situa­ tion Juxtaposes consonance for the vomen and dissonant writing in a contrasting meter, rhythm, and orchestration, reflecting Tiresias' d isp le a su re in the contact v ith men. To th e same end, Lambert com- bined music vith strongly marked rhythms and forceful melodic material vith male ensemble dances and conversely UBes more subdued, legato writing for female ensemble dances.

With regards to the rhythmic characteristics of the Tiresias music, it can be observed that while Lambert makes full use of syncopation, 251 he no longer seems to have the obvious fascination vlth metrically in- congruent rhythms found in earlier scores* The metric structure of the rhythm is flexible and changes frequently. When It does occur, the extended use of one meter in a passage tends to give the music a stability and strength that isolates and gives definition to the pas­ sage amongst the more fluid metric context of the surrounding material.

Lambert also makes use of rhythmic and melodic ostinatos in his score. Because of the linkage between themes, motives, and action, the presence of an ostinato provides a background that constantly re­ inforces an underlying emotion or recalls a previous dramatic situa­ tion for purposes of enhancing or clarifying the events at the moment the ostinato is used.

Despite the comments of those critics vho derided Lambert's score, the music is suitable for combination vlth dance. Its concept and design is classical despite its modernity. Every aspect of the music contributes to an understanding of the dramatic action and complements both the mood and the character of the individual dances. It is reason­ able to suggest that the critics' dislike for the music vas at least partially influenced by their perception of shortcomings in choreo- graphy, sets, and costumes, libretto, and indeed in the propriety of the performance as part of the gala vith the Queen Mother as honored guest. The ballet is long, as even Lambert recognized, but the music is vell-conceived and executed and does not deserve the epitaph of

"monotonous and boring." CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

Constant Lambert had a significant impact on the development of the Royal Ballet in England. His work established the musical direc­ tion of the company often regarded by dance critics as being one of the most musically sensitive in the world. During the twenty-five years that Lambert was associated with ballet, he provided choreographers vith scores that were the mainstays of their repertoire.

Lambert knew what was needed in music for ballet and how to achieve the strong relationship between music, movement, and dramatic action that has been advocated by choreographers from the time of Noverre to the present. Lambert's music exemplifies many of the characteristics that historically have been associated with music for ballet and reflects the knowledge of ballet he acquired from' his work in collabora­ tion with dancers and choreographers. Lambert's four original scores demonstrate major elements of his style of writing music related to the movement and dramatic action of ballet.

One of the most important aspects of Lambert's ballet music is the character and treatment of melodic material. The character of this material varies in response to the quality of movement, dramatic content, and number of people involved in a particular dance. Vi thin the ballet scoreB, two types of melody are found: one vigourous and energetic, the other lyrical and flowing. 252 253

The first type is found in passages vlth performance directions

such as declso. pe sente. con hrlo. energlco. or rlsoluto indicating

strength or hrilUance* This type of melody consists of figures that

are almost consistently hounded hy one- or two-bar units and rarely

develop into long melodic lines. These melodies frequently involve dis­

junct movement and incorporate accented, non legato articulations.

Melodic material of this character is more abundant than material of

the lyrical and flowing second type. The latter type of melody is more

apt to be gentle vith performance directions such as tranQuillo. canta-

bile. molto espresslvo. dolce e legato, or teneramente. and to utilize

conjunct motion to facilitate the establishment of a legato character.

Here, the melodic figures tend to be broader than in the more dynamic

material, and are extended to form longer melodic lines.

In movements such as the Sarabande and Sicilians from Horoscope,

the Musette from Romeo and Ju liet, the Sicilians from Pomona, or the

Dance of the Priestesses from TireBiaa. the more lyrical material is

associated vith dances for females, love scenes, and pas de deux in

in vhlch the quality of movement is gentle, introspective, and flowing.

Conversely, the more active material is typically found in ensemble

dances, male solos and variations, and mime sceneB. The movement,

character, and structure of this type of melodic material suggests a

close relationship to the quality of movement, elevation, Btrength, and

speed, and kinds of Bteps associated with male performers. That

Lambert vas cognizant of the need for variety in the character of his

I melodies depending upon the dramatic action, and personnel involved has * been repeatedly observed in his four original scores. 25U Lambert’s melodies, once stated, are rarely subjected to develop­ mental treatment as might be found in a symphonic vork. MelodieB are restated vith different orchestrations, accompaniments, or rhythms, but the effect produced is more that of varied repetition than it is of development. Lambert does Include counterpuntal passages. These are usually found in conjunction vith ensemble dances and, in the man­ ner of the fugue from G iselle, they accommodate multiple entrances or levelB of activity of the dancers.

