ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA A ALECTA ---149---

TIMELINES STUDIES IN HONOUR OF MANFRED BIETAK

VOLUME III

EDITED BY ERNST CZERNY, IRMGARD HEIN, HERMANN HUNGER, DAGMAR MELMAN, ANGELA SCHWAB

UITGEVERIJ PEETERS en DEPARTEMENT OOSTERSE STUDIES LEUVEN - PARIS - DUDLEY, MA 2006 TELL EL-DABcA: THE PROVISION OF AN EXPANDING SETTLEMENT WITH PLANT FOOD

Ursula Thanheiser

Founded in the early Middle Kingdom, the location extending from the eastern Nile delta to southern was well selected. The settlement was built on the Palestine. The rest of Egypt was linked to the capi­ navigable Pelusic branch of the river Nile giving tal by a loose system of vassals. The Hyksos were in access to the Mediterranean Sea. An inland harbour power for more than hundred years. After the fall of facilitated the traffic flow. To the east it was shielded Avaris (c. 1530 BC) life in town continued as usual. by the extensive Bahr el-Baqar drainage system. Neither a demographic shift, nor a severance of links What was called the Horus Road, a land bridge across with traditional trading partners is apparent - for the marshes, connected Tell el-Dabca to the northern example from ceramic records. During the Rames­ Sinai, thereby controlling all traffic by land and side period the royal residence, Piramesse, was at water from the Nile Valley across the eastern Delta Qantir, 2 km to the north of Avaris and during the and into Palestine and the Levant. Aeolian sand New Kingdom Avaris and Piramesse were once again accumulations - turtle backs - rising above the annu­ centres of trade with the Near East and the eastern al flood plain offered ideal locations for settlement as Mediterranean region. l well as horticulture, whilst the low lying land along As everywhere else in Egypt at the time, agricul­ the Pelusic branch of the Nile and several small ture in Tell el-Dabca was based on emmer wheat2 canals provided fertile soil for agriculture. This geo­ and barley,3 beans, lentils and peas supplemented, in graphic position acted not only as a gate to the Nile turn, by date, fig and grape, plus domestic animals; Valley across which merchandise passed, but also fish, fowl and game added variety.4 With the excep­ offered sufficient living space and arable land for an tion of dates, the plants grown were part of the expanding population. Near Eastern crop complex.5 They were domesticat­ According to archaeological records as well as ed in a broad arc extending from Palestine across anthropological studies, the settlement soon attract­ Anatolia and into Mesopotamia, known as the Fer­ ed immigrants from the Levant who served as sol­ tile Crescent and reached Egypt during the Neolith­ diers for the Egyptian crown, they worked as traders ic (c. 6th millennium BC) where agricultural produc­ and were employed in mining expeditions to the tion gradually replaced the traditional hunting and Sinai, as seamen, ship builders and other specialists. gathering mode of life. 6 Cereals were the staple diet Expansion of the town started as early as the late throughout the Pharaonic period providing bread 12th Dynasty and, during the Hyksos period, it and beer7 and fodder (mainly barley)8 and probably again doubled in size. During the reign of King several local races evolved. The harvest, by and Nehesi (c. 1710 BC), Avaris, as it was called now, large, depended on the annual Nile flood and inade­ became the capital of a small kingdom relying heav­ quate floods were detrimental. Floods that were too ily on the Asiatic settlers in the region. Presumably high often resulted in the destruction of canals and around 1650 BC the Nehesy Dynasty was replaced dykes and those too low or short in duration left by the Hyksos (15th Dynasty). The royal residence higher flood basins dry and others insufficiently sat­ and, as a consequence, the power-centre was Avaris urated.9 A low-yield harvest caused not only famine with an area under direct control of the Hyksos in the stricken areas, but also sparked political

