O N D L I F E

BY ED WA RD C . A SH .

L N D T J A C K O O N : . C . E . C . 6 LONG AC RE W C AND EDI NBURG H 7 , . . , NEW YORK : DODG E P UBLI SH I NG c o .

C ONTENTS

I NTRODU CTI ON

II . A! UATIC CRUST ACE AN S

V T R P ID E RS . WA E S

L S I! . SNAI

INTRODU CTION

TH ERE lar e nu mb ers of eo le w ho are g p p , unfortunately miss a ood of The live their great many of the g things this world. y lives without knowing anything of the wonders that surround e l to them . Th re are some keen searchers after knowledge, a ive e — the fact that time is precious, and there is much to l arn but there are also countless numbers w ho are so ignorant that they do not i e realise that there is anyth ng b neath the surface , and to they simply live make the best of their positions, and take interest in nothing in particular. And there are yet a few — one meets such occasionally that scoff at everything which does not concern them personally. l as The reader wil , I hope, peruse this introduction carefully, to hi s e for e e it may add or her pl asure, a little el m ntary know ledge is required ii the intention is to take an intelligent interest in what follows . l or Every iving thing , whether plant animal, whether it be or of e o r f the leaves, flowers, fruit the form r, flesh and muscle o the latter, is made of many single cells, and each cell essen tiall of s y consists a wall that surround it, protoplasm, and a nucleus . n nor Protoplasm without nucleus can ot exist , can the a is aliv nucleus without protoplasm . And e ch cell typically to f u to o . that is say, it is able to m ltiply, make more its kind — Thus an animal grows larger year by year the ovule forms the plant . i 1 - 2 Living th ngs are roughly divided into ( ) single celled, ( ) - - as many celled things. The single celled animals are known — - Protozoa many celled as Metazoa . i a When a cell multipl es, the nucleus divides and its p rts take V vi INTRODUCTION

of up a position at opposite sides the cell, a wall is formed, and

. as tw o cells result These cells are known daughter cells . m A single cell may have per anent projections known as cilia i to e of (ha rs) , and may be able change its shap , by means tem orar — e a p y elongations known scientifically as Ps udopodi , or to t emporary feet . It is wise remember that single cells are i e e i not mperfect , in fact th y are far more adapted to th ir l fe of - a than some the many celled cre tures . Nor is there any justification in labelling amoeba and other Protozoa as the of beginning life for we find that the amoeba , simple as it may c be, is dependent for food on organic matter . The organi matter consists of living plants and the remains of decomposed plants and animals . We can roughly divide pond life into large small very sm ll Ani mals a mi croscopically large small minute and plants into similar divisions. : For example the newt would be amongst the large, the e - - e wat r beetle amongst the small, whilst the water mit , a i e he c b e t . reature only just v sible, would class d as very small With the aid of the microscope comparatively large animals will n e c e us be easily exami d (su h as vorticella), a higher pow r shows l ul e the amoeba, and a sti l higher power wo d give us a cl ar

&c. picture of the smaller diatoms , J ust as the pond inhabitants vary in size so likewise does their habitat . Some live in the mud at the bottom of the pond, o n of e - e others the lower branches wat r we ds, and many others, ” to the . again, are usually at home nearer surface Our b e are c equipment , therefore, must such that we able to colle t - n our creatures from any ordinary situation . The pond hu ter needs no expensive appliances for his work ; all he requires he ul can easily procure or make for himself, and if he sho d wish to save time a very little outlay will buy the necessary equipment. as - e Of course, just in every other matter, if the pond hunt r to on do so wishes spend more his appliances , he can always , I NTROD UCTIO N v ii

’ u er b t to the writ s mind, the simpler the outfit, the more the ” l a of fun. The app iances essenti lly consist

l - ( ) a drag net, 2 - ( ) a hand net, 3 e ( ) s veral jam jars .

The Hand-net should be made of strong canvas of a small ul l to i of wi or mesh, and sho d be careful y sewn on a r ng re cane . of im rtance as I do r to The sewing is m , and not p ofess be an I is expert on needlework, all that am able to advise, that it so to c of should be done as allow no hance fraying . The finished net should be fastened on to a fairly strong but not

too heavy stick . The Drag- net is a metal or woo d frame triangular in shape n i a for - The ot requ red is rather l rger than the hand net . The of u se as e of wooden frame is perhaps the most , by m ans holes bored at suitable distances it allows for the attachment of weights when necessary . a of or Hunting the st g amongst the hills Somersetshire, the

on s of . fox the level land the Midlands , are both arts Likewise f s the hunting o a pond with succe s requires experience , although it may often happen that the first attempts may give good is - results . But it only by collecting that the pond hunter learns where to find the various creatures he requires . — — Water is heavy a gallon weighs 10 lb s. and foolish is he who mu st carry a gallon of water several miles to his home in order to procure some minute creatures, which would be equally safe, not or s if safer, in half a pint even le s . to a is n of A very simple way save c rrying water, by mea s a

filtering tin or bottle. of A tin with holes punched through the sides, a piece very has fine muslin tightly fastened round the holes, been found by e to b e the writ r more or less satisfactory. A still simpler idea is to have a cylinder of Copper wire gauze of is so a i very fine texture . The latter e s ly carried that it is perhaps one of the best methods to advocate . It seems hardly necessary to give any details as to methods of f c - using nets . Su fi e it to say that the drag net should be s weighted or lightened depending on pond condition . The net viii INTRODUCTION should be drawn through the water with considerable speed for be consideration must be allowed obstacles , as a net can e &c n very easily destroy d by submerged wood, rocks, . On lifti g out to of to it care must be taken allow some the water escape, or else the strain occasioned may lead to the tearing of the net ; i sad c one w to do . a very occurren e, when is ardent th much work It is advisable when lifting ou t the net to seize it as near to its l contents as possible. The net shou d then be opened and l out i turned gradual y inside , the contents placed in var ous to e bottles in just enough water allow fre movement . of r Small pieces decaying wood, unhealthy discolou ed weeds for should be placed in other jars (in water) , these are certain to of be the homes various creatures, specially rotifers , and other animalcul es that seem to have a depraved taste for decom s po ing vegetable matter. Any creature of particular interest shoul d be put with others of or a kindly disposition , the collector may have a similar ex erience to p the writer, who having caught a very large and t comparatively rare larva, unfortuna ely placed it with various l sma ler creatures, under the mistaken idea that the weakest his goes to the wall. But on reaching home, he found rarity ” of of l hanging up by its neck, in the jaws the larva a smal - e the . wat r beetle, less than half size of its victim a of - a e The larv e water beetles, when pl ced in clos quarters , are too to only ready make the most of their opportunities, and the — other inhabitants are very soon reduced in numbers care therefore must be taken to place ferocious animals in special to f r jars, and allow them wreak their vengeance on things o l i which you have no particu ar interest . On reach ng home, the s ul various creature sho d be separated. P O N D L I F E

CHAPTER I

mcs oscorxc WONDERS

THE world as we know it without inquiring below the surface of is certainly wonderful, but with the application scientific as knowledge, aided by microscope and hand lens , the whole “ ” peot of the world alters it becomes even vaster. The owner of a low wer hand lens finds himself in a fresh of - e world. The small wil flowers our hedge rows r veal little known beauty. and turn into blooms that would eclipse many of o of our most prized varieties . But the use a microsc pe has ' eflect even a greater , and the mycologist enters into a kingdom - - never even dreamt of by the non initiated . The low power lens reveals countless numbers of most beautift formed ' n difl erent to w e a imals and plants, very those are accustomed to see . When first using a microscope the thinking man ex riences as e e a sensation if he w re committing a sacrileg , for E2feels that he is prying into things never meant for human eyes to behold . One is liable to think that plants are green structures which l to do to or have nothin e se than be eaten by lower animals, s en lucked an put into a va e by the higher. Some more htened one m realise that plants are enor ous branch of life, s i and that those we see every day, and are mo t famil ar with, ff represent but a very few of the di erent kinds . e on a I w as a On one occasion, after a l cture Pl nt Life, sked by a young member of my audience whether plants had how do brains , and if not was it that they could such wonder ful things that seemingly require tho ht . I mention this incident because it ows that the vegetable 9 e kingdom contains lar numbers of interesting species, som of h l which behave in a ighly inte ligent manner. 9 1 0 POND L I FE

As o this bo k is not one dealing with marvels of plant life, w e excepting those few that live in ponds and streams , must b e satisfied with these , which are none the less interesting e e e c b cause th y b long to the mi roscopic kingdom . What are plants ? and how do they diff er from animals ? The reader will find that many of the pond life plants have n e c o or more animal haracters, while certain animals have - plant like characteristics . Plants and animals vary from each other as follows

P la nt

H as e te t su r e and tes l and e gr a s fac least Grea t bu k l ast surface . b ulk

H as d e s t a x e H s e i est . no ig stiv ys em . a compl d g ive system I s u b e H f m e to . as ee e na l mov r ov m ent . Has ex te ke e cell u H as an i s el e o an rnal s l ton ( nternal k t n.

lose) . L e on si e b u t h h ox i Li es on e ou iv s mpl ig ly v compl x comp nds . d ise u n s d compo d . h Contains c hlor op yll (green Does not c ontain chlorophyll . c l u i te o o r ng mat r) . “ ” In the case of the higher plants very few have animal e c charact risti s , but many of the algae and certain microscopic e s plants b have in a very similar way to animal . e n ve Unfortunately for man , the thre ki gdoms , animal , ge e e had tabl , and mineral , were allotted b fore science made much so are headway, and it stands to reason that there many things typically members of none of the above kingdoms . When such are classified as plants a feeling of utter astonishment is experienced by those uninitiated in the peculiarities of scien tific e c nom n lature . To the average mind the majority of these dubious plants e c are mor chara teristically animals, but it must be remembered that the ordinary non-scientist does not usually value all the n c points, but forms his opinion by the thi gs whi h are most e e n c noticeable . It is int resting to know that the app ara e of ce a Desmid moving gra fully, as if drawn by some powerful l e o magnet , across the s id , gives even the average mycol gist an i ul mpression of animal, although he is f ly aware that what he e s es is really a plant . Little can it be wondered at , therefore, that the non-hardened mycologist is fully convinced that many “ ” n plants are a imals, and that the scientist who named them plants was utterly mistaken . e- so ul A singl celled plant , minute that several hundreds co d be placed in a pin -prick without crushing ; an architect and MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 1 1 craftsman able to build a case from chemical matter held in — of e o solution in water cases most gorgeous d signs , s me even — able to move by what means no one knows such is the on of s diatom, e the most intere ting inhabitants of every of pond and stream . The owner a microscope may spend i e his l fe studying the cases of these minute plants, for th ir e numbers are l gion , and the patterns revealed by the micro e scope become most inter sting , and more beautiful the higher the power of the lenses used . s th of Each minute plant , the large t being fi an inch in i m to d ameter (the average vary fro of an inch less) , builds - its siliceous case in the form of a pi l box and lid. And in the secu rity between the tw o valves (frustul es) the tiny plant — lives a perfect secure life f or the cases are so hard that no ly - crushing can amage them . And these strongly built cases so as to r i are deeply engraved , fo m most exqu site designs, unequalled by anything man has devised. And when one considers that the owner and maker of the c is fi 1 ase rstly T0 6 6 of an inch in diameter, secondly a single e c ll, and lastly a plant , one wonders at the marvels of the how universe, and wonderful even the most insignificant object may be . to Apart from how the plant should be able make the case, e H ow is e of the question aris s, it that each little c ll the same kind should build a case similar in every detail to others of the same family P Thus we have the round case of the Beleo e of Triceratium - of pelta, the triangular cas s , the boat shaped N s avicula , and countless more . e has one The diatom, like ev rything else that lives, main c e is obje t in lif , and that that its species will survive. c e s as : the -b ox Diatoms in r a e follows pill forms a new lid , so as the and the lid a new box, but the new part is not large e di e former, and h nce the atom becom s smaller and smaller a e s e as the g increases . But a time comes when thi minut e to smallness organism realises that th re is even a limit , and e c a e then , guid d by some un ommon sense (for we can hardly pl c o in e e reas ning power one c ll , and that a plant) , it chang s its e methods of r producing, and joinin on to another of its e e dia species , it becom s surrounded by j y. Then the two e ui toms , by a proc ss into which we will not inq re, fuse to e i ther to form an individual of sensible proport ons . i me d atoms live singly, and, as before mentioned, can move “ ” f about at their own free will . It must be le t to the owner of the microscope to feel the sensation occasioned by the move l Suflice to sa ments of these extraordinary p ants . y, that 1 2 POND LI FE

i or - seemingly nert diamond oval sha objects , as if prompted of by some unseen force, glide out t e field of view; and should of they meet with an obstacle, such as another the same t species , the encumbrance and the visi ors will often move

one . together, side by side, until or other alters its direction of m l Some species diato s ive in colonies, a very interesting

DIATOMS

1 . P ieurosi a m i s i a a. 3. Dia o s a ttenua u 2 . a cu a cu u re. t . N v l p d t t m v lg ma emi 4. Arachno iscus i m hone na m . 5. Tricerat um. 6. Go p g tu . H d 7 . eliopelta.

s u of example being Diatom v lgare . The members this colony form a chain, whilst the diatoms Asterionella formosa join t “ ” together so as o represent the s kes of a wheel . of 18 Another group great interest the stalked diatoms, a eminat m one . u good example being G g , which reminds of a a e on to wedge f sten d a stalk by the narrow end. e s u The wedge s crete a thin stream of gelatino s substance ,

as of the . which soon becomes solid, and acts the stalk organism MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 1 3

' Most beautiful colour eflects are often obtained u ninten ionall c of t y . The light is decomposed by the surfa e the

to . o frustules , and the cases are seen be iridescent A diat m ’ s eflects slide u ually shows similar . Desmids resemble diatoms in the fact that they are single or celled plants, But they have not the same wish , perhaps s power, to build cases . But although lac in this re pect et a t i y they are most be utiful little objec s , an any t me spent in e th ir study is amply repaid. Minute green plants is perhaps the best description one f e could give o them, for they contain chlorophyll, the re n s g colouring matter which we know o well in the higher p ants. of And , as if aware this fact , Desmids in fine weather are found on nd e film the surface of the , forming a gre n , whilst should to the weather be less right they retire the bottom , chloro hyll being essential in the decomposition of carbon dioxide por the production of sugar and starch in the presence of sun h our s hot so u ual fine summer weather, characteristic of i a a s our cl mate, these little pl nts appe r in such large number as to make the water appear green. of to i Desmids are all shapes , artly due the fact that the r method of reproduction lea s to great alterations in their ” to of physique, and partly due the large number species that are in existence. P erha if one asked the mycologist what he found interest ” smids closis ing in , he would reply, the study of C . is of Cyclosis the movement protoplasm, and this may most easily studied under the microscope . But to the average person their methods of reproduction are rob ab ly of more interest . e T e Desmid, wh n the instinct prompts it gradually divides the protoplasm and leaves a vacant space in the centre : a break occurs and tw o Desmids result . This is not the onl y w a tha t e D smids increase. The other method is sexual, the ormer asexual (fission). i tw o m s In the sexual method , known as conjugat on , Des id

t . is meet, the cell con ents mix, and a spore formed. This e f Spore then forms s veral Desmids o the same species . is of n Closterium lunula one the most interesti g, being comparatively common , and especially easy to study. The of phenomenon Cyclosis can be easily followed. Another Desmid of peculiar interest is Cosmariu m bot rytis . Cosmariu m b otritis is noticeable for having on its surface e The is many nobbl s ; these are arranged in rows. Desmid 1 4 POND LI FE tw divided in“to o halves by a waist . When reproduction takes c the pla e waist becomes narrower and narrower, and even all tu y breaks . At the same time another plant undergoes e similar changes . A most remarkable ph nomenon now takes of of i e place . The contents the half cells the first Desm d l ave e of their cell walls , and simultaneously the c ll walls the second mid w . c e D are evacuated The ll contents meet , and very soon a e e are surrounded by thick wall, cover d with peculiar spin s. his is s o d T structure the spore ca e, and in it the sp res are forme ,

Ds smns

m um i n 1 . H al otheca dissil iens. 2 . Cos ari b o tis u t i . y try , m l ply g 3 os e iu unu a i i in . . Cl t r m l l , d v d g

i i on and remain dormant unt l the follow ng spring , depending when the conjugation took place . n alo hec a di siliens Another most i terestin Desmid is H y t s . In this case we find severa Desmids living fastened togethcr h in a colony surrounded by gelatinous matter . W en conjuga o w o n tion takes place the contents f t neighbouri g cells fuse, and a spore case is formed . s ' f or e c Desmids can be e sil kept study . If plac d in a wat h ob tainecf glass in water from their natural home, they will not men i . only l ve, but increase rapidly Before leaving Desmids, to tion must be made of their power of movement . Similar to r so no of diatoms, they are able travel f eely, and, far, means MI C ROSCOPI C WONDERS 1 5 movement have been discovered even the highest power lens and the most carefully arrang ed light eff ects give no clue to this mystery ; and one can only imagine that it is by means s e so so of some mo t minut hairs, fine and transparent that ul -m c or they are tra icroscopi , else by some other physical or m e che ical means , unl ss we take it for granted that these most interesting plants have a means of movement that has no similarity in the higher world. Volvox glob ator may be said to resemble a tennis ball th of an inch in diameter ; in fact its behaviour is so much like t at Of ! a to an anim l , that it is a moot point as whether it should not be classified as such . - as of It is not a single celled plant a Desmid, but a colony l of of ce ls joined to ether by strands protoplasm , in the form fie t l . a round net , knots bei the individual cells ce is f u rnisi ed of Each little ll with a pair minute hairs, known as cilia , which are most energetically waved. It may strike the reader as extraordinary that the volvox ou a sh ld move in any direction wh tsoever, as we can hardly imagine that each of these minute cells co-o rates with the re e to e in maind r, but it is probably due th ir dependent action that the volvox rolls through the water in such an original way. one the Strangely enough, often notices that inside volvox e is ee itself some other cr ature living a perfectly free life, s m in l fe e o g y indif r nt t its destiny. This rather goes to show that a or non- the volvox either cont ins water, comparatively viscid material . u h Volvox m ltiplies by bot asexual and sexual methods . u In the case of the asexual , da ghter cells are formed similar to the parent, and the juveniles roll over and over inside the u nfilial parent in a most manner, and when the adult volvox thinks that the joke has gone far enough it breaks open in the e and g ntlest way, the daughter volvoxes , leaving their parent , e start on an ind pendent existence . of The second method is rather more interesting . Some the c anthero ells become changed in shape, and form respectively zoids e and oospheres, and then after a short time the anth rozoid - opens , and a large number of animal like objects swim out and e find th ir way towards an oogonium , into which they hurry . as A spore case is then formed , and, usual, ends the following in year a fresh generation of these most inte resting plants . If there should be doubt that each little cell forming the one to u net is an independent object , has only cr sh a volvox u nder a cover glass to see that such is the case f or each little 1 6 POND LIFE

l l as e u r ce l wi l swim independently, if it w re q ite an ordina y event to be separated from its relations . “ To m colo ist the amateur y one might say, Find a volvox and be happy f or it mayie said that there are very few things n more beautiful, more origi al, and more extraordinary than this little plant . of Another of great interest , a member the family, is Pan i dorina morum . It is very common in many distr cts , and is

VOLVOCINEAE

ina orum. 1 . Vo ox lob ator showin au h e s insi e a en . 2 . an o lv g , g d g t r d p r t P d r m

CYANOPHYCEAE

Nos oc . Osci a o ia tennis. 4. 3. ll t r t

com often mistaken for Volvox glob ator by the amateur . It is red posed of a few lar e reen cells, noticeable for a spot dsi c e has l nearest to the broa e . Ea h c ll a pair of long ci ia , and the entire colony is surrounded by a gelatinous envelope , re rod u c through which the cilia protrude . Their method of p e tion is rather different to that of volvox. The cells br ak out f t o their envelope , and swim freely until two of them mee ; these then join together and spores are formed .

