Chapter 4 – Some Doctrinal concepts according to the Sutta-piṭaka

In this chapter I will discuss some doctrinal concepts which we came across during the course of description of the Goenka-tradition in the previous chapter. For this purpose, I will mainly focus on the four Nikāyās, namely, the Dīgha-Nikāya, the Majjhima-Nikāya, the Saṃyutta- Nikāya and the Aṅguttara-Nikāya, and the necessary commentarial explanations.

Following are the concepts discussed in this chapter:

‘Pariyatti, Paṭipatti, Paṭivedha; the Four Noble Truths with the three characteristics; Nibbāna and Saññāvedayitanirodha; the Noble Eight-fold Path in the format of three divisions of Sīla, Samādhi, Paññā; Dhamma and Paṭiccasamuppāda; vedanā, kamma, saṅkhāra; Sati- sampajañña and Satipaṭṭhāna; ānāpānassati; Indriya and bala, bojjhaṅga; four divine states, etc.’ These discussions are presented in eleven sections. It will help us to understand the stand point of the Goenka-tradition on the background of the canonical discourses. It will also give us a perspective to look at the Goenka-tradition and will provide us a standard to assess the claims of authenticity and purity of this tradition.

4.1. – Pariyatti, Paṭipatti and Paṭivedha

In the Goenka-tradition theoretical part (pariyatti) is covered in the discourses during the course. The explanation and coverage of the concepts varies according to the type of a course. The basic nature of practice remains common to all the courses.

Pariyatti, Paṭipatti and Paṭivedha are three main concepts of the teachings of the Buddha. Here, first I will explain the meaning of these concepts, then their importance and role in the teaching will be explained briefly.

a) What is Pariyatti?

Pariyatti is the theoretical aspect of the Dhamma. It is understanding the Dhamma at the intellectual level or learning the doctrine. The word Pariyatti is ‘pari + āp = pariyāpuṇāti,’ meaning adequacy, accomplishment, sufficiency, capability, competency. (Rhys Davids T.W., Stede Willeam. 1997). It is ‘Learning the Doctrine,’ the ‘wording of the Doctrine.’ (Nyanatiloka. 1987: p.127). The term Pariyatti in the above-mentioned sense is found mainly in the Khuddakanikāya (Nidd I.234, Nidd II.199, in-connection with the Navaṅgasatthusāsana; Mil.115 etc), and the

125 commentaries. The Sumangalvilāsinī mentions three kinds of pariyatti, namely Alagaddupamā – the one which is like a snake, Nissaraṇatthā – the one which is for the sake of release, and Bhandāgārika – the one which is for the sake of preservation (of the lineage). - (Sv.1: 21).

Three kinds of Pariyatti

An inherent danger in the mere theoretical knowledge of the teachings of the Buddha is indicated by classifying the teachings in to three groups: Alagadda, Nittharaṇa and Bhaṇdāgārika-pariyatti. The commentaries classify pariyatti into three kinds according to it’s various uses and caution the users regarding what their intention should be behind learning the dhamma. The Papañcasudani on the Alagaddupamasutta explains Alagaddapariyatti as the learning, which is intended for material gain and honour etc. Nittharaṇapariyatti is the learning intended for the attainment of the nibbāna. Bhaṇdāgārika-pariyatti is the learning of one whose intoxicants are extinguished (Khiṇāsava), and who learns the dhamma with the sole intention of preserving the lineage. It further explains that the learning of an ordinary world-ling falls under the category of either the first or second, the learning of the seven learners (sekkha) falls under the second category and the learning of Khiṇāsava falls under the third category. Learning, only for the material gain and honour, without understanding its meaning and purpose is very dangerous like wrongly catching a big poisonous snake. – (Ps. II: p.107).

Role of Pariyatti

On many occasions the Tathāgata praised a person having theoretical knowledge of the doctrine, Pariyatti-dhamma.57 The term sutavā, a well taught, is used specifically to refer to a person having theoretical knowledge regarding the doctrine. The term asutavā is used for an untaught ordinary person. With respect to these terms asutavā and sutavā we find two peculiar phrases in the early Buddhist literature: i) ‘Here, bhikkhus, an untaught ordinary person, who has no regard for noble ones and is unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma, who has no regard for true men and is unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma.’ ii) ‘Bhikkhus, a well- taught noble disciple, who has regard for noble ones and is skilled and disciplined in their Dhamma, who has regard for true men and is skilled and disciplined in their Dhamma.’ – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: 91-93).

If we analyse these two phrases it is observed that, in the beginning there is an untaught ordinary person, common world-ling, in the first case and a well-taught noble disciple in the

57Refer the following suttas: M.I: p.7; M.I: p.1; M.I: pp.434-435; M.III: pp17-18; M.III: p.189; M.III: p.191; M.III: p.227; M.I: p.136; M.I: p.310; M.I: p.300; S.III: p.3; S.III: pp3-150.

126 second case. Further, there are three adjectives or qualities of each person in both the cases. With this perspective it is useful to see the commentarial explanation. According to the Papañcasudani, an untaught ordinary person, is unaware of the Pariyatti and Paṭipatti; whereas a well-taught noble disciple is aware of Pariyatti and Paṭipatti. Similarly, the first adjective ‘no regard’ or ‘regard’ (ariyānaṃ/sappurisānaṃ adassāvī or dassāvī) is related to faith faculty, curiousity; the second adjective ‘unskilled’ or ‘skilled’ (akovido or kovido) is related to the skill or knowledge of the noble states, like the four foundations of mindfulness and so on i.e. paṭipatti; and the third ‘undisciplined’ or ‘disciplined’ (avinīto or suvinīto) is related to the penetration (paṭivedha), direct experience. In this way these three qualities can be related to the Pariyatti, paṭipatti, and paṭivedha. – (Ps. I: pp.21-25).

Pariyatti is the essential pre-condition

Hence, ‘an untaught ordinary person’ is out of the reach of theory, practice and penetration part of the Doctrine, whereas there is possibility of having these three qualities in a ‘well-taught noble disciple’. This indicates the importance of heard knowledge of the dhamma, which is essential for the faith and guidance of the righteous and noble ones, the knowledge and training in the dhamma.

Equal importance is given to the pariyatti, patipaṭṭi and paṭivedha aspects of the dhamma. These three are the constituent parts of the stream-entry too.

Saddhamma and understanding of Pariyatti

The importance of listening to the teachings and listening with understanding and practising it, is emphasized in the Aṅguttaranikāya. A confusion between the understanding of the meaning which is to be inferred (neyyattha) and the meaning which is explict or natural (nītattha), of the teachings of the Buddha leads to misrepresentation of the Tathāgata. It is very clear from the Dukanipāta: ‘One who explains a discourse the meaning of which requires interpretation (neyyattha) as a discourse whose meaning is explicit (nītattha), and one who explains a discourse of which meaning is explicit as a discourse whose meaning requires interpretation. These two misrepresent the Tathāgata. Whereas following two do not misrepresent the Tathāgata. One who explains a discourse the meaning of which requires interpretation as a discourse of which meaning requires interpretation, and one who explains a discourse meaning of which is explicit as a discourse of which meaning is explicit.’ To avoid such things well-set down words and phrases and well-interpreted meaning are essential which can lead to long lasting of the saddhamma. - (A.I: p.36; A.I: pp.59,60; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012:151.). Those who

127 learn the discourses well, with proper syllables, words in accordance with the meaning and essence, ‘who conform to the meaning and the dhamma with well-acquired discourses whose phrasing is not (mere) semblance are acting for the welfare of many people, for the happiness of many people, for the good, welfare, and happiness of many people, of devas and human beings. These monks generate much merit and sustain the saddhamma’ – (A.I: p.69; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012:160).

The Mogok Sayadaw tradition which is said to be the tradition of Ledi Sayadaw, comparatively gives more importance to the Pariyattidhammā than the Goenka-tradition.

b) Paṭipatti

What is Paṭipatti? Paṭipatti is actual practice or practising the doctrine. Samatha and Vipassanā are two parts of Paṭipatti.

Samatha is meditation that calms the mind and makes it one pointed. It is for the cultivation of tranquillity. Vipassanā is to see things as they really are. It is a practice designed to experience the three characteristics of the nature. It makes one aware of oneself and leads to an appreciation of ones’ place in life. Both parts of the Paṭipatti are complementary to each other.

The word Paṭipatti is derived form the verbal root ‘pad’ with a prefix pati meaning ‘way, method, conduct, practice, performance, behaviour.’ (Rhys Davids T.W., Stede William. 1997.). It is ‘Practice’, or ‘Pursuance’ of the teaching, as distinguished from the mere theoretical knowledge of its wording (Pariyatti). (Nyanatiloka. 1987: p.137).

Importance of Paṭipatti

In the Saṃyuttanikāya while explaining the importance of meditation in a verse the Buddha says:

‘Not by mere speech nor solely by listening

Can one advance on this firm path of practice

By which the wise ones, the meditators,

Are released from the bondage of Māra.’

The another vesre states: ‘Do not yield to negligence,

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Don’t be intimate with sensual delight.

For the diligent ones, meditating,

Attain supreme happiness.’ (S.I: pp.24-26. Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.112,114).

The Saṃyuttanikāya explains that the practice in accordance with the doctrine is one of the factors responsible for stream-entry. (Dhammānudhammappaṭipatti sotāpattiyaṅga). The four factors responsible for stream entry are: Association with righteous-men (sappurisasaṃsevo), hearing the true doctrine (sadhammassavanaṃ), careful attention (yonisomanasikāro), and practice in accordance with the doctrine (dhammānudhammappaṭiatti). The Noble Eight-fold Path is the stream (soto). Hence, one who possesses the Noble Eight-fold Path is called a stream-enterer - (S.V: pp.347-349, 405, 411).

The tradition of meditative practice, which is still alive, is indicated in the Ānāpānassatisutta of the Majjhimanikāya by the description of training thus: ‘Some elder monks had been giving advice and admonishing newly-ordained ten monks, some twenty, some thirty and some forty monks. And these trainee monks had achieved excellent successive attainment.’

The importance of hearing or learning, discussion, and practice is very much clear from the following words of the Mahāvedallasutta of the Majjhimanikāya: ‘The right view is helped by five factors of morality, hearing or learning, discussion, serenity, and insight. Such right view has release of the mind for its fruit, release of the mind for its fruit and advantage; it has release by wisdom for its fruit, release by wisdom for its fruit and advantage.’

Paṭipatti and dukkha-nirodhagāminī-paṭipadā

When heard-knowledge is translated into practice, initially at the body and speech level, it becomes conduct or way (Paṭipatti). If one starts walking on the Noble Eight-fold Path initially morality and concentration start developing along with the right view and right thought.

The Mahāsakulādāyisutta of the Majjhimanikāya points out that, one becomes eligible to attain fruition states due to the mode of progress. The Līnatthappakāsanā explains, by way of the mode of progress that is ‘by means of the practice of serenity, insight, and path, one becomes worthy of the fruition states’.58 Discourses of the Paṭipattivagga of the Saṃyuttanikāya explain that, practising rightly or right mode of progress (sammāpaṭipatti) comprises all the factors of

58 Paṭipadāvasenā’ti yathāraham samathavipassanāmagga-paṭipadāvasena. - (Ps-ṭ. II: p.125.).

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Eight-fold Noble Path. It explains that, practicing wrongly (micchāpaṭipatti) is the opposite of sammāpaṭipatti. - (S.V: pp.23-24). In the Aṅguttarnikāya the Yamakavagga mentions these factors of Eight-fold Noble Path as practice of the dhamma and anudhamma i.e. practice in accordance with the doctrine (dhammānudhammapaṭipatti) which is useful for the growth in the meritorious states - (A.V: pp.126-127). In the discourses Goenka explains dhammānudhammapaṭipatti as: to practice the dhammas from gross to subtle level ie to start with sīla which is gross, then gradually one moves towards subtle dhammas as concentration, insight, to the experience of nibbāna. This explanation of Goenka differs from the commentarial explanation of the term dhammānudhammapaṭipatti ie practice in accordance with the doctrine.

The Majjhimanikāya clearly mentions that, final knowledge does not come all at once; but it comes by gradual training, gradual practice, and gradual progress. - (M.I: p.480). The gradual training, gradual practice, and gradual progress are useful to the learners to attain four fine material absorptions. These are conducive to the non-learners to dwell in ease here and now, and to mindfulness and clear comprehension (sati-sampajañña) - (M.III: pp.1-5).

Though the aspects of samādhi and paññā are generally regarded as paṭipatti as mentioned above, the Suttas explicitly mention sīla [part and parcel of the Eight-fold Noble Path], as a part of Paṭipatti. c) Paṭivedha

What is Paṭivedha? Paṭivedha is realizing the doctrine. It is the experience of supreme happiness in this very life, in this very body and the mind. The word Paṭivedha is derived form the verbal root vyadha with prefix pati (paṭivijjhati) meaning piercing, i.e. penetration, comprehension, attainment, insight, knowledge. - (Rhys Davids T.W., Stede William. 1997.). ‘Penetration’, signifies the realization of the Truth of the Dhamma, as distinguished from the mere acquisition of its wording or its practice (pariyatti or paṭipatti), or realization as distinguished from Theory and Practice. - (Nyanatiloka. 1987:140).

When one realizes the knowledge at the experiential level, and it is penetrated in the psyche or mind and matter, then it starts transforming in to the wisdom accomplished by meditation bhāvanāmaya paññā; this process is paṭivedha.

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Various related terms namely the penetration of numerous elements, the penetration of the diversity elements (Anekadhātupaṭivedho, nānādhātupaṭivedho) appear in the Aṅguttaranikāya. - (A.I: p.23). According to the Manorathapūraṇī, the penetration of numerous elements refers to eighteen elements (six sense objects, six sense faculties, and six types of consciousness). The penetration of the diversity elements means penetrating according to the different specific nature (nānāsabhāvato). It is possible only when the Buddha arises. - (Mp. I: pp.120-121; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012:1603).

Penetration of noble truths

The necessity of the practise of samādhi or samatha is for the purpose of penetration. The Saṃyuttanikāya explains how one can penetrate the Four Noble Truths: One wanders and rolls in a saṃsāra (transmigration) due to not understanding, and not penetrating the Four Noble Truths. The Four Noble Truths are most difficult to pierce or comprehend (duppaṭivijjhataraṃ). Though this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning; a first point cannot be discerned of much suffering and pain. And even though this may be so, monks, I do not say that the breakthrough to the Four Noble Truths is accompanied by suffering or displeasure. Rather, the breakthrough to the Four Noble Truths is accompanied only by happiness and joy. Further it is explained that the path-knowledge performs four functions at a single moment59: ‘Bhikkhus, one who sees suffering also sees the origin of suffering, also sees the cessation of suffering, also sees the way leading to the cessation of suffering. One who sees the origin of suffering also sees suffering, also sees the cessation of suffering, also sees the way leading to the cessation of suffering. One who sees the cessation of suffering also sees suffering, also sees origin of suffering, also sees the way leading to the cessation of suffering. One who sees the way leading to the cessation of suffering also sees suffering, also sees the origin of suffering, also sees the cessation of suffering.’ – (S.V: pp.432, 454, 441; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.1860,1963). The Saṅgītisutta of the Dīghanikāya mentions ‘seven grounds for commendation’ (niddasa-vatthūni), one out of those is: ‘A monk is keenly anxious to develop penetrative insight and wants to persist in this’.60 - (Maurice Walshe. 2012: 502). According to the Sumangalavilāsinī, ‘diṭṭhipaṭivedheti maggadassane’ - (Sv.III: p.1039), and Linatthapakāsanā says, At the penetration of the right view ie at the sight of the path. The right

59 Yo, bhikkhave, dukkhaṃ passati, dukkhasamudayaṃpi so passatītiādihi ekapaṭivedhavasena vuttaṃ. - (Spk.III: pp.299-300). Ekappaṭivedhoti ekeneva ñāṇena catunnaṃ ariyasaccānaṃ ekajjhaṃ paṭivedho. - (Spk-ṭ. II.ii: p.245). 60 Diṭṭhipaṭivedhe tibbacchando hoti, āyatiñca diṭṭhipaṭivedhe avigatapemo. - (D.III: p.252).

