DOCSLIB.ORG

Influence of the Silk Road Trade on the Craniofacial Morphology Of

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Influence of the Silk Road Trade on the Craniofacial Morphology Of City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 9-2018 Influence of the Silk Road rT ade on the Craniofacial Morphology of Populations in Central Asia Ayesha Yasmeen Hinedi The Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/2893 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] INFLUENCE OF THE SILK ROAD TRADE ON THE CRANIOFACIAL MORPHOLOGY OF POPULATIONS IN CENTRAL ASIA by AYESHA YASMEEN HINEDI A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2018 ©2018 AYESHA YASMEEN HINEDI All Rights Reserved ii Influence of the Silk Road trade on the craniofacial morphology of populations in Central Asia. by Ayesha Yasmeen Hinedi This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in Anthropology in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. _____________________ ____________________________ Date Ekatarina Pechenkina Chair of Examining Committee _____________________ _____________________________ Date Jeff Maskovsky Executive Officer Supervisory Committee: William Harcourt-Smith Felicia Madimenos Rowan Flad THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii ABSTRACT Influence of the Silk Road trade on the craniofacial morphology of populations in Central Asia. by Ayesha Yasmeen Hinedi Advisor: Ekaterina Pechenkina, Vincent Stefan. Large-scale human migrations over long periods of time are known to affect population composition. In the second century B.C the demand for silk threads in the West opened trade opportunities between China and the Europe. This allowed for new pathways to be established and old ones reinforced across the vast region of Central Asia; a network of overland and sea routes linking East with West for sixteen hundred years that became collectively known as the Silk Road. Populations living along these routes were affected by a constant influx of traders, merchants, and invading armies attempting to control the region. Although Central Asian populations have always exhibited some degree of admixture, genetic, archaeological, socio- cultural and linguistic evidence indicate an increase in admixture within these populations during the period when the Silk Road was active. Very little work has been done to confirm these findings from a morphological perspective. This study investigates the craniofacial variation seen in populations living during the time of the Silk Road and analyses the patterns of admixture as a result of population migrations during this time. This was accomplished using 3D geometric morphometric analysis to assess the differences in craniofacial morphology of Central Asian populations living along the Silk Road iv before the opening of the trade routes with those living in the same region at the height or the close of the trade routes. Cranial series were selected from three locations: China/Mongolia, Central Asia, and Western Europe. Specimens were chosen to correspond with the time period and geographic span of the Silk Road. The data collected was analyzed using multivariate statistical methods and the results offer a morphological explanation for the population diversity seen in the region during that period. The craniofacial morphology of this Central Asian sample fell between those examined from European and East Asian contexts, with a mosaic of traits that marked them as part of a statistically significant group distinguishable from those to the east or west, within the broader Eurasian human population. In this framework, they were considered an admixed group. Large cranial breadth, broad zygomatic area, a prominent glabella, and a specific nasal configuration (i.e., wider, long, and projecting) are characteristic of this population sample. Admixture in this population was found to have increased over the time span of the Silk Road, with the most pronounced jump observed in the early to middle period of the Silk Road from around the 5th to the 15th Century AD. This rapidly evolving craniofacial morphology cannot be characterized as secular change, but rather was strongly influenced by large migrations of people through the region mixing with the local population. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank all the people who helped me through these long years of study. My advisor Professor Vincent Stefan who was essential in guiding me through the research, analysis, and writing processes; I wish he could have seen the final result. I would also especially like to thank Professor Ekatarina Pechenkina who stepped up and filled Vince’s place as my advisor. Her counsel was crucial to my advancement and persevering through the final steps. Thank you to Professor William Harcourt-Smith and Professor Felicia Madimenos who led me through the phases of this project and gave me constructive feedback along the way, as well as Professor Ryan Raaum who was kind enough to review my work early on. I also would like to thank Professor Rowan Flad for his advice and extensive comments. I thank them all for the time and energy