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Home , Beach cleaning, Litter, Litter (vehicle), On the Beach (business), Sewage

Marine entails economic costs and Josses to fisher­ Just some rubbish, isn't it? men, boat owners in general, coastal communities (ta x pay­ l'v[arine litter (marine ) - is that really a problem? Surely, ers), farmers, power stations and individuals. it is just some ugly rubbish on the beach that you can quite easily remove and be rid of. It cannot really be a major prob­ Marine litter spoils and fouls. It is an and it de­ lem in the marine and coastal environment, compared to all stroys the beauty of the and the coastal zone. This deg­ the threats of toxic , and coastal hab­ radation of and shores makes us avoid them - if we itat destruction? Or can it? Unfortunately, the answer is that have a choice. marine litter has become a more and more serious environ­ mental, economic, and aesthetic problem around the "'''hen done deliberately, the release of marine litter items world. - , , trash - is an expression of disrespect to­ wards the sea and towards other living beings. Ifthrowing Marine litter items travel widely, over long distances, with your solid waste into the sea is considered acceptable, what currents and winds. Marine litter travels around sea stops us from using , lakes and as dumps for o ther areas and between . It is found not only in the , pollutants? on seabeds or on the bea ches of densely populated regions, but also in remote places far away from obvious sources. Found where it should not be Marine litter is long-lived and active for decades, directly Marine litter () includes all objects that do not and indirectly. It consists to a very great extent of , naturally occur in the marine and coastal environment ­ and of and glass - materials that do not break down water surface, water column, seabed, shore - but are never­ easily or quickly. litter is a source of persistent or­ theless found there. As defined by UNEP GPA, marine litter ganic substances being spread in the marine environment. is 'any persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed ofor abandoned in the marine and ­ .. Marine litter is a visible threat to , but also an invis­ al environment'. ible one. It is found in horrendous quantities on the sea­ Marine litter includes items and material tbat are either bed, where it kills and injures out of our sight. 'Ghost ­ discarded directly (tbrown or lost directly into the sea), ing' by discarded or lost nets is just one of several brought to the sea indirectly by rive rs, , storm water examples of that. or winds, or left by people on beaches and shores. Marine litter consists of articles that have been made or Marine litter is a vicious killer of marine mammals, sea­ used by people and, subsequently, deliberately discarded or and many other forms in the marine and coastal accidentally lost. In most cases, it is the result of careless hand­ environment. Marine litter injures and causes physical pain ling or disposal of items of solid waste, including and suffering to a wide range of animals, from the largest of liquid waste. However, it can also be material lost at sea in to the smallest of creatures. bad weather (fishing gear, cargo). Once in tbe water, it can blow around, remain floating on the water surface, drift in Medical and sanitary waste, and pieces of broken glass or the water column, get entangled in algae on shallow bottoms, metal, constitute a health hazard and can seriously injure sink to the deeper seabed, or be washed up onto beaches people, directly or indirectly. Discarded fishing nets can be sometimes many miles away. a safety risk to boaters and divers. Marine litter consists mostly of very slowly degradable waste items - items made ofpersistent materials such as plas­ Marine litter also threatens marine and coastal biological tics, , metal and glass - from a large number of diversity by destroying coastal ' nurseries', where new life different sources. In many regions, plastics today constitute would otherwise emerge. And litter items can function as as much as 90-95 per cent of th e total amount of marine means of for invasive species between sea areas. litter. These large amounts of plastics constitute a significant source of with wide-ranging ecological and eco­ Jerry cans. nomic impacts in many regions of the world. Pens, combs, shoes and other items. Marine litter includes, among others, galley waste and Toys. cargo room waste from commercial shipping, fishing nets Industrial packaging, including pallet . and fishing from fishing vessels, household waste, waste Nets (entire fishing nets, pieces of nets, fishing line). from industrial production or distribution, medical waste, Strings, cord, bands, lobster tags. and sewage-related waste. Among the many things, from a Light sticks. wide range of sources, which end up as litter in the marine Boxes (fish boxes from ships and markets, boxes from environment in all parts of the world, one can find: bakeries and grocers, etc.) drums. Plastic and polystyrene items Hard hats. • Plastic (resin) pellets, raw material for plastics. Furniture and other large items. • Six-pack rings (yokes). Explosive cartridges, drill hole plugs, blasting cap Sweets and crisp wrappers. protectors. Cutlery, straws, cups, saucers, etc. Styrofoam (polystyrene) bits or entire packaging items. Sheeting (from stores or industry). Foamed cups and containers. and sacks. Buoys. Shrink wrap for household items. Disposable (sewage-related waste). Rubber items Sanitary towels (sewage-related waste). (sewage-related