131 view of the path is accomplished at the time of comprehension of the complete penetration of the truths.61

Seven excellent states and penetration

The Sekhasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains the importance of learning much, practice and penetration: ‘The noble disciple endowed with following seven excellent states namely, he has faith; sense of shame; fear of wrong-doing; much learned, remembers what he has learned, and consolidates what he has learned; energetic; ‘he has mindfulness, he possesses the highest mindfulness and skill, he recalls and recollects what was done long ago and spoken long ago; and he is wise; he possesses wisdom regarding rise and disappearance that is noble and penetrative and leads to the complete destruction of suffering.’ According to the commentary ‘This is the wisdom of insight and of the path, capable of penetrating the rise and fall of the five aggregates. Path wisdom is called “penetrative” (nibbedhikā) because it pierces through and eradicates the mass of greed, hate, and delusion; insight wisdom is called penetrative because it pierces through them temporarily and because it leads to penetration by the path.’ – (Bhikkhu Bodhi. 2009: pp.462-463, 1255). He attains four absorptions of fine material without any difficulty. This is the learner’s path. The Mahāvacchagottasutta of the Majjhimanikāya states: Development of Serenity and insight are conducive to the penetration of many elements – (anekadhātupaṭivedhāya) - (M.I: p.495).

Though, Goenka tradition gives importance to all these three aspects of the dhamma, pariyatti, paṭipatti and paṭivedha, it’s focus remains maily on paṭipatti and paṭivedha aspects.

4.2 - The Four Noble Truths

In this section initially, I have explained the ‘Noble Truths’ in general and then each of the Four Noble Truths are explained in detail. Initially, it is logical to give reasons for such universal truths to be called Noble and then explain how one can become Noble etc. The First Noble Truth is discussed with three basic characteristics of nature. In the Goenka-tradition for practical purpose characteristic of impermanence is of the utmost importance. Hence, I have searched for the references from the early Buddhist literature to find out the validity of this stand point. Then I have shown how the non-self (anattā) characteristic develops

61 Diṭṭhipaṭivedheti sammādiṭṭhiyā paṭivijjhane. Tenāha ‘maggadassane’ti. Saccasampaṭivedhe hi ijjhamāne maggasammādiṭṭi siddhā eva hoti. - (Sv-ṭ. III: 231).

132 consequentialy with the development of the impermanence (anicca). The interrelation of these three characteristics is also shown at the end.

The First Noble Truth of suffering is to be compared with a disease. Hence, to elaborate the nature of suffering it is explained with regard to the three characteristics namely impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (anatta). In the Goenka-tradition much importance is given to the impermanence. Here, this discussion of three characteristics will help to understand mutual relationship of these characteristics. The Second Noble Truth of the origin of suffering is to be compared with the cause of the disease. It is explained with regard to the root cause of suffering, which is craving (taṇhā), conceit (māna), wrong-view (diṭṭhi), and attachment or clinging (upādāna). This discussion will lead us to observe closely the process of abandoning the cause of suffering. The Third Noble Truth of extinction of suffering is to be compared with the cure of the disease. It is presented in the form of cessation (Nibbāna), and the cessation of perception and feeling (saññāvedayitanirodha). It will help us to understand their subtle nature, similarities and differences if any. The Fourth Noble Truth of the path is to be compared with the medicine. It is presented in the three steps of morality (sīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā). Since, it is the back-bone of the practical tradition, these three are discussed in three separate sections for their better understanding.

The Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths are the essence of the Buddha’s teachings as expounded in his first discourse of the Dhammacakkapavattanasutta. He rediscovered these universal truths for the welfare of beings. The Pāli word ariya means noble, distinguished, right, good, ideal and sacca means real, true or truth. There are two layers of Truth: conventional and ultimate. Knowledge of the truth (sacca-ñāṇa), may be of two kinds: Knowledge consisting in understanding (anubodha-ñāṇa), and knowledge consisting in penetration (paṭivedha-ñāṇa), i.e. realization. (Nyanatiloka. 1987: p.153).

The Truth, by means of the penetration of which an ignoble person transforms himself in to a Noble-one is the Noble Truth. There are four such Noble Truths, by knowing each of them (saccañāṇaṃ), by the knowledge of ‘what should be done’ about them (kiccañāṇaṃ), and by the knowledge of accomplishment of it (katañāṇaṃ), the vision, insight, wisdom, knowledge, and light arose in the Buddha.

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The Noble person is said to be one who has attained, at least, first of the four supermundane paths and fruition states. The Noble person is freed from either three, or five or ten fetters. Noble persons are grouped either into the eight individuals, or the seven noble disciples or the group of two namely learner and non-learner.

Discourses of the Saccasaṃyutta (S.V: pp.414-469) of the Saṃyuttanikāya elaborate the four Noble Truths and their universal nature. If we analyse these discourses, the essence of it can be put in to the two groups. i)The discourses explaining why these Four Noble Truths are Noble. And ii) How one can become Noble by means of these Four Noble Truths. Let us discuss these two points here.

Why these Four Noble Truths are Noble? i)Firstly, these Four Noble Truths are: Actual, real they do not give-up their nature; they are not false/untrue, having the nature of unerring or not-futile; they are not-else, not-otherwise. Hence, they are called Noble Truths.62 Secondly, a peculiar thing is that, although the Four Noble Truths are four in numbers, for the practical purpose if any one of the truth is realised then all four truths are realised simultaneously. Thirdly, the fourth Noble Truth or the Middle Path is Noble, because it avoids two extremes, of sense-pleasure and self-mortification, which are ignoble and not-beneficial. The extreme of sense pleasure has five adjectives, though it is pleasurable it is low, vulgar, and belonging to very ordinary ignorant worldling. Other two adjectives are common to both extremes: ignoble and possessed of harm/misfortune. The extreme of self-mortification has three adjectives, out of which two are mentioned above in common, and third is suffering itself. Hence, Majjhimā Paṭipadā paved the path to become Noble and it leads to the cessation of suffering. Irrespective of the cast, creed, and gender, one who walks on this path becomes Noble, happy and achieves the highest goal of liberation. Fourthly, the Tathāgata is Noble amongst the projeny of diety, human beings, recluses and brāhmanās. He himself expounded these Four Noble Truths. Whosoever are the arahants, fully enlightened ones of the past or future or present, they all have gained or will gain the highest wisdom by realizing as they really are the Four Noble Truths.

How one can become Noble?

As mentioned above the Buddha put-forth his own example in front of the monks and explained the process of becoming Noble in the following steps: At the outset, one should accept the First

62 Cattāri ariyasaccāni tathāni avitathāni anaññathāni, tasmā ‘ariyasaccāni’ vuccanti. – (S.V: pp.435-436).

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Noble Truth of suffering as it really is. Secondly, one should understand it accurately and thirdly, one should experience the fact that one has understood it accurately. Similarly, one should accept the Second Noble Truth of arising of suffering, one should abandon it, and one should experience the fact that one has abandoned it accurately. One should accept the Third Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering, one should realize it, and one should experience the fact that one has realized it. One should accept the Fourth Noble Truth of the Path leading to the cessation of suffering, one should develop it, and one should experience the fact that one has developed it. This way one becomes the Noble.

One should not allow three initial application of thoughts to enter in a mind, sense pleasure, hatred, and cruelty or hindrances or any evil unwholesome thoughts, because they do not possess welfare, they are not for the holy-life, and they do not lead to disgust, dispassionateness, cessation, calm, indepth knowledge, understanding clearly, and nibbāna. Infact one should have initial application of thought and thinking about the Four Noble Truths, because these thoughts possess welfare, they are for the holy-life, and lead to disgust, dispassionateness and so on.

The root cause of suffering and transmigration is ignorance and it is the ignorance of the Four Noble Truths. The knowledge of the Four Noble Truths extinguishes suffering.

One has to realize the suffering as if one’s turban or head is burning. Hence, accordingly he has to make efforts to come out of it. Hence the Buddha urges his disciples to ‘arouse extraordinary desire, make an extraordinary effort, develop mindfulness and clear comprehension’ to make the breakthrough to the truths.

One should develop right-view, since it is the fore-runner, fore-sign for the realization/penetration of the Four Noble Truths as they really are. One who sees the Four Noble Truths as they really are, for them observance of the precepts or morality becomes easy or vice versa. All wholesome states can be included in the Four Noble Truths. Let us see each Noble Truth in detail, one by one.

The First Noble Truth and three characteristics – Impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), non-self (anatta)

Suffering, unsatisfactoriness as the inherent nature of all formed things, is the First Noble Truth. Goenka explains in his discourses that when this reality of suffering is seen or

135 experienced in a proper way, right way, the characteristic of suffering becomes the condition to come out of it and the same truth becomes Noble for him. Suffering is due to the ignorance or erroneous observation (vipallāsa) of the permanence, happiness, and self, in regard to all formed things as against impermanence, suffering, and non-self. Hence, to understand the Noble Truth, one should understand well the three basic characteristics of the nature. There is interdependence of the truth of suffering and these characteristics. These three characteristics too, are interrelated and interconnected. The First Noble Truth and one of the three basic characteristics of the nature is one and the same: suffering (Dukkha). Other two characteristics can be considered as ways of looking at suffering. (Cousins Lance. 1996: p.54.).

Hence, in this section first suffering is discussed followed by the discussion on impermanence and non-self characteristics.

The Buddha has thrown light on this interdependence of three characteristics, in a dialogue with Ven Rahula. The dialogue is: ‘Rahula, what do you think? Is the eye permanent or impermanent?’ – ‘Impermanent, venerable sir.’ – ‘Is what is impermanent suffering or happiness?’ – ‘suffering, venerable sir.’ – ‘Is what is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change fit to be regarded thus: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is myself?’ – ‘No venerable sir.’ Similar is the case for other senses, their respective objects, consciousness, contacts, feelings and so on. Seeing thus, Rahula, a well-taught noble disciple becomes disenchanted with it, being disenchanted, he becomes dispassionate. Through dispassion (his mind) is liberated. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.334-335).

4.2.1 - Dukkhasacca – Nature of the First Noble Truth of suffering

From the grossest reality of suffering to the subtlest reality of suffering, such a wide range of the nature of suffering of beings, is covered in the Mahāsatipaṭṭānasutta where it is explained as: ‘Birth, old age, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, physical and mental unpleasantness, mental distress and affliction, association with the unpleasant and disassociation from the pleasant, not getting as per desire. All these are suffering and, in short, clinging to the five aggregates is suffering’. The five aggregates of grasping and six internal sense fields are suffering. Dukkha means pain, suffering, and inherent dissatisfaction with conditioned things. There are three kinds of suffering according to its cause etc. i) The suffering due to pain, or the state of suffering caused by pain, it is directly related to the characteristic of suffering, (dukkha- dukkhatā); it is a painful bodily and mental feeling. A practitioner in a meditation course always comes across this type of pain, the reality. He starts walking gradually on the path of truth,

136 actuality, by observing it objectively. ii) Suffering due to change, or the state of suffering caused by the changeable nature of things (vipariṇāma-dukkhatā). It is related to the characteristic of impermanence, it is pleasant feeling, which brings suffering when it comes to an end. In the Goenka tradition one experiences it by way of observing sensations with equqnimity. iii) Suffering as inherent in formations, or the state of suffering caused by formations (sankhāra-dukkhatā) (the five aggregates of grasping); or it is all conditioned phenomena of the three planes, because they are oppressed by rise and fall. It is related to the non-self characteristic, it is feeling of neither pain nor pleasure. A practitioner with continuous practice reaches a stage where he experiences the same. - (D.III:216; Sv.III:992; S. V: pp.56- 57; S.IV: p.260), (Cousins Lance. 1996: p.54). To understand well, to destroy, and abandon these three sufferings, one should develop the Noble Eightfold Path: The Fourth Noble Truth. It can be said that, one who walks on the Noble Eightfold Path, becomes Noble by understanding well all the four truths, which are Noble. The subtlest nature of suffering is upādāna - clinging, attachment to the five aggregates. Thus, clinging or grasping to five aggregates can be overcome mainly with the characteristic of non-self.

Any-thing which is formed in this existence is potentially of the nature of suffering, even the doctrine. The main difference is in the view, approach towards it: with ignorance, suffering is bound to come and with wisdom, cessation of suffering is inevitable. It is nicely explained with the simile of a snake for the doctrine (dhamma), (teaching having nine portions) - (M.I: pp.134- 135). It would become the cause of suffering if wisdom of holding it, is not there. Having mastered the doctrine, if one does not investigate its meaning by wisdom, there is no clarity in it. If one masters the doctrine to have the advantage of blaming others and gossiping, does not experience the essence of the doctrine. Thus, the doctrine if wrongly grasped, causes harm, suffering for a long time. Like the wrongly-grasped snake hurts and causes death.

Some-times suffering is like a sugar-coated un-healthy pill. Apparently, it seems like pleasure in the sense fields but if one indulges in it, then it becomes a cause of suffering. World is full of sense pleasures and material shapes. The cycle of suffering starts with the enjoyment, gratification of sense pleasures and material shapes, because of the ignorance of the inherent danger in it and ignorance of the knowledge to escape from it. How a day to day routine activities of a person become the cause of suffering and also the way out, is explained as follows. Due to the contact of six senses and their respective objects various feelings arise. One reacts blindly to it since he is unaware of happenings in the subconscious mind. One developes clinging, craving for those feelings, and because of that suffering arises in him. When it

137 becomes very clear, then one does not react blindly to the feelings and remain equanimous. Thus, gradually he comes out of suffering. - (M.I: pp.266-267). This explanation of the Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhayasutta supports the practice in the Goenka-tradition.

Five aggregates of grasping are suffering. A synonym of five aggregates is world (Loka) - mind and matter phenomenon, which itself is suffering. The Rohitassasutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya states: ‘I say that without having reached the end of the world there is no making an end to suffering. It is, friend, in just this fathom-high carcass endowed with perception and mind that I make known the world, the origin of the world, the cessation of the world, and the way leading to the cessation of the world.63 The end of suffering is impossible without finding the end of the ‘loka’. Loka in the sense of dukkha is presented in the form of the Four Noble Truths. ‘Thus, the Buddha shows: “I do not make known these four truths in external things like grass and wood, but right here in this body composed of the four great elements.’ This pithy utterance of the Buddha, which may well be the most profound proposition in the history of human thought, is elucidated by the Venerable Ānanda, who explains that in the Noble One’s Discipline “the world” is “that in the world by which one is a perceiver and conceiver of the world,” i.e., the six sense bases. From Ānanda’s explantion we can draw out the following implications: The world with which the Buddha’s teaching is principally concerned is “the world of experience,” and even the objective world is of interest only to the extent that it serves as the necessary external condition for experience. The world is identified with the six sense bases because the latter are the necessary internal condition for experience and thus for the presence of the world. As long as the six sense bases persist, a world will always be spread out before us as the objective range of perception and cognition. Thus, one cannot reach the end of the world by travelling, for wherever one goes one inevitably brings along the six sense bases, which necessarily disclose a world extended on all sides. Nevertheless, by reversing the direction of the search it is possible to reach the end of the world. For if the world ultimately stems from the six sense bases, then by bringing an end to the sense bases it is possible to arrive at the end of the world.’ - (S.I: p.62; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.158,393-394).