they spent on this endeavor I would like to acknowledge NYCEP and CUNY for funding this project, my travels, and more broadly my entire learning experience. The staff members at the museums where this research was conducted were absolutely invaluable in directing me to the right materials and allowing me access to the collections: Dr. Hunt from the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Dr. Monge from UPENN Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Dr. Mirazon Lahr and Ms. Bellati from Cambridge University’s Duckworth Collections. A special thank you to the staff at Moscow State University primarily Dr. Buzhilova for allowing me complete access to these hard to find cranial specimens from Central Asia, Natalia Berezina for her generosity and constant translation help, and Olga for gathering and putting away the requested crania so patiently. For giving me a fantastic introduction to Russia and access to great contacts and collections I must thank Natasha Kharlamova. vi I would be remiss if I did not thank Professor Eric Delson who pushed us students along through each phase of learning and oversaw it all, and Ellen DeRiso who made every semester and administrative process a breeze to get through. Finally, and most importantly, I would like to thank from the bottom of my heart my husband, my family, and closest of friends who supported me throughout this entire journey. Your unfailing encouragement got me to the finishing line. vii Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 1 PRESENT RESEARCH .............................................................................................................. 4 STRUCTURE OF DISSERTATION .......................................................................................... 6 Chapter 2: Cultural, Historical, and Geographical Context ............................................................ 8 GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT .................................................................................................. 8 HISTORICAL CONTEXT ....................................................................................................... 10 Neolithic to Iron Age ............................................................................................................. 10 Early trade and Alexander the Great .................................................................................... 12 The Empires ........................................................................................................................... 14 Early Medieval to Middle Ages ............................................................................................. 15 Mongol Invasions to the Closing of the Silk Roads ............................................................... 19 CULTURAL CONTEXT .......................................................................................................... 21 CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................................... 25 Chapter 3: Genetic, Linguistic, and Archaeological Evidence ..................................................... 26 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 26 GENETICS OF REGION AND CURRENT RESEARCH ...................................................... 26 Early Bronze and Iron Ages .................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Iran and Central Asia: a Cultural Perspective1
    Iran and Central Asia: A Cultural Perspective1 Davood Kiani One of the most important tools utilized by states to maximize their impact in foreign affairs is public diplomacy and to this extent, public diplomacy is considered a source of soft power. The robust use of public diplomacy can enhance and reinforce the soft power of countries. Central Asia is among the regions that have an ever increasing relevance to regional and international affairs in the aftermath of the collapse of the Soviet Union, and is currently considered a critical subsystem for our country. The foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran towards this region is, on one hand, built on the foundation of converging factors in political, economic, and cultural arenas and looking towards opportunities for influence and cooperation. On the other hand, considering the divergent components, it also faces challenges and threats, the sum of which continues to effect the orientation of Iranian foreign policy towards the region. This article will study Iranian public diplomacy in this region and examine the opportunities and challenges, as well as, provide and proper model for a successful public diplomacy in the region of Central Asia, while taking into account the Islamic Republic of Iran’s tools and potential. Keywords: Public diplomacy, foreign affairs, Central Asia, Islamic Republic of Iran 1 This article is based on “Cultural Policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran in Central Asia” a research funded by Islamic Azad University, Qum Branch Assistant Professor, Islamic Azad University of Qom ([email protected]) (Received: 20 January 2014 Accepted: 5 June 2014) Iranian Review of Foreign Affairs, Vol.