waste). Tampon applicators (sewage-related waste). Gloves. Cotton-bud sticks (sewage-related waste). Party balloons . Razors (sewage-related waste). Boots. .. Syringes and other medical waste, including bandaging Tyres and tyre belts. and surgical gloves. Food containers (including ), caps and . Wooden items Plastic bottles used e.g. for detergents, cosmetics, Construction timber. medicine and oil. Pallets. • Injection gun containers. fragments, including pieces of plywood. Cans with oil or other forms of liquid . Crab and lobster pots. . Newspapers and magazines. Corks and lolly sticks. towels. brushes. Furniture. Textile and leather items Clothing, including gloves and shoes . Metal items Pieces of cloth. Aluminium or tin drink cans. Cleaning clo ths. cans. Cotton rope and strings. Food cans. Sacking. Paint tins. Furnishing. Foil wrappers and caps. Bandaging and swabs (m edical waste). Fishing weights. Sanitary towels, tampons, diapers (sewage-related waste). Needles (on syringes). Oil drums. Glass. pottery and items . Food and beverage bottles, and pieces of these. Various metal pieces. Bottles with pills and liquid medicine (m edical waste). Industrial , appliances and car parts. Light bulbs and tubes. Wire mesh. Pots, crockery. Wire straps. Octopus pots. Barbed wire and fencing. Metal sheeting. Chains. Ammunition (still explosive) and firearms. From the surface to the bottom ... Marine litter is found everywhere in the marine and coastal .. Paper and cardboard items environment, all around the world. It has a truly global dis­ Bags. tribution and is a truly global marine and coastal problem. packets and cigarette butts. Cups. Marine litter is found floating on the water surface. Almost \,Vaxed beverage . 90 per cent of floating marine litter has been estimated to Cardboard boxes and pieces of cardboard. be plastic or polystyrene items. These light objects can easily be blown around by winds and further transported on the rescent tubes, light bulbs, aerosol ca ns, cans, ciga­ water surface. rette lighters, copper sheetings, a piece of a truck tyre, a hard bat, a plastic coat hanger, a toy soldier and half a toy air­ Marine litter is also found mixed in the water column, plane, a football, a car floormat, and an astbma inhaler. where it can be temporarily transported vertically and hori­ In 3.6 places on Livingston Island in Antarctica, over zontally. 1,600 pieces of litter, almost all of them plastic, were found in a survey made in 1997 by Ch il ean scientists. About one Marine litter is found resting or drifting on the seabed at third of the items were strapping bands, ropes and net pieces all depths. In the North Sea, it has been estimated that from fisheries. Well over 700 of the items were made of ex­ some 70 per cent of the marine litter ends up on the sea­ panded polystyrene. bed. Half of the remaining amount is found on beaches Along the shores of Beaufort Sea of the Arctic, aerial sur­ and halfis floating on the water surface. Assessments made veys performed by Environment revealed tbe occur­ in the Dutch sector of the North Sea have indicated an rence of marine litter from oil and gas exploration activities, average of over 110 pieces of litter per km 2 of seabed. If and pieces of polystyrene foam and polypropylene rope. In a this is characteristic of the North Sea at large, a volume of survey made in the North Pacific Ocean, with the entire ocean least 600,000 m 3 of marine litter could be found on the divided into grids, there were sightings of litter in each grid. seabed. During a survey in the Mediterranean, 300 million The foreshores of New Zealand's remote and uninhabited pieces of garbage were found at a depth of 2,500 metres sub-Antarctic territories (Campbell Island and the Auckland between and Corsica. Consequently, large quanti­ Islands) are becoming polluted with litter that has floated ties of the entire input of marine litter around the world from the mainland or been lost or thrown from boats. About could be sinking to the bottom and be found on the sea­ 3,500 plastic resin pellets per km2 have been reported float­ bed, both in shallow coastal areas and in much deeper parts ing on the surface in the Sargasso Sea. of seas and oceans. The marine litter transportation mechanisms can also be illustrated by the situation in and . Surveys Marine litter is found lying on beaches and shores, from made over a decade indicate that the quantity of identified where it can be transported to the sea by winds or waves.

A source of toxic substances ... from the north to the south ... The use of plastics and other synthetic materials has increased Furthermore, marine litter is found where one least expects dramatically during the past 30 years. This trend is reflected also it, in supposedly pristine environments located far from any in the composition of marine litter, which consists to about 60­ 80% of plastic items on average, and up to 90-95% in some anthropogenic pollution sources. This shows how floating, regions. A very large proportion of the persistent marine litter persistent items, especially plastic and polystyrene ones, can originates from -based sources. Long-lived, non-flexible travel and end up in a place far away from where they once plastic items are particularly harmful to sea birds, turtles, fish, crustaceans, seals, , manatees, sea lions and other animals entered the sea. that either ingest plastic items or get entangled in them. An astonishing amount ofgarbage has been found washed up on the shores of the remote Henderson Island, one of the Japanese researchers have recently established