4.2.2 - Aniccatā

63 Imasmiṃyeva byāmamatte kalevare sasaññimhi samanake lokañca. - (S.I: p.62).

138

In this section we will discuss why the understanding of impermanence is important, how this experiential understanding develops into wisdom, and how it transforms an ordinary worldling into the noble being.

Aniccatā lays a strong foundation for the Buddha’s teachings; because of this initial insight he, as Bodhisatta, left the house-hold life in search of a path to enlightenment. All the conditioned phenomena, formed things, are impermanent in nature. Inside, outside, everything in the world is constantly changing. It is explained broadly in three ways: The first is with respect to the internal - ajjhatta, every moment all five aggregates are in constant process of arising (samudaya) and passing away (atthaṅgam), with great rapidity, without any persistent underlying substance. One is supposed to experience it, realise it, during the practice of insight meditation, that everything is undergoing destruction, vanishing, fading away and ceasing. The second is with respect to the extreme outward (bāhira or bahiddhā), ‘the Buddhā’s vision reveals a universe of immense dimensions evolving and disintegrating in repetitive cycles throughout beginningless time – “many aeons of world-contraction, expansion and contraction- expansion”. The third is with respect to, internal and external (ajjhatta-bahiddhā) the body is subject to being worn out and rubbed away, to dissolution and disintegration. Whosoever is born is subject to ageing, sickness, and death. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.26).

‘In insight-meditation the endeavour is made to contemplate, from a position of detached observation, the ever-shifting flux of experience itself in order to penetrate through to the essential nature of bodily and mental phenomena. The Buddha teaches that the craving and clinging that hold us in bondage are sustained by a network of “conceivings” (maññita) – deluded views, conceits, and suppositions that the mind fabricates by an internal process of mental commentary or “proliferation” (papañca) and then projects out upon the world, taking them to possess objective validity. The task of insight meditation is to sever our attachments by enabling us to pierce through this net of conceptual projections in order to see things as they really are.

To see things as they really are means to see them in terms of the three characteristics – as impermanent, as painful or suffering, and as not self. Since the three characteristics are closely interlinked, any one of them can be made the main portal for entering the domain of insight, but the Buddha’s usual approach is to show all three together – impermanence implying suffering and the two in conjunction implying the absence of self. When the noble disciple sees all the factors of being as stamped with these three marks, he no longer identifies with them,

139 no longer appropriates them by taking them to be mine, I, or self. Seeing thus, he becomes disenchanted with all formations. When he becomes disenchanted, his lust and attachment fade away and his mind is liberated from the taints.’ – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.39-40).

Here I would like to quote the comments of Anālayo with respect to the comparative study of the Mahāmāluṅkyasutta (M.II:103) between the Pāli and the Madhyama-āgama version of it. The description of the Madyham-āgama version goes closer to the Goenka tradition. Anālayo states that: ‘The Madhyama-āgama version presents a different insight contemplation of the first absorption, which proceeds as follows: In dependence on his attainment, one contemplates the rise and fall of feelings. Having contemplated the rise and fall of feelings in dependence on this attainment and become established in it, one will certainly attain the destruction of the influxes. In this way, the Madhyama-āgama version turns in particular to the impermanent nature of feelings, whereas the Mahāmāluṅkya-sutta (Pāli version) takes up all of the five aggregates and moreover encourages cultivating a variety of insight perspectives. In addition to impermanence, these perspectives also bring in other two characteristics of dukkha and not self in several ways. … The main point that is common to the two versions is the need to contemplate the impermanent nature of absorption attainment.’ – (Anālayo. 2017: p.117).

Anicca- crucial factor of the First Noble Truth

Sayagyi U Ba Khin in the beginning of one of his lectures expresses himself: ‘As my approach to Buddhism is more by practical than the theoretical means, I hope to be able to give you something of Buddhism which is not easily available elsewhere.’ Further he mentioned: ‘In reality our “suffering within” is a sequel to the keen sense of feeling the vibration, radiation and friction of the atomic units experienced through the process of introspective meditation called Vipassanā, with the aid of the powerful lens of samādhi. Not knowing this truth is indeed ignorance. Knowing this truth in its ultimate reality means destruction of the root cause of suffering; that is, ignorance, with all the links in the chain of causation ending with what we call “life,” with its characteristics of old age, illness, anxiety, agony, pains and so on.’ In other words, ‘It is only when you experience impermanence (anicca) as suffering (dukkha) that you come to the realization of the truth of suffering, the first of the Four Noble Truths basic to the doctrine of the Buddha.’ - (VRI. 1994: pp.33, 37, 48). Due to ignorance of the characteristic of impermanence, one has to face the truth of suffering and with proper understanding of it, suffering ceases. Just as a ray or beam of light at the present moment is good enough to abolish the darkness of the ages, similarly, a moment of the proper understanding of impermanence

140 and so on is very conducive to the cessation of suffering. The Navakanipāta of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains: Even more fruitful, than any meritorious action, would it be to develop the perception of impermanence just for the time of a finger snap.64. - (A.IV: p.396; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1277). The perception of impermanence is strong insight that has reached the peak and is an immediate condition for the path. 65 - (Mp. IV: p.187; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1823).

Sayagi U Ba Khin while explaining the importance of impermanence from the practice point of view states: ‘Impermanence (anicca) is, of course, the essential fact which must be first experienced and understood by practice. Mere book-knowledge of the Buddha-Dhamma will not be enough for the correct understanding of anicca because the experiential aspect will be missing. It is only through experiential understanding of the nature of anicca as an ever- changing process within yourself that you can understand anicca in the way the Buddha would like you to understand it.’ – (VRI. 1994: p.31).

Perception of impermanence deals with the root cause of the suffering: taṇhā, diṭṭhi, and māna. It is very peculiar from the point of understanding the scope and nature of impermanence and other two characteristics.

The importance of impermanence with respect to five aggregates is explained in the Saṃyuttanikāya with the help of ten similes, wherein the first three similes show the action of the perception of impermanence and the remaining seven show the strength of the perception of impermanence. Mundane and super-mundane nature of impermanence is clarified here. The Aniccasaññāsutta reads: ‘And how, Monks, is the perception of impermanence developed and cultivated so that it eliminates all sensual lust, eliminates all lust for existence (taṇhā), eliminates all ignorance (diṭṭhi), and uproots all conceit ‘I am’ (māna). ‘Such is form etc. (all five aggregtes), such its arising, such its passing away.’ Sensual lust is eliminated by the path of non-returning; lust for existence, ignorance, and the conceit “I am” by the path of arahantship. One of these similes states: Just as, all the rafters of a house with a peaked roof lead to the roof peak, slope towards the roof peak, and converge upon the roof peak, and the roof peak is declared to be their chief, so too, when the perception of impermanence is developed and cultivated … it uproots all conceit ‘I am.’ The apex, roof peak is like the perception of impermanence, rafters are like the meritorious states of the four planes, thus,

64 yo ca accharāsaṅkhātamattampi aniccasaññaṃ bhāveyya, idaṃ tato mahapphalatara’nti. 65 Aniccasaññanti maggassa anantarpaccayabhāvena sikhāpattabalavavipassanam.

141 among the meritorious states the perception of impermanence is at the top of all. Thorough srutiny (anupassanā) of the perception of impermanence is mundane and due to that the arisen perception of impermanence at the stage of path attainment is super-mundane. - (S.III: pp.156- 158; Spk.II: pp.232-233; Spk-ṭ. II.i: pp.228-229; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.961-962).

Anicca - Indicator of the first fruition state

The importance of impermanence is emphasised in the Majjhimanikāya, with a specific phrase used to denote the attainment of stream-entry fruit, ‘whatever is of the nature of arising, all that is of the nature of passing away’.66 Deep experiential knowledge of the impermanence with regard to arising and passing away or realization of the First Noble Truth, indicates the first fruition state. One such example from Majjhimanikāya gives us an idea about it. The Buddha gave gradual teaching to the house holder Upāli, by talking about donation, morality, heaven, danger of sense pleasure, lowliness of defilements, the advantages of renunciation. Since his mind was ready, malleable, free from hindrances, pleasant, the Buddha explained the teaching on Dhamma. And as a very clean cloth easily accepts the dye, even so, Upāli as he was there in that posture, Dhamma - vision, dustless, stainless, arose to him, ‘whatever is of the nature of arising, all that is of the nature of passing away.’ He attains the stage of stream entry. - (M.I: p.380).

In the practice, of a learner up to the stage of non-learner, role of understanding of the impermanence is discussed. The process of attaining the canker-less state with the practice of fine material and immaterial, attainments is explained on many occasions in the Majjhimanikāya and so on. After each of the seven absorptions, attainments, one understands the impermanent nature of the material form and/or feeling, perception, formations, consciousness and so on. One beholds these things as suffering and non-self. After shifting a mind from these things, one collects his mind on ambrosia, deathless element, contemplating it as real, excellent, as tranquillising of all formations, giving up of all attachments, extinction of craving, dispassion, cessation, nibbāna. One remains there and attains canker-less state. - (M.I: 436-437).

Realization of the fruit of stream-entry by way of faith, or by way of Dhamma as related to the nature of impermanence, is explained as follows: The six senses are impermanent, liable to change, and alteration or becoming otherwise. One who places faith in these teachings and

66 yam kiñci samudayadhammam sabbam tam nirodhadhamma’nti. – (M. I: p.380; M.II: p.145; M.III: p.280).

142 resolves on them thus is called a faith-follower (Saddhānusāri), one who has entered the fixed course of rightness,67 (okkanto sammattaniyāmaṃ), entered the plane of righteous men and overcomes the plane of the common world-ling. He is incapable of doing any deed by reason of which he might be reborn in to the lower planes; and he is incapable of passing away without having realised the fruit of stream-entry.

One for whom these teachings are accepted thus after being pondered to a sufficient degree with wisdom is called a Dhamma-follower,68 (Dhammānusāri), one who has entered the fixed course of rightness, entered the plane of righteous men and overcomes the plane of the common world-ling. He is incapable of doing any deed by reason of which he might be reborn in the lower planes; and he is incapable of passing away without having realised the fruit of stream- entry. The same thing is true with respect to five aggregates, six consciousness, six contacts, six feelings and so on. - (S.III: pp.225-228; Spk.II: pp.346-347; Spk-ṭ. II.i: p.245; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.1004).

Anicca – the element of nibbāna

‘Being aware of anicca is very special. The element of Nibbāna is contained in it. We should therefore be aware of anicca as continuously as possible’ - (Chit Tin Sayagyi U. 1997: p.260). In one of his dialogue with the disciples, Sayagyi U Ba Khin expressed his views in regard to why the Shwedagon pagoda having the Relics of the four Buddhas is richly guilded with thick layers of gold and fitted with solid gold plates etc. According to him it is because of these Relics, Nibbana Dhatu is there. ‘For those who can develop good anicca, Nibban Dhatu also develops in them and such persons will feel the presence of such elements; this Nibbana Dhatu is precious.’ He further adds ‘The Buddha Gotama said, ‘Nibban Dhatu actually exists and Nibban does exist, there is also a way to it and I am here pointing out the way.’ - (Chit Tin Saya U. 1982: pp.11-12).

Goenka’s recitation before every group sitting also mentions anicca as element of nibbāna. U Ba Khin explains the term Nibbāna-dhātu as activation of anicca ie when one observes sensation, he developes awareness of anicca, the actual experience of impermanence. This is a purification process and it leads the meditator to experience the nibbānic peace within himself. In one of his published talks ‘The Real Values of True Buddhist Meditation’ he states: ‘With the awareness of the Truth of Anicca and/or Dukkha and/or Anatta, he (the meditator) develops

67 Ime dhamme evaṃ saddahati adhimuccati - ayaṃ vuccati saddhānusārī. – (S.III: pp. 225). 68 Ime dhammā evaṃ paññāya mattaso nijjhānaṃ khamanti ayaṃ vuccati dhammānusārī. – (S.III: pp. 225).

143 in him what we may call the sparkling illumination of Nibban Dhatu a power that dispels all impurities or poisons, the products of bad actions, which are the sources of his physical and mental ills. In the same way as fuel is burnt away by ignition, the negative forces (impurities or poisons) within are eliminated by the Nibbana Dhatu, which he generates with the true awareness of Anicca in the course of meditation. This process of elimination should go on until such time as both Mind and Body are completely cleansed of such impurities or poisons.’ He adds further ‘I have a belief that the Nibbana Dhatu, which a person in true Buddhist Meditation develops, is power, which will be strong enough to eradicate the radio active poisons, if any, in him.’ – (Chit Tin Saya U. 1982: pp.16-17).

The Saṃyuttanikāya explains experiential knowledge of impermanence with regard to arising and passing away, as a source of happiness. Conditioned formations are impermanent, unstable, unreliable. Hence, it is expected to feel disgusted, develop dispassionateness, and to be liberated from it. The verse explains: ‘Impermanent are conditioned formations, subject to arising and passing away. Having arisen, they cease: Their appeasement is blissful.69’. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.661). Goenka recites this verse in all courses after each group sitting of insight practice. It denotes the end of that particular meditation session.

Extreme importance of the impermanence (anicca), and vigilance (appamāda), is very clear from the last words of the Enlightened One (pacchimā vācā): ‘Formations are bound to decay, vanish. Strive to attain the goal by diligence70. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.251).

Steps in the Transition of attā to anattā via anicca

With respect to the sequence in realizing three characteristics Ven. Ledi Sayadaw says: ‘The characteristic of dukkha, suffering or ill, is fully realized only when one attains arahatta magga, the fourth and final stage of the Path. The other two can be realized at earlier or lower stages. Of these two, however, the worlding must first grapple with the characteristic of non-self (anatta-lakkhaṇa), which includes the deluded and erroneous personality view, the view of a real self. For this he must necessarily comprehend the characteristic of non-self in all compounded things, which is, in fact, implicit in the characteristic of impermanence. “For one who perceives impermanence, O Meghiya, the perception of non-self is established.” It is further mentioned that when the characteristic of impermanence is well comprehended, the

69 Aniccā vata saṅkhārā, uppādavayadhammino. Uppajjitvā nirujjhanti, tesaṃ vūpasamo sukho’ti. - (S.II: p.193). 70 vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādetha. - (S.I: p.158).

144 characteristic of emptiness, insubstantiality, or the non-self, becomes evident. – (Sayadaw Ledi. 2007: pp.60, 74).