I For a general overview see, e.g.. BIETAK 1996; for reports on 4 BOESS."ECK & vo'" DE." DRTESCH 1992. the excavations see BIETAK, FORSTXER-MtrLLER. HET"" ZOHARY & HOPF 1988. JA"'OSl, and others in A&L 1-14; for a discussion of the 6 HASSAX 1988, 147ff.; ZOHAIW & HOPF 1988, 209; WETTER- chronology see BIETAK 2002. STROM 1993. 201. 2 Scientific plant names are given in the appendix. 7 SA11UEL 2000. :J Both two-rowed and six-rowed hulled barley are present; 8 MOE",S & WETTERSTROlVl 1988; MrRRAY 1994. the occurrence of naked forms is questionable. 9 BUTZER 1976, 17f. 304 Ursula Thanheiser unrest, especially at times when a series of insuffi­ crop complex during the Neolithic. The first wave of cient Nile flood levels resulted in a depletion of food inflows arrived in Egypt from the Second Intermedi­ stores. 10 ate Period onwards and brought with it such pro­ The Egyptian language distinguishes between duce as olive and pomegranate. In a second wave ­ Upper and Lower Egyptian barley - sm'w jt and m/:lj from the Ptolemaic period onwards - a variety of ll jt - probably indicating a difference in quality and new crops, including apple, apricot and citron, also possibly referring to local races. No such distinc­ reached Egypt. tion is made for wheat - bd.t} - although frequent use In Tell el-DabCa only charred plant remains are of its dual form may indicate some differentiation.12 present. Unfortunately, any plant debris decays Barley thrives on good soils but - in contrast to rapidly and is therefore lost for later recovery in emmer wheat - is also able to tolerate some degree of areas where the soil is well aired and damp - at loca­ aridity and salinity.13 This would have made it the tions like the Nile Delta. In such areas preservation cereal of choice following insufficient Nile flood lev­ for several thousands of years is possible only in per­ els. It would have been grown on elevated field plots manently waterlogged deposits or under toxic condi­ where flooding in irregular intervals might already tions or by charring, i.e. after contact with fire by have led to an accumulation of soluble salts in the which organic compounds are reduced to almost upper soil layers, or after land reclamation. pure carbon. Cereal processing residues have often Presumably flax or linseed, oil plants, vegetables, been burnt as fuel and the archaeobotanical record is salad greens, condiments, spices and a variety of therefore biased towards these in sites with exclu­ fruits were grown in Tell el-Dabca as well but - with sively charred plant remains. Fruit, vegetables, the exception of grape, fig and date - are missing in herbs and spices tend to be under-represented. They the sub-fossil record. We know from numerous rep­ would often be eaten raw, with greens and pot herbs resentations in graves that flax used to be grown in being most palatable before the plants budded. Even l4 fields and harvested by uprooting , a method usual­ if fruits, leaves, bulbs or tubers came into contact ly applied when the crop is cultivated for its fibres. with fire, they are likelier to have been destroyed, In Egypt the majority of textiles recovered from rather than charred. Consequently, the absence of prehistoric times onwards are of linen. 15 Grape, fig garden plants from the sub-fossil record of Tell el­ and date were undoubtedly important parts of Dabca is a result of the mode of preservation, of ancient Egyptian food production and, in almost charring, and of subsequent taphonomic processes every tomb-scene showing a garden, at least one of and is no indication of not being consumed. them is present.16 Highly valued were also sycamore According to ethnographic studies, all aspects of fig, persea, sugar date and Christ's thorn. Lettuce, traditional agricultural production are closely inter­ onion, water melon, and spices were also grown in twined. Cuttings from fruit trees serve as animal gardens.17 The maintenance of gardens, vineyards feed, as do by-products from the processing of cere­ and orchards needed a consistent water supply als and pulses and waste from preparing vegetables which was achievable, either by manually carrying for human consumption. 19 In particular, small hard water from pools and wells to the plots or by using a items like weed seeds can survive digestion by well sweep - shaduf - and by pouring the raised domestic stock.2o Animal dung is a valuable addition water into small canals leading to the area to be irri­ to, or even a substitute for, wood fuel - leaving the gated. 18 Generally, the archaeobotanical record of source of the charred plant remains at Tell el-Dabca Egypt indicates that the availability of fruit and a matter of conjecture. They may have derived from vegetables proliferated with time. This coincided burning animal dung as well as agricultural with the influx of two major waves of new plant residues. By comparison with ethnographic models species after the first launch of the Near Eastern from Turkey21 and Greece22 it could be established,

IQ SCHE~KEL 1978, 52. 17 MOENS 1984; GERIVLER 1985; HEPPER 1990; ML'RRAY 2000; 11 HANNIG 1995, 111. CAPPERS 2002. 12 HANNIG 1995, 266. 18 HUGOKOT 1989; EYRE 1994; DAVIES 1927, T.28. 13 ZOHARY & HoPF 1988, 52. 19 FOXHALL 1998. 14 STEDIDORFF 1913, pI. CLl. 20 MILLER 1984. 15 VOGELSANG-EASTWOOD 2000,269. 21 HILL:VIAN 1984. 16 MOE~S 1984; BAL'M 1988; HCGOKOT 1989. 22 JmolEs 1984. Tell el-Dabca: the Provision of an Expanding Settlement with Plant Food 305