that plastic (resin) Pitcairn Islands in the southern South Pacific. Almost 300 pellets, a very common component in marine litter, can be a source of toxic substances as they adsorb such substances from miles from the nearest inhabited island and over 3,000 miles the . PCBs, DDE and nonylphenols (NP) have been from the nea rest continent, Ducie Atoll is one of the most detected in pellets collected from four Japanese . Pellets remote islands. Nevertheless, when visiting it in 1991, an constitute about 70% of the plastic eaten by . Eagles American scientist found over 950 pieces of litter within a and other predators high in the food web have been found with large concentrations of pellets in their stomachs after preying I.S -mile stretch of beach. His findings included buoys, crates, on smaller birds, and in that way toxic substances may bio­ plastic and glass bottles from 15 countries, jars, broken plas­ accumulate. tic pieces, pieces of plastic pipe, pi eces of rope, shoes, fluo- marine litter of Canadian and America n origin found on (dunnage, wire straps, covering m aterial, cargo residues). Scottish beaches has increased by 30 per cent. Prevailing cur­ Non-oily solid engine-room waste. Packaging material rents from the North Sea bring large amounts of litter from (plastic sheets, boxes). Containers for oil or detergents. the entire North Sea area to the wes t coast of Sweden. Al­ Discarded medical and sa nitary equipment. Waste is though only representing two per cent of the total coastal dumped on purpose, due to inadequate storage fa cilities zone of the North Sea region, the Skagerrak area receives or negligence, or lack of reception fa cilities in of call. about one tenth of the litter in the North Sea. Sometimes it is lost accidentally through careless handling Countries that have reported marine litter problems in­ or bad wea ther. clude Australia, Argentina, Barbados, Belize, Benin, Bermu­ da, , Chile, Colombia, Cyprus, , Dominica, Fishingvessels: Fishing nets. Fishing lines . Fish boxes. Crab , Ecuador, , France, , Gre­ and lobster pots, oyster nets, and lobster tags. Strings fo r nada, , , , Ireland, Italy, , Jamaica, packaged bait. Rubber gloves. Household (galley) waste. Japan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, , , , Neth­ Containers for oil or detergents, and sewage. Waste is erlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Panama, Papua New dumped on purpose, due to inadequate storage facilities Guinea, , Philippines, , Saudi Arabia, Singapore, or negligence, or lack of reception facilities in ports. Some­ , South Africa, Sweden, ,, United King­ times fishing gear and equipment is lost accidentally dom, , and Venezuela. through snagging, careless handling or bad weather.

Naval vessels and research vessels: Much the same kind ... and from all kinds of places of garbage as from other vessels, but in the of military vVaste that becomes marine litter can enter the marine and vessels also dumping of military items may occur. coastal environment in many different ways, from sources at sea or on land. Pleasure craft: Household waste. Sewage. Containers for Land-based sources dominate in the vicinity of urban oil or detergents. Recreational fi shing gear (a ngling line and areas, whereas ship-generated litter is a major source of litter weights). Such waste is usually dumped due to negligence, on remote shores. ignorance or lack of reception facilities in marinas.

Main sea- or ocean-based sources Offshore oil or gas platforms: Drill pipes and drill pipe protectors. Hard hats. Cotton gloves. Storage drums. Con­ Merchant shipping, ferries and cruise liners: Household tainers for oil or detergents. Household waste. Discarded (galley) waste. Sewage. Cargo. Wa ste from cargo holds medical and sanitary equipment. Waste is usually dumped from platforms on purpose. Sometimes equipment is lost heavy rainstorms can also cause overflow in the treatment accidentally through careless handling or bad weather. plant. Storm water carries with it literally all the solid items and liquids thrown on streets and other hard surfaces in Fish farming: Net cages, construction material and feed municipalities that ca n be flushed away. bags. Industrial faciHties: Solid waste from , and un­ treated . The enormous amounts of plastic res­ Main land-based sources in pellets found in the sea today originate from industrial facilities and from ships carrying this industrial feedstock • Municipal landfills located on the coast: Solid household across seas. Other kinds of include pro­ waste and other items from open waste dumps (landfills) duction scrap and packaging material. on the coast. The waste can either blow to the sea or reach the sea when dumps are flooded. These landfills could be : People leave more than their footprints behind legal but poorly managed, or illegal. when they have been on the beach. They do not mind car­ rying or transporting plastic bags, various kinds of food · Transport of waste by rivers from landfills or other packaging, beverage cans and cartons, toys and sources along rivers and other inland waterways: Solid to the beach, but seem to find it too difficult to dispose of household waste and other items from open waste dumps the remains in litter bins or back home. (landfills) along rivers. Waste can either be flushed into the also blows onto beaches from bins and are dropped by peo­ when the water level rises or when there are heavy ple outside beach front food kiosks. . Waste can also blO\oI' from the dump into the river. Dumps could be legal but poorly managed, or illegal.