Sayagyi U Ba Khin states: ‘Anicca, dukkha and anatta – impermanence, suffering and egolessness – are three essential characteristics of things in the teaching of the Buddha. If you know anicca correctly, you know dukkha as its corollary and anatta as ultimate truth. It takes time to understand the three together.’ – (VRI.1994: p.31).

The three characteristics of impermanence, suffering and non-self are logically explained in the discourse of the Saṃyuttanikāya, Majjhimanikāya and Aṅguttaranikāya as ‘dependently arising’ aspects of all formed things. It is clear from the description given that there is a sequential evolution of these three characteristics. Generally, explanation sequence goes like this: Whatever aggregate is, it is of the nature of impermanence, whatever is impermanence, it is of the nature of suffering, and whatever is impermanent, suffering and of the changeable nature that is not mine, that I am not, and that is not myself etc. Initially with the help of these concerned passages, we study the relation between these characteristics and wrong views. All these three characteristics are interlinked, interconnected and have the function of right view. - (S.IV: p.2; S.III: pp.223-224; M.I: pp.138-139, 233).

The Diṭṭhisaṃyutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya shows how views originate from clinging to the five aggregates. The characteristic of impermanence dealing with wrong views is explained as follows: Wrong views arise due to adhering (abhinivissa), and clinging, grasping (upādāya) to the five aggregates. ‘This is mine (taṇhā), this I am (māna), this is myself (diṭṭhi)’, it is one of the wrong views. Because of the reflection on impermanence, suffering, and changing nature of the five aggregates, the noble disciple’s doubts regarding wrong views are abandoned. His doubts regarding four noble truths are abandoned and he attains stream-entry – (S.III:202-217).

The Saṃyuttanikāya states: ‘One sees as impermanent the six internal sense organs and external sense objects which are actually impermanent: that is his ‘right view’ and by rightly seeing he develops disgust. By destroying the craving, attachment, his mind is freed. The wrong view is abandoned by knowing and seeing impermanence in the six sense organs, sense objects, and their respective consciousness, contacts and three feelings which arise due to the contact. - (S.IV: p.143).

The Dhātuvibhaṅgasutta of the Majjhimanikāya clarifies the relation between impermanence and non-self (i.e. relation between craving, conceit, and wrong view). It states: ‘One should not neglect wisdom, should preserve truth, should cultivate relinquishment, and should train for

145 peace. The non-neglecting of wisdom is explained by way of the meditation on the elements. It is to be done by means of the six elements of earth, water, heat, air, space, and consciousness as follows: One should see these elements of earth, water, heat, air, and space internally and externally (ajjhatika bāhira), as they really are, with wisdom, ‘this is not mine, this I am not, this is not my-self’. … ‘MA: Here the Buddha expounds the non-truly existent by way of the truly existent; for the elements are truly existent but the person is not truly existent. This is meant: ‘That which you perceive as a person consists of six elements. Ultimately there is no person here. ‘Person’ is a mere concept.’ – (Bhikkhu Bodhi. 2009: pp.1352-1353). Having seen thus, one gets disgusted with these elements and makes the mind dispassionate towards these elements. Then with that pure, very clean consciousness, one cognizes pleasure, pain, and neither pain nor pleasure. He understands the conditioned nature of these feelings, and consequently the ceasing and calming of these feelings. Then, the equanimity that remains is pure, very clean, soft, pliable and resplendent. By this practice one attains the fourth fine material absorption and then achieves by practice remaining four immaterial attainments. One understands this pure and very clean equanimity gained by the practice of four immaterial attainments, is formed. Thus, he does not form any condition or generate any volition tending towards either being or non-being. Consequently, he does not cling to anything in this world. Hence, he is not agitated and attains Nibbāna.

Here, it is explained as the consciousness that accomplishes the work of insight contemplation on the elements. Under the heading of consciousness, the contemplation of feeling is also introduced: If one experiences the feelings of pleasure, or pain, or neither pain nor pleasure, one understands it as impermanent, not to be attached to, not to be appreciated with either craving or aversion. - (M.III: pp.240-242; Ps. V: pp.54-55).

The Saṃyuttanikāya says all three planes of existence are impermanent, suffering and non-self. The relation between suffering and ‘Identity view’ is mentioned here: Identity view (Sakkāyadiṭṭhi), wrong view, and view of self are abandoned by knowing and seeing impermanence, suffering, and non-self in the sense fields. The Brahma world too is impermanent, not lasting, belonging to the existing body (sakkāya). All three realms of existence belong to the existing body. - (S.IV: p.148; S.V: p.411).

The Aṅguttaranikāya explains perception of non-self dealing with the view of self as follows: To abandon the three states of view of gratification, view of self, and wrong view (assādadiṭṭhi, attānudiṭṭhi, micchādiṭṭhi), the three states to be developed are, the perception of

146 impermanence, the perception of non-self and right view respectively. - (A.III: p.447). Similar explanation is there in the Saṃyuttanikāya: view of Speculation about the self (attānudiṭṭhi) is abandoned by knowing and seeing non-self in the sense fields. - (S.IV: p.148). Assādadiṭṭhi implies eternal view, attānudiṭṭhi implies identity view which is accompanied by self and having its ground in twenty (attānaṃ anugatā vīsativatthukā sakkāyadiṭṭhi), and ‘micchādiṭṭhi’ means the sixty-two kinds of views (dvāsaṭṭhividhāpi diṭṭhi). - (Mp.III: p.416). Thus, relation of non-self and ‘view of self’ is mentioned here. Identity view is important from the point of the attainment of stream-entry.

The development of the perception of impermanence to counter the pride of self is a peculiar idea of the Mahārāhulovādasutta of the Majjhimanikāya. The Buddha advises Ven. Rahula to see various qualities and common characteristics of 'non-self'/egoless-ness of internal (ajjhattam) and external (bāhira) elements of earth, water, heat, air, and space as it really is with wisdom. One develops disgust towards these elements and removes the mental attachment towards it. Buddha gives the examples of these elements to show how they are tolerant, equanimous and how they do not get worried, or depressed, or loathed by the good or bad treatment they receive. He advises one to develop the mind accordingly. Buddha advises one to develop the mind with loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, equanimity, foulness and the perception of impermanence to get rid of ill will, cruelty, discontent, repulsion, lust, and the conceit ‘I am’ or pride of self (asmimāno) respectively. - (M.I: pp.421-426).

4.2.3 - Anattā – non-self

Consequence of anicca is anattā

The explanation of Sayagyi U Ba Khin regarding the three characteristics is very significant in this context: ‘The fact of anicca, which opens the door to the understanding of dukkha and anattā and eventually to the end of suffering, can be encountered in its full significance only through the teaching of a Buddha for as long as that teaching relating to the Eightfold Noble Path and the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya dhammā) remains intact and available to the aspirant.’ – (VRI. 1994: p.32).

The following discussion makes it clear that the non-self is nothing but the consequence of impermanence or the right knowledge of arising and passing away of things. ‘Inextricably tied up with impermanence and suffering is a characteristic of non-self. The notion of self has only a conventional validity. The bodily and mental factors are transitory phenomena, constantly

147 arising and passing away, processes creating the appearance of selfhood through their causal continuity and interdependent functioning. In the Cūḷasīhanādasutta of the Majjimanikāya, the Buddha compares his teaching point by point with those of other recluses and brahmins and shows that beneath their apparent similarities, they finally diverge on just this one crucial point – the rejection of views of self – which undermines the agreement. In his map of the steps to liberation, identity view, the positing of a self in relation to the five aggregates, is held to be the first fetter to be broken with the arising of the “vision of the Dhamma.” The principle of non-self is shown in the Alagaddūpamasutta and Cūḷasaccakasutta of the Majjhimanikāya to follow logically from the two marks of impermanence and suffering. What is impermanent is pain or suffering, and what is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change cannot be regarded as mine, I, or self. The Chachakkasutta of the Majjhimanikāya demonstrates by a reduction ad absurdum argument that impermanence implies non-self: when all the factors of being are clearly subject to rise and fall, to identify anything among them with self is to be left with the untenable thesis that self is subject to rise and fall. The Cūḷasaccakasutta of the Majjhimanikaya connects the mark of non-self with that of dukkha by arguing that because we cannot bend the five aggregates to our will, they cannot be taken as mine, I, or self. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.27-29).

Demonstration of self in the Chachakkasutta

‘If anyone says, ‘The eye is self,’ that is not tenable or acceptable. The rise and fall of the eye are discerned, and since its rise and fall are discerned, it would follow: ‘My self rises and falls.’ That is why it is not tenable for anyone to say, ‘The eye is self.’ Thus, the eye is not self. (The argument derives the principle of non-self from the verifiable premise of impermanence. The structure of the argument may be briefly set out thus: Whatever is self must be permanent; X is directly perceived to be impermanent, i.e., marked by rise and fall; therefore, X is not self.).’ (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.1131, 1363). The same is true with the form, eye-consciousness, contact, feeling, craving, and other groups of sixes.

Transition of non-self characteristic is seen via impermanence: ‘conditioned phenomena are impermanent, unstable, and unreliable. It is enough to become disenchanted with all conditioned phenomena, enough to become dispassionate toward them, enough to be liberated from them.’- (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1071). Here impermanent means being absent or to disappear after becoming (Aniccāti hutvā abhāvaṭṭhena aniccā). - (Mp. IV: pp.50-51).

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Here the meaning of anicca with respect to absence occurs at many places including Paṭisambhidāmagg, which leads to suññatā or in broad sense anattā. In this regard the ‘Sutra Requested by Anavatapta’ ie ‘Anavataptahadāpasaṃkamaṇasutra’ states: ‘What arises through conditions is unborn, it has no inborn essence. What relies on conditions is said to be empty. Whoever understands emptiness is Aware.’ – (Bodhagaya Mahābodhi Temple surrounding area stone carving).

In the Anupadasutta of the Majjhimanikāya, the Buddha mentions to monks that, during half a month, Ven. Sāriputta gained insight into states one by one as they occurred. While explaining that practice, it mentions eleven mental states along with all the constituents of respective absorptions, from the first to the seventh. All these states (dhammā) were defined by him one by one as they occurred after the attainment of each of the absorptions; known to him those states arose, known they were present, known they disappeared. He understood thus: 'So indeed, these states, not having been, come into being; having been, they vanish71.’ ‘Regarding those states, he abided unattracted, unrepelled, independent, detached, free, dissociated, with a mind rid of barriers. He understood: There is an escape beyond,’ and with the cultivation of that [attainment], he confirmed that there is. – (Bhikkhu Bodhi. 2009: p.899). According to the commentary ‘these states not having been, come into being’ means sees arising and ‘having been, they vanish’ means sees decay or passing away.72 This way, gradually he attains the stage of cessation of perception and feeling (saññāvedayitanirodha) - (M.III: pp.25-29), (Ps. IV: pp.88-89). Having seen by wisdom, his cankers are entirely destroyed. According to the commentary, this is the congruence practice of concentration and insight (yuganaddha). - (Ps. IV: p.91; Ps-ṭ.III: p.65). Ven. Sāriputta realised the fruit of non-returning by developing serenity and insight in congruence. Then he entered the attainment of cessation, and after emerging from it he attained arahantaship.

In this context the opinion of Ven. Ledi Sayadaw about non-self, while explaining ultimate truth (paramattha-sacca), is very much important. He says: ‘In saying here: “No self exists,” “no living soul exists,” we mean that there is no such ultimate entity as a self or living soul which persists unchanged during the whole term of life, without momentarily coming to be and passing away.’ – (Sayadaw Ledi. 2007-b: p.19).

71 Evam kirame dhammā ahutvā sambhonti, hutvā paṭiventī’ti. – (M.III: p.25). 72 Ahutvā sambhontīti iminā udayam passati. Hutvā paṭiventīti vayam passati. – (Ps. IV: pp.88-89).

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In this discourse, a phrase ‘he emerged mindful from that attainment’ and contemplated the states of that absorption, is used with respect to the eighth attainment of neither-perception- nor-non-perception and the cessation of perception and feeling. It is not used along with any of the four-fine material absorptions and first three immaterial attainments. Here, arising is very clearly described as Ahutvā saṃbhonti – states that have not been, come to be, and passing away or decay is described as Hutvā paṭiventi – having been, they pass away. It has the element of emptiness (suññatā), and non-self (anattā).

The egoless-ness (anattā) is explained generally in the following manner, as it is explained in the Alagaddūpamasutta of the Majjhimanikāya. ‘Whatever is impermanent, suffering and liable to change, not to be regarded thus: This is mine, this I am, this is my self.’ Therefore, material form and other aggreages are ‘not mine (netam mama), I am not (nesohamasmi), and not myself (na meso attā’ti). - (M.I: p.139). Commentary states: This is mine (etaṃ mama), is the grip of craving (taṇhāggāho), this I am (esohamasmi), is the grip of conceit (mānaggāho), this is myself (eso me attā), is the grip of wrong views (diṭṭhiggāho). – (Ps. II: p.110). ‘These three, craving, conceit, and views are called the three obsessions (gāha). They are also the mainsprings behind conceiving and mental proliferation.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.1210).

Thus, Impermanence evolves into suffering and culminates into non-self.

The three characteristics of ‘anicca, dukkha, and anattā’ are ‘dependently arising’ aspects of all formed things. They are interrelated and interdependent on each other. The bodily and mental factors are transitory phenomena, constantly arising and passing away, processes creating the appearance of selfhood through causal continuity and interdependent functioning. Buddha did not accept a self outside and beyond the five aggregates. The notion of selfhood, treated as an ultimate, he regards as a product of ignorance, and all diverse attempts to substantiate this notion by identifying it with some aspect of the personality he describes as ‘clinging to a doctrine of self’. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.28).

4.2.4 - Interrelation of these three basic characteristics

‘Whosoever has not penetrated this impersonality of all existence and does not comprehended that in reality there exists only this continually self-consuming process of arising and passing bodily and mental phenomena, and that there is no separate Ego-entity within or without this process, he will not be able to understand Buddhism, i.e., the teaching of the 4 Noble Truths, in the right light.’ – (Nyanatiloka. 1987: p.13).

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Ven. Ledi Sayadaw explains the classification of Bhāvanāmaya-ñāṇa into two groups of anubodha-ñāṇa and paṭivedaha-ñāṇa. Anubodha-ñāṇa is the insight into things with their characterists as they really are ie impermanence, suffering and no-soul. Paṭivedha-ñāṇa is the super-mundane knowledge of the four paths. He classifies dukkha into two groups, one is suffering as painful physical and mental feeling (Vedayita-dukkha), and another is fear producing suffering (Bhayattha-dukkha). Latter comes under the sphere of ‘knowledge of things as fearful’ (bhaya-ñāṇa) and of ‘knowledge of things as dangerous (ādīnava-ñāṇa). Bhayattha-dukkha is synonymous with the truth of suffering (dukkha-sacca) and with suffering as one of the intrinsic characteristics. The triple knowledge of impermanence, suffering and no-soul is the discernment knowledge (tīraṇa-pariññā). He insists that the insight-knowledge in contemplating impermanence (anicca-vipassanā-ñāṇa) must be introduced first for proper discernment of the insight-knowledge in contemplating no-soul (anattā-vipassanā-ñāṇa). A quote from the text is referred: ‘To him, O Meghiya, who comprehends impermanence, the comprehension of no-soul manifests itself. And to him who comprehends no-soul, the fantasy of an ‘I’ presiding over the five aggregates is brought to destruction; and even in this present life he attains Nibbāna.’ – (Sayadaw Ledi. 2007-b: pp.54-59,82-83,89).

The Anattalakkhaṇasutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya states: The aggregates are suffering because they tend to affliction and cannot be made to conform with our desires. This is one argument for the anattā thesis i.e. the five aggregates are not under our volitional control or mastery (avasavattitā). The second argument demonstrates the characteristic of nonself on the basis of the impermanence and suffering, taken conjointly. - (S.III: pp.67-69).

The Saṃbodhivagga of the Navakanipāta of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains the five proximate causes and four meditation subjects for the development of the aids to enlightenment: A monk has a good companion, a good friend, and good intimate. A monk is virtuous and observes all precepts. A monk gets to hear at will, and hear easily, that speech which is serious and useful to revelation of mind, namely speech on expecting little, on contentment, on seclusion and so on. A monk dwells with right exercise. A monk is wise, he possesses the wisdom that discerns arising and passing away, which is noble and penetrative and leads to the utter destruction of suffering. Such a monk who is established in these five states, should develop four further states, namely (the perception of) foulness should be developed to abandon lust; loving kindness should be developed to abandon ill will; mindfulness of breathing should be developed to cut off thoughts (distraction); the perception of impermanence should be developed to remove the conceit ‘I am’ (egotism). When one perceives impermanence, the

151 perception of non-self is established. One who perceives non-self eradicates the conceit ‘I am,’ (which is) nibbāna in this very life. - (A.IV: pp.352-353; 358-359. Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1247). It shows that the wisdom of arising and passing away is related to taruna-vipassanā and after establishing into that, one further develops foulness, loving kindness, perception of impermanence and non-self (balava-vipassanā), to attain nibbāna. It is emphasized very clearly that after developing the perception of impermanence one establishes the perception of non- self.

When one sees the characteristic of impermanence one sees the characteristic of non-self. Out of these three characteristcs, when one is seen, the other two are also seen. Thus, it is said: when one perceives impermanence, the perception of non-self is stabilized.73 - (Mp. IV: pp.163-164).

‘The sub-commentary reads: ‘One who perceives impermanence (aniccasaññino): one who perceives impermanence by way of the contemplation of impermanence, which occurs thus: ‘All conditioned phenomena are impermanent’ because they cease to be after having existed (hutvā abhāvato); because they arise and vanish (udayabbayavantato); because they are fragile (pabhanguto), because they are temporary (tāvakālikato); and because they exclude permanence (niccapaṭipakkhato). The Perception of non-self stablized (anattasaññā saṇṭhāti): the perception of non-self consists of the contemplation of non-self, which occurs thus: ‘All phenomena are non-self’ because they are coreless or essenceless; because we have no mastery over them; and because they are alien, void, hollow and empty. (Anattasaññā saṇṭhāti - asārakato avasavattanato parato rittato tucchato suññato). This perception is stabilized, firmly established in the mind.’

‘The conceit ‘I am’ (asmimāna) is more subtle than personal-existence view (sakkāyadiṭṭhi). Both are removed by the perception of non-self, but whereas the stream-enterer eliminates personal-existence view, only the arahant eliminates the conceit ‘I am.’ It seems that personal- existence view has a stronger conceptual underpinning than the conceit ‘I am,’ which is more closely connected to existential need and therefore can be eliminated only at arahantship.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1816).

73 Anattasaññā saṇṭhātīti aniccalakkhaṇe diṭṭhe anattalakkhaṇam diṭṭhameva hoti. Etesu hi tīsu lakkhaṇesu ekasmim diṭṭhe itaradvayam diṭṭhameva hoti. - (Mp. IV: pp.163-164).

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It appears that as mentioned in the Patisambhidāmagga and a number of discourses in the Aṅguttaranikāya and so on, impermanence is explained as ‘by being, becoming absent’ or ‘non-existent after having come to be (hutvā abhāvaṭṭhena)’. It is very crucial with respect to the development of anatta through anicca, which overcomes diṭṭhi; the aspect of arising and passing away is crucial with respect to dealing with taṇhā; and anattalakkhaṇe diṭṭhe asmīti uppajjanakamāno suppajahova hotīti āha - having seen the characteristic of not-self, it is easy to abandon the egotism - asmi-māna. So, it is very clear that taṇhā, māna, and diṭṭhi are dealt with the characteristic of impermanence only. The aspect of perishable, temporary deals with the characteristic of suffering. In the Majjhimanikāya and so on, many discourses indicate this relationship of impermanence, suffering and not self. There has to be simultaneous, conscious, proper development of these three basic characteristics, then alone does it give proper results.

4.3. – The Second Noble Truth - Craving (Taṇhā), Conceit (māna), View (diṭṭhi)

In this section we will try to understand the subtle nature of the Second Noble Truth with respect to the three imaginations or illusions (maññanā) as craving, conceit, and view, along with clinging or grasping. By means of understanding the first two noble truths properly, we can understand the regular order of the law of dependent origination properly.

The truth of arising of the suffering is craving (Taṇhā), it becomes noble truth when one properly understands it with wisdom. The roots of suffering lie in the three illusions or fantasies (maññanā): illusion caused by craving (taṇhā), conceit (māna) and wrong views (diṭṭhi). Through ignorance, erroneous observation (vipallāsa) arises, and through erroneous observation illusion (maññanā) arises. Taṇhā, māna and diṭṭhi are also called three holds (gāha), to indicate their power of holding tightly and firmly. Since they multiply erroneous, mistaken actions, which tend gradually but continuously to increase beyond all limits and never incline to cease, they are also called three multipliers (papañcas). The study of interrelation between craving, conceit, and wrong-view is very crucial to understand the process of arising and cessation of suffering. In this section these are dicussed in length.

‘Clinging to the five aggregates occurs in two principal modes, which we might call appropriation and identification. In clinging to the aggregates, one either grasps them with desire and lust (chandarāga) and assumes possession of them, or one identifies with them, taking them as the basis for conceit or for views about one’s real self. In a phrase often met with in the Khandhasaṃyutta, the Majjhimanikāya we are prone to think of the aggregates,

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“This is mine, this I am, this is my self’ (etaṃ mama, eso ‘ham asmi, eso me attā). Here the notion “This is mine” represents the act of appropriation, a function of craving (taṇhā). The notions “This I am” and “This is myself” represent two types of identification, the former expressive of conceit (māna), the latter of views (diṭṭhi).

To break up our appropriation of the aggregates, the Buddha often enjoins us to abandon desire and lust for them. Sometimes he tells us to abandon the aggregates themselves, for they are as completetly alien to us as the twigs and foliage in Jeta’s Grove. But to give up clinging is difficult because clinging is reinforced by views, which rationalize our identification with the aggregates and thus equip clinging with a protective shield.

The type of view that lies at the bottom of all affirmation of selfhood is called identity view (sakkāyadiṭṭhi). All views of self are formulated with reference to the five aggregates either collectively or individually. The suttas often mention twenty types of identity view, obtained by considering one’s self to stand in any of four relations to each of the five aggregates: either as identical with it, as possessing it, as containing it, or as contained within it. The Buddha describes identity view as the leash that keeps the worldling bound to the round of rebiths. He also makes identity view the first of ten fetters to be eradicated on the path of liberation.

As the formula for dependent origination demonstrates, clinging to the five aggregates is ultimately sustained by ignorance (avijjā). In relation to the aggregates, ignorance weaves a net of three delusions that nurture desire and lust. These delusions, which infiltrate cognition at a variety of levels, are the notions that the five aggregates are permanent, a true source of happiness, and a self or the accessories of a self. The antidote needed to break the spell of this delustion is wisdom (paññā) or knowledge (vijjā), which means knowing and seeing the five aggregates as they really are: as impermanent, as suffering, and as nonself.

Some suttas seem to make the contemplation of one or another of the three characteristics alone sufficient for reaching the goal, though the exegetical texts insist that all must be contemplated to some degree. As the three characteristics are closely intertwined, the most common formula throughout the Nikāyas is the one that discloses their internal relationship. This formula, first enunciated in the Buddha’s second discourse at Bārāṇasi, uses the characteristic of impermanence to reveal the characteristic of suffering, and both conjointly to reveal the characteristic of nonself. But whatever approach is taken, all the different expositions of the three characteristics eventually converge on the eradication of clinging by showing, with regard to each aggregate, “This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self.” The lesson this maxim

154 teaches is that there is no point in appropriating anything, no point in identifying with anything, because the subject of appropriation and identification, the “self,” is merely a fabrication of conceptual thought woven in the darkness of ignorance. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.843-845).

Nature of craving (Taṇhā)

The descriptive nature of craving appearing in the Dīghanikāya is: ‘This is craving which leads to rebirth, endowed with passionate delight, rejoicing here and there, that is – craving of sensual pleasure, craving to survive or for becoming again and again, craving for life to end, or non- existance ie annihilation.’ - (D.II: p.307).

Yāyam taṇhā ponobbhavikā nandirāgasahagatā tatratatrābhinandinī, seyyathidam kāmataṇhā bhavataṇhā vibhavataṇhā.

The Saṃyuttanikāya explains the nature of craving with respect to fetter as follows. ‘Six sense organs are not the fetter of sense objects, nor are six sense objects the fetter of the sense organs, but rather the desire and lust that arise there in dependence on both: that is the fetter there.’ - (S.IV: p.283).

The nature of craving is also explained in various ways in the canon. In the Sunakkhattasutta of the Majjhimanikāya, Buddha said ‘craving (taṇhā), is an arrow; the poisonous humour of ignorance is spread about by desire, lust, ill will.74 The Saṃyuttanikāya says: ‘One should often reflect upon one’s own mind thus ‘For a long time this mind has been defiled by lust, hatred, and delusion.’ Through the defilements of the mind beings are defiled; with the cleansing of the mind beings are purified. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.958). It supports Goenka tradition.

Craving is directly proportionate to the inherent gratification aspect of things, and craving is inversely proportionate to the inherent danger aspect of things. In this regard the Saṃyuttanikāya states: ‘Craving grows in one who dwells contemplating the gratification in states that can be clung to (upādāniyesu, and samyojaniyesu dhammesu). And craving ceases in one who dwells contemplating the danger in states that can be clung to.’ - (S.II: pp.84-86).

The Saṃyuttanikāya verse states: ‘Above, across, and below, Delight is no more found in them. They boldly sound their lion’s roar: ‘The enlightened are supreme in the world75.’ They have no craving for the entire material body, from the top of the head (uddhaṃ – kesamatthako), to

74 Taṇha kho sallaṃ samaṇena vuttaṃ avijjāvisadoso chandarāgabyāpādena ruppati. - (M.II: pp.256,260). 75 Uddham tiriyam apācīnam nandi tesaṃ na vijjati. Nadanti te sīhanādaṃ, Buddhā loke anuttarā’ti. - (S.III: p.84).

155 the toes (apācīnaṃ pādatalaṃ) and in between (tiriyaṃ – vemajjhaṃ). - (S.III: p.84; Spk.II: p.283). The Commentary explains it in three different ways. Other two interpretations are ‘as past, future, and present or plane of deity, lower plane and human plane’ respectively. The first explanation supports Goenka tradition. In the ten-day discourse, Goenka refers to and explains these words in the same way, but in a different context. Reference ‘top of the head to the tips of the toes’ in the practice of Goenka tradition is implied here. It indicates probably that, there is no craving at all with regard to bodily senstations at any part of the body from top to bottom and so on.

Relation of craving, conceit, and view (Taṇhā – māna – diṭṭhi)

Sayagyi U Ba Khin, in one of his lectures while explaining the supreme nature of mind says: ‘In the path of morality, consisting of right speech, right action and right livelihood, the bodily actions and speech should be bound and restrained. Bodily actions and speech are usually controlled by greed, hatred and delusion (lobha, dosa, and moha) which are in turn the servants of craving, conceit and wrong view (taṅhā, māna and micchā-diṭṭhi). These unwholesome qualities have accompanied us as our habitual inclinations through the cycle of births (saṃsāra). The bodily action (kaya kamma) and verbal action (vaci kamma) are the paths of the revolution that should really and truly be revolted against.

Here, as the saying goes, Mano pubbaṅgamā dhamma (mind is the master of the bodily actions and verbal actions). Again, as it is said: Pāpasmiṃ ramati mano (the mind delights in dwelling in evil). It cannot be revolted against by ordinary means but only with great zeal.’ According to Sayagyi, these evils (taṅhā, māna, miccha-diṭṭhi), the colonizers of saṃsāra, should be destroyed by the established sīla, samādhi and paññā. – (VRI. 1994: pp.69,71).

Craving, conceit and view are very closely related with each other. All five aggregates are to be seen with correct wisdom as they really are thus: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, and this is not my self.’ (netaṃ mama neso hamasmi na meso attā’ti evametaṃ yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya passati) - (A.I: p.285).

A Monk endowed with seven states, might realize in a short time for himself with direct knowledge the four analytical knowledges. He understands as they really are, ‘his own state of mind with sloth; his mind within is contracted/abridged; his mind is distracted externally; he knows feelings as they arise, as they remain present, as they disappear; he knows perceptions as they arise, as they remain present, as they disappear; he knows initial thoughts as they arise, as they remain present, as they disappear (It supports the Goenka-tradition.); who has learnt

156 well, well thought over, considered well, thoroughly understood by wisdom to the full extent the essence of things as to their being beneficial or not, low or excellent, dark or bright - (A.IV: pp.33-34). His mind within is contracted, meaning it follows sloth and torpor (Ajjhattaṃ saṃkhittaṃ nāma thinamiddhānugataṃ). His mind is distracted externally, meaning distracted by five sense pleasures (Bahiddhā vikkhitta nām pañcasu kāmaguṇesu vikkhittaṃ). Feelings, perceptions, and initial thoughts are the roots of illusion or mental proliferation (papañcamūlavasena). Feeling is the root of craving, which arises in relation to pleasure; perception is the root of (wrong) views, which arises towards an unclear object or non-existing object; and initial thought is the root of conceit, which arises through the thought or wrong notion of self, ‘I am’. (Vedanāhi taṇhāya mūlam sukhavasena taṇhuppattito, saññā diṭṭhiyā mūlam avibhūtārammaṇe diṭṭhiuppaṭṭito, vitakko mānassa mūlam vitakkavasena asmīti mānuppattito). - (Mp. IV: p.25; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1777).

The Chachakkasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains the origination and cessation of identity: ‘Now, bhikkhus, this is the way leading to the origination of identity (sakkāyasamudayagāminī paṭipadā). One regards the eye thus: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my self.’ One regards forms thus…. eye-consciousness…. eye-contact…. feeling…. craving thus: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my self’.’ MA explains that this passage is stated to show two noble truths – suffering and its’ origin – by way of the three obsessions (gāha). The truth of suffering is shown by the term “identity,” elsewhere explicated as the five aggregates affected by clinging. The three obsessions are craving, conceit, and views, which respectively give rise to the notions “mine,” “I am” and “my self.” The two truths together constitute the round of existence.

‘Now, bhikkhus, this is the way leading to the cessation of identity. One regards the eye thus: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self.’ One regards froms thus … eye- consciousness…. eye-contact…. feeling…. craving thus: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self’.’ (The same is true for the other groups of senses and sense fields etc.). ‘MA: This passage is stated to show the other two noble truths – cessation and the path – by the repudiation of the three obsessions. These two truths constitute the ending of the round. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.1133,1134,1363).