that most samples constitute by-products from fine ual decline of monocotyledons producing bulbs, sieving plus some general plant waste. As a result, mainly hyacinth, grape hyacinth and ornithogale. they contain mainly spikelet forks of emmer wheat, Nowadays these taxa are (very) rare in Egypt and rachis fragments of barley as well as weed seeds the few species growing as weed show a preference small enough to pass through the sieve. Occasional­ for sandy soils and barley fields. 26 At the same time, ly there are also cereal grains, pulses and the weeds producing rhizomes become more salient. remains of fruits and nuts present. Explanations for this apparent shift in the weed An important component of the plant record from flora may be found in the different responses of Tell el-DabCa is weed from arable fields. In the bulbs and rhizomes to regular ploughing. Whilst absence of modern herbicides, weeds will inevitably some bulbs are very vulnerable, plants producing grow in fields and gardens. The types of weed and rhizomes are furthered in their propagation on frag­ their abundance in traditional agriculture depend mentation of their underground organs. Alterna­ mainly on the crop itself, on the time of sowing, on tively, these changes are also likely to be either the soil conditions and on field management systems. result of different irrigation techniques - water Their growth can be controlled only by field rotation, being kept in the field plots over an extended period by a sophisticated method of repeat ploughing at set - or the result of soil improvement. intervals before sowing and by hand-weeding. There Another important aspect of the sub-fossil is no archaeobotanical, iconographic or written evi­ record of Avaris is the importing or introduction of dence in Egypt for any of these methods. Represen­ fruit and nut varieties. 27 From the late Hyksos peri­ tations of cereal fields in tombs, however, show even­ od onwards, remains of pomegranate, olive, almond ly growing fields of wheat and barley and no weed. 23 and pistachio are present in the samples coinciding This may be bound up with the role of the represen­ with the settlement's active links with the Levant. tations, namely that of making the tomb-owner's Pomegranate and olive turned into important trees after-life easier with abundant crops. This makes us in the New Kingdom and feature prominently in think that we might be dealing here with an icono­ the iconographic record of that period. Olive trees graphic tradition rather than with a true picture of provide oil and fruit and, in particular, the oases of actual fields. In present-day Egypt cereals are usual­ the Western Desert became famous for their high­ ly densely sown, whilst weeds grow mainly in mar­ grade olive oil that is still produced today. The cul­ ginal areas, e.g. where the soil salinity is high or on tivation of almond and pistachio, however, was less stony spots within the fields or along their edges successful. where they even can outgrow the crop. Weeds are The conclusion that can be drawn is that Tell el­ often harvested together with the crop, especially DabCa reflects in its material culture not only a when the culms are cut close to the ground. This was thriving community with active links with the Lev­ indeed the preferred harvesting method at Tell el­ ant. The same is also true of its agricultural pro­ Dabca24 and not - as often depicted in tombs - cut­ duction and importing or introduction of new 2 ting at knee-height or just below the ears. .; plants. Staple foods, as well as fruit and vegetables, Weeds compete with each other and with the were grown in the area. Olive oil or olives, pome­ crop itself for light, water, and minerals. The most granates and other foreign plant products used to be successful weeds, i.e. the ones highest in number, will imported from the Levant. Whether the inhabitants therefore be those which can best cope with a given of Avaris already were engaged in the cultivation of situation - wet or dry soils, high level of salinity and olive and pomegranate in the late Second Interme­ lack or abundance of nutrients, etc. Past living con­ diate Period deserves further investigation. How ditions in fields can be assessed by reference to the long Tell el-Dabca was a self-sufficient community is present-day distribution and ecological require­ still uncertain but, from the Hyksos period onwards ments of a species. The most striking feature about at the latest, cereals from the Levant, possibly trib­ the weed assemblage from Tell el-Dabca is the grad- ute payments, reached the settlement.

23 PETRTE 1892, fig. 28.6. 26 TACKHOL~I 1974. 637ff. 2-1 THANHEISER 1987, 78. 27 THAXHEISER 1987, 50ff.; THAKHEISER 2004,378. 25 DAVIES 1901, frontispiece. 306 Ursula Thanheiser

ApPENDIX - ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES flax, linseed Linum usitatissimum L. grape Vitis vinifera L. ssp. vinifera almond Amygdalus communis L. (syn. Prunus dulcis grape hyacinth Muscari Hill. (Miller) D.A. Webb, Prunus amygdalus hyacinth Bellevalia Lapeyr. Batsch.) lentil Lens culinaris Medik. apple Malus Mill. lettuce Lactuca L. apricot Prunus armeniaca L. olive Olea europaea L. barley two-rowed Hordeum vulgare L. ssp. distichum ornithogale Ornithogalum L. barley six-rowed Hordeum vulgare L. ssp. vulgare onIon Allium cepa L. bean Vicia faba L. pea Pisum sativum L. ssp. sativum Christ's thorn Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. persea Mimusops laurifolia (Forsk.) Friis. citron Citrus medica L. pistachio Pistacia vera L. date Phoenix dactylifera L. pomegranate Punica granatum L. emmer wheat Triticum turgidum L. ssp. dicoccon (Schrank) sugar date Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Thell. (syn. T. dicoccum Schiibl.) sycamore fig Picus sycomorus L fig Picus carica L. water melon Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mansf.