· of untreated municipal sewage and storm 'Too much' - how much is that? water: Advanced primary, secondary and tertiary munici­ Several attempts have been made to estimate the total pal , including treatment of storm water, amounts of waste reaching the marine environment every is still the exception rather than the rule in a majority of year, most of which ends up becoming marine litter. and municipalities around the world. Consequently, The U.S. Academy of Sciences has estimated the total in­ untrea ted or insufficiently treated sewage and storm water put of marine litter into the oceans worldwide at approxi­ is discharged into rivers and directly into the sea. In the mately 6.4 million tonnes per year, nearly 5.6 million tonnes case of combined sewage and storm water pipe systems, of which presumed to come from merchant shipping. As much as eight million items of marine litter have been esti­ in the number of pellets present in the North Atlantic Ocean. mated to enter oceans and seas every day, about five million In 1998, Japanese scientists at the National Institute of Health ofwhich (solid waste) is thrown overboard or lost from ships. Science reported densities as high as 1,000-1 ,500 of plastic Over 46,000 pieces of mainly plastic litter are now believed pellets per m 2 on Japanese beaches. to be floating on every square mile of ocean. In a 1998 sur­ vey, 89 per cent of the litter observed floating in the North Pacific Ocean was plastic. More than 1,000 pieces of litter per km of beach have been found in British Columbia, 77 A slow. vicious killer per cent of which was plastic or styrofoam. According to sur­ Entanglement and are the two primary kinds of veys, another 100,000-500,000 pieces oflitter have been found direct damage to wildlife caused by marine litter. Other threats floating in the coastal waters of British Columbia. to wildlife and include destruction or smother­ In the Beachwatch 1998 Cleanup along the beaches of ing of the seabed, accumulation of toxic substances, physical the , 322,751 pieces of garbage, weighing disturbances from mechanical , and the trans­ about 25 tonnes, were collected from 167 km of coastline. portation of invasive species. During the 2000 International Coastal Cleanup, about 7,000 tonnes of litter were removed from 30,000 km of beaches in Entanglement 73 countries in all parts of the world. Entanglement and entrapment means that an animal be­ According to OSPAR figures (see p. 14), the annual input comes encircled or ensnared by litter, or that it manages to of marine litter into the North Sea is estimated at some 70,000 swim or crawl into an object (bottle, can, trap) but cannot 3 3 m • During the 1990's, some 64,000 m of marine litter was get out of it. This may happen accidentally or because the gathered on some 200 km of rocky beach on the Swedish animal is attracted to litter items as part of its natural behav­ west coast. The average annual amount oflitter removed from iour - curiosity or search for food or shelter. Animals can get those beaches is 6,000-8,000 m3, much of which consists of trapped by both smaller and larger litter items. Items snag labelled bottles, boxes, cans, bags, etc., which clearly reveal on the seabed and act as traps or entwine around animals .. their origin from other parts of the North Sea area. and restrict the possibility of them growing. Litter items may Concentrations of plastic resin pellets ranging from 1,300 also become embedded in the animal's flesh as tissues grow to 3,600 pellets per km2 have been reported from the Cape around the item. Basin region of the South Atlantic. Near industrial centres in An animal may try to use a piece of marine litter for shel­ New Zealand, concentrations of up to 100,000 pellets have ter or as nesting material. Fish and crustaceans enter various been observed in one m 2 of beach. In 1990, American scien­ lost traps (in New alone, nearly 500,000 lobster pots tists reported a 200-400 per cent increase from 1972 to 1987 are lost every year) searching for food or shelter and never fi nd their way out again. Birds collect plastic items to build been washed as hore, and in many pl aces farmers can no t let their nests and as a res ult their young ca n become entangled. their animals graze on shore meadows. An animal may also mistake items or accumula tions o f Ingestion ca n to starva ti o n or malnutrition if the litter as a source of food if pl an ts and other animals are al­ ingested ite ms block the ani mal's intestinal tract and prevent ready trapped in that litter. Most seabirds feed on fish, and d igestion. The swa ll owed litter items ca n also accumulate in consequently they will be attracted to fi sh that is caught or the d igestive tract and make the animal feel 'full '. It will then enta ngled in nets and fis hing lines. Discarded fi shing nets stop looking for real fo od, and that may lead to starvatio n . will continue to trap marine mam mals, turtles and seabirds When an animal ingests sharp objects, such as metal and and to catch fi sh as they continue to drift in the sea o r along broken glass, it ca n damage the diges tive tract or stomach the bottom, often for very long time periods. Such ghost net lining and cause infection and/or pain . Ingested items may fi shing is a cruel and se ri ous problem in many sea areas also block the animal's air passage, which makes it imposs­ around the world. ibl e for the animal to breathe and eve ntua ll y ca uses its When an entangled animal tries to free itsel f wounds can by suffocation. be inflicted by the net, rope, six-pack rin g or whatever it has been trapped in . Even if it m anages to survive, these wounds Destruction or smothering of the seabed may be infec ted o r lead to the loss of limbs, causin g further Litter in the marine environment may also destroy coastal pai n and suffe ring to the an imal. In most cases, however, the habitats and interfere with biological production. Lost or dis ­ animal is killed through strangulation or suffoca tio n. Entan­ ca rded fishing gear and nets may drag along the sea fl oor, glement ca n also impair an animal's ability to swim. That e.g., through co ral reefs, seriously disfu prin g the animals and may subsequently ca use it to drown or have difficulty in plants that live there. On shallow bottoms, plastic sheets ca n moving, finding food and escaping predators. prevent sunligh t from reaching plants, inhibiting their abili­ ty to produce through photosynthesis. Such a plastic Ingestion cover may also limit the exc hange of oxyge n be tween water ... ingestion occurs when animals swallow litter items. Gener­ and at greater depths, thereby hampering the li fe all y, animals