One sees as impermanent five aggregates which are actually impermanent: That is his right view. Seeing properly, one becomes disgusted. With the destruction of delight comes the destruction of lust and vice versa. (nandikkhayā rāgakkhayo, rāgakkhyā nandikkhayo). Being free from delight; and with detachment, the mind is freed and liberated. - (S.III: p.51).

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One of the aspects of ignorance is wrong view, not understanding things properly. There are these two views: the view of being (bhavadiṭṭhi) and view of non-being (vibhavadiṭṭhi). - (M.I: p.65). The commentary explains it as view of Eternalism and view of annihilationism respectively – (Ps. II: p.11). Those who do not understand things as they really are, the arising and passing away, the gratification and danger, and the escape in the case of these two views, are affected by craving, affected by aversion, affected by ignorance, affected by desire, affected by grasping, without vision, given to favouring and opposing, and they delight in and enjoy proliferation (papanca). They are not completely freed from suffering. But those who understand things as they really are, the arising and passing away, the gratification and danger, and so on, they are totally freed from suffering. (The arising, passing away, gratification, danger and escape aspects are nothing but the practice of serenity and insight, the practice of the Eightfold Noble Path.) The aspects of right, proper (sammā), and wrong, improper (micchā), are very important in order to understand the nature of the ‘Noble truths.’ The last words of the Tathāgata are: ‘All conditioned things are of a nature to decay – strive on untiringly76.’ – (Walshe Maurice. 2012: p.270). It gives more importance to the eradication of the view of eternality. Or it indicates the process of eradication which might deals first with the view of annihilation and finally deals with the view of eternality. To strengthen this opinion in this regard, it is proper to quote here: ‘Of the mundane kinds of knowledge, however, the knowledge of Suffering by which (various) prejudices are overcome, dispels the Personality- Belief (sakkāya-diṭṭhi). The knowledge of the Origin of suffering dispels the Annihilation- View (uccheda-diṭṭhi); the knowledge of Extinction of suffering, the Eternity-View (sassata- diṭṭhi); the knowledge of the Path, the View of Inefficacy of Action (akiriya-diṭṭhi).’ (Nyanatiloka. 1987: p.154).

Ven. Nyanaponika Mahāthera writes: ‘He (stream-winner), being on the path of seeing (dassana-magga), has abolished only the view-root of self-view (= personality view); its other two roots, craving and conceit, are abolished only on the three noble paths called the path of development (bhāvanā-magga). The complete cutting of personality view is not however a purely intellectual process; it must be based on perfect sīla and the vipassana experience.’ – (Sayadaw Ledi. 1998: p.81).

Relation of maññanā

76 Vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā’ti. – (D.II: p.155).

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The Sappurisasutta of the Majjhimanikāya states: ‘Moreover by completely surmounting the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, a true man enters upon and abides in the cessation of perception and feeling. And his taints are destroyed by seeing with wisdom. This bhikkhu does not conceive anything, he does not conceive in regard to anything, he does not conceive in any way’.77 ‘It should be noted that there is no passage on the untrue man entering the cessation of perception and feeling. Unlike the jhānas and immaterial attainment, which can be attained by worldings, cessation is the domain exclusively of non-returners and arahants.’ – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.912; 1323). With regard to the eight attainments of a true man (sappurisa) the discourse states, a true man considers thus: Non-identification even with these eight attainments have been declared by the Blessed One; for in whatever way they conceive, the fact is ever other than that.78 So, putting non-identification first, he neither lauds himself nor disparages others because of his attainments. This is the character of a true man. – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.912; 1322). The commentary explains atammayatā as nittaṇhā means the absence of craving. However, as per context, the absence of conceit may be the meaning. The statement ‘For in whatever way they conceive, the fact is ever other than that’ – the thing conceived turns out to be other than the aspect ascribed to it: it is not self or self’s belonging, not ‘I’ or mine.’ (The verb maññati – conceives, has the root man – to think. So, its meaning in the discourses is distorted thinking. The cognitive distortion introduced by conceiving consists, in brief, of the intrusion of the egocentric perspective into the experience already slightly distorted by spontaneous perception. According to the commentaries, the activity of conceiving is governed by three defilements, which account for the different ways it comes to manifestation – craving (taṇhā), conceit (māna), and views (diṭṭhi). – (Ps. IV: p.99; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.1322; 1162-1163).

This is extremely important from the point of practice of insight meditation. In the Saṃyutta Nikāya, vedanā, vitakka, and saññā, are mentioned regarding the sati sampajañña, which are related to these three aspects of taṇhā, māna and diṭṭhi. Feelings are related mainly to craving, which means when a practitioner reacts to pleasant or painful feelings he generates craving due to that reaction. In the Goenka-tradition, when one practices or stresses mainly on this aspect alone, then it appears to be insufficient for the development on the path. It happens as, vineyya loke abhijjā domanassaṃ - one remains away from either craving or aversion. But the aspect of the wrong view (which is related to saññā) can only be dealt with by the right view of the

77 Ayaṃ, bhikkhave, bhikkhu na kiñci maññati, na kuhiñci maññati, na kenaci maññatī’ti. – (M.III: p.45). 78 Atammayatā vuttā Bhagavatā. Yen yen he maññanti tato taṃ hoti aññathā’ti. – (M.III: p.45).

159 present/existing objects, such as bodily feelings and so on, when one understands arising and passing away of the existing states. The arising deals with the wrong-view of annihilation and the passing away deals with the wrong view of eternality. This knowledge, even though at the intellectual level is very essential. The third aspect of conceit (which is related to vitakka) can be dealt with only when one understands that arising of any state takes place due to some reason/condition or the other; prior to that moment it was not in existence. And passing away of any state takes place due to cessation of that condition; after that-moment it ceases it does not remain in existence – ‘abhāvam/ anabhāvam gameti’, means there is only emptiness or nothingness – suññatā, the initial thought of non-self - anattā eradicates the illusion of self – ‘I am’. In this way, vitakka, saññā, and vedanā all these three are very essential. The initial thought is related to manasikāra - attention, hence proper attention as impermanence, suffering, and not-self corrects the root of craving, wrong view and conceit. In this context, the discourses of the Majjhimanikāya, the Sabbāsavasutta, Satipaṭṭhānasutta, Ānāpānassatisutta, and so on can be considered as guiding discourses with respect to the practice of the dhamma or paṭipatti and pṭivedhana.

Upādāna

There are four types of attachments or clinging (upādānāni). Attachment to sense pleasures, to views, to ceremonial observances and to dogma of self (kāmupādānaṃ, diṭṭhupādānaṃ, sīlabbatupādānaṃ, attavādupādānaṃ). Some recluses and brahmanas pretend to know all the four attachments but they can not explain it rightly, properly (sammā), because they do not understand these as they really are. At least, they do not know at all about the attachment to dogma of self. - (M.I: p.66). ‘Now these four types of clinging have craving as their source, craving as their origin, they are born and produced from craving. This passage is stated to show how clinging is to be abandoned. Clinging is traced back to its root-cause in ignorance, and then the destruction of ignorance is shown to be the means to eradicate clinging.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.162; 1196).

The Tathāgata, the perfectly self-enlightened One, liberated by nonclinging (anupādā vimutto) through disgust for five aggregates, through its fading away and cessation, is called perfectly self-enlightened one. A monk liberated by wisdom, liberated by nonclinging through disgust for five aggregates, through its fading away and cessation, is called one liberated by wisdom, who does not cling to five aggregates and who is liberated from defilements - (S.III: pp.65-66).

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The Āneñjasappāyasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains that with clinging (saupādāno) one does not attain Nibbāna. ‘Upādāna, “clinging”, also designates the fuel which a fire consumes. Thus, consciousness continues on in the round of rebirths so long as it is sustained by the fuel of clinging. When the defilements are extinguished, there is no more fuel for consciousness to burn, and thus the bhikkhu without clinging “goes out” with the attainment of Nibbāna. – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.1317).

Gradual eradication of upādāna starts from the stage of stream-entry and culminates in the eradication of taṇhā, by attaining the fruit of Arahantaship. ‘Because of the ignorance (avijjā) of the Four Noble Truths, one keeps on doing volitional actions or any sort of kamma, by body, speech, or mind. These kammic actions are the formations (saṅkhārā), and they mature in to states of consciousness (viññāṇa): first as the rebirth-consciousness and thereafter as the passive state of consciousness resulting from kamma that matures in the due course of life. Along with viññāṇa there arises nāmarūpa which has six sense fields. By means of the sense faculties, contact takes place between consciousness and the respective objects, and contact conditions feeling. Linked to this stage are the products of past kamma. With the next link of craving the kammically active phase of the present life begins, consequently leading to a new existence in the future. Conditioned by feeling, craving (taṇhā) arises, this being the second noble truth. When craving intensifies, it gives rise to clinging (upādāna), through which, one again keeps rolling in volitional actions, potential to renewal existence (bhava). The new existence begins with birth and leads to death. Due to the arising of vijjā, full penetration of the Four Noble Truths, avijjā is uprooted. Consequently, the mind no longer indulges in taṇhā and upādāna - craving and clinging, action loses its potential to generate rebirth, and deprived thus of its fuel, the round comes to an end. This is the cessation of suffering, the third noble truth’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.30, 31).

Sayagyi U Ba Khin opines that: ‘Since anything which is the root cause of one’s own physical and mental ills is samudaya can be removed by the nibbāna dhatu which one generates in true Buddhist meditation, we make no distinction between this or that disease. One aspect of meditation is samudaya pahātabba, which literally means ‘for the removal of the causes of suffering.’ – (VRI. 1994: p.62).

4.3.1 - The Third Noble Truth

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In this section we will try to understand the Third Noble Truth from the point of cessation and the state of cessation of perception and feeling. Cessation of suffering is the Third Noble Truth. It can be understood from two angles. The first angle is of [it is] the state of unformed, which is permanent, happy or bliss, and non-self. It is the state of Deathless, Aambrosia, ultimate truth, freedom, release - the Nibbāna. Another angle is who and how can one dwell in this state; and the answer is the Arhanta and Non-returner can dwell in this state by attaining the state of the cessation of perception and feeling. To study closely these two angles of the Third Noble Truth, I have dealt with them in two separate sub-sections, namely, cessation (Nibbāna) and the state of cessation of perception and feeling (Saññāvedayitanirodha).

Dukkha-nirodha or Nirodhasacca - Nibbāna

The Mahā-Satipaṭṭhāna Suttanta of the Dīghanikāya describes the nirodhasacca:

‘It is the complete fading-away and extinction of this craving, its forsaking and abandonment, liberation from it, detachment from it79.’ - (Walshe Maurice. 2012: p.347.). The Sumaṅgalavilāsinī states that it is an epithet of Nibbāna. - (Sv.III: p.800). Hence, freedom, liberation, release from suffering is nibbāna.

Nibbāna is not mere, or sheer, annihilation, nor is it merely the destruction of defilements and extinction of existence. Regarding Nibbāna it is said in the Udāna that, ‘There is an unborn, unbecome, unmade, unconditioned,’ the existence of which makes possible ‘escape from the born, become, made, and conditioned.’ ‘Nibbāna is described as, ‘unborn, unageing, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, undefiled supreme security from bondage.’ Pre-eminent actuality, reality of Nibbāna the supreme foundation of truth, is emphasized by the Buddha, its nature is undeceptive, and is the paramaṃ ariyasaccaṃ - supreme Noble Truth. - (M.III: p.245; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.31,32).

In the Saṃyuttanikāya thirty-two synonyms are used for the Taintless namely: the truth, far shore, subtle, unaging, stable, unmanifest, peaceful, deathless, auspicious, nibbāna, release, shelter, refuge and so on. - (S.IV: pp.369-373).

79Yo tassāyeva taṇhāya asesavirāganirodho cāgo paṭinissaggo mutti anālayo. - (D.II: p.310).

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The Ariyapariyesanāsutta of the Majjhimanikāya reads: ‘It is hard to see this truth, namely, the stilling of all formations, the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the destruction of craving, dispassion, Nibbāna80.’ – (Bodhi Bikkhu. 2009: p.260.).

Sayagyi U Ba Khin in one of his lectures says: ‘To become an ariya means to grasp the true essence of the elements of nibbāna and to be free from mental difilements. The realization of nibbāna is becoming a new being, changing from an ordinary worldling to a noble being. – (VRI. 1994: p.68).

On another occasion Sayagyi U Ba Khin explained the state of Nibbāna as: ‘Noble disciples gain access to the state of peace called fruition, the supramundane consciousness in relation to the peace of nibbāna, where no feeling can be aroused through any of the sense centres. At this time, body posture becomes erect. This state is one of perfect physical and mental calm; the peace of nibbāna is the highest bliss’. - (Kornfield Jack. 2007: p.259).

Opinion of T.W. Rhys Davids and Bhikkhu Bodhi

Opinion of both of these Scholars with regard to the obvious contrast in the canon is very important. It raises an unsolved question of whether the states of pure consciousness (viññāṇ), or the Great soul (Parmātmā), and Nibbāna are one and the same? i) The Kevaddhasutta of the Dīghanikāya reads, ‘A monk thinks where do the four great elements cease without reaminder? The Buddha revised that question as, where do the four great elements find no foothold? And then he answers it as, ‘viññāṇaṃ anidassanaṃ anantaṃ sabbatopabhaṃ (Same verse partly occurs in M.I: p.330.); ettha āpo ca pathavi tejo vāyo na gādhati.’ - (D.I: pp.215,222). The intellect of Arahantaship, the invisible, the endless, accessible from every side, - there it is that the four great elements find no foothold (Rhys Davids T.W. 2007: p.273) - T.W. Rhys Davids in the Introduction to ‘Kevaddhasutta further says that, “The problem put is of great interest; and goes to the very core of the Buddhist philosophy. ‘The world, as we know it, is within each of us’.

‘Verily, I declare to you, my friend, that within this very body, mortal as it is, and only a fathom high, but conscious and endowed with a mind, is the world, and the waxing thereof, and the waning thereof, and the way that leads to the passing away thereof. (Anguttara ll, 48; Samyutta l, 62). This is similar, to western literature - Schopenhauer’s saying, ‘one can also say that

80 Idampi kho ṭhānaṃ duddasaṃ yadidaṃ - sabbasaṅkhārasamatho sabbūpadhipaṭinissaggo taṇhākkhayo virago nirodho nibbānaṃ. – (M.I: p.168).

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Kant’s teaching leads to the view that the beginning and the end of the world are not to be sought without, but within, us’.

The problem, as put by the Bhikkhu to the gods, is: ‘Where do the elements pass away?’ The Buddha, in giving his solution, first says, ‘This is not the right way to put the question. It ought to be: ‘where do the elements find no foothold? Where does that union of qualities takes place that make a person (nāma-rupa) pass away?’ The alteration is suggestive. The person should be introduced; a thinking being. We only know of the elements and their derivatives, as reflected in, constructed by, human intelligence. To the question, as thus altered, the answer is: ‘they find no foothold in the mind of the Arhat, and when intellection (with special reference to the representative faculty) ceases, then they, and the person with them, cease’. So, in the Bāhiya story (Ud. l, 10) we are told:

“There, where earth, water, fire, and wind no footing find,

There are the nights not bright, nor suns resplendent,

No moon shines there, there is no darkness seen.