1 8 POND LI FE

r one f om the and that from the other meet . In the meantime the of s contents the cells have altered , have ma sed together into m tw o a s aller space . Then the walls of touching protuberances break, and the contents of the one cell passes across and joins f “ ” that o the other . The spore thus formed eventually elaborates a fresh filament . Spirogyra is visible to the naked eye it will be seen as a fine green thread-like weed often on the surface of the water . is to or This book not intended deal with plants alone, else we might have mad e further inquiries into the life histories of many more interesting species . The reader will doubtless come to the conclusion that plants are greatly d so e one stoo , and that they are not hop lessly inert as might expec t. We are still in a world of Lilliputians : amongst the ex traordinar 80 ff y plants, very di erent to those we are familiar a n e r u with, equally origin l a imals liv their lives, uninte r pted c by modern civilisation . The motor, ele tric tram, and other l c e a no ff e comp i at d m chines have made di erenc to their lives, for of e and except circumstances pond interest, they hav altered little as time passed on . The higher animals have been aff ected by modern con ditions : the lion and tiger, the rook, and other wild birds have is hi s M a learnt what man , have realised danger, they have eom accustomed to his manners and habits . But the microscopic inhabitants of the pond have never se en man , and they can have no idea of his appearance, for their world is so vast that one shudders with the idea of what it is to must be . For the merest spot of water a veritable lake r these minute creatures, which swim to and fro, pas“sing ove of each other, and becoming lost in the depth of a sheet - water practically non existing on a microscopic slide . - And man ignorantly wanders about , all important in himself, and only too willing to form the opinion that everything w as

made for his particular benefit , and that all animals work by no — in instinct , and have no hopes, ideas fact nothing but the

power to live. of And the mycologist, as he watches these little specks life, to vibrating with energetic movement , hurrying and scurrying f ro so in i so a o and , busy their l ves, e ger to accomplish s me no object of which he has knowledge , thinks perhaps of many — i i a man, living a life of nothings doing noth ng , finish ng to nothing, never eager, never agile, except when it comes a matter of games . of to for And then the humour the situation comes him , he MICROSCOPI C WONDERS 1 9 is looking into a world of such small creatu res that they are of s e i invisible except by the aid the micro cope , and th se m nute t s do Specks are perfec ly equipped for their exi tence, and not f i - -artifi cial even kno w o th s ll important semi product , which a ” lives in the bliss of Top of the Tree . ” “ Oh ! I can hear the reader remark . What does this pond hunting enthusiast consider a microscopic quantity above man ” ’ to And the answer is No . But the writer s mind man is only u nfor one o f the many fine creatures in this world, but he, el to of tu nat y, owing ignorance his surroundings, thinks he ” ” h of one. o norance is the only And , for the pathos such , for even a pond contains countless numbers 0 perfect creatures, and the largest pond is only a minute speck compared with the universe . And as all the actions of the most intelligent creatures are labelled with that hopelessly in accurate and childish title ” “ of Instinct , what can the actions the Lilliputians into whose lives we are now to inquire be put down to ? A nothingness ? For we find that certain minute animalcules — - hunt in pairs single celled creatures for all that . Why should we think that the Deity has only given man the power his n to make the best of surroundi gs (which he so seldom does) , no ? whilst all other things should exist , and more htened As time goes on , and we become more enli , such e is id as will be ridiculed by everyone , and we will earn that it ou r to s no part of duty try and understand thing , and t to imagine that all the wonders of this world were made f or the particular purpose of being destroyed in the most ex editiou s p manner. to ou r l of So, returning pond life, we wi l study a few the e wond rfully adapted creatures known as Infusoria . If we place a small quantity of hay in a jar of water certain small animals make their appearance after a very few days . f a One o the first to appear is the amoeb . Amoeba Proteus “l th to th is 3 33 of an inch in diameter. finder the microscope this minute lump of jelly - like sub stance will be seen to wander aimlessly thi s way and that by e l producing temporary proj ctions . Shou d , however, a current be produced the amoeba will be seen to work its way against of fl it , and show every sign unwillingness to oat with the stream . u Altho gh mouthless, and free from a digestive system , yet the amoeba feeds like every other living thin It is inter to see d i esting one obtaining a meal . The weir l ttle cell , by or altering its shape , wanders about until it touches a Desmid 2 0 POND L I FE

other speck of organic matter. Gradually the sides of the is amoeba elongate until the prey literally engulfed, the Desmid being deposited in the centre of a lump of protoplasm . When m ha s the victi been digested, the amoeba opens and wanders of a away, leaving the remains its me l behind it . n A time comes when the amoeba, havi g lived a happy life, i - becomes fat , and then the s ngle celled creature forms a waist, a i a which becomes more f sh onable until , having re ched a mini ' difler nt a e . mum, it breaks, and two amoeb s crawl in directions

o to &c . The am eba reacts certain stimuli electric currents, , show various eff ects . °

of 100 F. It is most active in temperatures about , and may be i k lled by poisons or excessive heating .

The famous Leucocyte or Phagocyte (white blood corpuscle) , i is which inhabits the veins and arteries of the higher an mals , to s similar the amoeba , wanderin along when emergency call , “ ’ by means of temporary feet . The amoeba may be found i nhabiting the mud at the bottom of the pond , and can usually - e be easily discovered under a fairly low pow r lens . Under adverse conditions, such as when the pond dries up i dur ng a dro ht , the amoeba forms a case or cyst , and thus encysted remams dormant until conditions are again favour c is able . It may happen that the en ysted amoeba carried b - r h the wind to another pond . Thus micro life appears in f es situations. as Certain of the Infusoria have cilia, and are known Ciliata. t z Stylonychia my ilus is a comparatively large proto oon, and will be seen swimming about in a most characteristic manner . It is a broadly oval organism with cilia along its sides. The month is very large, and the cilia with which it is furnished i are most energetically waved , prov ng that at all events Stylonychia has an apprec iable appetite . i This little creature, l ke many others, deserves that its name as should be inscribed upon marble , an example of energy, for to the animalcule seems be well stored with this quality, and is to free from any signs of fatigue . It continually darting and fro, as if the forward or backward movement resulted in hi i the stretc ng of an elastic band, wh ch suddenly becoming taut

to or . drew the creature back, whether it wished come not a Sometimes it crawls, at other times it travels by le ps and - is of bounds, but usually the dart like movement its mode progression .

It is most interesting to study Stylonychia, although it needs atience l much , as it continua ly leaves the field of focus at the c riti moment . MICROSCOPI C WONDER S 2 1

f is is One of the la est o the Ciliata Paramecium . It just v to as e . isible the na ed eye, a minute whit speck of o to Like many others the Prot zoa, it is able change its s so onl hape when occasion needs, but it does temporarily, for it very soon regains its usual form when it s passed the is - obstacle . Its body covered with short , hair like cilia , which m as is it uses in swi ming . Its mouth, known the vestibule, - n i s a cone shaped depression , furnished with lo g cil a , by mean of which very minute particles of organic matter are washed is or in . When Paramecium interfered with wishes to obtain i living food, it sh“oots out long threads, from certa n special as . organs known trichocysts These threads , in some way or aral sin f i other, have a p y ef ect upon the vict m . Tw i Multiplication occurs y conjugation . o indiv duals fasten together, and their protoplasm becomes co ntinuous months through their . The nuclei then undergo changes ,

i . no after wh ch the creatures separate And curiously enough , sooner has this occurred than both Paramecium divide into

u n . two, thereby forming fo r you g ones of the same kind is as i Paramecium popularly known the Slipper An malcule , to s b ed because it some extent re embles such an article . A room sli er has and out of , pp , that seen much wear, is thereby is erha s ik u shape, p rather l e the creat re. Trac hclbcerca or i is one of Olor, the Swan An malcule, the to be most charming of all the Protozoa found in a pond . s has a Its title it certainly well deserve , for it the extr ' ordinary power of form a swan-like neck of surprising flex it or e of red ucm y when required, might b tter say g its

to . neck a short , stumpy growth when occasion needs one so At times it will rest in spot, its neck writhing grace fully that it reminds one of the artistic arm play of the well of n known Maud Allan style dancing , except that the mi ute of u creature is the essence gracefulness, each movement ro nded ' ofl with a perfectness that the dancer can never attain. And if we have the opportunity of watching this min ute f animal at play, gracefully twisting its neck into all sorts o is an inconceivable evolutions, we begin to wonder if there y n in thi g new this world of ours . to o f so It is hard describe the movement that neck, supple , so one l and lithe, that expects any moment that it wil break f to e with the ef ort form the n cessary curve, and when Trach loc c erca Olor becomes active in search of food one realises the valu e of the play. We are all aware that unless in practice o n et we s on become u fit, and to be an expert at rapid and o i 11 d c mfortable movement every muscle must be exerc sed . 2 2 POND LI FE

' althou h a to the minute animal, g single cell, seems understand ul to h that this r e also applies it . When searc ing for food its

neck moves with wonderful rapidity, darting in and out , twist here and there, shortening , lengthening, just like the

INFUSORIA

- 1 . Swan necke Ani a cul e. 2. Cole s hirtus or a e ni a cu e d m l p , B rr l A m l l S on chia i us . 3 a a eciu . 4. Choetonotus a u s. 5. . P r m m l r tyl y myt l

its imaginary snake should do, and then suddenly body becomes lengthened, and it swims rapidly to another Spot . u w e Trachcloc erca e Strangely eno gh , find that Olor beli ves in - co so . e operation, and usually has a companion But wh ther is th is really a matter of agreement, or whether it is the result o f m f to ere chance, it is dif icult say . From personal experience I have never seen two of these M I CROSCOPIC WONDERS 2 3 s trange little creatures in any way assisting one another, although usually if the mycologist has the good fort u ne to find one o . , a second s on makes its appearance It is interesting to know that Trachclocerca Olor w as one of the first Protozoa to be discovered . — — Coleps hirtus known as the Barrel Animalcule is not only one of interesting but highly useful . For it is the micro s s cavengers, and spend most of its life clearing away the dead and decomposing remains of the unfortunate inhabitants of ponds and streams. Cole 8 hirtus sometimes rolls along in a characteristically ° ke to fro for barrel fashion, but usually it swims and , resting a considerable time between each movement . It multiplies by producing a waist until it resembles a tw o Cole s h diabolo . Fission takes place , and p irtus are produced . Choetonotus a l larus is always in a hurry, and ch racteristica ly ow n si h s e on minds its bu ness. T i is the impr ssion it leaves ’ o as alo f or to ne s mind , it bustles stops nothing, and seems have every intention of reao ing its destination wherever it

. e ff to may be Should it m et an obstacle, and find its e ort off push through unsuccessful , it turns and hurries again , s pos ibly in exactly the opposite direction, but seemingly with ” the same determination of eventually getting there . - r on of It is a queer looking little c eature, partly account the to cilia just behind the head, that resemble some extent side Whiskers . Choetonotu s laru s is a member of a family known as

Gastroricha r . , of which there are ve y many species Some have as s h eyes, others far as can be seen are eyele s . T eir food s usually consists of decaying organic matter , but occa ionally h r a t ey attack c e tures larger than themselves, and once having made a wound savagely feast on the escaping cell contents (protoplasm) . Choetonotu s larus is probably a hermaphrodite (male and so one sex has female in one) , but far only been determined . Females carrying eggs have been seen to lay them amongst m aquatic weeds, where they re ain, prevented from slipping off by the roughness of their deeply engraved shells . The G astroricha to , although some extent resembling r Infusoria, are classified with the rotife s amongst the worms . 2 4 POND LIFE

THE BELL ANIMALCULES Some of the queerest little animals are members of this “ ” amil y . The best known is the Vorticella . Each little of hell e le creature consists a cup, or , and a stalk, the latt r ab to contract and expand in the manner of a coiled spring. s s The movement is aided by a mu cle fibre, which passe down the stalk . The mouth of the bell is surrounded by o cilia , and these producing aquatic currents, all s rts and of n he conditions thi gs are washed into t cavity. of c Similarly to most the mi roscopic pond inhabitants, vorticella are always busy. They uncoil, rising slowly until their stalks are fully stretched ; f or some few seconds the l d i cilia wave lusti y, and then with a su denness and surpr sing i ra id ty they recoil . pt would seem that the vorticella practically immediately c regret their a tion, for the very next moment they very l i gradually unwind , the be l opens, and the cil a are very soon c most actively engaged . When they re oil the cilia are with

of . drawn, and the bell takes the form a ball c n on Vorti ella multiplies by dividing lo gitudinally, and examining a colony several individuals are certain to be in i s is d fferent stages of this function . When fi sion complete d l one of the in ividuals remains in the sta k, whilst the other “ ” swims away and starts life on its own. s is Vorticella also multiplies by conjugation . When thi one or i s about to occur, more of the individual bells d vide l m rapid y into many s all vorticella, and these, breaking away

to a i . from the stalk, swim a m ture ind vidual is The smaller vorticella is absorbed by the larger. It interesting to know that if different parentage is prevented c to (that is to say, the vorti ella is forced multiply with d i . relations) , after a short wh le they become degenerate It is really most surprising how rapidly colonies of vorticella

u . appear, become n merous, and disappear One may find that the aquarium is well stocked with these —in an d l creatures fact that weeds, broken sticks , even snai s i ma are covered with them, and with n a very few days one y search high and low, and not find a single colony. In the aquarium a colony of vorticella can be seen Wi th the s & c on . naked eye s white fur, stems of weed , , a — T here are many kinds of bell animalcules some grow as O es one are - Wi h bunch on stalk, others in a tree like colony t

2 6 POND LI FE

c i to ff yet ontinu ng feed, seemingly totally indi erent to their visitor . But usually, they are most sensitive to touch, and will remain in retirement some little time , if very violently inter f ered with . Whilst some bell animalcules live more or less inde - pendently, others again are surrounded by a jelly like substance. Ophrydiu m is often found as a lump of jelly ith of an inch o e to in diameter . Under the microsc p it will be seen be the - home of many hundreds of vorticella like creatures . Each minute animal is able to withdraw or extend in search of of food, whenever it may wish to, perfectly independent the remaining colonists . Although most of the bell animalcules seem to prefer a a social life to a solit ry one, a few species are the exceptions , i e the of and live quite ndepend ntly, most beautiful these

Cothu rnia ul . being , Umbell a, Vaginicola, and others Two very interesting experiments may be performed with If these little creatures . a solution of iodine be added to the of c of im slide living vorti ella , the nuclei the cells will i med ately take the stain . f eed in c Vorticella may be wat hed, and the course of the l e al ink food fo low d, by owing a very small quantity of Indian to run under the cover glass . a The little specks of bl ck will be caught in the vortex, and i e to taken in by the an malcul , but after some attempt digest

to . them, the Indian ink particles are returned the water

SUCTORIA — The Suctoria contain some most curious little animals a

o e . g od example b ing the Acineta Each little creature, less than th of n c an inch in le gth, stands on a hardened stalk, which - f terminates in a triangu lar cup like structure . Out o the of a n corner the cup, arms are thrust , e ch arm endi g in a little e e knob . In some speci s the arms are able to open into tub s, through which the food is draw n . ul m Sho d an unfortunate creature, such as a s all rotifer, come into contact with one of these tentacles, its doom is m s for . ealed , the other suckers bend over towards the victi th e Gradually fluid portions of the rotifer are sucked out, i unt l nothing but the solid portions remain . By what power the Acineta is able to hold MICROSCOPIC WONDERS 2 7

is of on difficul t to say . The life history interest account of the fact that the members of the Suctoria start life as he i t . free sw mmers, resembling Ciliata n Gradually the you g mature, until eventually they become similar fixed objects to their parents . Hence w e may say the Acinetaria were probably evolved from the Ciliata some da far bygone y. to or A little animal, fastened a stem leaf, resembling a - to model post horn , swinging gently from side side, will microscO i c r . often be found , when searching for p pond creatu es e - e i Or a green, p ar shap d animal may sw m with a peculiar roll e of across the slid , turning over and over until it passes out

of . c tw o one the field view Perchan e such creatures, fastened above the other, may make an appearance . - Stentors, like most other micro pond animals , multiply, and so should one be found it is more than likely that others will shortly be discovered .

Stentor Polymorphus is a green little creature, and although able to s w im often settles on a favourable spot and produces a temporary foot . is s ar Thus a colony founded, which increa es until a l ge number of individuals are closely packed on the same weed . Occasionally a member of the colony will liberate itself and sw im by means of the cilia with which its body is covered to ’ a fresh spot , and there start a new colony. From the writer s personal experience it would seem that Stentor Polymorphus is u free swimming during certain seasons, and us ally sedentary during others . The animal itself will b e easily recognised by the illus ration ll 1 b t s. I ustration No . ( ) shows Stentor Polymorphus b i t is to multiplying y division, but interesting know that e a sexual reproduction also tak s pl ce , in which case two stentors of join together. Strangely enough, whilst in the act dividing, n the stentor swims actively, changing its shape , contracti g and expanding , as if perfecting normal .

The trumpet shape of the individual , the peculiar twist of of the opening of the funnel, and the size the creature does not allow any confusion in its identity f or it in no way r esembles vorticella, nor can it be mistaken for a rotifer . e - i Fr e swimming stentors, especially whilst engaged in div sion , to e are most interesting watch, whilst a group of s ttled is stentors, viewed with a dark background, certainly a beauti ful picture .

Stentor Niger or the Black Stentor is a free swimmer. It is so dis a smaller creature than Polymorphus , and not well 2 8 POND LI FE

o tributed as the latter. Stentor Niger does n t surround itself e in o with a case . Stentor Co ruleus is scarlet colour, Stent r l neu s g blue. e of r The stentors are the larg st the Ciliata . The colou ing pigment in the Blue Stentor has been named by Lancaster blue stentorin .

CHAPTER II A! UATIC CRUSTACEANS

“ ” GIVE a dog a bad name and hang him is very true in the world in which we live, and the reader, particularly if a e of e sex memb r the gentl r , will probably leave this chapter For is unread. the flea an animal barred from conversation . i is s Its ex stence ignored by those free from its pre ence, whilst he or she chosen by the interesting little animal as a is b elab elled as food supply uncleanly . ’ -flea is no But the water relation to the flea we don t know . too s It is a harmless , interesting little creature , far bu y in its own sphere of life to interfere indirectly or directly with - the all important man and his subordinates . on One may notice occasionally, particularly a warm summer of or day, that certain parts the pond are reddish whitish on u colour. This colour closer examination will be fo nd to be the resul t of large numbers of water-fleas congregated in u a e that partic l r district . These creatures are memb rs of sub - of od of Cladocera, a order the Branchiop a , a division the a crust ceans, and are characterised in that their breathing organs Branchiu s oda = leaf - are attached to their limbs ( p footed) . o f -fleas There are several species water , some small , others e comparativ ly large . Some live in running water, others refer a n the most st g ant pool , whilst yet another species bits water so saturated with salt that no other creature could or possibly live there . A few that live at a great depth in underground water are eyeless . o mi The British Clad cera are divided into eight fa lies , all or n more less resembling the Daph ia . c is s as Ea h little creature surrounded by a ca e, known the iff carapace, which varies both in size and in shape in d erent s families . In some the carapace is large and entirely enclo es is of the creature ; in others it small , and in the case Gym n is is b ut omera it large when the creature carrying its eggs, AQUATIC C R USTACEANS 2 9 shrinks when not required for this purpose . The headpiece of t u the carapace of en forms a prominent c rved beak, giving the animal a most curious appearance . The food of these little crustaceans is various ; usually it

of . of consists decomposin organic matter Apus, a species g to o Phyllopoda now thoug t be extinct , has been seen t s of is attack tadpoles, whilst Daphnia, being les a gourmand, satisfied with a diet of mud . s in The limb , of which there are never more than four pairs e the Cladocera, are in certain speci s most beautiful objects, Simoce hal u s those of the female p being adorned with hairs,

e of . resembling the most perf ct feathers, microscopic size When the creature is swimming the carapace is usually open , but “ ” shoul d the water-flea wish to rest the shell ac ts as an anchor b gripping the weed . Lept ora hyalina and Daphina Pulex are tw o of the largest i r of Brit sh species, and are therefo e particular interest as they f af ord examples for study . Daphnia Pulex can be readily recognised b its size and pro to of b minent beak . Owing the trans reney oth carapace and one to u c e body, is able watch natu f nctions with perfe t ase . to The heart, a peculiar cleft organ , will be seen be actively “ ” o beating . The digestive tract can be examined from end t not r end ( a ve y great distance) and in certain species the young, hi r e w ch emain inside the mat rnal carapace until mature , can be seen to have inside their little carapaces a yet younger gene ration . u -flea and Fort nately for the water its admirers, asexual The reproduction is constant . male is a very rare creature, and only appears in meagre numbers at particular times . In

he ma as . fact ‘ y be labelled a rarity He resembles the female, -fleas i of but is much smaller. Water produce two k nds eggs ,

e 8 . winter and summer g The former , which are fertilised on of or eggs, are produced t e approach cold weather other critical periods . of The carapace the female becomes thickened, and the eggs , or either one two, are enclosed therein. The creature then di containi moults, and the scarded carapace the eggs rests on the mud until conditions are more favouralifia. These winter eggs are most hardy in structure , and can resist freezing and drying wi th impunity . ic The carapace and eggs, wh h are very light, may be blown i d -u by the wind from a dr e p pond, or carried by birds or other -fleas animals to fresh water . Hence water often make a sudden s u appearance in water where they have not previou ly been fo nd . 3 0 POND LI FE

When food is plentiful and other conditions favourable, lar e i numbers of unfertil sed eggs are produced , which hatch short y after being laid. Before we leave the water-fleas mention must be made of their characteristic single eye . At a very early period in the e babyhood of the creature two eyes were p resent , but thes u before long fused together, and were surro nded by special s m s of . e e tw o tissue Certain p the Phyllopoda have eyes , whilst in others the eye resembles that of the Cladocera (water fleas)

CYCLOP s

one- e t Cyclops, the eyed giant of Gre k mythology, has a wor hy i - namesake in the personal ty of Cyclops, the one eyed crus tacean . z on In si e the latter is far from being a giant, but the is - ul contrary a tiny pear shaped, creature. Its one eye , the res t of two fused together , is the only thing that bears any resem blance whatsoever to the mythological character. of There are several species cyclops, similar in appearance but - differing in size and colour . They are all pear shaped with long antennas ai of , and a single medial eye. They have four p rs so legs, each pair being fastened together by a transverse muscle, that the leg on one side and its fellow on the other move to is gether. Hence the creature driven through the water in a - pecul iar dart like manner. is is l The male, which rarer and smaller than the female, easi y differentiated fr em the gentler sex by the absence of eu cum - a . one branc s The female cyclops carries or two egg bags, o fastened t her abdomen each bag contains fifty or sixty eggs .