    [Show full text]
  • A Historical Review of the Silk Road
    International Journal of New Developments in Engineering and Society ISSN 2522-3488 Vol. 5, Issue 1: 47-49, DOI: 10.25236/IJNDES.2021.050110 A historical review of the Silk Road Yurui Xu Nanjing Foreign Language School, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210009, China Abstract: During the process of trade, some factors can decide whether the trade can continue fluently and which side has more dominance. This essay will focus on the trade of ancient China and the Silk road to discuss which factor has an important influence on the trade and explain the background and reasons. When ancient China was in strong period, like the early period of Tang dynasty (China at that time was one of the most powerful countries among the world), Chinese government had more trade dominance as they didn’t necessarily rely on the goods of foreign merchants. However, with the decline of Chinese power, its trade dominance decrease at the same time and the government gradually lost its control of the Silk Road. Consequently, Chinese government began to develop other trade routes-- the Maritime Silk Road. Keywords: Trade dominance; Control of The Silk Road; Changes of power of Ancient China; Maritime Silk Road 1. Introduction In this ever-changing world, China continues to embrace the world with its opening up policy and defend globalization. Since 2013 the Belt and Road Initiative has attracted a lot of investors outside of China. From South Asia to Western Europe, 65 countries have signed for the project, which connects China with partners all the way to Europe. The idea of BRI originates from the ancient Silk Road where merchants from the Han Dynasty traded with partners mainly from Central Asia.
    [Show full text]
  • The Great Wall of China the Great Wall of China Is 5,500Miles, 10,000 Li and Length Is 8,851.8Km
    The Great Wall of China The Great Wall of China is 5,500miles, 10,000 Li and Length is 8,851.8km How they build the great wall is they use slaves,farmers,soldiers and common people. http://www.travelchinaguide.com/china_great_wall/facts/ The Great Wall is made between 1368-1644. The Great Wall of China is not the biggest wall,but is the longest. http://community.travelchinaguide.com/photo-album/show.asp?aid=2278 http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Is_the_Great_Wall_of_China_the_biggest_wall_in_the_world?#slide2 The Great Wall It said that there was million is so long that people were building the Great like a River. Wall and many of them lost their lives.There is even childrens had to be part of it. http://www.travelchinaguide.com/china_great_wall/construction/labor_force.htm The Great Wall is so long that over Qin Shi Huang 11 provinces and 58 cities. is the one who start the Great Wall who decide to Start the Great Wall. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_cities_does_the_great_wall_of_china_go_through#slide2 http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_provinces_does_the_Great_Wall_of_China_go_through#slide2 Over Million people helped to build the Great Wall of China. The Great Wall is pretty old. http://facts.randomhistory.com/2009/04/18_great-wall.html There is more than one part of Great Wall There is five on the map of BeiJing When the Great Wall was build lots people don’t know where they need to go.Most of them lost their home and their part of Family. http://www.tour-beijing.com/great_wall/?gclid=CPeMlfXlm7sCFWJo7Aod- 3IAIA#.UqHditlkFxU The Great Wall is so long that is almost over all the states.
    [Show full text]
  • The Silk Roads: an ICOMOS Thematic Study
    The Silk Roads: an ICOMOS Thematic Study by Tim Williams on behalf of ICOMOS 2014 The Silk Roads An ICOMOS Thematic Study by Tim Williams on behalf of ICOMOS 2014 International Council of Monuments and Sites 11 rue du Séminaire de Conflans 94220 Charenton-le-Pont FRANCE ISBN 978-2-918086-12-3 © ICOMOS All rights reserved Contents STATES PARTIES COVERED BY THIS STUDY ......................................................................... X ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... XI 1 CONTEXT FOR THIS THEMATIC STUDY ........................................................................ 1 1.1 The purpose of the study ......................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background to this study ......................................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Global Strategy ................................................................................................................................ 2 1.2.2 Cultural routes ................................................................................................................................. 2 1.2.3 Serial transnational World Heritage nominations of the Silk Roads .................................................. 3 1.2.4 Ittingen expert meeting 2010 ........................................................................................................... 3 2 THE SILK ROADS: BACKGROUND, DEFINITIONS
    [Show full text]
  • Rebirth of the Great Silk Road: Myth Or Substance?