And then, when he, the Arhat hath, in his wisdom, seen;

From well and ill, from form and formless, is he freed’!

This is a striking, and in all probability intentional, contrast, to the Upanişad passages, where the same kind of language is used of the Great soul, the corollary of the human soul. It is one of many instances where the same expressions, used in the Pitakas of the Arhat, are used in the older or later priestly speculation of God.

We have another reference regarding the view that the four elements find no foothold in the Arhat at ‘Samyutta l, 15’. And we see what is meant by this verse 1111 in the ‘Sutta Nipāta’: ‘To him who harbours no delight in feelings that arise, either from within or without, cognition - ‘viññāṇa’ tends to wane’. That is, of course, not that his mental activity grows less – the alertness of the Arhat, is stressed upon throughout the books. The picture drawn of the Arhat par excellence, the Buddha himself, is a standing example of what the early Buddhists considered a man to be in whom the ‘Viññāṇa’ had waned. Whatever else it is, it is the very reverse of a man intellectually asleep, unconscious of what is said to him, dull to ideas. But it is the picture of a man to whom the four elements, and all that follows from them, material

164 things, and the ways in which they affect him, have ceased to have the paramount importance they have to the thoughtless. ii) The Brahmanimantanikasutta of the Majjhimanikāya reads, ‘Viññāṇaṃ anidassanaṃ ananataṃ sabbato pabhaṃ’ - (M.I: p.330). ‘Consciousness non-manifesting, Boundless, luminous all-round.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.428; 1249). Bhikkhu Bodhi opines that ‘these lines have been a perennial challenge to Buddhist scholarship, and even Ācariya Buddhaghosa seems to founder over them.’

Magga and Phala

‘The breakthrough to the transcendental is achieved in four stages, each of which is subdivided into two: path (magga) and fruition (phala). By attaining first of these stages, one ceases to be mere ‘worlding’ (puthujjana) and becomes a noble person. The stages or ‘path-moments’ are designated in terms of the successive breaking of ten fetters.’ At the first stage, one ‘enters the stream’ and thus becomes a Stream-Winner by an experience also referred to as the ‘opening of the Dhamma-eye’. The first path-moment is immediately followed by the fruition (phala), and likewise with the other three paths. At First Path, one is said to have ‘glimpsed Nibbāna’, and thereby three of the five lower fetters are discarded for ever: Personality-belief, that is belief in self; Doubt; and attachment to rites and ritual. At the second stage, one becomes a Once-Returner, in whom the fourth and fifth lower fetters are greatly weakened: sensual desire and ill-will. At the third stage, one becomes a Non-Returner, in whom the fourth and fifth fetters are completely destroyed. Finally, at the fourth stage, one becomes an Arhant, by the destruction of the five higher fetters: craving for existence in the Form World; craving for existence in the Formless World; conceit; restlessness; and ignorance. (Walshe Maurice. 2012: p.26).

With regard to the single mind-moment known as path (magga), which is followed at once by its corresponding fruition (phal), Bhikkhu Bodhi has an opinion: ‘In the Nikāyas, no such tenet is discernible, at least not in this form. The Nikāyas call the crucial awakening experience the “breakthrough to the Dhamma” (dhammābhisamaya) or the “gaining of the Dhamma eye” (dhammacakkhupaṭilābha). The experience appears to be sudden, but it is not identified with the path as such nor is it said to last only a single mind-moment. Several suttas suggest, to the contrary, that the path is a temporally extended course of practice that becomes irreversible when the disciple enters “the fixed course of rightness” (okkanto sammattaniyāmaṃ). At that point the practitioner transcends the level of a worldling or ordinary person (puthujjana) and

165 becomes either a Dhamma follower (dhammānusāri) or a faith follower (saddhānusāri). While reaching the path guarantees realization of the fruit, the fruit does not necessarily arise a moment after entering the path. All that the texts (the Okkantasaṃyutta) say is that those who have entered the fixed course of rightness cannot pass away without realizing the fruit of stream-entry (S.III: pp.225-228). This implies that further practice, perhaps over days or weeks, may be needed to realize the fruit.

Once the path has arisen, the practitioner then “pursue this path, develops it, and cultivates it,” as a result of which “the fetters are abandoned, and the underlying tendencies are uprooted”. These expressions suggest that the path is an extended process of cultivation rather than an instantaneous event. Though the course of practice will be punctuated by sudden breakthrough attainments, the word “path” itself refers to the whole process of development rather than a momentary event, and fruit seems to be simply the attainment of the relevant stage of awakening, not a special contemplative experience. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.69).

Anupubbikathā a) In the Dīghanikāya and Majjhimanikāya, whenever someone has attained the path and fruit of stream-entry, the following description appears: ‘The exalted-one taught the step by step teaching of generosity, of morality, tales of heaven, of the danger in, lowliness and defilements of sense pleasure, and illustrated the advantages of renunciation. When the Exalted-one realised that his mind is prepared, softened, unhindered, joyful, clear; then he proclaimed the excellent/exalting teaching of the Buddhas’ as the doctrine of suffering, it’s arising, it’s cessation, the path leading to the cessation. And just as a washed cloth will easily take the dye, ‘Khanda and Tissa’ are obtained, even while sitting there, the pure and stainless vision/eye for the Truth as, ‘whatsoever is of the nature of arising, all that is of the nature of ceasing’. - (D.II: pp.40-44). b) In the Mahāpadānasutta of the Dīghanikāya a description of attainment of the path and fruit of Arhantaship after stream-entry is explained as, ‘Khanda and Tissa became monk and obtained ordination from the Exalted-one. Then the Exalted-one explained, incited/instigated, sharpened, and gladdened them with the teachings/dhamma; shown the danger, lowliness and defilements in the conditioned formations, and the advantages in the nibbana. They, having been thus explained, incited, sharpened and gladdened by the discourse, their mind immediately became free of intoxicants, without grasping’.

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The following observations can be concluded from the above-mentioned descriptions. From the passage a) – i) for the attainment of path and fruit of stream-entry, the abandoning of sense- pleasure and renunciation or detachment from sense pleasure is very essential, necessary requirement, or condition. It can be fulfilled by means of the first fine material absorption also. ii) The proper understanding of the four noble truths is also essential or a must, which is the right view. iii) The Mind should be prepared soft, joyful and clear; which can be possible by means of the generosity, morality, detachment from sense pleasure. iv)The achievement of vision of impermanence. These appear to be minimum requirements.

Similarly, from the passage b) - i) for the attainment of the path and fruit of Arhantaship, the abandoning of conditioned formations, and the mind being gladdened by the advantages of nibbāna or relinquishment, giving up (of the delusion of ‘I’). ii) Proper explanation of the dhamma teaching or guidance, incitement, and being gladdened by the Teacher is also important. iii) The achievement of freedom of the mind from intoxicants. It appears that in the Goenka-tradition both the steps of a) and b) are intermixed at the very beginning, to some extent.

The commentary explains all verbs sandassesi, samādapesi, samuttejesi, and sampahanasesi in detail. Sandassesi – it is two-fold i) To point out or explain the impermanence, suffering, non-self, the five aggregates, elements, spheres, conditioned origination, arising and passing of five aggregates of this world or of body and mind. ii) To point out hell, animal and so on, four planes, the result of merits, the planes of deities and Brahmas. Samādapesi – is used to show the cause to hold the virtuous doctrine as morality and so on. Samuttejesi – is used to show the disgust of this world and the world beyond. Sampahanasesi – is used to gladden, by explaining the great advantages of nibbāna. - (Sv. II: pp.472-473).

The Kīṭāgirisutta of the Majjhimanikāya reads: ‘Bhikkhus, I do not say that final knowledge is achieved all at once. On the contrary, final knowledge is achieved by gradual training, by gradual practice, by gradual progress’ (anupubbasikkhā, anupubbakiriyā, anupubbapaṭipadā). ‘Here one who has faith [in a teacher] visits him; when he visits him, he pays respect to him; when he pays respect to him, he gives ear; one who gives ear hears the Dhamma; having heard the Dhamma, he memorises it; he examines the meaning of the teachings he has memorised; when he examines their meaning, he gains a reflective acceptance of those teachings; when he has gained a reflective acceptance of those teachings, zeal springs up in him; when zeal has sprung up, he applies his will; having applied his will, he scrutinises; having scrutinised, he

167 strives; resolutely striving, he realises with the body the supreme truth and sees it by penetrating it with wisdom.’ The commentary says: With mental body he realises Nibbāna, the ultimate truth, and he penetrates it with the wisdom pertaining to the supramundane path. - (M.I:480; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.582-583, 1275).

Stages of freedom

To understand the concept of the Nibbāna, it is essential to study various stages of it. It is believed that the experience of freedom from suffering i.e. Nibbāna develops in stages or gradually. It is classified in the four main stages of the path, and four stages of the fruition states which are supermundane. These stages are stream-entry, once-returner, non-returner, and arahanta. We find mention of the various sub-stages also in the Saṃyuttanikāya - (S.V: pp.202- 203). Accordingly, there are eight Noble individuals (ariya-puggala).

‘The Supermundane Paht or ‘Path’ (magga), is a designation of the moment of entering into one of four stages of holiness – Nibbāna being the object – produced by intuitional Insight (vipassanā) into the impermanency, misery and impersonality of existence, flashing forth and for ever transforming one’s life and nature. By ‘fruition’ (phala) are meant those moments of consciousness, which follow immediately thereafter as the result of the Path, and which in certain circumstances may repeat for innumerable times during life-time.’ Through the path of Stream-Winning one ‘becomes’ free (whereas in realizing the fruition, one ‘is’ free) from the first three fetters of personality-belief, sceptical doubt, and attachment to mere rules and rituals. After the disappearance of these three fetters, the monk has won the Stream (to Nibbān) and is no more subject to rebirth in lower worlds, is firmly established, destined for full enlightenment.

Through the path of Once-Returning one becomes nearly free from the fourth and fifth fetters namely sensuous craving and Ill-will. He will return only once more to this world and having returned once he will put an end to suffering.

Through the Path of Non-Returning one becomes fully free from the above mentioned five lower fetters. Then he appears in a higher world, and there he attains Nibbāna without ever returning from that world (to the sensuous sphere).

Through the Path of Arahataship one further becomes free from the five higher fetters: Craving for Fine material existence, Craving for Immaterial existence, Conceit, Restlessness, and

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Ignorance. Through the Extinction of all cankers (āsava-kkhaya) he reaches already in this very life the deliverance of mind, the deliverance through wisdom, which is free from cankers, and which he himself has understood and realized.’ - (Nyanatiloka. 1987: p.21).

Seven noble-individuals

The Kīṭāgirisutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains the seven types of persons.81 Here follows a sevenfold classification of noble individuals which categorises them not merely on the basis of their path and fruit attainment, but according to their dominant faculty. The sevenfold classification or grouping of the noble disciples is as follows: 1) ‘One who is liberated in both ways’ (Ubhatobhāgavimutto), because he is liberated from the physical body by the immaterial attainments and from the mental body by the path (of arahantship).

2) ‘One who is released by wisdom’ (Paññāvimutto). This includes those who attain arahantship either as dry-insight meditators (sukkah-vipassaka) or after emerging from one or another of the four fine-material absorptions (jhānas).

3) ‘Body-witness’ (Kāyasakkhi). This is the one who first contacts the immaterial attainments and subsequently realises Nibbāna.

4) ‘One who attained-to-view’ (Diṭṭhipatto). One who does not possess immaterial attainments, but some of his taints are destroyed by his seeing with wisdom. He has reviewed and examined wih wisdom the teachings proclaimed by the Buddha.

5) ‘One who is liberated by faith’ (Saddhāvimutto). One who does not possess immaterial attainments, but some of his taints are destroyed by his seeing with wisdom. His faith is planted, rooted, and established in the Buddha.

6) ‘Dhamma-follower’ (Dhammānusāri). One who does not possess immaterial attainments, and his taints are not yet destroyed by his seeing with wisdom, but those teachings proclaimed by the Buddha are accepted by him after reflecting on them sufficiently with wisdom.

7) Faith-follower’ (Saddhānusāri). One who does not possess immaterial attainments, and his taints are not yet destroyed by his seeing with wisdom, yet he has sufficient faith in and love for the Buddha.

Dhammānusāri and Saddhānusāri both are endowed with the first path of stream-entry. Kāyasakkhi, Diṭṭhipatto and Saddhā-vimutto are obtained at six stages of the path and fruition.

81 Similar type of brief discussion is found in the Bhaddālisutta – (M.I: p.440).

169

Ubhatobhāga-vimutto and Paññā-vimuto both are endowed with the fruition of Arahanta. – (M.I: pp.477-480; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.581-583,1274, 1275).

Ubhatobhāga-vimutto - the monk, adherent of wisdom as an axis, who having acquired eight attainments, reaches the ‘path of stream-entry’, at that moment he is called Dhammānusāri; with the ‘fruition of stream-entry upto the path of Arahata’, at these six places, he is called Kāyasakkhi; and at the moment of the ‘fruition of the Arahata’ he is called Ubhatobhāga- vimutto, that is, he is released by both ways of vikkhambhana-vimutti - release as suppression due to the attainments and samuccheda-vimutti - release as uprooting due to the path.

Paññā-vimutto - the monk, adherent of wisdom as an axis, who cannot acquire the attainments, who having become sukkha-vipassaka the practitioner of dry-insight, reaches the ‘path of stream-entry’, at that moment he is called Dhammānusāri; with the ‘fruition of stream-entry up to the path of Arhata’at these six places he is called Diṭṭhippatto; and at the moment of the ‘fruition of the Arahata’ he is called Paññā-vimutto.

The monk, adherent of faith as an axis, who having acquired eight attainments reaches the ‘path of stream-entry’, at that moment he is called Saddhānusārī; with the ‘fruition of stream-entry up to the path of Arahata’ at these six places he is called Kāyasakkhi; and at the moment of the ‘fruition of the Arahata’ he is called Ubhatobhāga-vimutto.

The monk, adherent of faith as an axis, who cannot acquire the attainments, who having become sukkha-vipassaka the practitioner of dry-insight, reaches the ‘path of stream-entry’ at that moment he is called Saddhānusāri; with the ‘fruition of stream-entry up to the path of Arhata’at these six places he is called Saddhā-vimutto; and at the moment of the ‘fruition of the Arahata’ he is called Paññā-vimutto.

The sub-commentary of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains ‘Paññā-vimutto’ti samathasannissayena vinā aggamaggapaññāya vimutto, tenāha Sukkha-vipassaka-khiṇāsavo’ti. – Paññāvimutto (one released by wisdom) is the One who is released by means of the wisdom of the highest path, without the support of samatha - calmness of attainments. The commentary says, ‘Dhammaṃ anussaratīti dhammānusāri.’ Dhamma-follower is one who remembers the doctrine. The sub-commentary explains ‘remembers the doctrine’ means remembers the dhamma known as the wisdom of the first path - (Dhammaṃ anussaratīti paṭhamamaggapaññāsaṅkhātaṃ dhammaṃ anussarati.’). It futher says, dhamma-follower means the one who remembers the stream of the noble-path by means of the dhamma known

170 as wisdom – (Dhammānusāri nāma paññāsaṅkhātena dhammena ariyamaggasotassa anussaraṇato. – (Mp-ṭ. II: pp.38,39).