e its . The young ,when hatch d, in no way resembles parents It u a u is a pec li r little creature, typically a larva of the cr stacean . o i t s i As s on as enters the world it lead an independent l fe, driving itself through the water by an occasional powerful is stroke . It so minute that it is practically invisible, and s ec s could be mi staken for a tiny p k of du t . l The larva undergoes a series of changes, and eventual y takes one the form of the adult cyclops. On occasion I found a black c - had cyclops arrying her egg bags . In two days her colour — — noticeably changed was in fact less dark and on the seventh c day the eggs hat hed. ’ hi i ee had The female s colour, w ch at the beginn ng of the w k

w as . to been black, now of lightest brown She was swimming and fro in a most weird manner, head downwards, antennae spread out as if intently searching the neighbourhood f or her AQUATIC CRUSTACEANS 3 1

of youngsters . After much trouble, several members the e a e nu family and the mother w re pl c d in the live box . But fortunately before the writer had the opportunity of witnessing e i a me ting, an accident occurred, and her ladysh p had dis appeared . How the change of colour had occured w as easily explained when the water in which the cyclops had been livi w as exam ined . in (fli er hter Two sk s, one dark coloured, and the , 8 were found on the former were the remains of the egg . The life of the cyclops is not all pleasure . Many inhabitants

CE USTACEANs

- 1 . C c o s the one o 2. a e fle e e c us acea . 1 a oun c c s. a. y l p , y d r t n ( ). Y g y l p W t r - - 2 a . E b ua icus. a of w a e flea. 3 . 4. se us a ( ) gg g t r Cypris. A ll q t

of -flies to the pond, especially the larva of dragon , are partial -fi sh a diet of shell . The cyclops are also infested with — colonies of hell animalcul es sometimes completely covered with — numbers of these creatures while certain rotifers , knowing to cyclops be a capable carrier, may nearly always be found 3 2 POND LIFE

’ busily at work perched on various parts of the crustacean s body. The gs of cyclops are not dependent on the body heat of mot to f or th the er in order hatch, eggs separated from e parent hatch in due course . Another cr ustacean that frequently fal ls victim to the pond e s hun ter is Cypris . It r sembles a minute brown mus el about s the size of a clover seed. On a clo e examination the likeness to the mollusc increases. For Cypris lives in a bivalve shell O n ne l a shell that pe s on o side on y in the prescribed manner . And when the little brown shell opens tw o long antennae ado adorned with hairs are projected, and without further w e wi r a ay go s the little creature th su prising rapidity. has nevertb een u Strange as it may seem, the male Cypris fo nd, so artheno en and reproduction must nearly always be p g ical. Cypris lays her eggs on aquatic plants . Weisman w as success f ul m of i i in keeping fe ales Cypris for e ght years, and dur ng h i m t at t me they produced eggs continually. An ani al similar to C i is ypr s Condona reptans , which is characterised by a longer i an and more curved shell, l ghter in colour, and also by its t s enna , which are minus the hair appendages so noticable in o ul of Cypris . A glass jar containing a teeming p p ation “these little creatures as well as Daphnia and Cyclops is indeed a thing i ” worth hav ng . - o f Gam Every pond hunter, every eater watercress, knows — - i marus pulex the fresh water shrimp . Th s little animal, a e t if compared with cyclops, a Lilliputian when placed sid e mide with a lobst r, is common in every stream. Leaves, a dead and decomposing, decaying animal matter, in f ct all r us - to ef e, is its happy hunting ground, and there Pulex plays ’ . or of its heart s content But hunger , at least the satisfying n it, is the reason for its presence amongst the decomposi g

. ul s too to matter For P ex is a cavenger , and is only glad clear away by the destructive process of eating anything that - too is suitable . The water shrimp is not a fad , and is only pleased to eat healthy and fresh weeds when occasion needs . The males and females at certain seasons will be found mm k swi ing together, the male holding his spouse by the nec , by an enormous claw. The eggs are carried by the mother in o - her front legs, which form a br od pouch. The young, which c on hi resemble their parents, but are redder in olour, hatc ng r i em n with the mother until dispersed . a — — Asellus aquaticus the water ho or louse is far less active on than Pulex, in fact it will be foun creeping sluggishly the or as a mud weeds, slowly if fe ring danger. Like the latter, it

3 4 POND LI FE o r often their younger days in water, and can be recognised by the points mentioned

1 The Neu te r -flies Tw o e i ( ) rop ra (d agon , pairs of m mbraneous w ngs -flies dd i lac el i e may , ca s ( k ) . ( 2) The Lepidoptera (moths) Tw o pairs of wings covered with

scal es.

3 The Di ( n , hr One i e b ( ) ptera g ats coret a , pa r of m m raneous wings , one pair of d egenerate wings h te s i e d s ith b ( al r , l ttl ro w kno b ed e d s n ) . 4 The Coreo tera b One ir e b e us w i ( ) p ( eetles) pa of m m ran o ngs , one pair of hardened wings el known as ytra. 5 Th e H ( One r e b s ( ) emiptera bugs) pai of m m raneous wing , one pair of wings partly hard e en d . s o s (6) Aptera ( pringtails) N wing at all .

WATER- BEETLES Water-beetles are common inhabitants o f all ponds and an d streams . How contaminated foul the water, or how large ' e diflerence or small the pond may be , makes littl to the aquatic e e o u ire C ol optera as long as they are abl to find the fo d they r . The eggs are laid under water, the young larva hatch an live the is in same environment , but the pupa stage nearly always passed out of water. The aquatic beetles belong to three main groups

Characteristics

H r e h a e e C i u s e e . yd ad p aga, long nt nna arn voro and v g tarian m i H d o hil d e ho e e e. Ve etarian and seld o c u . y r p i a , s rt r ant nna g arn voro s

G id ae e sho t b d an C u and e . yrin , v ry r , roa arnivoro s v getarian tennae (liv e on water surface)

TH E HYDRADEPHAGA

The i - t largest of this fam ly is the well known Dy iscus , the Al a giant amongst British beetles . though very sav ge, Dytiscus i o nly kills when it actually requires food. It sw ms slowly, searching syst ematically for some unwary c reature . A tadpole i an d e I may be rest ng amongst the weeds, disturb d, blunder nto ’ “ ” e e i the beetle s arms . In a moment it is s iz d ; sw m how it may, there is no chance to escape, although the victim , if large i a nd to . strong, may drag its cap r some distance If Dyt scus INSECTS 3 5

u w on to should be h ngry it ill hang , its victim with a tenacity f e of worthy o a bulldog . In fact the beetle can be lift d out the uarium and swung round and round without relinquishin g its ho d . The male and female Dytiscus , though of the same Size , are readily distinguished from each other : the former having tw o - h disc like structures on its front legs , which are absent in t e e e di femal . Th se scs secrete a sticky, gummy material, with h s which t e male holds the female . This ticky substance is n os sometimes the cause of a most u enviable p ition, as the male

e s to . The n be tle finds itself tuck stones, and other objects u

Youn o ix a one hou old Lan f ili g C r ( r ). a o Asc us snlcatns.

r no so r fortunate creatu e takes some time to get free , and one rt is this done than it resettles, and the trouble sta s again . c i stickin to s c Thus a beetle may be ont nually variou obje ts, wi wi -caseS— — much against its sh . The ng efytra which are the fir i of not t st pa r wings hardened, only pro ect the membraneous - win ac t . b eetle is gs, but also as an air reservoir For the water to e e e unable live on aerat d water, and d p nds entirely on the so atmosphere for its supply, and we will notice that the insect e comes to the surface at frequent intervals, and extrud s the end of the so as to a e its abdomen , drawing back elytra, f cilitat the of i r s e entrance a , and then, with a supply impri oned b neath the in - e It W g cas s, swims slowly away and remain s below until the s 18 tore exhausted. Dytiscus lays her eggs in clefts made in 3 6 POND LIFE

- the stems of water weeds . The eggs hatch into peculiar larvae ff very di erent to the parents . The body is brown and segmented, and are e : i the usual three pairs of legs pr sent the head , jo ned to the body by a narrow neck, is broad and flat with cruel curved ’ on e of e fangs (mandibles) , and the last segm nt the cr ature s tw o s body fringed tube are borne, which contain the spiracles l and supply the arva with air. il to Sim arly the adult , it must rise to the surface to extrude o the end of its abdomen . The creature is well adapted t the f or a f l to life it leads, its colour m kes it di ficu t notice, especially on when resting the mud . It obtains food not by chase but by stealth, and concealed by its colour waits until a tadpole or e other creature touches it . Then its prey is savagely seiz d of i and held in the Sickle jaws , through the fine canals wh ch os the liquid portions are drawn up, for the larva, although p sessing a mouth, is unable to use it . The young Dytiscus e so e has an insatiable appetit , and has no sooner disp nsed with o ne e victim than it is ready and eager for anoth r. Worms, a e or t dpol s, fishes, newts, larva of its own kind, large small , - - e e i full grown water b etles , all are slaughter d . For some t me fr e c the youngster kills and grows , having uently to hange i e reac its sk n as its Siz increases, until it es the maximum f o 15 inches. g no so no Although longer agile, its savagery has by means m e so di inish d. The hand of the owner, bravely lowered into ri ul c di of the aqua um, if it sho d be pla ed within seeing stance u a the larva, is not there on a fut re occ sion . For the Dytiscus is a mass of ferocity, eager for the blood of anything that comes its way nor is it afraid to protect itself by any means . to Eventually it becomes less active, and slowly swims the side of u the pond , in order to leave the water for p pating . It i buries itself n the mud, and here , in a sanctuary safe from its e to enemi s, rests whilst the wonderful changes that are make h it into t e beetle are undergone .

And one fine day the pupa case is ruptured, and the perfect i s a n nsect brushes the earth aside , and find its way b ck i to the larvahood ul pond where its was spent . The ad t , although a e carnivorous beast , d arly loving a tadpole or worm , can if neces e sary live happily on vegetabl matter, and being by no means c de a faddist, enjoys freshly dead or living reatures, or even As or c . composing anic matter . In habits it is mu h altered larva it waite ready to pounce on some unfortunate visitor but when adult it swims sedately until it finds what it re qui res . c I ts Ascilius sul catus is a beetle very similar to Dytis us . INSECTS 3 7 l of e arva might also be mistaken for that the latter, exc pt for ec has of a roachi its long, tapering n k . It the habit slowly pp w it its victim until near enough to make an attack . Then to its e indomitable spirit the larva clings on captur , large b e though it may , hard though it may struggle, and shakes it e in a similar manner as a t rrier does a rat . Very soon the

s c . victim becomes le s a tive, and death approaches During the t u s ruggle the blood of the nfortunate has been gradually, but contl nu all k - t y, passing up the sic le shaped mandibles in o the - m ever ready sto ach . Whilst the membe rs of the ydradephaga lay their eg 8 in H ' ' e the - the H dro h the st ms and on leaves of water weeds , y p des a c reciou s ne rly always make an e g cocoon , in whi h the eggs e dro hilu s P iceu s the of are saf ly deposited . y p is largest e - c of this family. The f male forms a ball shaped ocoon closely c - O woven silk, an hors it to some well submerged bject by a ' tiny silken rope , and eventually the eggs, which number about

t so a . fif y or , hatch into minute larv e Although , as previously d rac ticall a et mentione , the adult is p y vegetarian ,y her larvae are as as the c hter voracious young of Dytis us, and savagely sla the unfortunate inhabitants of the pond irrespective 3? size so e i of and kind . When engaged th y have the peculiar ty bending over in order to use their ow n backs as a table on o which t demolish their victim. to of Their life history is similar that the Dytiscus , the l l ul arva eventually pupating into the adu t , a beautif large - e s H eloc hares bronze colour d beetle of a harmless dispo ition . , another member of the Hydrophilidae , although forming a to P iceu s cocoon, does not leave the eggs hatch as H . , but n -b to her es faste s the egg abdomen , and carri it about until E i of . e the eggs hatch ach little gg is wh te, and the eyes the u c ee i s her f ture larva can be learly s n with n . The mother use all c to hind legs to hold the bag, taking are prevent injuring her e it , or losing family. The eggs hatch into very minut e n larva of exceedingly savage dispositions, that bite and s ap e from the very mom nt of hatching . - e l As in the case of all other young water beetl s, canniba ism is of i t not only thought but runs rampant, and the m nu e e ffe The beetles slaught r one another with perfect indi rence . c e ee ff ontrast b tw n the parents and the o spring is extraordinary, a c s H el ochares p rti ularly in thi case , for the adult is of a e s e the e of gentle and qui t di position, wand ring over leav s - - water plants , partially surrounded by an air bubble that - ce d gives it a silver like appearan , whilst her chil ren are as —in so so savage as the parents are docile fact , much that 3 8 PO ND LI FE hey open and close their mandibles from the very moment of {iirti1 “ The whir s are members of the Gyrinidae . They are metallic-like httle beetles of shiny appearance and oval in

. are shape Their name implies their h bits, for they al ays a — w whirling about on the surface of the water rushing round and as round at a great pace , often if engaged in a game of catch of i : e with others their k nd should dang r threaten , the nid ae da rt beneath the water and hide in the mud s i satisfied that all is afe, and then reappearing cont nue their interrupt ed pastim e Nature has treated few creatures more kindly than the el - Gyrinidae their shape, the w l, rounded elytra, the peculiar r l c ar angement of their eyes , that al ows perfe t vision of the air above and the water below, give them a superiority over o e i e m st other cr atures . When the sun is shin ng th se fine little be etles skimming to and fro on the water-film resemble l - l fi y polished steel bu lets . g—hl - the spring the females lay their eggs on water plants . After a few days the eggs hatch into very curious lit t le

of . so r creatures charming appearance Although f agile they, l of H dro hilus s ike the larva Dytiscus and y p , are carnivorou , and spend their youth destroying and feeding upon all that l c omes their way. Eventua ly they climb out of the water w ra m to A or and the selves in a cocoon pupate . fter three four wee the little metalli c beetles make their appearance re- s to e and enter the water . Needle s mention, the Gyrinida fl n c are good iers, and duri g the summer, attra ted by the light , O w mdow s i often enter pen , and mistak ng the tablecloth with its of cups and plates for a pond, fly down , landing in all sorts u a nconventional positions, often on their b cks , on which they rapidly spin round and round in a most astonishing manner. e of In its natural element , ither on the surface or in the h : on water below, Gyrinus as few if any equals but land its i powers of progres sion are sadly at fault . During our ch ld ’ ” hood tw o short words were constantly use d Don t touch ; e and the gentle read r will, I am sure , forgive me for repeating old e - e e to the adag , for water be tl s when frightened are able produce a foetid - smelling liquid so nauseating that one more h t an regrets ha ving fingered the creatures . Although water -bugs are not the Obnoxious animals their u name wo ld imply, yet we cannot be surprised that bugs are n di for no u iversally sliked, other family of insects has played ’ o r will play such havoc to man s crops as the bugs . The water H H drocorisa e r emiptera ( y ) are, however, perf ctly ha mless , INSECTS 3 9

to e u nfo a except to the other pond inhabitants , but thes rtun tes they are a cause of continual anxiety. s e e Fi rstly, the scorpion lie conc al d in the mud or amongst the e — vegetation , and make sudd n unexpected snatches then a - Corix , and Notonecta, the water boatman, spend their time hunting all that comes their way. - Nepa Cinerea, the water scorpion , is the largest aquatic bug

in . e found our country The cr ature , if judged by its appear e ance , would be considered decid dly uninteresting . In colour to and shape it resembles a small brown leaf, and make this is Similarity yet more complete, its thinness such that , until it diflicu lt to strolls majestically from amongst the weeds , it is e is believe that it is really an animal . Its flatt ned body ter minated by a thin tube which divides readil into tw o parts n I longitudi ally. When air is required the nsect pushes it - film l through the water , but sometimes Nepa will save itse f a journey by utilising the bubbles of oxygen produced by plants beneath the surface . e of : r Nepa, lik all other insects, has three pairs legs the f ont pair are not used for walking as one might suppose,and except f or brushing aside the weeds through which the insect is pro for c i gressing , they are only used apturing its prey . We m ght of le a roughly say that the front pair s serve as h nds, and good ones too. The unfortunate pole that incautiously ado is d approaches is seized , and without more drawn towar s - the ever ready beak, however violently it may struggle . di - so i Even the cad s worm , well protected from enem es, falls a prey to Nepa. The latter seizes the caddis case and holds it f u in the most af ectionate manner, and then by caref lly moving it along until the small end is in a convenient position , forces one of as those most useful front legs into the case , similarly e u u nfor the fish rman uses a blunt pin . Then grad ally the tunate - e e of caddis worm n ars the ntrance its case , but the e scorpion knows its work too w ll, and cautiously shifting the the is e case leg push d in and the larva driven from its shelter . No its d sooner has head appeare , than Nepa slowly but care i fully drives its sharp beak nto the soft portion of its victim , to just behind the head . The case falls on the mud below, and N epa holds the owner in its embrace, and gradually sucks out - so the juices . The coal black eyes of the murderer , prominent so u and yet small, are typically cr el . The female Nepa lays her eggs on water-plants each egg is e to adorned with seven filam nts , which are thought collect air in f or the embryo inside . The larvae are similar to the adult - appearance, but have neither the long breathing tube nor 40 POND LIFE

8 win . The latter gradually make an appearance as c m of t e larva in reases , whilst the s all stumpy tail is

by the tube as in the adult . ’ ” Wh e N n n epa s elytra are expanded , and the membra eous e so l wings beneath exposed , it seems no long r repu sive a : e c creature the sides of its abdom n are brightly oloured. Water- scorpions seldom remain long in the aquarium u nl ess c : on wi e it be overed the approach of nter they hibernat , and “ ” to e o nly return activ life the following spring . to Although Ranatra Linearis lives a life very similar Nepa , y et its appearanc e is vastly diff erent : its body is long and

. e i very slender The h ad, similarly to Nepa , has a prom nent - e c s Sharp beak, and the bead like yes are on picuously placed on - the sides o f its head. If these tw o water scorpions were com

R. c e for pared Linearis would re eive pr mier honours agility, racti fragility, and savage disposition , but all the same it is p as cally as sluggish sluggish can be . u s When walking R . Linearis lifts itself p on its long leg , thus giving the appearance of walking on stilts . Should it leave the water it experiences a great deal of difficulty in - breaking the water fil m. I ts efforts are most amusing to the l f or the -film is no to biped on ooker, water easy thing crack, e m to and the insect is so light and fragil , that everything see s b e against the success of the undertaking . But water-bugs are not all of so sluggish a disposition as - is Nepa and Ranatra . Notonecta or the water boatman very c i ommon in certain d stricts and equally rare in others . Its is size depends on its age, but its appearance Similar whether old e or young , and as one might exp ct from its astonishing e e t name it resembles a boat , for its back is de ply ke led whils s to the underside of its body is flat . Thu Notonecta adds the

i i on . r s milarity by sw mming continually its back Its f ont legs, i c wh h are never used for swimming, are held beneath its head, ready to seize any little or large creature that it may meet ’ with ; for size has no dimming eff ect on Notonecta s courage al to on should it be hungry . The front pair are so useful hold e e to the weeds on which Noton cta is settl d . f or m are used swi ming only, and are very long

with hairs . - e u By means of well tim d , powerf l strokes the little miniature or vivant b oat is driven through the water. The second middle pair seem to be usefu l either to aid Notonecta whilst swimming or to assist in holding on to the weeds when rest

c . ing . But Notone ta, although settled, is far from asleep In cars fact the , held well out , are gently paddling , and its sharp,

4-2 POND LIFE

Corixa makes its escape . At first they are practically trans - b a . parent , except for their yolk and their eyes r a Gradually the little c e tures me more and more opaque,

: . and darker in colour their wings appear, and they mature

CHAPTER IV

INSECTS (continued)

THE -fl To may y has many admirers . the fisherman it is the t to only Dip era worth thinking about, the naturalist it stands pre-e minently as one of the most beautiful if not the finest k fly of our country. But probably it is best nown to the of s majority people, neither fi herman nor naturalists, as a pathetic example of the seemingly unfairness of nature to some of her children . “ w e P alin enia S ammerdam t lls that one species“, g longicauda, e the liv s only for five hours, and that flies may be seen in e on the air for thr e days together . Those which appear the n first day die the same evening, and the same thing happe s ” “ on the second and third days . Also that the eggs are s ( passed into the water, and are there fertili ed “by the male a mildly incorrect statement) . He continues that the eggs ”

of . hatch into a crowd minute worms, each with six legs

l to e . e u Certain y, say the least , very qu er creatures R aum r is more accu rate ; he gives us a vivid picture of a rise of flies in

1 738. ’ De Geer s observations are more reliable . Taking the o -fl saw trouble t watch may y under natural conditions , he see what everyone may , if patience al“lows , the fertilisation of the female, thus totally upsetting the fishy theory advanced by Swammerdam . The Ephemera are partly pitied without cause, as they are not - shorter lived than the average insect . Let us rather be sorry that so beautiful a creation is seen for so short a time so and by few. -flies The adult may , especially those termed by fishermen ” f r . u o d akes (E . danica and E v lgata), are some the most a r - f i y like little objects to b e imagined . -flies tw o wi May have usually pairs of ngs , one pair large, ver l small ee or e e the second pair y ind d, totally abs nt , dep nding on the species . Like the other members of their family, the venation of the lace wings is most delicate and graceful. The INSECTS 4 3 slender body of the insect is terminated by two or three very a fine t ils . The body of the female is usually thicker than that o i of . e s the male The legs are long, the front pair b ing carr ed e as to resemble ant nnae . In certain Species the legs of the male are more than usually long , and often very original in sha pe . In most varieties we find that the female is by far the stronger (if size means strength) , and seems more adapted to “ ” -a- w ho is this work day world than her mate , by far the of tw o more beautiful creature the . f of s The eyes o the male are larger than those the female ,