Bibliography

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VOLUME III Contents...... 5

Studies on Syria and Mesopotamia Joachim Bretschneider, Das spatere 2. Jahrtausend im Habur-Gebiet ...... 9 Marta Luciani, Ivory at Qatna ...... 17 Paolo Matthiae, Archaeology of a Destruction: The End of MB 11 Ebla in the Light of Myth and History 39 Daniele Morandi Bonacossi, A New Royal Statue from Tell MishrifehjQatna 53 Mirko Novak, Fundamentierungstechniken im Palast von Qarna ...... 63 Regine Pruzsinszky, {~am81-AdadsI. "neue" Regierungsdaten und assyrische Distanzangaben ...... 73 Gabriella Scandone Matthiae, Nuovi frammenti di avori Egittizzanti di Ebla ...... 81 Gebhard J. Selz, Was bleibt? Der sogenannte ,Totengeist' und das Leben der Ge.w:hlechter 87

Nubia Bettina Bader, Damals in Nubien: Agyptische Tongefaj3e in Toschke 97 Charles Bonnet et Dominique Valbelle, Les annexes de temples 103 Birgit Ghick, Ein kaum beachteter Dekormodus der nubischen C-Gruppe neu betrachtet 109 Brigitte Gratien, Un systeme d'enregistrement aKerma a la Deuxieme Periode /ntermediaire ? 115 Friederike Kampp-Seyfried, "Nubische Nachlese" - A miisantes und Wissenswertes zur Rekonstruktionsgeschichte der Pyramidengraber von Aniba ...... 123 Angelika Lohwasser, Fremde Heimat - 8elektive Akkulturation in Kusch 133 Helmut Satzinger, Felsinschriften aus dem Gebiet von 8ayala (Agyptisch-Nubien) ...... 139 Bruce Williams, The Cave Shrine and the Gebel 149 Michael H. Zach, Die Statuette Liverpool E.224 aus Meroe 159

Graeco-Roman Egypt and Contributions on Classical Archaeology and Art History Jurgen Borchhardt, Der exotische Charme des Schwarzafrikaners auf griechischen Vasen 169 Friedrich Brein, Persea ...... 181 Florens Felten, Agypter im 8aronischen Golf...... 191 Paul J. Frandsen, The Bitter Honey at Dendara 197 Peter Grossmann, Zur Grundung des Heilungszentrums der Hl. Kyros und Johannes bei Menuthis 203 Hermann Harrauer, Ol ins Feuer giej3en - 8eltene Bilder auf Ollampen ...... 213 Horst Jaritz, 8ignalturme der fruhen Kaiserzeit in der Oberen Theba'is ...... 219 Rolf Krauss, Manethos Agyptische Geschichte - eine ptolemaische oder romische Kompilation? 227 Mario Schwarz, Vom Coenaculum zur 8ainte-Chapelle - Architekturikonologische Oberlegungen 235 Rudolfine Smetana, Terrakottasilen aus einem Brunnen - eine Weihgabe? ...... 247 Egypt and Science Max Bichler, Katharina Breitenecker, Georg Steinhauser, Johannes Sterba, Zur Identifikation von Bimssteinfunden aus Grabungen in l'el Megadim und Aegina Kolonna 253 Janine Bourriau, Alfi'edo Bellido, Nick Bryan and Vincent Robinsont, Egyptian Pottery Fabrics: a Comparison between NAA groupings and the"Vienna System" . .. 261 Otto Cichocki, Libanesische Zedern als Datierungswerkzeug in der agyptischen Archaologie ...... 293 Karl Grol3schmidt, Anthropologie und Palaopathologie: Mosaiksteinefur ein Bild von Agypten 299 Ursula Thanheiser, Tell el-Dabca: The Provision of an Expanding Settlement with Plant Food...... 303 Angela von den Driesch, Ausgefallenes Wild in Pi-Ramesse (Qantir) und Auaris (Tell el-DabCa) und seine kulturgeschichtliche Ausdeutung ...... 309 Malcolm H. Wiener, Chronology going Forward (With a Query about 1525/4 B.C.) 317

Egypt and the Modern World Dieter Eigner, Wohnen in Agypten ...... 331 Johanna Holaubek, Mechtilde Lichnowsky: Gotter, Konige und Tiere in Agypten - Ein "besonderes" Agyptenbuch 339 Waiter Kutscher-a, Der Flyksosmeister und sein Zauberlehrling (jrei nach J. W Goethe) 347 Nadia el-Shohoumi, "Stay a While at my Grave" - Two Modern Islamic Tomb-inscriptions and the Ancient Egyptian ''Appeals to the Living" ...... 351 Gilbert Wiplinger, Ein Porschungszentrum im Nildelta 361

Curriculum Vitae of Manfred Bietak ...... 371

List of Publications of Manfred Bietak ...... 375

PEETERS PEETERS - BONDGENOTENLAAN 153 - B-3000 LEUVEN