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2 Cecilia Dal Zovo Archaeolo Cover By Anxo Rodríguez Paz and Rebeca Blanco-Rotea Photo of Ikh Bogd Uul Mountain by R. Chapman Andrews in the late 1920s (cover) The National Geographic Magazine, 63 (6), page 681 Photo of the western summit of Ikh Bogd Uul Mountain (Back Cover) By Cecilia Dal Zovo, late August 2011 This doctoral dissertation was submitted to the Department of Ancient History (História 1) of the University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain, in the doctoral programme of Archaeology, History of Antiquity and Historiographic Sciences and Techniques. It was carried out within the framework of the Research and Development Programme of Synkrisis - Research group on cultural forms- of the University of Santiago de Compostela (GI-1919), as an associate unit of Incipit-CSIC (Institute of Heritage Sciences- Spanish National Research Council). This doctoral dissertation was carried out at the Incipit-CSIC in Santiago de Compostela, thanks to a JAE-PreDoc fellowship (2008-2012) from the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), and with the financial support of the Consolider TCP Programme (CSD 2007-0005). Santiago de Compostela, September 2015 On the 5th of February 2016, Cecilia Dal Zovo defended her doctoral dissertation at the Paraninfo da Universidade in Santiago de Compostela Galicia (Spain) and, according to the requirements of the doctorado internacional, in front of the following international examination committee: Professor Bruno Marcolongo (Irpi-CNR, Institute of Applied Geology, National Research Council, Italy) Professor Kristian Kristiansen (University of Gothenburg, Sweden) Professor Marisa Ruiz-Gálvez (Complutense University of Madrid, Spain) Professor Chris Gosden (University of Oxford, UK) Professor M. Pilar Prieto (University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain) She received the Doctorate in History sobresaliente cum laude (10/10 cum laude) Alla mia cara nonna This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my grandmother and a great woman, Caterina Zordan ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all I would like to thank the directors of my investigation, Dr. Felipe Criado and Dr. A. César González García from the Incipit-CSIC, and Dr. Marco García Quintela from the University of Santiago de Compostela, who helped to make this thesis a reality. Without their help, their trust and their support up until the very last stage of the process of submission, this dissertation would simply not exist. Felipe generously opened up a path to me that was still untrodden, bringing me to Santiago de Compostela, where I carried out my research, lived, experienced all kinds of situations and grew over a number of exciting, rainy years. I thank him for that, for being such a good listener, problem-solver and for many other things that are far too numerous to list. Marco, apart from many other merits, carefully considered my grade point average at the right moment. Also, my thesis owes much more to him and his comparative work than I even suspected at the beginning. César joined this project with an open mind just at the moment my work was in search of a new impulse, and he kindly and patiently shared with me his knowledge of archaeoastronomy, astronomy, and statistics. I would also like to acknowledge those who were the driving force behind my initial Mongolian experience. I am grateful to Dr. Bruno Marcolongo, who opened to me the doors of my investigation in the Altai Mountains, and shared with me his extensive knowledge of Mongolia and its landscape, together with his wife, the Indologist Giovanna Fuggetta. I was able to filter all of the good and the bad aspects of my Mongolian experience through their own experiences, and through their familiarity with the Indian world, Buddhism, and eastern Asian cultures. Thank you for patiently sharing with me all of your knowledge as experienced travellers, thank you for being models of respectful curiositas and involvement with local communities, and for your constant support in the field and back home. Thanks are due to Dr. César Parcero, who generously shared with me his thorough experience and insights in spatial archaeology and geography. Without his inspiration, support, and careful corrections, the structure of the GIS analysis in this project would not have been the same. I am also grateful to Alejandro Güimil Fariña for his substantial and steady support in the process of digital rendering and spatial analysis, his encouragement and his friendship that made the spatial analysis possible. My infinite gratitude also goes to Yolanda Seoane for her friendship, and for transmitting so much to me about Galicia, rock art documentation, and archaeoastronomy; for buying the Aeroflot tickets and for being such a reliable, creative, ironic and supportive companion in the field in 2011. In Mongolia, I received the kind, warm and helpful support of Dr. D. Tumen, the director of the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology of the