    Conflict Studies Research Centre S41 Table of Contents INTRODUCTION 3-5 “THE ANCIENT SILK ROAD” 6-9 TRACECA – THE MODERN SILK ROAD 10-25 Concept of the TRACECA Project 10 The TRACECA Route 11 TRACECA and the Establishment of Transport Corridors 13 First European Transport Conference – Prague 1991 13 Second European Transport Conference – Crete 1994 14 Third European Transport Conference – Helsinki 1995 14 St Petersburg Transport Conference – May 1998 15 Significance of European Transport Conferences in Russia 15 TRACECA Conference 7/8 September 1998 15 Russian Grievances 16 Underlying Factors in Economic Development 19 Natural Resources 21 Trans-Caspian Transport Trends and Developments 22 Creation of a Permanent Secretariat in Baku 22 Increase in Number of Ferries in the Caspian 22 Railway Developments and Proposals 24 Position of Russia, Iran and Armenia in Caucasus-Caspian Region 24 RUSSIAN CONCEPT OF A SUPER MAGISTRAL 26-28 The Baritko Proposal 26 THE PROBLEMS OF THE SUPER MAGISTRAL 29-35 The Problem of Siberia 29 Ravages of Climate compounded by Neglect 29 Financial and Strategic Contexts 30 Problems concerning the Baykal-Amur Magistral 33 CONCLUSIONS 36-38 TRACECA 36 European-Trans-Siberian Trunk Routes 37 APPENDIX 39-41 Text of Baku Declaration of 8 September 1998 1 S41 Tables Table 1 – Euro-Asiatic Trans-Continental Railway Trunk Routes Table 2 – TRACECA – The Modern Silk Road Table 3 – Three Transport Corridors Crossing into and over Russian Territory Table 4 – Trade Flows in the Transcaucasus Table 5 – Kazakhstan’s Railway Development
    [Show full text]
  • Assessing Innovation in Comparative Tender Assessment in the Road Sector
    ASSESSING INNOVATION IN COMPARATIVE TENDER ASSESSMENT IN THE ROAD SECTOR Pardeep Kumar Oad Master of Engineering (Research), Bachelor of Engineering (Civil) Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Architecture and Built Environment Faculty of Engineering Queensland University of Technology 2021 Keywords Road industry; Bid evaluation; Innovation; Road construction, Project management, Factors of innovation; Global warming; Tendering. Assessing Innovation in Comparative Tender Assessment in the Road Sector i Abstract Innovation in the field of road construction offers significant community and industry benefits by making an important contribution to economic growth and enhancing the quality of projects. However, achieving better innovative practices to improve existing construction processes and to heighten competitiveness has become a challenge for the road industry. Innovation in the context of this research refers to the use of suitable materials in the construction of roads, such as eco-friendly roads, solar roads, and recycled materials. Moreover, innovation in the road construction industry is cocreated in a multiparty designed, shaped and environment, therefore it is important to analysis the bidder’s skills and resource capability against the project requirements. Therefore, in the bid evaluation process in the road construction sector, it is important to consider innovation as well as the other factors. This research examines the factors related to innovation in the bid evaluation process in the road construction sector. It proposes a model of innovation and bid evaluation to explore a variety of components and factors of innovation in the road sector, including innovative activities, impacts, benefits, inputs, drivers, factors, enablers and bidders’ capabilities in developing suitable roads.
    [Show full text]
  • China's Southwestern Silk Road in World History By
    China's Southwestern Silk Road in World History By: James A. Anderson James A. Anderson, "China's Southwestern Silk Road in World History," World History Connected March 2009 http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/6.1/anderson.html Made available courtesy of University of Illinois Press: http://www.press.uillinois.edu/ ***Reprinted with permission. No further reproduction is authorized without written permission from the University of Illinois Press. This version of the document is not the version of record. Figures and/or pictures may be missing from this format of the document.*** As Robert Clark notes in The Global Imperative, "there is no doubt that trade networks like the Silk Road made possible the flourishing and spread of ancient civilizations to something approximating a global culture of the times."1 Goods, people and ideas all travelled along these long-distance routes spanning or circumventing the vast landmass of Eurasia. From earliest times, there have been three main routes, which connected China with the outside world.2 These were the overland routes that stretched across Eurasia from China to the Mediterranean, known collectively as the "Silk Road"; the Spice Trade shipping routes passing from the South China Sea into the Indian Ocean and beyond, known today as the "Maritime Silk Road"; and the "Southwestern Silk Road," a network of overland passages stretching from Central China through the mountainous areas of Sichuan, Guizhou and Yunnan provinces into the eastern states of South Asia. Although the first two routes are better known to students of World History, the Southwestern Silk Road has a long ancestry and also played an important role in knitting the world together.