swallow m arine litter items beca use they resem­ of bottom-living creatures. Litter buried in sediments can bl e prey that is a normal part of the animal's diet. Typical harm organisms dwelling there examples of such food mix-ups are when turtles eat plastic bags, mistaking them for jellyfish, and when birds feed on or Accumulation of toxic substances feed their yo ung with plas tic pell ets, mistaking them for fi sh Plas tic pell ets ca n be a source of pollutan ts in tha t they ad­ eggs, small crabs, or other planktonic orga nisms. Cattle are sorb toxic substances. Birds of prey and other animals high known to eat litter - pl as ti c, glass or metal objects - that have in the food web have been fo und with large conce ntrations of plastic pellets in their stomachs after preying on smaller Damage to fishing vessels and gear birds that previously ingested the material in fish. Further­ Fishing vessels are both a source of marine litter and victims more, litter items can leach toxic substances to sediments and of the same problem. If fishing gear (nets, lines, etc.) is lost water, where it can be absorbed by small algae and animals there are costs associated with the replacement of that gear. and cause bioaccumulation in other animals feed in g on them. Marine litter ca n also ca use costly or irreparable damage to boats. Fi shing nets and ropes can wrap around propellers, Transportation of invasive species anchors, or drive shafts. Plastic sheeting and plastic bags can Floating litter items have also been found to carry a variety clog cooli ng water intakes. Problems with propeller foulings, of attached organisms, such as small crustaceans and other blocked intake pipes and damaged drive shafts have been re­ animals, algae, and fungi, to sea areas that these or­ ported in the North Sea,Alaska, and the eastern coast of North ganisms would normally not reach. Pieces of plastic litter with America. According to studies from the Bering Sea and the organisms attached to them have been found at sites from Gulf ofAlaska, 40-60 per cent ofbottom trawls collected plas­ the sub-Antarctic to the Equator. tic and metal litter. In the Shetland Islands, 92 per cen t of the fishermen have Disturbances from mechanical beach cleaning reported recurring problems with accumulated litter in nets. Mechanical cleaning of littered beaches - raki ng and the use The catch, net and other equipment could be contaminated of heavy - may cause disturbances and stress to by oil containers, paint tins, and oil filters, which may cost animals living in the coastal zone. Such beach cleaning activ­ up to £2,000 in lost revenue each time. It is estimated that ities can disturb turtles nesting and also make the too each boat could lose between £6,000 and £30,000 per year compact for turtles tobe able to bury their eggs. Mechanical due to the negative effects of marine litter. In a survey in the clea ning can also make beaches erode more easily through U.S. (Oregon), 58 per cent of the fIshermen indicated vessel removal of natural, accreting material such as seaweed. More­ problems due to plastic litter, at an average expense of $2,725 over, if some of the animals in the beach food web are re­ per ve ssel. The cost of marine litter to the fishing communi­ moved, it can disrupt that web. ty on the Swedish Skagerrak coast has been estimated to be over £620,000 ea ch year. Ba sed on statistics of damage insurance for fi shing ves­ Costly, dangerous trash sels in Japan, plastic litter at sea is the leading cause of engine Marine litter also ca uses serious damage to people, property damage. Insurance companies estimate that a total of $50 and livelihood and has significant economic repercussions million has been awarded for repairs from damage incurred on coastal and fishing communities. by marine litter. Animals particularly at risk

Of 115 species of marine mammals, 49 species are known to become caught or entangled in discarded nets or fi shing lines. Many birds, entangled in and/or ingest marine litter. Seals and sea lions are including ducks, geese, cormorants and gulls, are also entangled in curious by and have a tendency to investigate new things, six-pack rings and other encircling pieces of marine litter. Of the sometimes with fatal results. Whales, and porpoises have world's 312 species of seabirds, 111 species are known to ingest been found entangled in fishing nets and line. Manatees have plastics. Between 700,000 and one million seabirds are killed from become entangled in crab-pot lines. Elephant seals, sea lions, entanglement or ingestion each yea r. manatees, pygmy whales, sperm whales, and round-toothed dolphins have all been found dead from suffocation or starvation Fish and crustaceans (lobsters, crabs) are frequently caught in lost after having ingested marine litter like plastic bags and plastic or discarded fishing gear. Corals are damaged when discarded fishing sheeting. Sea turtles also become entangled in fishing line, rope gear and nets drag along the ocea n floor or through the reefs. When and nets, but ingestion is an even larger problem. They eat plastic the reefs are destroyed it affects other animals that are dependent ba gs because the bags look like jellyfish, their favourite food. The on that environment. bags cause the turtle's digestive tract to become blocked, leading to starvation. About 100,000 marine mammals, including some 30,000 Many of the species most vulnerable to the risks posed by marine seals, and large numbers of turtles are killed by plastic marine litter litter in their environment are endangered or threatened. This is every year, around the world. true for, e.g., all species of sea turtles; the Hawaiian monk seal; the Northern fur seal; humpback whales and grey whales; manatees; Sea birds are frequent victims of abandoned or lost fishing nets. and seabirds like the brown pelican. Becau se most seabirds feed on fish, they are often attracted to fish