MAY-ELIES

. u m 1 . h. Ad lt 2. Ny p and in certain species (Cloeon) the compo und eyes of the former r c two are most ext aordinary stru tures, being divided into one l on kinds , pair Situated on pi lars, the other pair placed not s the side of the head in the normal position . As if sati fied i tw o Cloeo n r w th sets of compound eyes , has also th ee single

i . l eyes, thus mak ng a total of seven Some natura ists believe that the c ompound eyes are especially adapted for observing movement . If this be so , we can hardly imagine what the -fl tw o see may y with sets of compound eyes must , especially b e during the dance of which further mention will made . The male insect diff ers from the female in having a pair of claspers at the end of its body. 4 4s POND LIFE Although the mature may- flies have a well-developed a e e no tr ct, yet unfortunat ly they hav mouth , and are therefore totally unable to obtain food of any description from the the i h moment of leaving water unt l they die . T at an animal s so so a hould be perfect in every detail, and lack essenti l a

t n . hing as a mouth, is most surprisi g -fl is n As the may y more generally k own as the adult, and of the w e l of seldom in the form larva, wil study the life cycle the of the ori insect from maturity. One inal and most f as c inating sights is a swarm of may- flies ancing : rising by e n to means of th ir wi gs a certain height, soaring downwards wi e th tails outspread, rising and sinking ov r and over again . O - fl e not ccasionally a larger may y makes an app arance, but to c i on stopping join the dan ing males, fl es rapidly, as if

ci . she urgent business, through the dan ng throng But has c not passed unnoti ed , for some of the dancers have seen her. n c A ex iting chase follows , the hunters and hunted dodging s of and twisting in the air with surpri ing agility, until one the p ursuers manages to seize her by means of his front legs and e e e to the clasp rs terminating his abdom n , and thus fasten d c gether the couple fly to a onvenient wall , and after some few m e to inutes separate, the male to r turn the dance , the female

to find a suitable spo t to lay her eggs . She flies along until h e on e s e reaches a stream and s ttles the water. Th re on the -fil m she water rests, quivering gently and gradually the eggs m sink, so e in groups and some singly, until hundreds and

e . c hundr ds of eggs are laid The work is now omplete, and a s e she to if awar of this fact, makes little attempt rise, but - lies on the wat er film until death intervenes . Often the f i c to emales fly in a wrong d rection, and are for ed lay their e in c ggs pla es totally unsuitable for that purpose . It is said that some species of may-fly creep dow n the stems of water i plants, and lay the r eggs on stones and sticks beneath the s e c e larv ul es urface . The young wh n first hat h d are as , and a re similar to the nymphs or adult larvae except in that the e gills are not so fully formed, nor are the rudim ntary wings in c existence . Gradually the wings be ome more and more com l e e p et . Sir J ohn Lubbock t lls us that the metamorphosis in ne e o ro the case of Cloeon is o of tw nty or more m ults , each p d u cing a slight difference in the appearances and structures of

the larvule . -fl r The may y nymph is certainly a strange little creatu e, and o a lthough n t beautiful is most fascinating, especially when seen vibrating its leaf -like gills in order to produce changes of mflarl a t w . Si ater, and thus assist respiration y to the dul N E T 4 5 I S C S “ may-fly the larva has tw o or three tails known as caudal ” e to setae . In the adult these s em be merely ornamental, t but in the larva they assist in breathing, and are impor ant or ans . Tl nder the microscope the setae will be found to be fringed circu with minute hairs, and if the creature is alive the blood

l . e lation wil be seen Strangely nough, the blood is allowed to escape from the vessel into the setae through small holes the in former . - fl The larvae of some species of may y live in ponds , others - t prefer fast running streams, and rest tightly pressed agains he e e t . the stones, thus scaping the full force of curr nt Some, a e s . gain, dig hol s into the banks, and thus obtain helter Bes tis fluminu m is perhaps one of the commonest of the - - flies a i c so . may th t inhabit the fast runn ng , lear streams of c so typical hilly districts . It is a strange little reature , c uriously shaped as to resemble a small but flattened lobste r . The gills are not fastened on to its back as in most other i o re d c t . a spe es, but are attached its sides The limbs broa , the head large and semicircular . Pressed closely against Beatis flu minu m r - the stone , vib ates its leaf like gills and shows a great unwillingness to move unless forced to do b aflies -b e so . Then, with a suddenness that easily its would u captor, the larva rises and r ns rapidly, and taking advantage of ea . Beatis is the nearest cover disapp rs carnivorous, and preys upon smaller aquatic creatures . Another species very often found in fast - running streams hemere l he is Ep l a. This little animal has t common sense or to common instinct cover its body with mud, thus deluding c e both its enemies and the small creatures on whi h it fe ds . It will be interesting to followers of Isaac Walton that the “ ” larvae of the drakes Ephem era v u l ata and E . danica live e e in burrows in the banks of riv rs angi streams . Th ir food finel - h consists of y divided organic débris . T ey seem to prefer streams in which clay forms a noticeable part of the banks . -fl e i May y larvae, as far as it is known , all liv a life s milar in ‘ er eral diflerin o e details, although g t some extent in th ir gfiits a . The day eventually comes when the larvae which have e e — fishes - escaped th ir numerous en mies , water beetles, and e ow — e the carnivorous members of th ir n order l ave water. It one e c may have been , two, or perhaps thr e years sin e the has larvule first made its appearance, and now the day come when hundreds of thousands of larvae rises slowly towards the surface . Each skin opens along the back, the head gradually 4 6 POND LI FE i p ushes its way through the open ng, and then the insect r ou t apidly draws its body of the case and flies into the air . Al e though the fly seems perf ctly mature , yet it has one more t to c ransformation ac omplish, for it is still shrouded in a thin, i to transparent skin. But the nsect seems have little for i te patience th s operation, and of n whilst casting this skin fl of ies into the air, carrying remnants its garment with it . It is a timc of great excitement each little insect is only too

to . of eager escape into the air above The warmth the day, the a sun and blue sky, all add to the ple sure of the moment . The adventures of their long life in the cool waters below are i forgotten , and now they are soaring in the free air, seem ngly of o verjoyed at the beauty their surroundings . One wonders -flies not a to that the may do hesit te, or stop try their wings before trusting to the element they have no know of ledge . Poor little may-fly ! apart from the shortness of your life one your lot is not a happy , for everything eats you . To the fish of s you are the food all foods, the meal of the year. Bird , i s nl to bats , m ce, and even snail are o y too willing digest your e frail body. Sea ulls and t rns join the swallows and other i nsectivorous bir in your downfall. And it is a wonder that ou not a o of s r y are long g a thing the pa t , a thing remembe ed

but as an emblem of beauty. Those most responsible for the future of the race have by to to f ar the greater risks to run . They fly the water lay their e : hew o : hew o — s ggs a p and one is gone p p another vani hes, and the h feed and feed, until they are gor ed with fly. And not far distant the males dance to an fro in the e of in twilight , soaring and kiting , unawar the fate overtak g n their mates and of the doom awaiti g them . Gradually they b e come weaker and weaker. A few days later the scene of so much beauty and grace is horri bly blank. The lover of nature stands at the spot e -fl as where he has witness d the may y dance, and feels if he — w ere in the city of the dead . For they are all gone not a one — he single remains may search for miles without success . Yet only a short while ago the air was full of these beautifu l i al l nsects, and along for miles the males were dancing above No e -fl the hedges . wond r that the story of the may y - impressed both Greeks and Romans, and that even to day in these highly artificial times the poor little may -fly obtains

sympathy. Taking into consideration all the facts of the case , the sf railt i of of y and Short l fe the adult, the paucity the females, INSECTS 4 7

n m one the cou tless ene ies that surround them , wonders more - a o and more that may flies were not long g extinct . Strangely - fl enough , the may y in prehistoric times, long before man to - 1 n to started break in the wor d , was similar in appeara ce the present creature. For in the Devonian and Carbonifero us -flies e rocks splendid fossil may have b en found , certainly one of astonishing when considers the frailty the creature .

CADDI s- FLIES

Perhaps one of the most curious and interesting Diptera - of . CaddiS flies that spend part their life in water are . The adult insect so much resembles a moth that it is often - mistaken for such and passed unnoticed . Caddi e flies are not only common in numbers but also numerous in species for 1 50 f e in Great Britain some dif erent Species have be n found, and it is more than likely that there ar e still many more to be discovered . The adults are characterised in that their wings are covered or e to a greater less xtent with hair, and that the second of so i e - fl pair wings, which were d minutiv in the may y, are in e their case larger than the front pair. The antenna , which in - s i i usl fl con c o . the may y were short, are usually p y long In no e its fact it in way resembles the Eph mera, either in or its appearance when adult , as a larva, or during life history . Yet strangely enough many a fly-fisherman thinks that the of -fl caddis larva is the young the may y. i on The female lays her eggs in the water, wh lst resting the is she a o surface . It , however, said that will occasion lly g

so to to . beneath the surface , as fasten them chosen spots She has sometimes been seen carrying the eggs before laying them . The eggs , which number over a hundred, are surrounded - e by a jelly like substance which sw lls by taking in water. , “ The young after hatching remain for a few days in their jelly ” no he c home, and have sooner left it than t seek what instin t i — prompts, in the way of build ng materia it may be grains o f or of s sand, sticks, leaves, even the Shells mollusc with their living occupants . of su of The case may be built stones , and ports in the form c - long sti ks afterwards added . The cad is worm may choose c s o e - — r to build its ase o as t res mble a basket like . structure o perhaps, better still, to resemble , as Butler remarks , a number o f l need es in a partly finished stocking . Some species cut 4 8 POND LIFE leaves into long, narrow pieces and entwine these spirally in m a Si ilar manner to a puttie . Some tusk- shaped cases are made of most minute grains o f

. SO are e i i c so sand carefully thes tiny grains of s l ca hosen , and e e a is 'hard accurately are th y fasten d together, th t it to believe e the mosaic can be the work of an insec t . Som larvae prefer - e - e e so to well soak d, partly decayed l aves, and arrang them as e c fl produce a hug stru ture of attened appearance . In fact - on c u se caddis worms, depending the Spe ies, practically every c e thing of suitable Specific gravity . Cases omposed ntirely of e c f s eds , sti ks, leaves, stones, stems of plants are requently e e i found . In fact, as the r ader will notice, each sp cies of cadd s has i worm its particular dress, wh ch does not depend entirely u is to sa e n . o its surro ndings That y, one species pref rs to u se — - the shells of Planorbis the flat shelled mollusc so common in i — d tches and will never, if possible, use anything else ; yet Limno hilu s should these molluscs be absent, the larva of p vicornis d o fla es not give up in despair, and having made a c l s to thorough but unsuc essfu earch for what it requires, sets and builds a case of the most suitable material it is able to of u se of o find. It then seems to lose all idea making any ne material in particular, but chooses the most suitable that it — comes across sticks, stones, leaves, and even barley and wheat i gra ns . The building of the case is by no means plain sailin even the e n eac should d sired material be in abu dance . For little to e or larva has r ckon with ninety more brothers and sisters, not c i c w ho in luding d stant relations and perfe t strangers, are equally keen on making a home in the shortest possible time. An d s no has - e o, sooner one caddis worm deftly chos n a suitable object for its personal decoration and started weaving it to of c is the others its choi e, than it rudely interrupted by a r relation o acquaintance . CaddiS- n il i worms e gaged in bu d ng fight continually, in a very similar manner as a large number of dogs woul d over The w of a meagre supply of bones. o ner a case just started is seized and during the subsequent struggle loses the result , — of its labour the various parts being instantly utilised by its friends and relations so one can imagine that the completion of a case is no easy matter should the necessary material be scarce . The reader may wonder how, considering this excitement

e to l as e . and troubl , it is possible bui d a c e res mbling mosaic It happens that there is usually no scarcity of sand in most so s places, and those using thi material can each build their

50 POND LI FE

the c - who But a day comes when mu h harrowed larva, has of s of re spent most its life in e caping , by dint continual p e e cautions, from its very numerous n mies feels that it must

e . is the r st and sleep It approaching pupa stage, a time when to the the ec it is change from caterpillar to perf t insect . So the thoughtful little creature fastens its cas e to larger stones so as r to prevent its being carried away by the st eam , and of seals up the entrance with silken threads , or weaves pieces no weed across , so that enemy may attack it during the period o f rest that is now to come . One c e c of o e Spe i s on this occasion builds a spe ial case st n s, e e using large pebbl s very many times gr ater than itself , and e e fastens these to a rock ben ath the wat r level ; and here, — protected from everything for these stone cases are even — difficult for man to Open the caddis rests qui etly whilst the changes that will ultimately make it a moth- like creature e take place. The app arance of the caddis pupa is somewhat the e ridiculous, for little creature is env loped in a transparent e e e e e c env lop , r sembling an elongat d capsul , and can be learly e e c se n within, bearing an app aran e of sanctity. The little s e o as creature rests with folded arm , sometim s m ving gently, c if the position was not altogether omfortable . Eventually

the time comes when it is ready to leave the water. Then it - e tears open its celluloid like capsule, bit s through the silk i e e hold ng the ston s togeth r, and swims to a convenient plant, by means of which it climbs to the surface . of -fl i The larvae the caddis y are most interest ng pets, and live well in an aquarium well stocked with vegetable lif e . c too The little creatures, if taken out of their ases , are only e f or s eager to build fr sh ones, and this purpo e will make use of any suitable material . The writer has had cases made of - c s & c one glass beads, matches, sealing wax ( hip ) , . In case r e -wax a certain a tistic worm , although suppli d with sealing at the c e e e &c . ommencement , mad its cas entir ly of sticks, grass, , m i red l - and then actually co pleted it w th a sea ing wax collar . To ui not persuade the owner to leave its habitat , g le but

. e a too violence must be used Should you s ize its he d , a none e e easy matter, you may pull until the poor littl cr ature comes n in twain, for it is able to hold on inside its case by mea s of tw o small hooks situated on the end of its abdomen . But if e too you attack the larva from the rear , the creatur is only f ui . e or e o willi ng to q t So a pi ce of fine straw, the h ad a pin , will serve to drive the caddis -worm out of its home without

trouble or injury. g -flies of so as to Dra on , the hawks the insect world, are built INSECTS 1

l of of of aim a low rapidity movement coupled with accuracy , and hence no creature can compare with them for neatnes s in — capturing winged prey. They are beautiful creatures their u As on long, slender bodies often exquisitely colo red . e might e t a the of xpec , the eyes play no small p rt in physiognomy the - fl . c e e dragon y They practi ally take up the ntir head, and tw o consist of large compound eyes, often brilliantly coloured,

CADDIS-ELIES - is cases. 4. P u s . ie fl . 2. a a a. 3 . a 1 . Cadd y C ddis l rv C dd p

4 a Sub e e c ases on a oc . ( ). m rg d r k

DRAGO N- FLIES

- Dra on fl 6. La a. La ho n as . 5. 7 a s wi g y. rv , rv g m k and in addition three simple eyes situated on the front of the e e head . The prominent compound yes assure the ins ct of a e e c is o large fi ld of vi w , and that su h is the case pr ved by the surprising dexterity with w hich a dragon- fly wi ll twist and c turn in order to apture its prey, dodging and darting after the unfortunate fli es with that judgment that c omes from The -fl expert vision and perfect muscular control . dragon y has of also the advantage a singularly movable head, which is 5 2 POND LI FE

e to abl rotate in a most original manner. The legs , which a e i of pl y an important part in the s iz ng its prey, are veritable - steel traps, fringed with hair like spines ; they are brought i together at the critical moment, in this way imprison ng the so victim . The wings, though light and graceful , are yet ’ e perfectly adapt d to the creature s wants . Sometimes they u l are colo red, but more often so transparent that they wou d w as be totally invisible when the insect engaged in flying , if it were not for their remarkable polish . Dragon-flies have a habit of choosing a particular district d of it may be a glade in a woo , a length road , or a cottage e to gard n, but whichever it is the insects keep the boundaries with astonishing exactitude, seldom varying the route , unless in pursuit of an in sect. Perhaps the extraordinary fact as to -flies c dragon is their dependen y on sunlight . It would seem sun that they rely on the for their energy . In the brilliant ’ of light a real summer s day, when clouds are conspicuous by e as their absence, when the air is cl ar if purified, the dragon To flies are at their best . and fro along their chosen paths, d sk one soaring upwar s towards the y, or swooping down , until expects the creature to dash itself against the earth ; darting u s i a s ro nd tree , turn ng at surprising angles, or ch sing insect -fl that have crossed its path, thus the dragon y spends its time, he e t embodiment of en rgy . a f or l But should a cloud appe r, and but a Single moment vei - su n i on fl to . It the , the wild l fe of the d y seems be gone on w fblgs settles a convenient t ig , its wings , and appears as if w as ne of sun life o worries and sorrows . But as soon as the once more breaks from behind the c louds and shines in all its ’ as glory, the insect s life rapidly returns, and away it flies , v acti e as ever. Can anyone imagine a stranger contrast than that between the you ng and the adult dragon -fly ? We kn ow that there is an old sayin that persuades fond parents that the uglier the g - ul children t e better looking ad ts they will be, and contrawise ’ and the dragon-fly s history seems to not only prove the so theory , but to do to a remarkable extent , for the young i creature is the embod ment of sluggishness and ugliness, so fat and slothful that w e can hardly believe that it will ever be anything even passable in these two qualities . The female deposits her eggs on the water or on the leaves of o aquatic plants . The young when first hatched have no signs f u a wings, but after several moults the r dimentary wings m ke an e appearance . The larva, being totally incapable of active mov of ment, would soon die starvation were it not for a curious INSECTS 5 3

. To arrangement attached to the head, known as the mask us understand the use of this appliance, let imagine that the -fl i dragon y larva, well h dden by its protective colouring , which

e is . ul facilitates conc alment , resting in the lowest weeds Sho d e e some unwary creature approach, although se mingly at a saf its distance from the waiting larva , yet doom is sealed, for -fl its is m suddenly the young dragon y projects mask, which ar ed

r e month. So with teeth, its p ey is s ized and drawn towards its ul e i successf , ind ed, is th s manoeuvre, that the voracious larva f e As a e seldom fails to obtain a su fici ncy of food . its l l S g increases, its agi ity decreases, until one day it c imbs low y e up a convenient reed . Then the case splits and the p rfect - fl i its n . dragon y emerges , and rests awh le until wi gs are dry Dragon-flies have so savage an appearance tha t it is hardly it w as to surprising that, in an age when customary give every a lcharacter on thing mere superficial evidence , they should {have s and been labelled with a bad reputation, although harmle s useful. It is thought by the ignorant to be a highly dangerous e of s e and b ast , stories how hor es and cattle have be n maimed killed are often believed ; but fortunately for the dr a on -fly it has been generally understood that however wicked tge in sect do no c might be , if left alone it would harm , hence a pe uliar neutrality between the man and the insec t w as gradually evolved . to The abdominal appendage, thought by many be its sting , is of us , of course, nothing the kind . It is ed by the male for the sole and special purpose of capturing a wife . Holding her by is she i to the neck, he able to take her with him , whether W shes or come not . The lovers of ou r country - side and its wild life will learn -fl t with regret that the dragon y , like many other beau iful

a e a c . objects, is becoming rarer, in particul r c rt in spe ies And those interested in the economy and balances of nature wil l of so understand that , apart from the pity losing interesting e n the and beautiful an animal, th re is also to take i to account e fli countless numb rs of es , detrimental to man, which will thus to — c d ibertam be saved produce their species l .