    [Show full text]
  • GREAT WALL of CHINA Deconstructing
    GREAT WALL OF CHINA Deconstructing History: Great Wall of China It took millennia to build, but today the Great Wall of China stands out as one of the world's most famous landmarks. Perhaps the most recognizable symbol of China and its long and vivid history, the Great Wall of China actually consists of numerous walls and fortifications, many running parallel to each other. Originally conceived by Emperor Qin Shi Huang (c. 259-210 B.C.) in the third century B.C. as a means of preventing incursions from barbarian nomads into the Chinese Empire, the wall is one of the most extensive construction projects ever completed… Though the Great Wall never effectively prevented invaders from entering China, it came to function more as a psychological barrier between Chinese civilization and the world, and remains a powerful symbol of the country’s enduring strength. QIN DYNASTY CONSTRUCTION Though the beginning of the Great Wall of China can be traced to the third century B.C., many of the fortifications included in the wall date from hundreds of years earlier, when China was divided into a number of individual kingdoms during the so-called Warring States Period. Around 220 B.C., Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a unified China, ordered that earlier fortifications between states be removed and a number of existing walls along the northern border be joined into a single system that would extend for more than 10,000 li (a li is about one-third of a mile) and protect China against attacks from the north.
    [Show full text]
  • O. Karataev TITLE of the ANCIENT TURKS: “KAGAN” (QAGAN) and “ZHABGU” (YABGU)
    ISSN 1563-0269, еISSN 2617-8893 Journal of history. №1 (96). 2020 https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz IRSTI 03.29.00 https://doi.org/10.26577/JH.2020.v96.i1.02 O. Karataev Kastamonu University, Turkey, Kastamonu, е-mail: [email protected] TITLE OF THE ANCIENT TURKS: “KAGAN” (QAGAN) AND “ZHABGU” (YABGU) The Turks managed to create a huge empire. Territory – from the Altai mountains in the east to the Black Sea in the west, from the upper Yenisei in the north to the upper Amu Darya in the south. At the beginning of the VI century, the territory of Kazakhstan came under the authority of the Turkic Kaganate. Turkic Kaganate is the first state in Kazakhstan. Its basis was the union of Turkic-speaking tribes, which was headed by the kagan. The state, based on tribal traditions, was based on military-administrative management. It was part of a system of relations with such major states of the time as Iran and Byzan- tium. China was a tributary of the kaganate. The title in many cultures played the role of an important indicator of the international prestige of the state. As is known, only members of the Ashin clan had the sacred right to supreme power in the Turkic Kaganate. Possession of one or another title, occupation of one or another place in the political and state structure of society, depended on many circumstances, the main of which was belonging to a particular tribe in a tribal union, clan in a tribe, etc. Social deter- minants (titles, ranks, positions), as the most significant components of ancient Turkic anthroponomy, contained complete information about the social status of the bearer of a given name, its origin and membership in a particular layer of society, data on its place in the political structure of society and the administrative structure .