Safety risks at sea Damage to power stations If propellers are fouled with marine litter that impairs their Power stations have reported having to clean their near-shore function, or holes are punctured in the bottom of the boat, cooling water intake screens more often, at considerable cost, fishing boats and pleasure craft can be disabled, thereby en­ due to accumulations of marine litter. dangering . This is especially serious if power is lost in a storm and Contamination of beaches the boat ca nnot return to , or steering is hampered and Floating litter as well as litter stranded on beaches and shore­ the boat cannot avoid collision. In 1998, the British Royal lines reduces the aesthetic values of the coast significantly. National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI) attended over 200 in­ Coastal communities may lose substantial revenues from cidents to vessels with a fouled propeller at a cost of about tourism every year when large amounts of litter make the £900,000. beaches unattractive. Not only do communities lose revenues, they must also clean up the beaches at high costs. Beach clean­ ing operations are necessary in many coastal communities Agreements and measures around the world to maintain the recreational values of Measures to reduce or prevent marine litter are part of a larger beaches and other coastal areas. The total annual beach clean­ issue - in society as a whole - and con­ ing cost as reported by 64 local authorities in the North Sea cerns each and every person. People who are waste-wise in region (56 of which are in the U.K.) has been estimated at general, and who realize that was te is a common problem £2.9 million. AnnuaJ beach cleaning operations along the and not one that 'someone else' is to take care of, will have Swedish west coast al one cost about $1 million. the same responsible attitude towards the handling of waste that could end up as m arine litter. Contamination of harbours and marinas Good waste management must begin with preventing Floating litter in commercial harbours and marinas must be waste being generated in the first place. Pollution should be removed in order to avoid damage to boats. It is also an issue prevented at source. ''''aste that is never produced does not of . have to be disposed of and cannot become marine litter. Thus, every effort should be made to prevent the generation of Damage to people's health waste. The second step is to collect wa ste that has been gen­ J\/Iarine litter can endanger people's health. Broken glass and erated and make sure that it is being taken ca re of properly, pieces of rusty metal may cause injuries when people step on either for and of materials and products or them either on the beach or on the seabed. Contaminated for environmentally safe disposal. Consequently, measures litter, including medical waste (syringes, bandages, etc.) and to reduce or prevent marine li tter have to be taken in a large sewage-related waste, pose a public health hazard through number of places, in connection with a large number of of infectious diseases. Scuba divers may get en­ activities and by many people in many situations. tangled in discarded fishing nets and ropes, and a number of Education, information and training are vital components divers have experienced serious injuryor as a result. in all efforts towards more waste-wise thinking in society as a whole. Education and training is needed for ship owners, Injury to cattle grazing coastal areas ship operators, crews, port authorities, fi shermen, users of In many exposed areas, marine litter is blown from the shore pleasure crafts and the general public, to raise the awareness onto neighbouring farm or grazing land, where cattle may of everyone on the sources and effects of marine litter and eat litter items. In many places farmers can no longer let their ways of reducing the problem at source. Also, regular clea n­ animals graze on shore meadows before these have been up operations do not only serve the purpose of removing cleaned at considerable costs. litter from beaches, but also act as major educational and information campaigns to reach people and make them feel Regional seas working together that they can be part of the solution and not only part of the The Regional Seas Programme of the United Nations Envi­ problem. ronment Programme (UNEP) was initiated in J974 as a global programme. At present, it includes 14 regional sea areas and An important annex on garbage four partner seas with a geographical coverage of more than The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollu­ 140 coastal states and territories. It is an action-oriented pro­ tion from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) is the main international gramme and focuses not only on the mitigation and elimi­ convention aimed at controlling pollution from the shipping nation of the consequences but also on the root ca uses of sector. It covers all the technical aspects of pollution from environmental degradation. The focu s of work is on sustain­ ships, except the disposal of waste into the sea by dumping, able development of the coastal and marine environment and applies to ships of all types. It regulates what kind and through integrated management. quantities of polluting substances that ships may discharge An important accomplishment of the Regional Seas Pro­ into the sea. Plastics may not be disposed of at sea. gramme is the creation of regional mechanisms (conventions Annexes to the Convention cover regulations for specific and action programmes) for co-operation between govern­ kinds of pollution, and one of them (Annex V) deals with ments and commitments to shared goals. Management of garbage. By March 2001, this agreement had been ratified by solid waste and sewage are priority issues in a number of these 100 states, corresponding to 86 per cent ofthe world tonnage. regional action programmes aimed at controlling land-based According to this agreement, all ships of 400 gross tons and sources of pollution. above, or ships certified to carry more than 15 persons, should The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of develop and follow a written garbage management plan. In the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (UNEP the North Sea, the Baltic Sea and theWider Caribbean regions, GPA ) was adopted in 1995. UNEP was designated as the GPA which have been designated as so-called Special Areas with co-ordinating office and tasked to promote and facilitate the regard to this agreement, discharges of all kinds of garbage implementation of the programme at the national level, as (except food waste) into the sea are altogether prohibited. well as to promote and facilitate the implementation at the All Contracting Parties to the MARPOL Convention regional, including sub-regional level, in particular, by sup­ should ratify Annex Von garbage. Regional and national au­ porting the Regional Seas Programme. Marine litter is one of thorities need to make sure that the requirements set out in the priority source categories within the GPA. In that agreement are met by all ships and ports under their regional reviews of priority issues, solid waste management jurisdiction. Waste management routines onboard and re­ and marine litter have been given high priority in: ception facilities ashore are called for. - the Mediterranean (particularly solid urban waste); - the