In both Horoscope and Tiresias» Lambert has composed themes that

Incorporate rhythmic and melodic patterns characteristic of Latin

American music. No specific dramatic significance is attached to the

Latin flavor and it does not relate to the general style of dance in either ballet. Its inclusion does, hovever, add to the variety and color of the vorks.

The melodies of the ballets are combined into a variety of formal designs, the most common of vhich are the rondo and ABA forms. During ensemble dances, internal subdivisions are numerous, sometimes number­ ing up to as many as nine separate units. The number of subdivisions tendB to be small in dances involving a small number of dancers. The

ABA form 1 b suitable for dances having simple grouping patterns such as ensemble-solo--ensemble in the dance. The form is also used vhen an emotion or dramatic event is in contrast to the prevailing action or mood o f th e scene. Lambert's use of the rondo organization is noticeable in dances involving diverse groups, actions, or emotions. The music for the

Rondlno from Romeo and Juliet iB a strict rondo vhile the Menuetto 255 from Pomona and the Finale from Horoscope are freer usage of the form.

The Menuetto is a particularly clear example of close correspondence between the placement of melodies of differing character within the form and changes in the dramatic action of the dance.

In Ms ballets, Lambert exhibits a fondness for characteristic dances such as the sarabande, gavotte, minuet, courante, and rigadoon.

Use of these dance types has little relationship to any specific aspect of the action, but rather, is a matter of Lambert's muBical preferences.

One dance for which Lambert had a particular affinity was the Sicilians.

This preference 1b demonstrated by the Inclusion of the dance in three ballets and by the location of the Sicilians within the individual ballets. In both Romeo and Juliet and Pomona, the Sicilians was used in conjunction with the climactic pas de deux. In Tireaias. it is found in th e second a c t so lo fo r T ire Bias-fem ale. A ll th re e moments are dramatically important.

TireBlas stands apart from the other balletB not only because of its length and scope, but also because of the manner in which it is constructed. Although traditional closed forms can be found in the music for this ballet, their importance as determinants of structural organization Is superceded by the programmatic significance of the various themes and motives. In an extension of the practice of Adam and Delibes, Lambert linked thematic material to specific emotions, actions, and dramatic events in the work. Although instances where themes were later repeated for purposes of recalling past dramatic situations can be found in earlier ballets, most notably in the pas de deux from Horoscope. no where is the programmatic linkage of music and drama at the conceptual foundation of the music as it is in Tiresias. 256

All aspects of the music for this ballet are in support of end

governed by the dramatic content of the work.

As demonstrated by the number and tone of statements made by such

choreographers and musicians as Bournonville, Petipa, Stravinsky, Li far,

and Balanchine, rhythm is a prime determinant of the suitability of music for combination vlth movement. Rhythmic patterns and groupings of patterns in music have a direct relationship to the overall style

of the dance and to the actual steps that are used.

In his ballets, Lambert vas fond of vritlng metrically incon- gruent rhythms — groupings and accents within the bar and over bar­ lines that do not reflect the meter suggested by the time signature.

His scores abound in syncopation and polymetric conflicts realized by the combination of accents, patterns of duration, and melodic contours that displace and rearrange the pattern of accents of simple time signatures. Polymetric effectB occur in all four ballets. Those in

Romeo and Juliet are simple and obvious. Those in the later ballets are intregally voven into the continuous, overall rhythmic fabric vith greater finesse and craftsmanship.

In most of Lambert's music an Interplay of rhythmic patterns and changing regular and irregular time signatures results In music that is smooth and flowing, or, conversely, in music that 1 b highly accented and energetic. In the manner described by Lifar, the stronger the action and movement, the simpler and more direct Lambert's rhythmic fabric becomes, thereby inspiring a stronger kinesthetic response from the dancers. Lambert's occasional adherence to one meter for an ex­ tended period of time has the effect of defining passages, of isolating 257 them from the surrounding m aterial, and of giving them notable stabi­ lity and Btrength. The material following the snake dances, and at the end of the pas de deux In Tiresias exemplifies the effect produced by this practice.