    [Show full text]
  • Black Sea-Caspian Steppe: Natural Conditions 20 1.1 the Great Steppe
    The Pechenegs: Nomads in the Political and Cultural Landscape of Medieval Europe East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450–1450 General Editors Florin Curta and Dušan Zupka volume 74 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/ecee The Pechenegs: Nomads in the Political and Cultural Landscape of Medieval Europe By Aleksander Paroń Translated by Thomas Anessi LEIDEN | BOSTON This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided no alterations are made and the original author(s) and source are credited. Further information and the complete license text can be found at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ The terms of the CC license apply only to the original material. The use of material from other sources (indicated by a reference) such as diagrams, illustrations, photos and text samples may require further permission from the respective copyright holder. Publication of the presented monograph has been subsidized by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education within the National Programme for the Development of Humanities, Modul Universalia 2.1. Research grant no. 0046/NPRH/H21/84/2017. National Programme for the Development of Humanities Cover illustration: Pechenegs slaughter prince Sviatoslav Igorevich and his “Scythians”. The Madrid manuscript of the Synopsis of Histories by John Skylitzes. Miniature 445, 175r, top. From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Proofreading by Philip E. Steele The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at http://catalog.loc.gov LC record available at http://catalog.loc.gov/2021015848 Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”.
    [Show full text]
  • EASTERN CENTRAL ASIA the Early History of Central Asia Is Gleaned
    CHAPTER FOUR EASTERN CENTRAL ASIA KASHGAR TO KHOTAN I. INTRODUCTION The early history of Central Asia is gleaned primarily from three major sources: the Chinese historical writings, usually governmental records or the diaries of the Bud­ dhist pilgrims; documents written in Kharosthl-an Indian script also adopted by the Kushans-(and some in an Iranian dialect using technical terms in Sanskrit and Prakrit) that reveal aspects of the local life; and later Muslim, Arab, Persian, and Turkish writings. 1 From these is painstakingly emerging a tentative history that pro­ vides a framework, admittedly still fragmentary, for beginning to understand this vital area and prime player between China, India, and the West during the period from the 1st to 5th century A.D. Previously, we have encountered the Hsiung-nu, particularly the northern branch, who dominated eastern Central Asia during much of the Han period (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), and the Yiieh-chih, a branch of which migrated from Kansu to northwest India and formed the powerful and influential Kushan empire of ca. lst-3rd century A.D. By ca. mid-3rd century the unified Kushan empire had ceased and the main line of kings from Kani~ka had ended. Another branch (the Eastern Kushans) ruled in Gandhara and the Indus Valley, and the northernpart of the former Kushan em­ pire came under the rule of Sasanian governors. However, after the death of the Sasanian ruler Shapur II in 379, the so-called Kidarites, named from Kidara, the founder of this "new" or Little Kushan Dynasty (known as the Little Yiieh-chih by the Chinese), appear to have unified the area north and south of the Hindu Kush between around 380-430 (likely before 410).
    [Show full text]
  • Conservation in China Issue, Spring 2016
    SPRING 2016 CONSERVATION IN CHINA A Note from the Director For over twenty-five years, it has been the Getty Conservation Institute’s great privilege to work with colleagues in China engaged in the conservation of cultural heritage. During this quarter century and more of professional engagement, China has undergone tremendous changes in its social, economic, and cultural life—changes that have included significant advance- ments in the conservation field. In this period of transformation, many Chinese cultural heritage institutions and organizations have striven to establish clear priorities and to engage in significant projects designed to further conservation and management of their nation’s extraordinary cultural resources. We at the GCI have admiration and respect for both the progress and the vision represented in these efforts and are grateful for the opportunity to contribute to the preservation of cultural heritage in China. The contents of this edition of Conservation Perspectives are a reflection of our activities in China and of the evolution of policies and methods in the work of Chinese conservation professionals and organizations. The feature article offers Photo: Anna Flavin, GCI a concise view of GCI involvement in several long-term conservation projects in China. Authored by Neville Agnew, Martha Demas, and Lorinda Wong— members of the Institute’s China team—the article describes Institute work at sites across the country, including the Imperial Mountain Resort at Chengde, the Yungang Grottoes, and, most extensively, the Mogao Grottoes. Integrated with much of this work has been our participation in the development of the China Principles, a set of national guide- lines for cultural heritage conservation and management that respect and reflect Chinese traditions and approaches to conservation.
    [Show full text]