TH E GNAT Even the name of this creature produces a sensation of so- e horror, for although the call d bite or sting , a“s some people z of will have it, is by no means dangerous , yet the buz the insec t and its blood-thirsty persistence to obtain a meal at all 5 4 PON D LIFE “ ’ ” costs , even though its wouldn t be prey be flourishing a e - - the t nnis racquet in one hand and a hair brush in other, m c e i bibes su h a feeling of inf riority, that it is not surprising that human beings greatly dislike it . Although the fact is s are or e of mos not generally reali ed , there ten mor species uitoes ul r In q in our delightf count y . fact the common gnat ” e — the bit r is a mosquito pure and simple . Fortunately ' n o parasite detrimental to the health of human b e S is carried by the British species ; although their relations 0 the - a tropics are well known c rriers of many very serious diseases . To make the gnat even more objectionable w e are told the high-pitched buzz is a Sign of great happiness and means “ ” high expectatio ns . In fact the gnat might be said to be l i ick ng its lips, in preparation for the enormous meal await i it . t may come as some relief to the reader to know that only o ne has sex a taste for human blood . The female head is set of equipped with a of surgical instruments, a pair lancets , wedges, saws, and lastly a drinking tube . Settling, may be o n the e ul e of ear, or some oth r partic arly t nder spot its victim , e is not it deftly mak s an incision , and finding that the hole to e l large enough to allow the drinking tube ent r, en arges , it saw by me ns of the or wedge . Then h ving made matters a a ” of f e satisfactory, in goes the tube, and out goes the aqua li . O ut of fairness to the operator it must be remarked that the e l is to c u in pain and sw l ing not due any poison , mali io sly ected j , but is the result of the irritation produced by the e to w ho e operation . It is ther fore clear those r ad the above, e e n or that gnats n ither bit sting, but that the obtaining of a O is the me l is a surgical peration . The male perfectly harm o f e less, and is a pretty little insect , on account the w ll

s . The e fringed antennae, which re emble egret plumes mal on c gnats hatching spend most of their time dan ing, sometimes The in such numbers as to form huge crowds of insects . - females fly away in search of a suitable spot for egg laying , and it is possible that it is for this purpose that they Often e l enter our dw l ings . It can only b e surmi sed that the sight of man has a demoral ’ f e ou r ising ef ect , for we s ldom, if ever, find gnats eggs in e e c e wash basins or jugs, yet we often xp rien e a painful sw ll ’ ing l s the e , the resu t of her lady hip s attentions during arly of o e hours the morning . If this b ok w re devoted to gnats, or to Di tera p , we might spend much time in the study of these O i i c . interesting inse ts For their habits, peculiarities, and h stor es are intensely interestin g . INSECTS 55

on con The female gnat , when laying her eggs, stands a v enient e or c l af sti k, and carefully builds an egg raft , by i ic c of e s. means her hind l g Th s little craft , wh h is omposed of 1 300 so e e e 00 to eggs, is p rfectly arranged that it d fi s the e elements, and remains upright ev n when the miniature pond - - e c . c e becomes a storm driv n o ean Each egg is igar shap d, the the c a submerged end being capped . When the eggs hatch p or i lid opens, and the young gnat , a most or ginal little e The e creature, drops into the water ben ath. larva sp nds its i life feeding , washin into an ever wait ng mouth, b means of s gc e u e m e . N a small bru h, smal r at r s or organic atter atur has kin dly arranged that the breathing tubes should be at one o f month so end the larva , and the at the other, and it is to d e able breathe at the surface , and fee b neath the water at one and the same time . ndent n The gnat larva is de o atmospheric air, and there r not ted to c fo e is perfectly a p aquati conditions, few if any of -fli es u the water are, for it wo ld seem—that in some bygone days the fli es with aquatic larva of to day found life in the not to air over pleasant , and hence preferred aquatic aerial

. The the e conditions larva of gnat, being h avier than the e the to water it displaces, reli s on water film hold it whilst obtaining air from the atmosphere . Several moults are undergone during the three or four months before the larva m turns into a pupa . For several days the pupa swi s by of c e o to means a pe uliar j rking m tion , and although unable d is to fee sensitive its surroundings , and exhibits clear The e visiona powers. pupa cas splits , and the Imago, draw itse ou t as ing f , stands on the empty skin , which is utilised e i n e to a raft , and aft r Stretch ng its wi gs fli s away , either join or to e e u nfortu the dance lay ggs , and possibly torm nt some nate biped. e i to Many a Corethra, innoc nt though it be , falls a v ctim the on c e hands of man , ac ount of the striking res mblance it to c - o u bears the mu h hated m squito . It is only d ring the e larva stage that the two insects are in any way alik . The a i young corethra is known as the phantom larva , a n me l ttle to e e be wond r d at , for no sooner is a specimen noticed than it as u e l to e t mysterio sly vanish s , on y r appear the very nex e s — mom nt , pos ibly half an inc h from its previous p o sition for some moments the larva rest s content ed and motionless n ear e e the surface , until sudd nly with lightning velocity it chang s I ts c direction and fa es the other way. It is a long narrow r o f n c e e e r c eature extraordinary tra sparen y, r s mbling cl a glass ; m fact hundreds of these c reatures may be in the pond under 56 POND LIFE

on and examination, large numbers practically the surface , b e c air sacs yet they cannot dis erned, until one notices their ,

. of i c which are coloured These sacs, wh h there are four ar in a ac t as ranged two p irs , floats, and possibly also play some part in respiration . Why they should be coloured is not as o Miall understood , but possibly, Pr fessor remarks, the pig ment may functionise in the production of gases . in Corethra is predaceous, and its transparency assists it f e e the capturing O its pr y . It is also possibl that the pig mented - u air sacs draw attention, and th s attracted by the coloured spots its victims are less able to make ou t the ’ he e e is too . t motionless cr ature s form, until it late For n xt as is moment the Daphne or Cyclops, the case may be, roughly ’ month c is seized and held in the larva s , from whi h it pre the vented from making its escape by strong hairs . In mouth o f is its captor the victim acted upon by digestive juices , until little except the indigestible parts remain . Thus the prey of l ui es the young Corethra is not swal owed, but only its j c extracted . The larva is so transparent that under the microscope the di &c . c an as c as gestive canal , heart , , be learly seen if they s e ou t ex traordina 1n had been dis ect d . Peristalsis, the 0 voluntary movement of the alimentary canal, can be early l ” watched. The heart, which is tubu ar , can be seen beating , n driving the blood along the various ca als . It is interesting to know that Livingstone mentions a cake Ku n u cake f c ( g ) eaten by the natives in Central A rica, whi h is O d - c i made f the bo ies of gnat like inse ts, and from compar son it appears that the appetising sweetmeat is composed of a c spe ies of Corethra. ” A little red worm-like creature lashing its way through i 8 a the water, tw sting itself into the figure , and yet lways i Chironomou s keeping in the same d rection , such is the larva of , - e another gnat like insect . The larva will be found of all Siz s, - t l the largest being three quar ers of an inch long , whi st the e younger memb rs will be smaller and smaller, as their ages e decrease, until some will be found very minute inde d, but they are all characterised by the“ir method of swimmi ng . The larger and therefore older blood worms will be noticed ei a e to testify to th r increase in g by swimming less violently, as if no longer able to twist and turn as nimbly as the younger o f members the family . as i Each little worm, soon as it settles after a swim , bu lds

e of e e & c. I n for its lf a case decaying veg tabl matter, mud , i and v en fact, it chooses anyth ng suitable , each piece is rapidly wo

5 8 POND LIFE each little worm is able to store up some of the oxygen it — — obtains by mea ns of the red substanc e Haemoglobin to which its colour is due. Life among these little worms is one of i activity, for some of the members are always either mak ng or leaving a home . It often happens that a larva settles nea r to a burrow tenanted by another member of its family. Then c e u a most amusing in id nt occ rs, the new comer gradually e l e makes its way in, whilst the own r most unwil ingly mak s its ou t is o n way , and probably fearing that the visitor purely u e no t i to b siness bent, hesitat s but sw ms away a fresh spot , where it either plays the same game on some other unfortunate o r e n larva, else rapidly weaves a few piec s of mud and decayi g e e l aves togeth r to form a fresh home . If a large number of these larvae are present in a small pool they will gradually the e arrange mud in so many little h aps , that gives a most

f . e no curious ef ect Whilst at home th y are by means sleeping , but are continually undulating so as to produce a constant stream of water through their habitat , and at times they vary the monotony by pushing their tail-end out and waving it to e and fro, in order to obtain any fr e oxygen that is present the d in surroun ing water. Every now and again the head end e e makes its app arance, and aft r making a quiet survey of the neighbourhood and ha ving c ollect ed any mud that it may

n c . re ire, by means of its lawed feet , withdraws again Its feet , whl ch e are furnished with s veral claws, are well suited for o collecting debris . The head is supplied with a most c mplex f f o e & c . o set hooks, spines , te th, , some which are probably used i g e Chi ronomou s wh lst enga d in the weaving operations. The 1 l larva, like a other larva, not only lives, but lives we l , until it the e changes into pupa, which r mains in the mud at the bottom o f d The ron omou s the pon . pupa of Chi bears a slight super ficial u na a d resemblance to the p u pa of C lex (g t) n Corethra, but c o c o f is black in ol ur, and has urious tufts hair on the head

. e e s c e e o f p“ortion Th s tuft , whi h tak the plac of the pair are . r horns in Culex, respiratory tubes The changing f om r the pupa to the imago is a thing of surprising rapidity. Fi stly wi ff to the pupa rises thout e ort to the surface , owing the fact e d that its skin has become well filled with air, which it xtracte 80 from the wat er towards the end of the pupa stage . In fact ai r t at the low s c c o to c , i its spe ifi gravity, wing the ollected h O Wl thm e i . pupa is totally unable to sink , ev n if it w shes to a few seconds from the moment it reaches the surface the case e to ul fl l b gins split , and the ad t y gradua ly comes farther and e e i e farth r out . Th re is no hitch of any k nd , no struggl , but simply a continual movement . No sooner are the head and WATER SPI DERS AND M ITES 59

the e thorax of the adult free, than wings , legs and abdom n e ractl call appear, and are rapidly drawn out of the cas , and p y a the c fli e e s the s me moment inse t s away, the whol tran forma i T tion tak ng but one minute or even less to be completed . o sit by a water-butt or pool and see hundreds of these pupas h o 18 one c . c anging into flies, is most fas inating No s oner gone ad to so t han another is re y follow, and it goes on , and m the A meanwhile pupa after pupa floats towards the surface . few days later nothing but the empty black skins with their queer l The l Chironomou i n white breathing fi aments remain. adu t s e s interestm appearance may certainly r emble Culex, but it is g to know that it has not an operating set lik e that of the a c is e gn t, in fa t it probable that n ither male nor female feed e e h of d i s after their larva stage is compl t d . For the stomac s l sected specimens have always been found empty. The fema es i s lay their eggs in a gelatinous envelope usually in str ng . f e to & c . to o Thes are moored stones, , near the surface the m d. pow e must now re etf u lly leave these graceful and interest ° ves a i n 1D ing Diptera , whose are p rtly spent water, and partly the air above .

CHAPTER V

WATER SP ID ERS AND MITES

P ERH AP S of e one the most remarkabl things about spiders , is a o i that they have not become extinct long g . The r enemies u tw o - are numerous , both fo r and legged, and in addition their numbe rs are much reduced owing to their cannibalistic s in tincts . In fac t entire families are frequently destroyed by the u m l natural parent , whose maternal feelings are a ready forgotten , e w e when her stomach craves . Lat r will see that it is not only the youngsters that fall a prey to the gentler sexed in divid ual s e is , but that the mal often a victim, and pays dearly e c e for his impertin n e and oth r faults . T o our minds such unnatural c annibalistic in stincts seem fl' o ences. te e u heinous But wha ver th ir fa lts may be, or how h often he or s e may break the rules of civilisation and friend e s s e are ship, yet neverth les pid rs most interesting animals, s e and well repay any time p nt on their study. c e f s Unfortunately hildish fables , stori s o virulent poi ons, s -scientific avage attacks on human beings, and other non 60 POND LIFE

se n. In anecdotes, have led to much unwarranted per cutio fact many people consider it little less than a duty to destroy

spiders on sight . e i Th ir economic mportance certainly is not great . It is recorded that one ardent worker made a pair of stockings ’ and mittens ou t of spiders silk and when one considers that it takes over female spiders to produce a single pound of - e e a silk, and that each thread maker must n c ssarily have el e separate home, s chaos follows and cannibalism runs riot, is the project of a spider silk industry not very bright . e w ho so e Natur , tend rly looks after her children and helps efli cient them to be , has not by any means forgotten the

. e i set of spider For each little cr ature has a splend d eyes, a on mo t important matter, as they rely largely their eye sigist. six Some have simple eyes, others eight , arranged in a systematic manner ; and it is interesting to note that the numbe r of eyes and their position is used as a means of classification . i f l s Hav ng now made an examination o spiders as a c a s, we will refer to those particular species that are to be found in

ponds and streams . e - - — to sa Several speci s are semi aquatic that is y, will take to t m of on wa er when necessary, living the re ainder their time the — banks one species is totally aquatic . Lycosidae or wolf-spiders ao-called because tw o they hunt their prey, inste d of building a web, cont ins — a a examples Lycosa piratica and Dolomedes fimb riatu s. The former is a brownish-yellow spider with a characteristicall y long body. - of i s The females are about one third an nch long , whil t the

e l . males are small r, a general ru e amongst spiders c to e a s Lu us pirations preys a great ext nt on quatic insect , and will follow its victim on to the sur face of the water with out of c fear . Occasionally in case sudden emergen y it will ( ive b eneath l the the surface, but usua ly prefers to escape to Il k an ‘ to as Dolomedes, however, does not rely the same extent c e the - film an d l Lu us piratica on the saf ty of water , wil be seen to use the leaves of water- plants as stepping-stones when on e i a hunting exp d tion . In case of danger Dolomedes curls up in the characteristic e n spid r attitude, or else ru s towards the bank, but never even at the most critical moment does it attempt to make its escape by diving . WATE R SPI DERS AND M ITES 6 1

ff a In appearance Dolomedes di ers from Lucus piratic , firstly m - n in size , the fe ale being three quarters of an i ch long, and as to secondly its general appearance . For Dolomedes is a w n bro n hairy spider with noticeable yellow marki gs, which readily indicate its genus . of The females both the above genera weave egg bags, which e e ar fastened and carri d on the under side of their abdomen . In the case of Dolomedes fimb riatu s the egg cocoon is l of large, brown and round in shape , whi st the cocoon Lycosa piratica is much smaller and white in colour . on Warburton, in his excellent little handbook spiders , mentions several interesting experiments on wolf- spiders and

of . their egg cocoons. From some the results Mr Warburton a T seems to think th t spiders are unable to reason . o my do not mind the experiments show this . I consider that under ordinary normal conditions a spider to e is able reason , but is naturally at a loss to und rstand e complicated arrang ments entirely ou t of its sphere o f life .

to . of of i But return The female the Lycosidae , wh ch the Dolomed esl tw o e e Lycosa and are genera , carry th ir gg bags s beneath their bodie . When the eggs hatch the youngsters ’ on to immediately climb their mother s back, where they old to on own remain until enough start life their . Seemingly aware of the fact that an accident to the b us n to would mea a misfortune themselves, the young spiders are ’ to most careful not cover their mother s eyes, even when o a resting n her he d . But the life of the passengers is far from being dull and e the uninteresting ; sometim s thick grass dislodges them, or mother may meet another of her ow n sex eng ed similarly in The of meetm carrying her family . result the g, friendly as it well might be , considering that both are occupied in the is e no to same manner, s ldom so . They have wish compare

on . on no notes their family histories But , the contrary, to a time seems be wasted in idle compliments, but h rdly i c having met, a fierce confl t takes place . The youngsters are dispersed as their respective mothers fi u one c to ll . ght f riously with only obje t , and that ki d when the battle is over the offspring of the slain and those of re- of the the victor assemble, and climb up the legs survivor, ' w ho meanders ofi little aware that her family has incr eased to such an extent . no The Lycosidae, as the reader will doubt notice when to u attempting capt re a specimen, are stro and fast runners , of of or of and the weight a family, whether in the orm eggs 62 POND LI FE

to diff to i f youngsters , seems make little erence the ag lity o the parent . - do Wolf spiders, although often found together, not hunt in a on o wn packs . E ch relies its power of hunting, and tracks its prey down by stealth and speed . When searching for food of c every inch water or land is most arefully sc rutini sed . The to spider makes a short run, and halts, and seems be most minutely examining its surroundings At last its prey is —a e -film viewed sudd n rush on the water , and the unfortunate - to firma pond skater is seized and carried triumphantly terra . If Argyroneta aquatica it a totally aquatic spider . the pond- hunter is fortunate to be in a district where it is plenti e of ful, the first pond or stream may r sult in the capture e e to th s veral of these beautiful little cr atures . Contrary e u i general r le, the male is larger than the female in th s family. “ ” o ne e c Wait and watch, and if has pati n e enough and “ ” - be to to fortune favours , the water spider may seen rise of n of the surface the pond, resembli g to all extent a globule

c v e . w qui ksil er with eight blackish l gs It rises head down ards, and on reachi ng the surface extrudes the end of its abdomen - f through the water fil m. I undisturbed it will remain in this n as position several seconds, u til with a sudden pull, if the -fil m the m water resisted its departure, it swims down to botto of . the pond , carrying with it a fresh quantity of air The the a watcher, if he is unaware of habits of Argyroneta quatica, 0 may continue to wait and watch, hour after hour , in the h pe e that it may mak a reappearance . But the water- spider does not return unless perchance it is s filling its air store . Carefully concealed amongst the weed - of e eb is a thimble shaped structure clos ly woven w . has e c The diving bell an ap rture at the base, through whi h - e e e e the water spider passes wh n ntering or l aving . The dom so e as takes several hours to build, for it is not simpl it looks, and apart from the structure itself threads are stretching in various directions in order to capture small creatures . The Spider having formed its home rises to the surface for o e a supply of air. Its abd m n is covered with fine hair closely e e d pack d, thus preventing the wat r from wetting its bo y, c i hen e the mprisoned air forms the bubble . chi or On rea ng the dome the spider by a sudden movement , u e e ch by r bbing against the sid s of the dom or the leaf , to whi its c s of c to home is an hored, liberate a part the air, whi h rises - the apex of the store house . It then visits the surface for a u to so the e . f rther supply, and continues do till hom is complete e l Unaware of the danger that lurks b neath the leaf, smal WATER SPIDERS AND MITES 63 f crustaceans and other animals swim ast . A pair o legs

e is e s v . suddenly appear, a wild att mpt ma to eize the isitor a It m y prove successful , and next moment the victim is held

of c . e e is c by a pair for eps But fr qu ntly the spider unsu cessful, -b e c c off as and wildly grabs at its would vi tim, whi h makes fast s as nature allows it . The disappointed pider withdraws inside e its dome, and waits for anoth r opportunity. It is really a most interesting sight to see Argyroneta he aquatica attempt to seize an adult freshwater hog . T latter appears totally at a loss as to where the enemy is ll t e m of concealed, and wi of en blund r into the ar s the i e spider several t mes before finally making its scape . e Sometimes, if the spider seiz s its victim a great struggle - to e takes place . The water hog wildly attempts br ak away e e n from its captor, whilst the spider vinces gr at unwilli gness to e - leave its retreat , and often , aft r the water shrimp has ’ f c escaped , the spider s ru fled feelings are su h that it will continue its ferocious behaviour in a most childlike manner. - s iderland Love making in p is fraught with grave dangers, ” and the proverb that none but the brave deserve the fair is certainly true . a i a e Her l dysh p believes in business before pleasure, and re lis s that food Without a home is preferable to a home and an empty

. So the his u t larder suitor makes his appearance, and does “ ” to so most look nice , often unfortunately with much success that he is promptly eaten by the object of his affections . And e o the next suitor fares no bett r, nor even those that may foll w, ’ until the creature s hunger is appeased . Then with so much t o . love inside her, her thoughts turn ethereal matters In the case of the water -spider the male builds a cell next “ ’ ” to of his a his that heart s desire, and h ving filled home by e u the usual m thods, he cautiously bites thro gh the dividing

Wall. ’ i on As the reader w ll understand, it all depends the lady s of temper what the result his entry may be if pleasant, all is well, but if not the suitor probably has much to regret . In the resulting conflict the entire home is uprooted and demolished. As the male is fortunate in being larger he often off comes victorious . But should the female be in the right o n mo d , when her lover bites his way into her dwelli g , an egg case is woven and between seventy and one hundred eggs are laid. The youn g spiders on hatching have each a bubble of air and l e c e ead an independent exist n . Argyroneta aquatica is of particular interest to the pond 64 POND LIFE

to a hunter, because it will build its dome and live all intents so m f u natural life, even in s all a pond as a glass jar ll of water. r - The enti e process of weaving its . dome, love making, the of - batchin forming the egg bag , and the subsequent g of the e young can be watched at l isure . - i of Before turning to water m tes , mention must be made the extraordinary power that water-spiders have to remain in on ne a trance resembling death . The writer o occasion found his - water spiders dead at the bottom of the aquarium. He took them ou t and placed them on glass slips in order to m — ake an examination. They seemed peculiarly slimy several days elapsed, and no signs of life were noticed, nor were any — in of looked for fact , the writer was engaged dissecting one the specimens when his attention was called to another of these ” e e- dead spid rs, that was distinctly moving a for leg . The f glass plates were placed in the cooler part o an oven . Within a very short time the spiders not only were perfectly to restored health, but were more than usually alive . When u to u as ret rned the aquari m, they dived beneath the water if i noth ng had happened. A few days later the spiders were e - i to again in a d ath like condition . After allow ng them w as remain for two days beneath the water, the oven char tered i not once more, but th s time it acted . Wate r-spiders sleep during the winter in their sub -a uatic — q homes and re emerge as soon as the water has been warmed by

the return of summer. not w The age to which a spider may live is exactly kno n. Some have lived to the age of four years in captivity . - e f e m Water mit s belong to the Hydrachnidae . They dif r fro Spiders in that their bodies are in one piece and lack the characteristic waist of the latter. — Their sizes vary some are three-quarters of an inch in i to diameter, wh lst others are only just visible the naked eye without the aid of a lens or microscope . - are a . The water mites be utifully coloured Some are crimson, o r green , and blue ; others are spotted either with white various colours . i Their shapes are most varied . Some are character stically “ ” - e b c s hi ball shaped ; oth rs resem le king rab , w lst a few are ‘ so are diflicult s curious that they o describe . e - for di le 8 Wat r mites are noticeable their excee ngly long , o set of f c vered with closely hair, often a dif erent colour to t e d d bo y. One very frequent example has a red and brown bo y and light green legs . as - i They are all as far we know egg layers , the eggs be ng