With few exceptions, the character of the rhythms Lambert uses is in substantial agreement vith the quality of the movement and charac­ ter of the action. Music for male danceB is appropriately more accented and rhythmically active than music for female dances, vlth the excep­ tion of the dance for the female athleteB in Tiresias. In several

Instances, the rhythmic content of the music strongly suggests specific kinds of dance steps, and, as Noverre advocated, fixes and determines the dancerd* movements and actions. * Parallel situations exist in Lambert's use of the orchestra for hlB ballets. His careful orchestration aids in the establishment of the atmosphere and emotional setting of the action portrayed in the dance. The heavy reliance upon voodvindB to establish a pastoral set­ ting in Pomona: the employment of the full orchestra at the climactic moment in the nas de deux in Tiresias; and the inclusion of baBBOons and trombones to produce a sense of foreboding in the Bacchanale that precedes the second entrance of the snakes in Tiresias are a ll exam­ ples cgf'orchestration that helpB establish atmospheric and emotional contexts for dramatic movement. Specific instruments are also used to accentuate small, isolated moments in the danced action, for example whips to accompany the beating of the snakes, a gong to point up

Tiresias' transformations, and xylophones to suggest the plucked instru­ ments of Paris' musicians in Romeo and Juliet. In another example, the 258

Rigadoon from Pomona, Lambert's understanding of the ehsraoterlsties

of the pas de rlgadoon. a crossing step, directly Influenced the manner

In vhlch he distributed a melody among the various registers of diverse woodwind Instruments. In all these examples, the choice of Instru­ mentation is In response to non-musical considerations and indicates

careful planning by Lambert as well as his ability to correlate music

and movement in M b b a lle ts .

Lambert's orchestration is Ideally suited to the ballet In that It is colorful and rarely overpowering. He relies primarily on wood­ winds and strings with a wide variety of articulations to produce a colorful texture dramatically highlighted by percussion. Although his

style is uniquely his own, Lambert's music does contain echos of music by composers such aB Ravel and Milhaud. The orchestration of Lambert's earliest work, Romeo and Juliet, exhibits an obvious relationship to

Stravinsky's Pulcinela.

The style of harmonic writing In Lambert's ballets demonstrates an Increased level of craftsmanship even more than his rhythmic Btyle.

Parts of Romeo and Juliet and Pomona contain levels of dissonance that seem more inspired by the brashneBS of inexperlnece than b y c a re fu l

design and construction. In the later works, his treatment of con­

sonance and dissonance is more thoughtful, more clearly related to the mood of a scene and its dramatic action. In the Dance for the Shepherds and Shepherdesses. from Tiresias. the form of the movement is largely shaped by the alternation of coloriBtic consonant passages with pas­ sages in dissonant bitonality. 259

The harmonic style of the ballets is based on traditional chordal progression, but includes chords vith added seconds, sevenths, and ninths that give depth and color to the harmonic textures. Inter- spersed throughout the ballets are examples of pungent bitonallty and passages in uhlch parallel triads move over ostinato figures or pedal points resulting in the kind of non-functional harmony that vas common in vorks by Impressionist composers.

In this study, it has been seen that Lambert vas aware of the con­ structional elements of ballet and of the meanB by vhlch music and move­ ment could be Joined in mutually enhancing relationships. This aware­ ness is demonstrated in the ballets by a strong differentiation be­ tween music for men and music for vomen, between music for scenes involving Btrong dramatic action and movement and music for scenes vith tender action and flowing movement r*by a clear identification of the music with both large and small aspects of the action, and by a general consistency of style and quality in the manipulation of musical elem ents.

What is also evident from the study of Lambert's ballets is that when close collaboration exiBted, the music more clearly reflects and enhances the action and suggests movement appropriate to the drama.