Caribbean (persistent synthetic and other materials Dumping not allowed including garbage that float, flow or remain in suspension, The Convention for the Prevention of by or settle to the bottom and affect and hamper Dumping ofWastes and Other Matter - the Dump­ the uses of the sea); ing Convention - was signed in 1972. - West and Central Africa; and It is a global agreement aimed at controlling dumping of - Eastern Africa (reduced litter impact on the environment). at sea, but is only applicable to wastes that are loaded onto the ship from land-based so urces for the deliberate pur­ What to do onboard ships, boats and platforms ... pose of dumping them at sea. \A,ra stes and other matters that Efforts should, first of all, be made to reduce the generation must not be dumped are specifically listed in an Annex to of waste onboard merchant ships and oil and gas platforms. the Convention. Under the Convention, plastic materials and Waste management plans are needed for larger vessels and other materials which may cause problems of entanglement platforms, and preparations for proper waste management and ingestion by marine organisms constitute an environ­ should be made in advance also by those who are onboard mental hazard. Dumping ofsuch materials is, therefore, pro­ small vessels and pleasure craft. Waste should be stored on­ hibited. board and discharged ashore to a proper reception facility. ... onboard fishing vessels ... erably, always take home one's own trash and make sure that Efforts should be made to reduce the generation of waste it is properly sorted and disposed of for maximum recycling. onboard, and preparations should be made for storage of Anyone capable of carrying full containers and bottles to the waste onboard until one comes ashore. Fishing gear, partic­ beach can also carry them home empty. ularly drift nets, should be marked to make it possible to find them again if they are lost at sea. No fishing gear should be deliberately discarded, rather it should be taken ashore for proper disposal. Marine IiHer in the NE Atlantic Litter in the marine and coastal environments has been an ... with municipal landfills and sewage ... issue of concern in the NortheastAtlantic region, and partic­ Generally, efforts need to be promoted to enhance land-based ularly in the North Sea, for more than a decade. People in waste management, including the proper management by most of the countries in the region have become increasingly municipalities and industries of inland and coastal landfills concerned about having their beaches and near-shore waters and . Coastal communities/municipal­ polluted by litter and by the effects on wildlife. As a result, the ities and those along rivers should make sure that open land­ effects of litter on the quality of the coastal and marine envi­ fills for household waste and/or industrial waste are elimi­ ronment, and the hazards posed to human health by some nated, as part of their overall waste management strategy. types of litter, have been well documented throughout the Sewage treatment, in adequately equipped facilities, should region . be a priority for all municipalities. Efforts should also be made Coastal clean-up operations have been conducted for to trea t sewage from individual house holds. many years in most of the countries ofthe region. Loca l com­ munities or non-governmental organiza tions have to carry ... in households .. . most of the often high costs of these operations. In many Sanitary waste should never be flushed down the but cases, governments refer to coastal cleaning as a municipal IE treated as any other kind of household waste. Household responsibility, although the problem cannot to any larger waste should be sorted and taken proper care of. Wise waste extent be prevented by the municipalities concerned. management begins at home. The objective of NGOs like Coastwatch , UK Society, and Stichting De oord zee, is ... and when visiting a beach or a camping site to raise awareness of the coastal zone as a valuable co mmon, All beaches and camping grounds should be sufficiently shared and vulnerable . Theyalso work to gather base­ equipped "vith waste bins to cater for the needs of visitors line data on European coasts, for the use by local communi­ using these loca tions. However, as a vi si tor one should, pref­ ties, authorities, governments, and research organizations. Annual marine litter surveys on beaches, following a com­ mon method, are an important part of their work. OSPAR Convention and Commission

The 1992 Convention on the Protection of the Marine Envi­ Early political recognition ronment of the Northeast Atlantic - th e OSPAR Conventi on ­ The marine litter problem in the Northeast Atlantic region entered into force in 1998. It replaced the 1972 Oslo Convention was politically recognized in the late 1980's. At their Second (pollution by dumping) and the 1974 Paris Convention (po llution from land-based sources) for the same sea are a. International North Sea Conference, held in 1987, the Envi­ ronmental Ministers decided to initiate action within the UN The OSPAR Commission is the executive body of the 1992 OSPAR International Martitime Organization OMO) for designat­ Convention. At a Ministerial Meeting in 1998, the Sintra Statement ing the North Sea as a Special Area within the MARPOL Con­ was adopted setting out the political impetus for future action by the Com mission. It in cludes a section related to environmental ventio n, for the purpose of the Annex on garbage. impacts of shipping. Countries are to co-operate, especially in These concerns were further manifested at the North Sea the work of the IMO, to tackle threats to the marine environment Conference held in 1995, when the ministers agreed on actions from shipping. This is to be accomplished through the promotion of better waste re ception facilities and their more effective use, including harmonized arrangements to remove economic, administrative or organizational incentives for ships not to use port waste reception facilities and through measures to eliminate marine litter.

to prevent or reduce the disposal of garbage, in particular plastics, to the North Sea. Action is to be taken to improve surveillance and control of waste from ships in ord er to pre­ vent ; request IMO to develop and implement techniques for on board.; request Port Authorities to develop waste management plans in every harbour; make efforts to raise public awa reness of the problems through information on existing regulations and environmental effects; and develop regulations making it mandatory for ships to deliver all garbage to a port reception facility before leaving port.