66 POND LIFE

f ormance on to , some will occasionally fall their backs, and l s of For a then wil be een the advantage long legs . by c refully manipulating various joints the creature is able to lever itself

back to a normal position . the hr of The Like all insects, Gerridae have t ee pairs legs. a are first p ir placed on the thorax just below the head, and are held in front with only the first joint resting on the u t to film. The second pair are stretched o the greatest ad van e on tage, and in this case mor than half rests the water . These hi of legs , w ch are the oars the insect , are attached to the lower e end of the thorax , and are r markable for their distance from or as the fore legs . The third last pair act rudders , and are e very seldom us d in any other way. It is most remarkable a that each p ir of legs does its particular work only. The last e r f r pair , the rudders , ste r the cou se, and are never used o m c to swi ming ; and even , when the inse t is attempting escape

u . capture , remain stretched in their sual position The insect o f its of onl has perfect control all legs, but the habit using the second pair as swimming organs is so customary t t the idea of employing these for any other purpose does not seem to a l occur , even at the most critic l moments, when their use wou d e be of great assistanc . ’ The pond- skater s head is terminated by a tmmk-like organ known as the beak . The under side of its body is covered with

close velvety hairs, which, should the insect be submerged, pre r r vent the water f om reaching its body. But under no mal i n se cond tio s this very seldom occurs, for the healthy in ct is most particular to keep its body distant fr om the water surface. Occasionally a pond-skater will take advent e of the wind or of ou t ff the prevailing current, and will drift wit e ort for e i some distance . They se m to have a eat lik ng for herbage , and to a a are only o glad to rest mongst t e partly submerged gr ss. on -film Should they be disturbed they escape the water , and as soon as the cause of the trouble has departed hurry back to their favou rite haunts . e Their eyesight is certainly remarkably ke n , and they notice of man he every movement the clumsy biped, , even when is is several feet away, and dodge the net with surpr ing t dex erity. Pond - skaters spend much of their free time brushing their legs and beaks in a somewhat similar manner to a carver

i e one . sharpen ng a knif , first doing side and then the other Their food consists of dead and living insects. Should an - to a unfortunate non aquatic fly tumble into the water, near IN H ABITANTS O F TH E WATER - FILM 67

a s waiting skater, the latter turns sh rply toward it , and after one occa carefully polishing its beak makes an attack . On sion an adul t skater w as seen to advance towards a st ling l n fly, but before seizing its prey it very carefully c ea e and its so bru shed its beak with both fore legs . Whilst engaged in - preparation for the feast, a young and eager pond skater turned fl r and saw the y, and without more ado rushed fo ward and e m of captured it . Whether the adult realis d the hu our the ifli ult to situation it is d c say . e e The Gerridae s ize their prey in a most int resting manner . t and elevatin They pla ce their front legs over the vic im, then Now their bodies, lift it well into their embrace . the bea of comes into action, and , as in the case the nat , a surgical is operation rapidly performed, and the bl of the victim extracted. is u nw illin or Once having made a capture, Gerris most as as unable, to relinquish its hold , and will even leap muc its an inch into the air, without dropping victim . The ten British freshwater spec ies are all very simil ar in ff e of general appearance, but di r in size, and in the length their f of leg joints . Captured species often dif er in the size their — is to of wings , because they are dimorphic that say, some tw o of l the adults have pairs long win s , whi st others have ' ' fler is short wings but although the size may , one pair always

is o . leathery, whilst the other pair membrane us - u In summer pond skaters congregate in large n mbers, seem c of hib er ingly socially i n lined . On the approach winter they e to t e nat , and, in order do so, wander some dis ance from th ir usual habitat ; in fact it is rec ounted that a Gerris lacus tris t f o m was found sleeping under a fuss in moss , half a mile r the nearest pond. Al - l though pond skaters are very timid ittle beasts , yet they are t do easily tamed, and, if looked af er, will live and well in an narium . Ve r ia currens , popularly known as the f eshwater cricket , is similarl to a more beautiful creature than the Gerris , but , the - l fil m. latter, it ives on the water Velia currens is a dar brown i c c . nse t , with two orange rid es alon its ba k Its movements ff to o f hi the are noticeably di erent t ose erris, for w lst latter, l as we have a ready seen , skates, Velia currens runs along the - film diflicult . water , and seems to find it to make headway In certain localities are foun d minute black pond-skaters of e i an inch in length. Th y are very nteresting little creatures, d e a but unfortunately o not thriv in an quarium . of sta norum Mention must be made Hydrometra g , which 68 POND LIFE

e rejoice s in being the only British xample of that genus . It i so i ee - e is a most aston shing insect , th n ind d that the pond skat r - em . c se s over nourished in comparison Its body, g of an in h is ? e in diameter, elongated, and forms a surprising y long h ad e . is e t rminating in a beak The head, which long r than the i a e e thorax, becomes narrower unt l it re ches the antennae , wh r it again thickens . The eyes, which are small and very prominent , are situated on the sides of the head, near the middle.

But the most surprising thing about the creature is its limbs, e e for each l g resembles a hair in fineness . The ntire insect is to so fragile that one wonders that it can exist at all . Owing i - f ul its extraord nary thinness, the water gnat is very di fic t to find, and constantly causes much surprise when it slowly e emerg s from amongst the weeds, which have been most care fully examined . m - e Si ilar to its relatives the pond skat rs, Hydrometra stag norum preys upon any unfortunate insec ts that may come in its way.

SPRINGTAI LS Although springtails frequent practically all ponds and e one e str ams, yet very few people have ever seen of th se queer e e ob little ins cts . They are so small that they r adily escape servation , unless particularly looked for. There are several

c . a British spe ies Podura aquatica, one of the commonest, is - c e e blue coloured inse t strang ly clumsy in shap , with three pairs of e c c w . e e legs , a h furnished with a sharp la The ant nna are

. e short and thick and the eyes prominent Wings it has non , c although it is a member of the Inse ta . They usually congregate in large numbers and appear as a on u e e little patch of blue dust the s rfac of the wat r. Should e o f i s the we by m ans a stick d turb such an assembly, little creatures very soon show that they are far less inanimate than ’ e to e e e th y appear be, for without a moment s d lay th y dispers ic e e c e the in all directions . The rapidity with wh h th y s ap and distance they travel compared with their size is certainly most e c astonishing , until one of these small ins cts is arefully ex ami ned . Under the microscope a pec uliar forked arrangement e c will b noticed . It is atta hed to the end of the abdomen and l e is held when wa king tightly press d against the body . This an d appendage is called the spring , is used for the purpose its name implies . n o -fil m By taki g advantage f the elasticity of the water , and INH ABITANTS OF TH E WATER - FILM 69

to an by suddenly releasing the spring, it is projected enor m 40 no mous distance . A ju p of times its own length is by l c - f 6 t. means breaking the record, and shou d we ompare a man with this little creature we would come to the astonishing re e 240 ft nl do sult that he wou ld be able to l ap . , and not o y this e as once, but practically continually, if he wer as agile Podura . Yet no e e is Podura has by means the grace of an athl t , but on e of u n the contrary a badly built little creature, the ssence is c gainliness . The spring held by the inse t in the correct so of c e position , and does not remain on the death the reatur , thus proving that it requires muscular power to hold it in its ul place . The manip ation of the spring before and after jump ' e so s r ai ing causes some inconv nience , and we find that p t ls prefer to walk unless the occasion nec essitates more rapi pro

ression . g Apart from the trouble involved, a jump often ends i of in the creature landing on its back, nstead in the normal so the no position, and once placed unfortunate insect finds it e easy matter to regain its l gs . Springtails have one great advantage over most birds and beasts that roam our world, for they cannot break the water film however much they may leap and frolic on the element so is treacherous . But the springtail, like many others, far so from being satisfied as matters are, and occasionally wanders d o o f own the stem of a plant , holding on the supp rt by means e is its sharp littl claws . This enterprise sometimes ends in d aster : for should a storm arise and the weed be violently s e s to u haken , the inv stigator losing its foothold rise the s rface, e to the fil m and there, unabl break , must remain beneath it and d ie d eventually. It so happens that Po ura is well clothed with fi ne so hairs, and remains dry although immersed . e The young springtails are as agile as th ir parents, but a e are o f naturally sm ller and lighter in colour . Th y full fun, ’ o wi to on to to nly too lling leap an adult s broad back, and c c to ling there however mu h the latter may try dislodge them. At times two or more youn sters will play a game worthy o f c boy s outs, a regular roug and tumble . They are certainly e con pugilistic ven when mere babies, and savage fights are tinuall y taking place . When tw o adults meet they will often s of e alute each other by violently agitating one th ir antennae, ’ and sometimes without more than a moment s hesitation seize e b the ach other y head . no Life amongst the springtails is t all jump and fight . Hygiene also plays a part in fact when time allows old and young, children and babies, wash their faces and comb their

. one as is backs The little animal licking of its front legs, it 7 0 POND LIFE

-film s e unable to break the water , carefully wa hes its fac like m u e some di in tiv cat . a of - The eggs are laid on or in the le ves water plants , and when about to hatch are transparent . The young are very i l the s mi ar to their parents in appearance . During winter, in springtails hibernate the mud . e c of The following incident is of inter st . On the surfa e the a u e c quari m some peculiarly long springtails wer noticed , whi h on e e examination turn d out to be two springtails , one l ading e the other by the hand. By means of a diss cting needle the e to e ui leader was persuad d r linq sh hold . The other, left to its to ow n devices , seemed perfectly incapable and at a loss as

. The c direction mi roscope revealed no trace of eyes , and it can only be surmised that the creature was blind .

C H AP T E R VII

A! UATIC w or ms

T HE members of the Vermes inhabiting our ponds and streams are usually very different to what one imagines a worm to be . - in All the vermes are soft bodied animals , and this respect no one breaks the rule. n d s When examini g wee s under the microscope , minute tran - e e e parent slug like creatures may often b se n . They glid : along , altering their shape on meeting obstacles swelling , i elongating, and behav ng altogether in a quite unique manner. These little creatures are members of a family of worms known h e the u r c e as R abdoco lida, a branch of T rbella ia , of whi h ther all are many and various kinds . They bear a ferocious expres

sion, and one is little surprised to learn that they are car

nivorous . l On first seeing these Turbe laria, one is liable to mistake t e them for members of the Protozoa, owing to heir minut size e di and general appearance . Memb rs of the Tricla da, another sub - l are order of the Turbe laria, very common in every pond t a s d e en din and s ream . In f ct in ome districts, p on the hi s a . e e son, their numbers are legion Th se little blac s ning m ani als, known as Planarians, are familiar objects on the leaves o f watercress and other plants , and may also be seen wander ing slowly over the mud and stones at the bottom of the W e . s tr am hen at rest their shape is not constant , sometimes AQUATIC WORMS 7 1

i - resembling a m nute drop of black sealing wax , but when on l e a e the move they elongate and g id slowly and gr cefully . Th ir c so e bla k eyes , characteristically cru l, are protected between so to two thin membranes, that the creature is probably able

see both above and beneath it at the same time . Simil arly to c the Rhabdo oelida, the Planarians are carnivorous, feeding l & c r v e . upon both li ing and dead ins cts , mo luscs , Thei skin is resemb e e h furnished with rods, some ne dl s , whilst ot ers are ’ - e e hook shaped . Th se constitut t e Planarian s protective of weapons, and are fired out in case emer ency . These darts , - genses are a although only visible under high power , cert inly - formidable weapons to the various micro pond inhabitants . u as one The mo th is not on the head, might expect , but is e on e of d e situat d the undersid the bo y, towards the centr of so t o hl a n the creature, that we might y say th t an openi g in “ ” eref ore a he the abdomen acts as a mouth . , when e ting , t

Planarian must cover its victim . The animal certainly does not s bolt its food, but eat slowly, taking several hours to finish - a meal . On one occasion the writer placed a small may fly The larva near to a Planarian . latter rose up in a very u of e e pec liar manner and curled up the sides its h ad , and th n v c t ad anced slowly towards its victim and overed it . Af er an hour the Planarian glided away, leaving nothing but the skin of the unfortunate insect . On another occasion a dead snail was placed in a saucer containing tw o Planarians ; one of these e l creatur s, as if scenting the snail , lifted itse f, and slowly e s turned back the edg s of its head . It then glided toward the of snail, and was on the point touching it when , as if changing

to . its mind, it rose and passed the left The very next moment n i the Pla arian again turned and came towards its prey, rubb ng u p against it (simulating a purring cat) , rubbing and twisting ! i of as if it enjoyed the sensation, occasional allow ng one side to c t its body glide over the obsta le and t en the other. Af er for e behaving in this manner a consid rable time , the Planarian no e wandered away . The next day the snail was long r there , and it can only be concluded on circum stantial evidence that e of it had be n eaten , although neither the Planarians showed any signs of a heavy meal . one occasion two Planarians w ere seemingly at log er s s head . They rai ed themselves on the posterior end of t eir e i bodies and, entwined about each other , wer sway ng to and f ro . On being separated the cause of the trouble was revealed e in the p rsonage of a small worm , well covered with some sticky - slime like substance (probably digestive juices) . l s ul b a P anarian m tiply oth sexually and asexually. In the l tter 7 2 POND LIFE

of c case the creature divides into more than one part , each whi h t ultimately becomes a fresh individual . Planarians seem o be e e s i highly int lligent , but many mor experiment must be carr ed e e e o i o u t before this can be d finit ly stat d . C mparatively l ttle e so is known as to their habits and lif histories, and a large o - field of research is open t the ardent pond hunter . the e u c w e u un Wishing the Planarians b st of l k, m st willingly o e are a turn to the Nemat d worms , which the cause of very m ny l to i e serious il nesses h gh r animals, man included. - as are e Thread worms , they popularly known, fr quent ponds

c . e . and dit hes Som are minute, others large " c the 4 6 the In As aris lumbricoides male is to long , whilst ” female is 10 to It is said that in Finland very few people are ee the e c As fr from companionship of this unw l ome stranger . to e of c if add insult to injury, even the xamination As aris lum b ricoides u f or is off is not unfra ght with danger , it able to give so an odour of surprising power, irritating, indeed, that it c produces atarrhal symptoms . a ni rovenosu m - s Rh bdonema g , another thread worm, inhabit e a the xcret of frogs . After a very short time the male and e e e f male worms me t and pair . The fertilised ggs eventually hatc h and the youngsters with practical filial devotion devour

e e i a . the int rnal organs of the mother, ther by caus ng her de th ' The oflS rin e p g th n hurriedly decamp , and wait patiently until i s i some frog appears and fool hly swallows them . Thus hav ng e a n s n mad entry into their host , they wa te little time in maki g the : e e their way to lungs here th y liv happily and comfortably, e e matur and fertilis each other, resulting in a fresh generation o f embryos . These eventually escape into the water and find ’ e m their way to frogs excr ments . Male and fe ale worms again

e e . me t, and the story is rep ated Nematomorpha are very similar in appearance to the nema e to c e as tod worms , in fact up quite re ently th y were classified e e members of this family . We n e d not wast much time in c b u ea des ri ing the creat re , for we are all familiar with the thr d o like little w rms s een in every pond. The life history of one member of the Gordius is so unique e e u that it deserv s some notic . The Gordi s is the only fresh m of The e is water fa ily the Nematomorpha. mal distinguished e its c from the female by its fork d tail, and by olour. In April the e mal s and females meet and fertilisation takes place. e e Subs quently the eggs are laid in long thr ads , and after some ee s e e e c w k the larva app ar . Thes little reatures are furnished c c to with boring applian es , whi h they deftly use in order d rfl obtain an entry into the body of a young (larva) of an al e y.

7 4 POND LIFE

i a of The word leech br ngs b ck memories the good old times , all o - when the cure for ills was blo d letting, and in those b efi ent m i en c days the worthy little creature, the ed cal leech, was imported from the Continent, and spent the rest of its lif e on British blood . med icinalis not Hirudo , although the fact is generally

w b . 3 kno n , is to , e found in our country It is about inches

to to or 6 . long , but is able extend 5 inches when it so wishes 1 There are severa British leeches, the most common being

WORMS

1 . Go s n in m r iu co u a . 2. O hr otrocha uerilis. 3 . Aeloso a. o se d , j g t g p y H r

! . eech . 5 i med cin . un e sine lan u o alis 6 o . a ian. H r d i . Y g C p 7 P r sco ic w o p rm.

Aulastomum - of s , the horse leech . It is a reddi h colour, with tranverse . Au lastomu m marking Often fastened to a stone, l s e b e undu ate in a v ry original manner , and continues this u havio r hour by hour . But it is only when swimming that the - ee horse l ch is really at its best . Lengthening out into h n f . a t in ribbon, it swims by most grace ul undulations Whe n ot in such a hurry the leech wanders by dragging itself along by means of its sucking discs (looping) . e Every stream contains l eches, but in some districts they are h much more common t an in others . The general appear AQUATIC WORMS 7 5 cane of the leech needs little description ; it is a typical worm c has like animal , ex ept that its body, which is convex, the under side flattened . - e to c The horse le ch, similarly the medi al, is a blood m - d sucker, attacking tadpoles, frogs, wor s, and other soft bodie creatures . Leeches are able to secrete slime and thus escape from their e s - s enemies . Ev n the mo t carnivorous water beetle, unles

r b e e the . Al sta vation immin nt , leaves leech severely alone H iru dinia are one though the hermaphrodites (both sexes in ) , - - e s et self fertilisation never takes place . The horse le ch lay g e e to . er eggs in a case mad of saliva , and leaves th m hatch Members of the family Clepsine behave differently ; in this species the eggs are not left to their fate , but are carried with the mother until they hatch ; the youn then fasten themselves to the under side of their parent an thus accom a e the p ny her on her travels . In case of viol nt accident b e oung Clepsines may dispersed should this occur , having yost a e e u —to- e their p rent, they loop along in a p rf ctly p dat to i manner ; but are, nevertheless , only too willing rega n he their former position at t first opportunity. ’ are n The parent s maternal feelings certai ly most acute , for, on her f meeting one of of spring, she will twist the anterior of d to a portion her bo y round it , probably in order facilit te c s its regaining its former domi ile . It is a mo t fascinating u to pict re see a female Clepsine carrying her family, the e m youngsters undulating from th ir aternal home , the mother so showing every sign of careful movement , as not to dislodge e her m or injure those depend nt on . In fact many a hu an e e mother might take a lesson from Cl psine and , her larg m f or no b ut fa ily, in her case single heir enters the world, eight to ten sturdy miniature Clepsines arrive to be looked no he s after ; and instinct or instinct , whatever it may , tell the she mother that when loops she must be careful , and even she u when und lates caution is required . to for to Clepsine is said have a partiality snails, in fact T e a suck these unfortunate mollusc s. o our minds this se ms not very nasty habit . Fortunately Clepsine has seen an oyster- swallower There are several more species of British leeches, some very - worm like and some very small . They all live happily in the a to on to aqu rium, thriving all appearance nothing , loving wi to wander over the glass , which , o ng their transparency, allows an easy examination of their internal organs . The first Wheel Animalcule or Rotifer was disco vered in 7 6 POND LIFE

r 1 696 . The finder described the c eature as an animal like o n o f c ea a large maggot , the tail whi h app red forceps like ” that of an earw ig . m 1 03 Leew enhoch So e years later, in 7 , noticed rotifer “ a , which he depicted as an animal with tw o wheels thickset ” e ee with te th resembling the wh ls of a watch . o e e tw o - Strangely en ugh, th s old fashioned descriptions, e c n when tak n together, are ac urate enough to help the begin er in e e mi - r cognising rotif rs from other cro organisms . All m are the me bers of the Rotifera minute, the giants m th amongst the being % of an inch in length, whilst the majority are fif th of an inch or even less . Before describing e i m the speci s or their habits, a cursory exam nation ust be f made o the little creatures themselves . e We may roughly divid the rotifer into head, body, and ” ea o s c foot . The h d c nsi ts of the disc, whi h bears little hairs li h c . e t e known as ilia Th se ci a wash food into the mouth, s and from th ere it pa ses into the oesophagus (throat) . The c oesophagus , whi h is similarly lined with cilia, leads into the The is e gizzard . gizzard, or mastax, an organ esp cially

e h n . adapt d for crus i g The food then passes into the stomach,

o c . an organ als lined with ilia, where digestion takes place e The head contains the brain . Two or more eyes are oft n e present, usually red, and sometimes viol t in colour . Certain

e e . of speci s, however, are eyel ss The body, which is such transparency that it allows perfect inspection of the internal hae a is - e . S n c t organs , is variously shap d In y it peg shaped, e e- Whilst in Hydatina s nta it is wedg shaped, oval in the

A s lanchnaceae so . e i p , and forth In c rta n species the body is i e e . nclosed in a cas known as the lorica Others, again, bu ld c are u s ases of pellets, or surro nded by a tube of gelatinou material. in The foot some species is absent , but in the majority it e telesc0 ic is e . well d veloped It may be r tractile or p , and is c usually furnished with two or three toes and a spe ial gland, c c known as the cement gland, whi h secretes a sti ky material, “ ” e c c t so . in ord r to an hor the rea ure, when it requires I n ec - e the the Bdelloida (le h lik ) foot is telescopic , and t : e u e s racts into the body lik a tr foot, it is u ed for the e p urpose of walking . Wh n so doing one toe is expanded t elescopically and the cement gland comes into action ; the “ ” rotifer then closes the t elescope but does not liberate the

e . f oot to do so . Henc the body is drawn towards the toes e e c its The foot is th n r leased , and is again stret hed to full l is to ength . Sometimes the movement is contrariwise, that AQUATIC WO RMS 77

e to say the rotif r fastens its foot, stretches its full length , and . after attaching itself by the head , liberates the foot But e to c to both these are slow movements , and s em be ontrary i i of s e n the l k ng the rotifer, for u ually , aft r walki g a few i t e li m seconds, op ns its disc , and by means of the ci a swi s rapidly away. 1 th n m (Bdelloida) Rotifer vulgaris, 3 6 of an inch lo g , is a ember ec e of this family . It is of sp ial int rest , not only because it to the P h llum has given the name y , but also as it is peculiarly e able to resist drying by secreting a g latinous covering, which o becomes durable when exposed to t he atm sphere . he are Some of t Rotifera roamers , and seem never happy s on too to unles the move ; others , however , are only willing e of remain in one spot for at l ast part their time . c e n The Ploima , but for a few parasiti m mbers , are early all so c so free swimmers . They seem chara teristically happy, e very interested in their work , as they dash h re and there, c n dodging obstru tions , occasionally resti g , but only for a brief off The moment, before hurrying again . Ploima are divided tw o su b - in into orders, comprising those enclosed a case and those without : — (a) Without lorica Illoricata . b — ( ) With lorica Loricata .