Conversely, when there is evidence to suggest minimal collaboration or a conflict between collaborators, the music exhibits a weaker, less direct relationship to the action and style of movement, or an exten­ sion of musical material beyond the limits that dance can effectively be sustained. 260 In this study* Constant Lambert haB been described as a composer and collaborator in the production of balletB. In 19b8 he said:

The longer I vork in ballet ... the more con­ vinced I am that the ballets vhich endure are those in vhich no collaborator can say, 'This is my bal­ let. ” nightly quarrels round the supper table are far more fruitful in the long run than polite letters from a distance.

The implications of this statement are that the process of col­ laboration between Lambert and choreographers* most notably Ashton* vas often informal and continuous. In Lambert* the choreographers found a composer who worked vith them and neither sought to musically or personally dominate the creation of balletB* as Stravinsky vas vont to do* nor abjectly •Bubmit to all their ideas as composers such as Pugni did. The scores he vrote substantiate statements about Lambert* made hy his colleagues* that he possessed the kind of knowledge of dancing

Noverre insisted a composer muBt have to write effective music for ballet. The ballets he composed are exemplary models of one means of relating music and danced dramatic action. Constant Lambert's ballet scores retain their importance not only because of their past signi­ ficance* but alBo because they contain valuable information regarding the nature and construction of music aptly suited for combination vith dance.

^Constant Lambert* quoted in Mary Clarke* The Sadler's Wells Ballet; A History and Appreciation (London: Adam and CharleB Black* 1955)» P* 2 U. APPENDIX A

GLOSSARY OF DANCE TERMINOLOGY

1. enchatnement . . literally means linking. In English, it is tr a n s la te d to mean com bination.

2. en travesti . . dressed in clothes or coBtumes not appropriate to one's sex. It vas a stage practice to dress women in men's clothes.

3. entrechat . . literally means interweaving. It is a Btep of elevation in which the dancer crosses her legs in the air and beatB her calves against each other and changes the position of her feet.

It. grands battement en cloche . , literally means beating like a bell. The working leg svingB front and back in the manner of the clapper of a bell. >• 5. frappg . . literally means striking. The working foot is extended outward with force, a few inches off the floor, vith the ball of the foot brushing against the floor.

6. paa . . literally means a step.

7. pas d'action . . literally means a dance of action. It is a dance for one or more performers that conveys a story, emotion, or occupation. 8. pas de deux . . literally meanB a grand dance for two. It is a bravura dance for a ballerina and her male p a r tn e r .

9. petite battement . . literally means small beating. 10. pligs . . literally means bend. A basic movement in ballet Involving bending at the knees.

U . portes de bras . literally meanB carriage of the arms. A term used to identify positions of the axmB.

12. su r I cb points . literally means on points. It indicates that the dancer is dancing on her toes. 261 APPENDIX B

EARLY VERSION OF LIBRETTO

OF TIRESIAS1

The l ib r e tt o given below ,iB an early version of Lambert's Tiresias given to Frederick Ashton.2 Although it is in substantial agreement with the final version (supra, p. 218 ) it does contain more detailB of Lambert's thoughts regarding the character of the action and or­ ganization of the staging. It is also significantly more light-hearted and humorous than the final version and is presented in support of

Shead's observation that as originally planned, the ballet was to be satirical (supra. p. 218 ).

Scene I "In Crete there lies the scene." An open air gymnasium in the outskirts of Knossos. Columns either side. Large Bull (flat) center stage. » Dance I Young g ir ls (nasty sm elly l i t t l e adolescents b u t don't tell this to the corps de ballet) are miming the old Cretan sport of vaulting in the nude over the horns of a bull. Fun, games, and girlish laughter. At the climax of their hideous pranks Tiresias enters in a carefree and . slightly contemptuous manner. Executes a rather exhibltional- lst step. : Afjber Vhich the little beasts run off half ashamed, half mocking.

Dance II Tiresias slightly puzzled ty his mingled reception pulls himself together and performs a dance of male triumph. (He is at this Btage a typical athletic hearty o f about 20).

1 Reprinted from David Vaughan, Frederick Ashton and His Ballets (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), pp. k21-k22,

2Ibid., p. 252. s6s 263 • Dance III He is joined 1^/ a gang of other hearties vho execute a 'danse guerri&re In his praiBe. Spears and double Minoan shields if possible. GLOIRE! The triumph of T.s youth.