National University of Mongolia, and Dr. Majiksuren of the University of Science and Technology, who provided me with helpful, steady support while gathering information in Ulaanbaatar. In Ulaanbaatar, over the years I equally received suggestions and support by my former Mongolian students of Italian language at NUM University , my teacher of Mongolian Tsirmaa, Mandy, the women of FERW, and many other friends, including my ‘twin sister’ Francesca Guarnieri, Davor Antonucci, Lucia Cicconi, Irene Candelieri, and Dr. Anna Maria Marras. In the field, I received the support of the Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences and the local administration of Bogd Soum, but I am especially grateful to Battogoo D., who guided me on the sacred mountain with care, experience and open-mind. My entire experience in Santiago, and indeed my life, would have been much sadder and lonelier without my fellow pre-doc companion Lucía Moragón. A living vocabulary of Spanish language, my persistent María Moliner, she has been faithful to her first name, bringing sparkling light, fun, empathetic encouragement and archaeological insights in my work and daily life. I am also grateful to Gonzalo Compañy for his friendship, companionship, and countless aperitivi with inspiring conversations about archaeology and life. My thanks go to him and Teres for their steady and warm support when we met back in Germany. Thanks to Patricia Mañana, who, in her ever-joyous way, generously shared with me about GPS and 3-D documentation, and of course, her knowledge about monumental burials. Elías Lopez-Romero always encouraged me with my research, and always had time to help me with big questions and technical doubts. Thank you to for taking the time to introduce me to Access, and, with Yolanda, for opening your house to me and allowing me to make it my home for several days. I am also grateful to Dr. Alfredo González Ruibal for helping me with useful and inspiring insights and suggestions in the early stage of this investigation. I enjoyed an inspiring conversation with Dr. Marisa Ruíz-Gálvez in Madrid, and I am extremely grateful to her for her willingness to help. In Cambridge, I was able to enjoy brief but equally stimulating conversations about different facets of research in Mongolia and Central Asia with Dr. Hildegaard Diemberger, Dr. Lila Janick, Dr. Orkhon Mayadar, Dr. Maria Luisa Nodari and Dr. Paula Haas. In Warsaw, I shared interesting and inspiring conversations with Dr. Ken Lymer and Dr. Andrej Rozwadowski about archaeological research and rock art in Mongolia and Central Asia, and in Santiago I also received helpful insights on Landserf and GIS by Dr. Marco Llobera. Dr Stefano Beggiora, Dr Antonio Alberti, Dr. Giovanni Leonardi, Ariadna Heubshman and Jana Králová showed kind and generous interest in my research work, which was greatly appreciated in the more solitary aspects of the process. In Padova, at the Institute of Applied Geology of the Italian National Research Council, I enjoyed lively conversations and shared generous amounts of food with Marco, Giulia, Beatrice, Gianluca, Matteo, and Lucio. I would also like to thank the organisers of the seminar “Blurring Lines: thinking symmetrically in archaeology and anthropology” in Frankfurt, for giving me the possibility to refine the theoretical aspects of my work in the final writing stage, participating in a stimulating workshop with Dr. Biørnar Olsen and a large number of passionate young researchers. Apart from all of these people, I owe a huge debt of gratitude to everyone at the Incipit-CSIC that I cannot express in just a few lines, with a sense of companionship and friendship that go far beyond a working collaboration. Back in 2008, Martina González instantly offered her open-minded support and her friendship the moment I was given a desk next to hers. She revealed all of the nooks and crannies in the laboratory to me, and much more besides. She also opened up her home to me for many weeks, and patiently listened to my numerous angst-filled accounts of my dissertation. Vicky Castro also made herself available not only to help with her experience as a field technician, but also, and above all, as the warm, resourceful and caring friend she is. Lupe Jiménez brought happiness, fun, and anthropology into daily life in the laboratory and outside. She, Juan and Luca generously offered me a nice, quiet place to work for several months, and as a result, they have also made a substantial contribution to the completion of this work. Estíbaliz, Tere, and especially Sofía Quiroga helped me to overcome all of the hurdles of the local bureaucracy and warmly supported me in solving the practical problems of my investigation. Many other colleagues and friends encouraged me and shared with me their experience as researchers and technicians, both in the laboratory and with a glass of Mencía or an Estrella Galicia after work, and they were also very supportive in the final stage of this work through the funny channel of Garotas Galegas.
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