S n h - Amongst the Illoricata we find the y c aetaP a family f or of notable the beauty its members , all characteristically Bran chionu s - o active . (sub order Loricata) is familiarly kn wn e as the Pitcher Animalcul e . The lorica (case) r sembles a b ox o f the open at both ends . The foot , which is projected out c s lori a, can be drawn inside , and is a surpri ingly elastic and e to e flexible structur , being able b nd in a most extraordinary Branchionu s e manner . In fact sometimes will fasten its lf by

its foot and whirl round at right angles , revolving at a

tremendous pace . Then off it will go until it settles on some

chosen spot and repeats the extraordinary behaviour. Schirto o da e e diff to The p are queer littl creatures, v ry erent the ordinary type of rotifer ; in fact they resemble young crustaceans to such an extent that they have o ften been re as e e h ll u m turned to the aquarium m mb rs of this P y . ” P adalion Miru m Sc hirto oda o th of , one of the p , is ab ut ” c l an in h long . The body is drawn into long , pecu iar imbs , e e The is which terminat in fanlike adornm nts . head fur nished tw o e e with ey s . The rotifer, when vi wed in a certain of position, resembles to some extent the head and shoulders i o . a dim nutive old man , with a pr minent bulbous nose 7 8 POND LIFE Parasitic rotifers will be frequently found happily rotif ering o n s of the caudal fork appendages of Cyclops , al o on the backs - m &c . water beetles, Ne atode worms occasionally show some o f a evidence uneasiness, and on examin tion several parasitic ll e . e rotifers wi be discover d, causing the trouble Many speci s of sedentary rotifers live on the stems and leaves of water weeds , and there , fastened by the foot , work away merrily. If e an intruder should blunder inst it , the rotifer ceases work w i and immediately ithdraws t e discs , and takes refuge beh nd as as i the weed . But soon qu et is restored it regains its al its norm position, gradually opens the disc, and continues work . Floscu lariaceae Floscularia cornu ta m The contain f , a co mon freshwater species . Even ditches are inhabited by colonies of e n is this most b autiful creature . Each little a imal enclosed in a glassy gelatinous case . The head end is prolongated into fin er- fin e five g like processes, adorned with very hairs, which are thought to act as a net in preventing the escape of organic a particles , and thus f cilitating their capture . Bu t of e the jewel the Floscularia is St phanoceros , the Crown a e the fin er- Anim lcule . In this cas g like projections are elon

e e i . gat d, and are fringed along their entir length with cil a The M elicertaceae bu ild cases of bricks which are formed of e to c waste food. It is int resting wat h one of the Melicerta at is work. Each brick can be seen in the making, and when it e s ready, the rotifer suddenly b nds backward and neatly places e r it on the top of the last lay r. There is no hesitation no - e a measuring , nor is a plumb lin used, and yet e ch brick remains u where it is placed . Grad ally the case becomes larger and of larger until complete . The bricks, which are always made e s - n the same siz and shape by the builder, are reddi h brow in colour : for some time this colour w as thought to be due to c of iron , but it is now well known that the bri ks, made waste ’ e i e food, are stain d during the process of d g stion in the rotifer s — stomach by a brownish fluid hence their colour. It is interesting to know that each species of Melicerta u e are makes its bricks of a partic lar shap . That the cases occasionally most curiously built struct u res will be seen if the ’ reader will refer to H u dgson and G oss s famous work on the

Rotifer. so one It happens that, if specimen be discovered, many will M elicertac eae a re c or soon be found , as the of a so ial, perhaps - wi better termed gregarious persuasion, and o ng to the size of the case and the angle at which it is fastened to the stalk or

e of s . leaf, its discovery is simple, ven without the aid a len AQUATIC WORMS 79

h e a 1 th of t to Eac cas is practic lly 3 5 an inch in leng h, and the e r naked eye res mbles a tiny brown od. There are several of M elicertaceae a not se of s species the th t do build ca s pellet , but are yet most original in that they love a social life . The Conochil us volvox are not satisfied to live independent ° s e so as lives, but fa ten thems lves to a centre mass of elly, to c l form a ball . The number of colonists ontinua ly increases, for the young are no sooner hatched than they fasten them

Wor ms (ROTIFERS)

n sen 2 S n mord 8. s l anachna. 4. Ro if er a i a a. . choeta ax . A l . Hyd t t y p t . M elice n e u u a is. 5 a i ns. S e hanoce os. 7 . F oscul aria corn ta. v lg r rt r g 6. t p r l

a selves amongst the dults, often with the result that the jelly is a of gives way, and broken into many separate colonies, e ch which increases in a similar way. Perhaps the most original matter is their manner of pro ression i i g , for the liv ng ball rolls through the water in a s milar e to of mann r volvox . There are several species colonists Lacinu laria similar in appearance to the latter . is often found o ! fastened to stems of a uati weeds, but occasional is met — With behaving in a similar manner to C onochilu s t t is to 80 POND LI FE

sa w . so to y, free s imming But it seldom does , and prefers fasten to some support .

The Rotifera are characterised by one general rule, and that is ” a e - th t the f males preponderate, whilst the all important man is e e noticeabl by his absenc . In this kingdom the gentler sex “ ” no to el has need break down c l tissue for their rights, f or

the male is not only rare, but , in addition , lacks digestive so organs , and is therefore much handicapped . In fact he l he his on y appears when is wanted , and never shows face the otherwise. Owing to rarity of the males, the production o f nf i is e u ert lised (known as summer) eggs usual . Th se eggs e frequently hatch within the parent . Rotif rs also produce so e are to fertilised winter eggs, call d as they able resist adverse conditions . It need not be remarked that the male is essential for the production of these winter eggs. ul We now come upon a most curious but wonderf scheme, w how her sho ing Nature looks after children , although they a may be microscopical . As the summer we rs on, and the pond o f s becomes depleted its water, the unfertili ed females produce

special eggs , which hatch into males only . Winter eggs are w to b e anted resist the coming drought , and these can only a e So re produced by union with the m l . numbers of males a o li s to the pr duced so as to ferti e the females, and thus lead production of the required winter eggs . e m The Rotifera are not xamples of longevity, at least fro ’ of e tw o s man s point vi w, for the males die in or three day , whilst the females have the good fortune to live to the ripe no old age of a fortnight . But during this short lifetime no valuable seconds are wasted . Sleep probably plays part . Maupas has found that in thirteen days the female rotifer is to f is able produce about fi ty eggs, and it therefore hardly s u rprising that rotifers are f ormd in enormous numbers in all ponds and streams . to its is t The earthworm, owing abundance , so well known tha “ ” man is liable to imagine that it is the type of the worm c a e family, and that every worm should ne ess rily res mble t Lumb ricus Terrestris to at least a noticeable ex ent . But it is e one of n ot so : . Terristr is is L only a typ of kind worm , and e ff th re are very many kinds vastly di erent in appearance, and e totally unlik in their habits . o The Polyz a, known by some as Moss Polypes , bear little, if e e any, resemblance to the earthworm . In fact for s v ral years i e as - fish m c they were class fi d members of the jelly fa ily, whi h

not s . e is surpri ing , as their appearance is certainly similar Wh n m r e the atter was carefully inquired into , although the c eatur

82 POND LIFE

About August spermatozoa appear , and fertilise the ovules in i v that same ndi idual, for Polyzoa are hermaphrodites (both male i and female n one) . The next method is by the production of to- statoblasts, formerly thought to be winter eggs, but day considered to be buds . These structures are formed inside the u creature by a partic lar part known as the Funiculus . Each of aircell s so statoblast is surrounded by a layer , as to make it to lighter, and thus able float more easily . The shapes are - various ; some are round, others egg shaped, and yet others are w - e adorned ith hook like proj ctions . In fact each species has e its typical statoblast . Aft r resting for a certain time the statoblast germinates , and on the case splitting a young colony, its containing at least one fully grown member, makes appear e i i anc e. Th number of statoblasts produced by a single nd vidual is probably very great indeed. Under the microscope t or it is often quite easy to count thir y so of these structures, f in various stages o development . Certain species are able to ” form winter buds know n as hibernacula. On the approach of cold weather the parent colony lose s its to vitality, and produces these winter buds . Subsequently a e their death the buds rise to the surf ce, wher , should the s s winter be evere, they are frozen . Strangely enough , thi to as one drastic treatment, contrary being detrimental, might expect , acts as a tonic. l The fo lowing spring the outside case bursts, and the youn to or bag colony makes its appearance, ready continue the good work left undone by its predecessors . Lastly the Polyzoa b reed by fission spontaneous division of the colony often occurs, and the daughter parts thus produced six increase by budding . There are British freshwater genera

of Those most commonly found are members the Plumatella, i i a branched fam ly, the colonists of wh ch spread into long, - n o f a e thin , branch like forms coveri g the stems aqu tic w eds. a Each polype lives an independent life in its own s ck, appear in its so to of g at intervals to wave tentacles, as obtain some o the various good things floating in its neighb urhood, for the food of the Polyzoa mainly consists of decomposin organic have a crescent- lo ho gore fu r-i matter . The Plumatella shaped p p , sh not ni ed with between forty and sixty tentacles . Perhaps it is AQUATIC WORMS 83 remarkable that this family is more in evidence than any other , for we can only presume that the more the arms the more the s e food . Plumatella repens , the mo t common vari ty of this - b has . family, egg shaped stato lasts Lophophore, although not c c so common, rejoices in the fa t that it is the only spe ies of - i its kind. The Polypides are enclosed in a jelly l ke glassy case . e As the colony increases in age it alters , becomes s gmented, d ee l as o ne the holes more p cleft , until, would expect , separa The to tion takes place . divided part floats away lay the foundations of a subsequent colony. o of Lophophore has the p wer movement, and is able to “ ’ wander to its heart s d esire. Compared with the immobile c c e ondition of Plumatella and many others, su h freedom s ems “ ” be e too good to true . Lophophore is no lover of excessiv exercise , and its travels, although of long duration , are not of — great distance half an inch is usually the maximum . The undertaking of so great an enterprise takes twenty-four or more hours to accomplish. Cristatella M ucedo is the great traveller amongst the e i Polyzoa in fact it is especially equipped for a wand r ng life . ! t The outer case has a fla tened sole, on which the creature moves . On the upper surface the colonists protrude their m i e plumes, see ingly perfectly contented in whatsoever d r ction e the foot is taking th m . It is interesting to know that the base of the colony pro duces a thin film that oils the surface on which the creatures are moving . Thus friction is minimised, and should the l direction lead downhil , and the colonists at the same time be to energetically waving, it is quite easy follow what must e necessarily occur . On lev ls and uphill, if Cristatella does ff e s walk uphill, matters are di rent . If the foot oil the surface, it is doubtful whether the c reature would be able to advance on t in the latter case, but the level, by reason of cer ain altera of tions of the under surface the sole, a slow movement would he easily result . It is peculiar that t movement is always in

i . the direction of the longer ax s, and never sideways This fact would seem to denote that some of the creatures are e i so responsible for the ste r ng , that the direction is not a as matter of mere chance, one is given to suppose . Colonies mu cedo 4 5 of Cristatella are often as much as to inches long , but very narrow, as although the colony is continually increas i n ing length, yet the breadth does not . As time goes on of di e n d so some the community , but o alterations are ma e, it that the living and the dead remain together. In fact 84 POND LIFE seems that a colony once start ed continues until not a single u o individual is left . M ced when carefully examined bears a s ee similarity to a mas of gr nish jelly . On the appearance of P oli edes no the p , it is now longer so uninteresting an object, so but somewhat resembles a woolly caterpillar, a creature ul e original and beautif that, if once seen, it will not r adily be f of i r e forgotten, for the ef ect these m nute g ac ful plumes,

all dir c s is t . waving in e tion , certainly most as onishing

CHAPTER VIII

THE HYDRA

S i e THI l ttle animal, containing chlorophyll, substance usually has an ra i only found in plants , the honour to have order p ct ul e is e cally produced for its partic ar b nefit . It memb r of ” a El eu therob lastea - the , a tongue twisting name with an is ending that a nasty word to some minds . The Hydra is one of the few Coelenterates to occur in fresh no water, but it is by means exclusively British , nor even Eu ro ean i so p , occurr ng as it does in many parts of the l (1 wor . a l of At certain se sons, particu arly towards the end summer,

a &c . hydras incre se enormously ; on every stick, plant, stone, , of ul c hundreds these beautif little creatures will be dis o“vered, some fat and short , others thin and long, some with little i hydras projecting from the r sides (buds) , others with swell on to - one ings which ex mination prove be egg bags, but in a — respect they are all alike each one ends in a number of a l tent cles . Perhaps whi e we are watching we may have the “ ” to see fortune a small cyclops brush against a tentacle, e hi and then it will be noticed that the accid nt , w ch hardly l is seemed severe, was certain y so, for the cyclops gradually ’ drawn towards the hydra s mouth. One wonders why the to victim does not at least make an attempt escape . A microscope would have revealed that when the unfortunate crustacean touched the hydra numbers of long threads were o or instantly shot out, and these threads in s me way other e paralys d the victim . l — for The mouth, which wou d better be named the stomach in of one the case the hydra it is and the —same thing , and resembles the latter more than the former can expand to ' TH E H YDRA 85

u swallow large victims. Occasionally this c rious animal n off do so on wa ders , and may either by sliding along its foot , or u on e i by continual somersa lts, each mak ng some alteration so in its position. When engaged the hydra at every revo l u tion on e stands once its tentacl s, foot upwards, and in this position reminds one forcibly of the days when little vulgar im s for of boys took up a s ilar po ition the price a copper coin. is for The word foot , it must be explained, merely a name the end distant from the tentacles . The hydra is altogether a mystery ; fir stl one and the same creature will occasionally turn into a fema e, and lay eggs in ul c the right and proper manner. And then sho d food be ome

HYDRA

L rou of h a. 2. Thread ca sule not in use l curled G p ydr p ( ash up). Threa ca sule ln use. 8. d p “ a matter of Wait and be patient and be thankful for what you ” “ m ui a receive, the fe ales that were q etly change into herm i phrodites (male and female in one) . It may happen that t mes is t of get worse, when it a mat er wait without receiving, and on hi au S iciou s m di t s p occas“ion the her aphro tes, possibly ignorantly thinking th t tw o sexes in one m y mea n more ” a a ui food req red , sedately change once more into males . But It l this is not all ; the hydra, if were large enough, wou d be “ ’ ” e s to off term d the vivi ec rs ide l , for cut piece, and the “ ” a a ” cu t off b e grows the missing part , whilst the cut from comes complete . And a hydra can be cut into very many i pieces and each piece w ll grow into a perfect specimen . b a There are three British species H . viridis is ro bly the c m is w to chlorO h lFit o monest . It green o ing the p y contains, 86 POND LIFE

- and has eight short tentacles. Hydra vul garis is orange brown u six as n in colo r, with tentacles lo g as its body. A hydra six e is often found with remarkably long t ntacles H. e All these liv and multiply at an enormous rate in an aquarium . e l They make exc l ent living slides, and if a drop of a weak o solution of ordinary salt is added beneath the c ver glass , the hydra will oblige by firing a regul ar broadside of its thread s like weapon .

CH APTER I! SNAILS

T -S A LS do not WA ER N I usually meet with much interest, partly

e i . b cause the r life histories are little understood However, the study of the freshwater molluscs is not so dull as one might think . Water-snails are perhaps of most concern to the agricul tur ists e f e e , who hav suf er d heavy losses by the d ath of sheep . Not s that the snail has any evil intentions , but a para ite known as Distomum hepaticu m uses ce rtain snails as hosts during part of

f . its li e history The host , unaware of the damage it is thereby te - doing, leaves the wa r and wanders over the grass land . The e e on s to liver fluke then escapes and ncysts its lf the gras , eventually be swallowed by some unfortunate sheep . ul not to i But ev en if an agric turist, care must be used g ve - b ad a all water molluscs a name, because it h ppens that only two of the many species of snails so common in ponds and — ere ra Truncatu l a streams are guilty Limnaea p g and . The pond -hunter will often find specimens of a spiral but

flat of . snail , members the Planorbis These snails are par — ticularly charming whil st young in fact the appearance of their diminutive flat spiral shells is most original. Sometimes the Planorbis will walk along carrying its shell at practically to to right angles its body, and seemingly requires make some ff i t e ort to draw its encumbrance with . Members of the Ancylu s are very similar in appearance to u atili m - n limpets . Ancylus fl vi s is co mon in some fast runni g n streams , Ancylus lacustris prefers still or slowly flowi g water . The former with its peculiarly beaked shell is a very f ascinat — S haeridae ing little object . The freshw ter mussels the p , — a Dreissenidae f re< u entl . Unionidae , and are very y found The a - one 3 to l st named has only British species , an is thought have a o been imported many years g in timber. FROG S 87

Anodonta, the freshwater mussel, has a peculiar life history. l i The arvae hatch inside the parent , and remain there unt l the

. h c e end of the summer T ey are then eje t d , or perhaps leave on i their own account, and sw m about until they happen to meet a member of the pisces (fish) ; no sooner have they touched their unlucky host than they hold on to the best of their abilities, and remain until mature . Strangely enou h sg, not only are they carried about by the fish, but also its so r grows as to cover the pa asitic mollusc, thus preventing it off from dropping should an accident occur. ’ Snails e gs are so frequently found that they deserve men u ses — to sa tion . Mol are hermaphrodites that is y, both male e and female in the same individual . On two snails me ting a sa peculiar battle takes place . In a c kept for the sole and e aus special purpose a numb r of darts are kept , and on this iciou s c e c p oc asion th y are fired at ea h other by the molluscs . u se sa What the of this conduct may be is difficult to y, as it hardly seems affectionate to hurl darts on such a triv1al re text when this preliminary battle is over the two snails j oin one is together. It is interesting to know that snail tem e porarily male, whilst the other is temporarily f male . The eggs r are laid on sticks , stones, weeds, or the glass of the aqua ium , “ ” - a e m n in long jelly like m ss s . The ti e bei g male, his work now accomplished , changes into a temporary female, and sub e se uently m ets some other snail of the opposite sex, which ' w I c l later in the season be ome a fema e .

CHAPTER !

races

A BOOK on pond life would hardly b e complete unless some pages were devoted to frogs and newts . Few people care to e h c keep frogs exc pt in a conservatory . T eir in essant croaking, a to especially during the night , is far from pleas nt , and owing or their surprising agility, sooner later one or more frogs are certain to evacuate their home and perambulate the house , much to the horror of the gentler members of the household. H ow they have managed to escape is often a difficult question to solve . of The life history of the frog is particular interest , because so ff is the young are very di erent to the adult. It hard to 88 POND LI FE

one- - fish- believe that the day old tadpole, a creature more like - Ra than frog like, should turn into the stately and dignified na temporaria . J di on During March and une , depen ng the weather, frogs congregate at suitable ponds, often in hundreds . They come l s from all ways, sometimes travelling several miles . Al the path d e - and ruts lea ing to the m eting place are alive with frogs, An d wandering slowly towards their destination . the pond, which but yesterday contained only a few frogs, has now a teeming population , even the banks being covered. We will ul e notice the male, which often seems ridic ously small , fast ned m upon the fe ale, holding her under the arms . When once no to o settled he has wish leave g , and seems to lose the power of . For d o liberating himself, even if he so wishes accidents ne so happen . In o case a pair united fell a distance of four c f feet , and even that experien e made no dif erence to the male, w ho remained calmly where he was . In the pond the female f ro c w ho swims to and , carrying with her her ina tive mate, occasionally varies the monotony of the proceedings by utt ering s al e croaks . The eggs, which are fertili ed by the fem e after th y have left her body, are laid in a continuous string . Each egg th is is about { g of an inch in diameter, and covered by a sub stance that by absorbing water swells to form the well-known jelly. No sooner have the eggs been fertilised than they show signs f o . life In fact, the alterations in the embryo during the first f ew . of in hours are remarkable The owner a microscope, if terested in embryology, may watch the changes taking place hour by hour. Six or seven days later the young tadpoles are no longer round but oval in shape, and very gradually, as time goes on ,

e . the oval b comes indented to form a head, body, and tail mi Then two pairs of nute external gills , the eyes, a large ear,

c e . and a pe uliar sucker ben ath the head , makes an appearance - The embryo is now becoming tadpole like, and is nearing the “ ” i ow day when t will enter the world to start a life on its n. The young tadpole now shows signs of active lif e ; it no longer rests

t e . in the egg mo ionl ss, but moves occasionally For a few more e n days it remains within its g lati ous sphere , becoming longer e da in shap and more active in disposition, until the y comes a when it forces its w ay through the surrounding c se, and c es apes into the world. no n to At first the young tadpoles, having mouth, are u able r as f or eat, but live on the emains of the yolk , a chicken does - Two the first twenty four hou rs after hatc hing . days later the

90 POND LIFE contains a great number of special glands f or the purpose of keeping it moist . ul That so many people sho d dislike frogs is really surprising, and only leads to show how blind we civilised beings are to ’ God s great work. For the frog is no coarse or ugly creature, b u t no nothing repulsive, much to the contrary, and there is to justifiable reason dislike a harmless animal, which was created for a good purpose . w or elfts dis The ne ts , similarly to the frogs , are greatly e to liked and fear d by people who ought know better . What there is to fear nobody exactly knows . In some places the e ff idea s ems to be that the poor, quiet , ino ensive, timid, little is ro newt an evil spirit . Civilisation certainly makes slow p —w e gress . Well must leave the creatures more timid than the newt to their own reflections and return to the latter. The female newt lays each egg on a leaf which she bends fish over, so as to protect it from predaceous , and other a e dangers . The eggs h tch into most charming little creatur s, l c . delicate, gracefu , and beautifully oloured Gradually the young newt grows more like the adult; the large external gills i wh ch give it so original an appearance disappear. If the young newt be placed under the microscope the o can e f ascinat~ bl od be watch d circulating in the gills, a most n e ing spectacle. When the you g newts are mature th y leave or the water and do not return until a year two later . tw o There are three British species, common and the other rare .