Dance IV Sudden change of key and lightning. A revolting young virgin (but revolting my dear) enters and tells T. that the priestesses are arriving. Solemn cortege of priestesses (this Is a long number). In the middle the young virgin presents him vlth a vand of honour (sex symbolB, etc) vhich he accepts vlth slight apprehension. More GLOIRE. The captains and the queens depart. T (by now about 28) is left in a state of bewilderment.

Dance V Enter tvo snakes copulating. Tiresias for reasons known only to himself dashes at them in a puritanical fury and beats the female snake vlth his vand. ‘ Thunder and lightning. From behind the bull appears the figure of the female Tiresias veering the mask of the young TireBlas. T i s t e r r i f i e d . Margo tak e s o f f h er mask and T disappears down trap. Black out.

Beene II (Pastoral Intermezzo) Landscape vith rocks and flowers. The Dove Goddess constructed by flat near the backcloth. Tiresias (by now an attractive girl of 30) discovered alone. Romantic solo. (Dance II)

Dance II Entrance of shepherds and shepherdeBBes. EnBemble. Solo for T in middle. Ineffectual passes by shepherds. Exit shepherds and shepherdesses. Short boI o f o t T.

Dance III From behind the Dove Goddess (Bex symbol again) appears a luvlly man. Grand pas de deux starting off Blowly but ending in a statr of erotic frenzy. Climax of T's sex life.

Dance IV T. now a handsome woman of 1*0 invites her friendB to a Bacchanale. 'A frenetic rumpus supervenes" (Literal quotation from the Opera House, Palermo). Passes made all around but none to the hostess. At climax of orgy enter tvo gate craBhers. The SNAKES and they're at it again. The dis­ illusioned Tiresias seizes her vand and beatB the male snake. The female Tiresias disapprars as the elderly Tiresias appears as a man vith a beard and breast. (We must vork out the technical details of this together.)

Scene III An open courtyard in a Palace. Yellow backcloth. Two pedestals on vhich are placed Jiipiter and Juno. Grouping of corpB de ballet to be discussed later. Argument between Jupiter and Juno on relative pleasure of "being man or voman. Juno sayslng man and Jupiter saying voman. Tiresias is called In as only living authority. A man dances to his tune from Scene I. A girl dances to his tune from Scene II. T unhesitatingly says "woman". Juno furious at losing her argument strikes him "blind. (Thunder lightening, etc.) Jupiter as compensation gives the gift of prophecy. Semi-religioua finale. At the very end, Michael and Margot enter In the same costumes vlth the snake to form a triptych.END

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Buckle, Richard* Adventures of a Ballet Critic. London: Cresset P re s s , 1953* Bukofzer, Manfred. Music in the Baroque Era. Rev York: W.W. Horton and Company, 191*7. Clarke, Mary. Dancers of Mercury. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1962 .

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Foss, Hubert. "Constant Lambert," In British Music of Our Time. pp. 163-198. Edited by A.L. Baoharach, Middlesex: Penguin Boods, 1951. Francks, A. H., ed. Ballet: A Decade of Endeavor. London: Burke P u b lish in g Co., 195?*

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A rtic le s

Barnes, Clive* "Frederick Ashton and His Ballets," Dance Perspectives Winter, 1961. Dent, Edvard J. "Constant Lambert," Covent Garden Book 6 (1950-1952), n.p. Evans, Edwin, "Constant Lambert," The Ohesterlan. June, 1931* l 8l .

The Evening News, July 21, 19^5•

Frank, Alan. "The Music of Constant Lambert," The Musical Times (Nov. 1937)* pp. 9U1-9U5* Ffcyer, Donald Smith. "Pugni, Cesare." Baclclopedia dello Spcttacolo. Rone: Casa Edltrice le Maschere, 1961. 270 Gertmann, Lois. "Musical Character Depiction in Gluck's Don Juan." Dance Chronicle. Vol. 1 (1977)*

Holmes, Michael, and Quirey, Belinda. "An Apology for History," Dancing Times, n.d., 197*

Lange, Andrea. "Pugni, Cess are. "The flew Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: MacMillan, I960. Lambert, Constant. "A Forecast of Spring Fashion, " Apollo, n.d., 207. Lambert, Constant. "English Jazz," The Hev Statesman and Wation. February, 27, 1923 , 271*.