The OSPAR Conven­ tion Maritime Area. Contracting Parties are Belgium, Denmark, the , Finland, France, German y, Iceland, .,.. " Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Prevailing currents in the eastern part of the Northeast Atlantic. Norway, Portugal, Marine litter may travel over long distances, across oceans and seas, Spain, Sweden, for instance from the U.S. and Canada to Europe, or within the North Switzerland, and the Sea to its easternmost part, the Skagerrak coast of Sweden. United Kingdom. This notwithstanding, marine litter remains a major prob­ by the appropriatt: international, national and local authori­ lem in the coastal and marine environment in the Northeast ties are identified in the Quality Status Report: Atlantic region. As pointed out in the OSPAR Quality Status Re port 2000 : Adequate enforcement of the requirements of MARPOL Annex V. These include the responsibi li ty of Governmen ts Sources of marine litter (up to 95 per cent consisting of ofcountries aro und a Special Area to ensure that adequeate non-degrad able plastics) are mainly related to waste gener­ rece ption fa cili ties are provided at ports and terminals for ated by shipping (fishing and commercial) and tourist and the reception of garbage; recreational activities; Rapid adoption, implementation and adequate enforce­ Floating litter and sunken pieces have been found in large ment by EU member states of the European Parliament quantities in all regions of the OSPAR maritime area; and Council Directive on Port Reception Facilities for Ship­ Impacts on marine life include the drowning of birds en­ generated Waste and Cargo Residues; tangled in plastic sheeting, the death of birds, turtles and Consideration of the designation of a larger part of the cetaceans caused by ingested plastic objects; OSPAR maritime area as a MARPOL Special Area; Litter has also been found to carry a variety of epiphytic Campaigns to ed ucate the public and those involved in tour­ organisms to sea areas that these organisms would not nor­ ism, fishing and shipping industries on the issue of marine mally reach; Iitter; Economically, the recreational and commercial fishing Relocation and/or improved management of coastal land­ sectors are likely to be the most affected by litter; fill sites from which ga rbage may escape to the sea . As tourism, urban development and industrial pressure for development in the coastal zone increases, the problem of Pilot project to monitor beach litter litter may also increase. Policy and management decisions concerning litter must be based on solid information about quantities, trends and sourc­ 1m All discharges ofplastics to the sea from ships are prohibited, es. Such information may best be generated through regular but there seems to have been no subsequent improvement in region-wide monitoring programmes. In 1999, an OSPAR the situation with regard to litter. Within the OSPAR Strategy Pilot Project on Monitoring Marine Beach Litter was endorsed. on Marine and Ecosystems, attention is given to It could be viewed as a response to the need for more precise the ecological impacts of litter. knowledge on marine litter. As stated in the Quality Status A number of regional agreements deal with and several Report, 'improved and more standardised methodologies,in­ organizations are working on marine litter or litter-related cluding the establishment of reference areas, will be needed issues in the Northeast Atlantic region. Priorities for action to properly assess the scale and impact oflitter both on coasts and offshore. These, in turn, will provide a basis for assessing EU policies on waste trends in the quantities and significance of litter throughout the OSPAR area'. The objectives ofthe project are to: The EU Directive on Port Reception Facilities for Ship-generated identify a representative selection of reference beaches Waste and Cargo Residues was adopted in 2000. Its purpose is throughout the OSPAR area; to 'reduce the discharges of ship-generated waste and cargo residues into the sea, especially illegal discharges, from ships develop and test a harmonized survey protocol; using ports in the Community, by improving the availability and ensure adequate quality assurance ofthe methods used and use of port reception facilities for ship-generated waste and cargo the data generated; residues, thereby enhancing the protection of the marine produce a first assessment report on trends in quantities of environment: The Directive is part of the EU policy on safe and clean sea s. It is aimed at ensuring a major reduction in "Tlarine different types of litter and sources of litter in the OSPA R pollution by the provision of adequate waste reception fa ci lities maritime area; in all EU ports, including recreational ports and marinas. In gradually expand the network of reference beaches to those addition, all ships, fishing vessels and recreational crah visiting Contracting Parties which are not participating in the pilot these ports are to make use of the facilities provided. All ports an d marinas are to provide adequate reception project; facilities for ship-generated waste and cargo residues; suggest how litter monitoring could continue as part ofthe A wa ste management plan is to be developed for each port regular monitoring of the state of the environment of the which is monitored and approved by Member states; OSPAR maritime area (following the conclusion ofthe pilot Fee systems adopted by ports are to encourage vessels to use the facilities rather than to discharge their wastes at sea; project and on the basis of the experience gained). Ships are to notify their intention to use facilities and quantities of waste on board before arriving in port; The project is co-ordinated by Sweden, through the Swedish Members States are to monitor compliance with the Directive Environmental Protection Agency, as part of Sweden's res­ and apply sa nctions; ponsibility as Lead Country within OSPAR fo r marine litter Authorities are to forward information on non-compliance Ell to other EU ports which such ships may intend to visit. issues. The agreed methodology is based on the identification of Th e aim of the 1999 EU Dire ctive on landfills is, by way of stringent reference beaches and upon executing surveys, preferably four operational and technical requirements on the waste and landfills, times a year, on these beaches. So far, just over 30 reference to provide for measures, procedures and guidance to prevent or reduce as far as possible negative effects on the environment. beaches are included in Belgium, Denmark (including the Faeroe Islands), the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.