The great Warty Newt (Molge cristata) . c c r The skin of this spe ies is rough , hen e its name . In colou c it is almost bla k, with a light orange throat and abdomen, the latter marked with dark lines in addition the tail of the hi male bears a conspicuous w te streak. i h During the breed ng season, bot the male and the female e become even more highly coloured. The former now b ars a crest along its back, and the white streak on its tail becomes

e e . even mor , clearly d fined s Molge cri tata is the largest British newt , often measuring as much as 5 inches when mature . Both male and female bear a stolid but peculiarly savage expression, yet are per f tl ec y harmless . s t Toward winter the new s wander from the pond, and hide in any convenient spot . Sometimes they will enter houses in c to of sear h of a suitable spot, much the terror the original

ul is Molge v garis, which is smaller than Molge cristata, FROG S 91

r ll e more gene a y found , and cannot be mistaken for the latt r . During the b reedin season especially it is a very pretty little 4 i ff a creature, some inc es long , the sk n di ering from M . crist ta c in that it is perfe tly smoo th . Newts thrive in an aquarium if fed, but should this be forgotten they gradually become smaller and smaller until of they eventually die . Their food consists mainly worms, which are swallowed whole . It is a most interesting experiment to drop a tempting e tw o morsel in the shape of a worm betw en newts . They wake to very slowly the fact that the wriggling thing is a worm , and gradually their interest becomes more acute . Then slowly i and very jud ciously, step by step, they advance towards it , and even then they seem hardly able to realise their good u fortune . But when Molge does wake p, no time is lost ; the worm is suddenly seized , probabl somewhere near the middle , s to the newt gul s and gulp , vain y attempting swallow its ca ture. Sha ing the worm violently at intervals , it tries and

i w . tr es again , but ithout success Eventually it drops it and and now ff after some hesitation seizes the end, its e orts are met with greater success . Gradually the worm becomes has shorter and shorter. But during this time the other newt i f hu e ou t of also awakened , and is slowly, as w re the ques - tion, nearing the fast disappearing mea Then with a sudden rush the new comer seizes the free end and starts to swallow

as to f or 9 . b in haste, if make up lost tim Little y little the nose of the one and the nose of the other amphi bian come

closer and closer together, until they meet nose to nose . In u s this position they rest ; nothing hap , but each newt looks s s Su denl one of at the other in evident di gu t . y them starts to u is as pull and str ggle , and the unfortunate worm rapidly disgorged by the one as swallowed by the other. But all at of to s is once the loser the meal seems re li e what occurring, a ” its no and makes up mind on surrender. After some violent tw o struggles the cause of the trouble comes in , and eac h Molge gulps down its ow n particul ar share. Newts shake the worm in a similar manner as a terrier does a rat . If really e hungry, Molge b comes more active, but if well fed, not even the most appetising worm will alter its expression or cause it n to cha ge its position . s who Newts periodically cast their skins, and tho e believe in ghosts mi ht easily be dec eived ; for after the newt has d floati change , t e empt skin remains in the water, the littl; feet resembling tiny gloves . Very o ten the creature de vours old n as - in its ski , soon as cast fact this seems to be 92 POND LIFE he customary. Space forbids us to go further into t life history e e e e c e of thes original littl cr atur s , on whi h sev ral chapters e h could be easily written . It must be remark d , however, t at newts are easy to keep as long as they are allowed to escape from the aquarium towards the end of summer ; they should then be placed in a spacious box , containing moss and e e a miniatur pond . Here they will remain saf ly until ma the following spring, when they y be returned to the aquarium. I ND E !

cine a 26 Di e a 34 A t , pt r , eol osoma A , 73 Al c onell a 82 Do o e es fimbriatus 60 y , l m d , Ammba 1 9 D a on flies 50 , r g , nc us 86 Dreissehidm 86 A yl , , sc no on a 87 Dy i us, (34) 37 . (89 A d t , t ) n he ozoi s 1 5 E cocoon 37 A t r d , , e a 34 E euth erob l astes 84 Apt r , , us 29 E i e 90 Ap , l t , Ar roneta a ua icus 62 E. anica 42 g q t , d , sca is u b icoi es 72 E . ul a is 42 A r l m r d , v g r , se ine su c a us 36 Ephemerell a 45 A ll l t , , is is se us a u a icus, 32 33 E , 25 A ll q t , p tyl As l anchnaceae 76 . o nu a 78 p , F C r t , s e ione a fo osa 12 Fission 1 3 A t r ll rm , , ea e oi a 76 F , 28 Bd ll d , l es is fluminu m 45 Fl oscu l ariac eae 78 B t , , e ani a cu es 24 31 ossil May flies, 47 B ll m l l , ( ) F ac S en o s 27 Fred ericella 82 Bl k t t r , , anchio o a 28 F o s 87 Br p d , r g , Braushionu s 77 F us u es 1 3 , r t l , unic u ic b ui e s 78 F us, 82 Br k ld r , l is e w o s 73 G astroricli a 23 Br tl rm , , a is cases ene a a e of C , , , 33 dd ” G v l k a is w o s 39 e i ae 65 C dd rm , G rr d , a a ace 28 e is 67 C r p , G rr , o au a se ae, 45 G mphonema eminatum 12 C d l t g , e s au h e vi o ius 72 C ll , d g t r, G rd , Chaetonotus a us 23 G mnomera 28 l r , y , Ch ironomous 56 ini ae 34 , Gyr d , i i ae o ob in C a, 1 5 20, 76 g , 58 l , H m l a oce a 28 e io Its 1 1 Cl d r , H l , e sine 76 H eloc 37 Cl p , os e iu unu a 13 e i e a 34 Cl t r m l l , H m pt r , oe en e a es 84 e a h o i es 82 C l t r t , H rm p r d t , o e 3 hi us 23 Hibernac 82 C l rt , Con ona e ans 32 i u o cinalis 74 r pt , H r d m , o e h a 55 o se eech 74 C r t r , H r l , o ix a 39 H al otheca dissiliens 14 C r , y , Cosmarium botritis 1 3 a ina sen a 76 , Hyd t t , Cothu rnia 26 a 84 , Hydr , is a e a 81 achni ae 64 Cr t t ll , Hydr d , own ani a cu e 78 ra e ha a. 34 Cr m l l , Hyd d p g c o s, ( 78 84 30 H drocerisa 38 Cy l p , ) y , c osis H meta ta n r m y , 1 3 dro s g o u 67 C l y , is 32 o hi i ae 34 Cypr , Hydr p l d Dancin flies 21 H dro hilus g , y p , Da hnia 28 uena 28 p , Ig , De o 73 nf i , I u so a, 20 r ' r Des i s 1 0 14 in c ab 64 m d , , K g r , Dia oms 11 Lacinul aria 79 t , , 94. INDE!

Lancas e b ue sten o in 28 P suedo odia vi t r l t r , p , La a 34 u ex 29 rv , P l , Leeches 74 ana 89 , R , Le o o a h alina 89 ana a inea is 40 pt d r y , R tr l r , Leucosyte, 29 Li i u ians 20 ll p t , a Sc Limnae pereger , 18 hirto a, 77 Lo ho ho e 82 86 Sco ion w a e 39 p p r , , rp , t r, Simice h l u Lo ica 76 p a s, 39 r , Lucus i a ica 60 S i e ani a cu e 21 p r t , l pp r m l l , Lu b ic us e es ris 80 S haerid ae 86 m r t rr t , p , L cosi ae 60 S i e w a e 62 y d , p d r, t r, M a fl 42 S i e w o f 60 y y, p d r , l , ’ e ica eech 74 S i e s si 60 M d l l , p d r lk , M elic ertaceae 78 S i o a 1 8 , p r gyr , e azoa S in ai s ( 34) 68 M t , v pr gt l , i es 64 S a ob as s 82 M t , t t l t , o e c is a a 90 S en o s 27 M lg r t t , t t r , o e u a is 90 S e hanoce os 78 M lg v lg r , t p r , oss o es 80 Styl onchia mytolis, 20 M p lyp , ais 7 3 Suc o ia 26 N , t r , Na icu a 1 1 Sw an ani a cu e 21 v l r, m l l , hae a e a o e w o s ( 25 72 Sync t , 76 N m t d rm , , e a ih e as 39 Ta o es 88 N p C r , dp l , Te a f ee e s vii o y , 20 N t , mp r r t New s 90 Trachclocerca O o 21 t , l r, os oc 1 7 Th ea w o s 72 N t , r d rm , o onec a 39 Triceratum 1 1 N t t , , Oo oniu 1 5 Trichod ysts 21 g m , Oos o es 1 5 T ic a i a to p r , r l d d , O h Truncatul a p ryotrecha, 75 , 86 O hr ium Tub if ex rivul orum 3 p yt , 26 , 7 Osci a o ia tennis 17 Tu b e a ia 70 ll t r , r ll r , e a ion miru m 77 b e ul a 26 P d l , Um ll , a u ice a 82 nioni ae 86 P l d ll , U d , an o ina o u 1 6 Vaginiceal a 26 P d r m r m , , a a eciu 21 e ia cu ens 67 P r m m , V l rr , ha oc te 20 e es 70 P g y , V rm , h l o o a 29 i i is 85 P y l p d , V r d , icene 37 o ox lob ator 1 5 P , V lv g , i che ani a cu e 77 o ox conochilus 79 P t r m l l , V lv , ana ians 71 o ice a 24 Pl r , V rt ll , n i a e b ee es 34 a o b s, 48 86 W , Pl r , t r tl oi a 77 Wa e b u s 38 Pl m , t r g , a e i s u a e a 82 W te , 64 Pl m t ll , t r m a e sco ions 39 o u a 69 W , P d r , t r rp a e s 62 o chae a 73 W s i e , P ly t , t r p d r h i i b e es o zoa 80 W i e , 38 P ly , rl g g tl on -s a e s 65 Wo f s i e s 60 P d k t r , l p d r , Pro o as Wo s 89 t pl m , v rm , Pro ozoa t , v

: P in e b a n an as AN ON 67 00 . r t d y B , H S Edinb urgh 5: London THE FIRST HUNDRED VOLUM ES “ The volum es issued (Spring 1 91 3) are marked w ith an asterisk S C IE NCE W . D The F ou n a ions of Science B . C . d —t y if of. e a Lei h D i s L e on . E b yo o The Be inn n of , . m r —l gy g g By Pr G r ld g t M of. . . io o T he S ci enc e of Life W D en e so n . . B l gy By Pr H d r , M A of. E . . M a B R ! oo o : T he S u of ni a Life W c rid e F . . S. l gy t dy A m l By Pr , S o es . h Bo an The o e n S u of P an s . C. , D Se. P . D . t y M d r t dy l t By M t p , E . am e ie D D i so n .: . B ac e io og B W . C c M t r l y y k ) the Rev T é h . . Bo n e R .U The S u c u e of t e n ?F. tr t r By y , B E . S. oo ri h E o u ion . c M . . v l t y G d , A , o f. . a D 0 . D a w in stan . A. . S By Pr W G r g , M , r S B . . . n e e i a tso . Sc. H r d ty . y J A W , B B P rof. B‘ mis O a R . S Ino a nic he r C C . F. rg C t y y B ly , of. . B h . O a nic he is J o en . So , . . 8 rg C m try By Pr C , B F R o ma R a T he P inci es o f E ect ici N n . C b e . . r pl l r ty By r mp ll, M A . P hilli s D Ra ia ion . . SC. d t By P , E . s . R A The Science of the S a s . u n e F . . S. t r By W d r, i B P . hi i s D Li h ac co n to od e n Sc i ence . Sc. g t, rd g M r y P ll p , - W ea he Science R. G . . Lem fert . t r K p , M A no is ic e u chiso n D H p B H , M . . y t m ’ y Al t h b A o he s oo a ni e sit o an T e B a y . M t r B k By U v r y W m . x — B M Scha rlie D You h and S e D an e s and Safe b . . S. and t g r y , M M , u a Bo . . C . it h M D s for s and i s c a . . . g G . G P , M , . rd ’ rl r rd A o h hoo —A S Da i so n e ife s an b ook . . F. . . S. E . M t r d H d By H v d , R C . A. usse . D L o e in . Sc . rd K lv By A R ll M , l ofesso G. Le i h on D H u x M . . By Pr r g t , B E “; H i . . a n e f ns u and S ec osc o ic W u , F. . . S. o the gg p tr p y M d r R A , A stronomy Ro Ob servato Greenw ich P a i a As ono i?a her n i c c . c so l R. A S r t l tr my By H p , T, F . S ne F Wa e R N B . , . Avia tion y yd y lk r Na i a ion N a R . v g t By W . H ll , B A . P Lif n e . o E Ash . d By C. , M . R A . C . Die e ics ex . e D D c . . . t t By Al Bry , M , P. H . he Na u e of a he a ic s T M . . R ou rdain . . t r t m t By P G J , M A A lic ations of E ec ici . ex O . p y . i ie Sc . l tr t By Al g lv , B g mall éG ard e S . ec i a e A C l B rtl tt . i The a e of the T ee th C . ou n L . D . S. r A Y g, A la s of the W o ar ho o ew t rld B t l m , P H I LO S O P H Y A ND R E LI G ION The eanin of Phi oso h M g T . Lo e a . . l p y By v d y , M A i n en e so . on a H r B rg By H Wild C rr. P s hcl o gy . . a t . P h. D . yf By H J W t , M A anon Rashdall D . Lif t B C , , F . B . . ’ y A an 8 P h hi oso . D n sa Li . K t l p y By A . . d y , M A. T h Teachin of P a o D Li e . . n sa .A g l t By A d Sy M .

. is o e e o f lor . o . . E Ta 7 B P . y ;M Ar t tl y r A ' Ni sche h D M e P . e z . ii . t By M A . gg E n B u ke M. A c . es P D . on . . Sc . h . ByA J J , , , . The E x e i en al P s cho o of p r m t y l gy W V A C. . a en ine, B. . Beau By l t ty h The P ob e of T ut . VVildon a r l m r By H C rr. Geor e B e ke ey : the Phi osophy l B i -D o r l G . Daw i ks L y es c , gl deans H tt B Rh s F . A. B f . D u ddhis m o . T . s a i . By Pr W y v d , is . ox on. R oman C atholic m By H . B C T h O e en f a . e x f ord M ov m t By Wil rid P . W rd A h i h F. ene . . and T e b e in i Rev. t e Li h of the her . B l g t H g By W Ad y, M , W enne Li i i f. D cis Rev . P ro . . . . Cr t m H B tt, tt C a ina New an i f i e n e . rd l m . By W l r d M y ll . The h v non as e an. C u rch of E ngland By Re . Ca M t rm : o ste . An lo a . annin Fo 7 3 g C tholicism By A E. M g r b R ev. E d w a d S h Il l Ito M . A . y r , 7 S. 0 o o h a im Le ine B. A. By Ep r v , nnie esa n By A B t. H I S TO R Y ‘ 6 Th ow h of F ee o W . e . e in 3 Gr t r d m By H . N v son

is a c . of . 37 . . . P OWIcke . . B m r k By Pr F M , M A 8 O li e u ) a 3 . i ohns one . . v r B H J , M : - y ld ’ t A M o s . a u emen o Sc E. O Neill 39 r 8 . . B , M ‘ R t y A 0 . C 4 edii hodes B I an Co in. * y lv I u ius aesa i a a in e 4 . J l C r By H l ry H rd g . History o

En n P of . F. . e 2 . a in the akin . H arnsha w LL. D 4 g M gg B C , . “ l d y r ’ J Neill . E n an in the M iddl e A es E . O . 43 . gl d g By , M A W T W Ii Th na c h an P B . a h . . e o d the eo e . . . 44 M r pl y g , M A R . . The In u s e o u ion ones . 45. d v l t By A J , M A

i e n . it h . . 6. E a d D oc a c S . e c 4 p e y B , M * m r m r y G V A o e Ru L. . e on ow a . 61 . H m l e By G R dm d H rd e son . i son . 7 7 . N B H W. W ‘ l y l W a o . e w a . 8 W e in on and a e o . 7 . ll gt t rlo By M j r G W R d y

B. A eece E . Fea r nside A. . is o f e 1 0 0 H t ry o Gr By , Lu he and the Refo a ion L. D . A ate . . t r rm t By g , M A T he Discov e of the New W o . . KI rkman B. A. rld By F B , h a a Tu e and t e E as e n ! u es ion B J o n M c on . rk y t r t y M d ld hi rs. t e A H istory of Ar c tectu re By Ar hur B ll. S OC IA L A N D ECONOM IC ‘ ’ ' s l fira LL. D . m n s t . aw t o O ce . 47 . By M . G F t, Worklxl og m 8 e the i isb ste 4 . x g B Sy m Ra sa u i M ‘A“ r t ‘ of o e n n t - By m y M r, G v r me t o d ay An In o u c ion to E c ono ic ScIence of . . O . e e ith . . 49. tr d t m By Pr H M r d , M A 0 Soc ia is . . . i man . . 5 . B F B K , B l m ' y rk A S ocia is T heo ies In the i e es Rev . . a et O . . . 7 9. M dd g B B J , P , M ‘ l t r l A y rr t A B . a e . . 80 . S n ica is . y d l m y J H H rl y , M A L ab ou and W a es . . H allsw ortlI . A . . Sc. 81 . g B H M , M , B ‘ — r y e a io B ose h a ton. 82 . C o o n y p C ‘ p r t o l y 8 nsu anc e as In es en J‘ . obe son F. F. . 3. I r v tm t y A R rt , A ‘I 2 T he T ainin of the hi . S i e . 9 . r g C ld By G p ll r B ow h a n. a e U nions . o 1 0 5. T d y p C ‘ r l yt E e a Law a s. 1 0 6. v ryd y f Ad m L E TTE R S ‘ 1 Shakes ea e of. C . . e fo Litt. D. 5 . p r By Pr H H r rd , ‘ W o h 2 sw o osa ine asson. 5 . rd rt By R l M * - ' . P ure l i A C hoi c e of L ics and 53 Neill yr By H. C. O . sggétST c } * R. S F ancis Ba c on P of. e , . . 54. r By r A k mp M A * n Th e Br ntés ora asso . 55. o By Fl M e v L. M ac W a e the R . Lean a . 56. C rlyl By tt * D . e e s ow e . a n e . 57 . t By A G F rr r H ll h e 8 Ru s in . bs e . . 5 . B B W , M k ‘ y A lyt t r A o on F au s I n W i in E n lish o f . . . S e . . 59. C mm lt r t g g By Pr A R k mp , M A * D u s in . a . 60 . ic iona of S n n s . . A t ry y o ym By A t K Gr y, B A a ssi a D i na . E . Sti in . 84. Cl c l c tio ry By A rl g ‘I - 8 is o of E n ish Li e a u e . o on icke . 5. H t ry gl t r t r By A C mpt R tt Br ni n of . . R. S e . . 86. w o By Pr A k mp, M A ha es F o a asson. 87 . C rl By l r M 88 oe he of. . . e fo Litt. D . . G t By Pr C H H r rd , Ba z ac an a is. 89. l By Fr k H rr Rou sseau . . Sache . 90 . By H r 1 b sen i a a in e. 9 . I By H l ry H rd g ‘I T enn son a on a son. 93. y By A r W t

R L. S e enson osa ine asson. 1 O7 . t v By R l M She e S ne Waterlow . 1 0 8. ll y By yd y 0 Will ia o is . th ebs e . . 1 9. m M rr By A Bly W t r, M A D E O D O N E D T. c . N A c . L N INBURGH : . JACK E N W YO RK : DODGE PUB LISHING c o .