Lloyd, Norman. "Comments in a Symposium fo r Composer/Choreographer," Dance Perspectives. 16, (1963)•

Me Grady, Richard, "The Music of Constant Lambert," Music and Letters. 51, (July, 1970). Morrison, Angus. "Obituary: Constant Lambert," RCM Magazine. November, 1951, 1 0 8. Rubbra, Edward Duncan. "Cpnstant Lambert's Sonata." Monthly Musical Record. (Dec. 1930), 356. Sitw ell, Osbert. The New Statesman and Nation. July 31, 1951* Zoete, Beryl de. "The Younger English Composers: Ill-Constant Lambert." Monthly Musical Record. (April, 1939), 97-99*

Transcripts

Ashton, Sir Frederick, "The Production of a Ballet," Ballet in England. radio transcript, (March 13, 19^8). Ashton, Sie Frederick, Interview in The Music Workshop. BBC television transcript. (January 21, 1967)* Ashton, Sir Frederick, "Constant Lambert," BBC radio transcript, (January 21, 1965)* Ashton, Sir Frederick, "The Principles of Choreography," Ballet in England, radio transcript, (June 25, 19^8).

Chappel, William. "Constant Lambert," BBC radio transcript (January U , 1965)* Haddley, Patrick, "Constant Lambert," BBC radio transcript. (June 25,1966). • * Helpman, Sir Robert. "Constant Lambert," BBC radio transcript, (January 11, 19o5). 271 Helpman, Sir Robert. "Building or a Ballerina," Qmnfjws-Margot Fonteyn. BBC television transcript. (May 18, 1969).

Lambert, Constant. "Vaughan Williams as a Teacher" Music Magazine. BBC radio transcript. (October 12, 19b7).

Walton, William. "Constant Lambert," Music Magazine. BBC radio trans­ cript. (October 7* 1951)*

L e tte rs

Fokine, Michael to The Times. London, July 2b, 191b.

Lambert, Constant to David Webster. Archives of The Royal Opera House, London, Ju ly 2 , 19b7»

Taped Interviews

Ashton, Sir Frederick, Choreographer of the Royal Ballet, London: Interviewed January 8, 1975.

Beaumont, Cyril W.. Ballet historian, London: Interview October 15* 197b. BedellB, Jean. Former dancer of Royal Ballet, currently teacher, London: Interviewed November 27, 197b.

De Valois, Ninette. Choreographer of the Royal Ballet, London: Interviewed July 30, 197b.

Guest, Ivor. Ballet historian, London: Interviewed September 9, 197b.

Lawson, Joan. Ballet historian and teacher, London: Interviewed November 7» 197b. Morrison, Angus. Brother-in-law of Constant Lambert, London: Interviewed October 26, 197b.

Rawsthorne, Isabel. Wife of Constant Lambert, Cambridge: Interviewed November 8, 197b.

Shead, Richard. Lambert's biographer, London: Interviewed July 6, 197b. 272 Somes, Michael. Balletmaster and former dancer of the Royal Ballet, London: Interviewed November lU, 197^.

Young, Emmanuel. Conductor of Royal B allet, London: Interviewed October 29* 197^.

Scores

Adam, Adolphe, Giselle ou Lea W ilis. Ballet-Pantomime ed deux actes. Piano score arranged by Vincent Cornete* Paris: n.p., 1868.

Lambert, Constant. Horoscope. Full score, autograph copy. Held by Oxford University Press, London.

Lambert, Constant. Horoscope. Piano arrangement by the composer. London: Oxford University Press, 1938.

Lambert, Constant. Pomona. Full score, autograph copy. Held hy Oxford University Press, London.

Lambert, Constant. Pomona. Piano duet arrangement by the composer. London: Oxford University Press, 1938.

Lambert, Constant. Romeo and Ju liet. Full score, autograph copy. Held by Oxford University PreBs, London.

Lambert, Constant. Romeo and Ju liet. Piano arrangement by the composer. London: Oxford University Press, 1926.

Lambert, Constant. Tiresias. Full score, autograph and partial fair copy. Held by The Library of the Royal Opera House, London.

Lambert, Constant. Trois Pieces Negres pour les touches blanches. Piano four hands. London: Oxford University Press, 1950.