The commentary says, Ubhatobhāgavimutto is ‘liberated-in-both-ways’ because he is liberated from the physical body by the immaterial attainments and from the mental body by the path of arahantship. These are five types, out of these, four types of persons who attain arahantaship after emerging from either of the four respective immaterial attainments and one person attains it after emerging from the attainment of cessation (nirodhā vuṭṭhāya arahattaṃ patta- anāgāmino). Paññāvimutto are five types of persons who attain arahantaship. One is an Arahanta who attains it by practising dry-insight (sukkhavipassako) and four persons who emerge from four fine material absorptions respectively and attain arahantaship. - (Ps.III: pp.188-189).

Four noble disciples or recluses

The Aṅguttaranikāya classifies the noble disciples in a different way in four categories: ‘There are four persons in the world. a) The ascetic unshaken (samaṇamacalo), a trainee who has entered the path and aspiring for welfare. b) The white-lotus ascetic (samaṇapuṇdarika), one who has destroyed the mental intoxicants, has realized the release by mind and release by wisdom is free from the mental intoxicants, but does not dwell experiencing the eight deliverances. - (A.II: pp.87-88; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.468). This description is similar to that of sukkha-vipassaka-khīṇāsava, who does not have eight attainments and ‘abhiññā’. - (Mp.III: pp.113-114). c) The red-lotus ascetic – (samaṇapadumo), one who has destroyed the mental intoxicants, has realized the release by mind and release by wisdom is free from the mental intoxicants, and dwells experiencing the eight deliverances. The commentary explains the samaṇapadumo is the same as ubhatobhāgavimuttam khīṇāsavo. - (Mp.III: pp.113-114). d) A delicate ascetic among ascetics – (samaṇesu samaṇasukhumālo) - one who has every blessing in this very life and is absolutely happy. He attains four fine material absorptions at will, without difficulty and without trouble.

Bhikkhu Bodhi opines that ‘the commentators hold that the paññāvimutta arahant can possess any number among the four jhānas or no jhāna at all; only the latter is a dry-insight arahant. The dry-insight arahant (sukkhavipassakakhiṇāsava) is not explicitly mentioned as such in the Nikāyas but first gains recognition in the commentaries. … In any case, the difference in the definitions between the wisdom-liberated arahant and the white-lotus arahant suggests that at

171 some point a shift had taken place in the scale of meditative attainments that was expected of an arahant. While the arahant liberated by wisdom lacks only the fromless attainments, the white-lotus arahant, on the interpretation offered by the commentators, lacks the jhānas as well.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.469,1695).

Saññāvedayitanirodha

Nature of the state

Only a Non-returner and an Arhanta can attain this stage after the achievement of four fine material absorptions and four immaterial attainments in sequence (anupubbavihāra) or the eight deliverances (aṭṭhavimokkha).

‘This state always follows the last immaterial attainment it is not merely a higher step in the scale of concentration. Strictly speaking, the attainment of cessation pertains neither to serenity nor to insight. It is a state reached by the combined power of serenity and insight, in which all mental processes are termporarily suspended. The attainment is said to be accessible only to non-returners and arahants who have also mastered the jhānas and immaterial states’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.41).

Most of the discourses of the Majjhimanikāya related to the attainment of the ‘cessation of perception and feeling’ explain in sequence the four fine material absorptions and four immaterial attainments prior the attainment of saññāvedayitanirodha. – (M. I: p.160, 175, 204, 210; M.I: pp.400, 456; M.III: pp.29, 45).

Excellent, ultimate happiness -

The experience of happiness in this state is more pleasant and more excellent than the earlier step, starting from the sense pleasure, first absorption, to the eighth absorption. In this context, the Buddha said to Ananda that there is possibility of comments by the other sects as ‘The recluse Gotama speaks of the cessation of perception and feeling, and he describes that as pleasure. What is this, and how is this?’ Wanderers of other sects who speak thus should be told: ‘Friends, the Blessed One describes pleasure not only with reference to pleasant feeling; rather, friends, the Tathāgata describes as pleasure any kind of pleasure wherever and in whatever way it is found.’ The commentary reads: ‘Both felt pleasure and unfelt pleasure are found (the latter being the pleasure pertaining to the attainment of cessation). The Tathāgata

172 describes both as pleasure in the sense that they are without suffering (niddukkhabhāva).’ – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.505; 1262).

Different aspects in the canon

As mentioned above the Majjhimanikāya suttās mention the ‘state of cessation of perception and feeling’ only after the eight attainments. The Dīghanikāya suttās, except the Poṭṭhapādasutta, also mention the ‘state of cessation of perception and feeling’ after the eight attainments. Whereas, some suttās of the Saṃyuttanikāya and the Aṅguttaranikāya present the attainment of the ‘cessation of perception and feeling’ in a different way.

The Devatā-Saṃyutta mentions that when god asks the Buddha how beings can be liberated, in reply, Buddha says:

Nandībhavaparikkhayā, saññāviññāṇasaṅkhayā, vedanānaṃ nirodhā upasamā

evaṃ khvāhaṃ, āvuso, jānāmi sattānaṃ nimokkhaṃ pamokkhaṃ vivekanti.

‘By the utter destruction of delight in existence, By the extinction of perception and consciousness, By the cessation and appeasement of feelings: It is thus, friend, that I know for beings – Emancipation, release, seclusion.’ - (S.I: p.2; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.90).

The commentary says, magga for the nimokkha, phala for the pamokkha and nibbāna for the viveka. It further says all three refers to the nibbāna. – (Spk.I: p.21). This Sutta explains the nibbāna in a very similar manner to the explanation of the nibbāna in the Goenka-tradition. May be this is the link between the concept of nibbāna and saññāvedayitanirodha. Similar explanation of the nibbāna as the cessation of sensations is mentioned in the Samādhisutta, and the sukhasutta of the Vedanāsaṃyutta, and the sutta of the Aṅguttaranikāya. – (S.IV: pp.205- 206; A.III: pp.413-414).

The cessation of de-meritorious intentions is mentioned at the attainment of the first absorption. The Samaṇamuṇdikasutta of the Majjhimanikāya mentions the cessation of the perception of sense pleasure, the perception of malevolence, and the perception of cruelty. According to the commentary it is the non-returner stage reached through first absorption (anāgāmiphala pathamajhānaṃ) – (Ps.III: p.270). The cessation of meritorious intentions is mentioned at the attainment of second absorption. The discourse mentions the cessation of the perception of renunciation, the perception of non-malice, and the perception of non-cruelty. According to the commentary it is the stage of arahant - (Ps.III: p.270). In general, it implies that the right

173 intention is associated with the first two absorptions. It is also clear from the discussion about the cessation of perceptions of sense pleasure, the perception of renunciation and so on, that the process of cessation of perception (saññā-nirodha) starts gradually, right from the attainment of the first absorption. It is also made clear in the Poṭṭhapādasutta. The Cūḷavedallasutta also explains that when a monk is attaining the cessation of perception and feeling, first the speech formation ceases (applied and sustained thought cease first in the second absorption), then the bodily formation ceases (breathing ceases next in the fourth absorption), and then the mental formation ceases (at the end, mental formation stops).

The Upādānaparipavattasutta and the Sattaṭṭhānasutta of the Khndhasaṃyutta explains that, ‘Monks, so long as I had not gained insight into the true nature of these five aggregates of grasping in their fourfold aspects so long did I not admit to the world with its devas, Māras, brahmās, and to the world of human beings and so on, that I had attained and realized rightly by myself the perfect enlightenment.’ These fourfold aspects are: insight into [the true nature of] corporeality, insight into the origin of corporeality, the cessation of corporeality, and the path leading to the cessation of corporeality. The same way it is explained for the remaining four aspects of the five aggregates of feeling, perception and so on. It further explains that there are four great elements and the material properties dependent on these four great elements, and the six feelings and six perceptions etc. Then, it explains how they conditionally arise, and how they cease. The fourth aspect is explained as the path that leads to the cessation of corporeality, feeling, perception and so on [same as the Eightfold Noble Path ie the eight factors of the path]. It indicates that with practice of the right concentration i.e. four fine material absoptions alone or with the attainment of arahantaship one can attain the cessation of corporeality, feeling and perception etc. – (S.III: pp.59-66).

The Poṭṭhapādasutta discusses the cessation of saññā (abhisaññānirodha). According to the commentary it is the cessation of citta, consciousness (mind). In a being forms of perception arise and cease due to reason and cause. A certain form of perception arises through discipline or practice and a certain form of perception ceases through discipline.82 Here, in the explanation of discipline the three higher trainings in morality, concentration and wisdom are mentioned. Initially first seven absorptions are described wherein, in the first absoption the perception of pleasures of the senses ceases. In the second absorption, the perception of pīti and sukha born of detachment, ceases. Likewise, in the seventh sphere of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana),

82 Sahetū hi, Poṭṭhapāda, sapaccayā purisassa saññā uppajjantipi nirujjhantipi. Sikkhā ekā saññā uppajjati, sikkhā ekā saññā nirujjhati. – (D.I: p.180).

174 delicate and really-existing perception of the jhāna termed as ‘sphere of consciousness is infinite’ (viññānanañcāyatana) ceases. At that time there arises the delicate and really-existing perception of the jhāna termed as ‘nothingness’. This is the supreme form of perception. In this way, a certain form of perception arises and ceases through discipline. The Sutta further explains how nirodha samāpatti or the cessation of perception and feeling is attained. One does not want to lose this delicate perception of the jhāna ‘sphere of nothingness’. Hence, he does not want to strive for the higher neither-perception-nor-non-perception jhāna. In that monk who neither tries to get absorbed in it nor strives for the higher jhāna, that perception of ‘neither-perception-nor-non-percetpion’ ceases (after arising for one or two thought moments), and no other froms of perceptions which are gross arise. In this way, the cessation of perception (nirodhasamāpatti) is attained step by step by the one who has insight knowledge (anupubbābhisaññānirodha-saṃpajāna-samāpatti).83

The President of Burma Piṭaka Assication, U Nu explains that, Nirodhasamāpatti means the cessation of mind, mental concomitants and matter caused by mind. It can be achieved by means of an appropriate practice. Only ariyas who have either anāgāmi magga or arahatta magga and aṭṭha samāpattis can achieve it. Nirodhasamāpatti can be achieved in the human, deva and rūpa brahmā bhūmis, where beings have five khandas. One tries to achieve it, because one wants to be relieved of dukkha caused by impermanent nature of the mind. As soon as one comes out of the state of nirodha samāpatti, the anāgāmi would gain anāgāmi phala and the arahant would gain arahanta phala. – (Burma Piṭaka Association Publication. 1984: pp.541- 546).

U Nu opines that: The practice of ānāpāna is not conducive to the attainment of the immaterial absorptions. This is clear from the following quotation: ‘Even though ānāpāna can take the yogī up to the fourth rūpa jhāna, this jhāna is not good enough for the yogī to move up to the arūpa jhānas. Therefore, the yogī must not use ānāpāna bhāvanā, if he plans to move up to the four arūpa jhānas.’ - (Burma Piṭaka Association Publication. 1984: p.543). In this context, a peculiar thing is observed in the discourses of the Majjhimanikāya which explain the state of

83According to the commentary, ‘Saṃpajānasaññānirodhasamāpattīti saṃpajānantassa ante saññā nirodhasamāpatti saṃpajānanatassa vā paṇditassa bhikkhuno saññānirodhasamāpattīti ayaṃ visesattho.’ – (Sv. II:374). The sub-commentary says, ‘saṃpajānantassāti taṃ taṃ samāpattiṃ samāpajjitvā vuṭṭhāya tattha tattha saṅkhārānaṃ sammasanavasena pajānantassa. Anteti yathāvuttāya nirodhapaṭipattiyā pariyosāne. Dutiyavikappe saṃpajānantassāti saṃpajānakārinoti attho, ten nirodhasamāpajjanakassa bhikkhuno ādito paṭṭhāya sabbapāṭihārikapaññāya saddhiṃ atthasādhikā paññā kiccato dassitā hoti, tenāha “paṇditassa bhikkhuno” ti. – (Sv-ṭ. I: p.328).

175 the cessation of perception and feeling that, before the practice of the first four fine material absorptions, there is no mention of the practice of ānāpānassati. These discourses do not mention the usual steps of gradual training before the description of the four fine material absorptions. Rather, these steps of gradual training or the practice of ānāpāna before the development of the four fine material absorptions appear in many other discourses - (M. I: pp.182, 274-275; M. I: p.347, M. II: pp.162-163; M.II: pp.226-227, M.III: pp.4, 35, 89). It shows that generally practice of ānāpānassati is not recommended in the process of attainment of the cessation of perception and feeling. For the development of immaterial attainments, practice with kasiṇa as an object from the beginning, might be comparatively easy.

Opinion of the Daniel Stuart

The latest studies throw more light on the attainment of the state of cessation of perception and feeling. Daniel Stuart did the comparative study of the Pruşṭhapālasūtra of the (Mūla)Sarvāstivādin Dīrghāgam, Poṭṭhpādasutta of the Pāli Dīghanikāya and Chinese version of it. This study helps us to understand better the concept of the meditative attainment of cessation within the history of early Buddhism. The Sanskrit text gives primacy to the four dhyānas (ie four fine material absorptions) but posits the state of cessation of perception and feeling as its final goal, to be obtained directly from the fourth dhyāna. In the Pruşṭhapālasūtra after the fourth dhyāna, sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception is presented as a momentary transitional state. Then the state of cessation of perception and feeling is mentioned. Stuart also refered the Uppaṭipāṭikasutta and the Rahogatasutta of the Pāli Saṃyuttanikāya. He suggests three different ways to think about the Sanskrit text in relation to the Pāli and Chinese versions, and to the larger corpus of canonical texts dealing with the early practices of Buddhist meditation. One of the way suggested by him is: ‘The Sanskrit text represents an early textual tradition. Thus, the meditative experience of cessation of feeling was considered by some early Buddhist as the final goal of Buddhist practice – the experience of nirvāṇa in this life – to be entered from the fourth dhyāna. At the same time, the immaterial attainments were considered as the teachings of other groups, not suitable by Buddhists. These original elements were later brought together in the standard nine-fold graded practice (nava anupubbavihārasamāpatti) found in the Pāli and Chinese Nikāyas and Āgamas.’

In the discussion Stuart brings few points in focus as follows. He states that, ‘What the Pruşṭhapālasutra seems to indicate, however, is that there was likely a point in time when the

176 state of cessation was at least on a par with the realization of the Four Noble Truths as a model for describing the state (or processs in the case of the realization of the truths) of Buddhist liberation.’ Further he comments that, ‘It is particularly important to note that the third Noble Truth is also said to be a kind of cessation (nirodha). Here, however, we are speaking about a cessation of craving (taṇhā), which serves as the cause of suffering. The standard canonical notion is that suffering ceases when its cause, craving, ceases. It is possible that this formula was an attempt to psychologize the notion of cessation of perception and feeling, which would of course include the cessation of craving as well as any object of caving, within a discernment- oreinted system. Thus, I am inclined to allow for a rethinking of the historical constitution of the Four Noble Truths, one that leaves room for the possibility that the state of cessation was constitutive of rather than derivative of the Four Noble Truths formula – or what was perhaps originally a two Truths formula (dukkha and dukkhanirodha).’

At the conclusion he says that, ‘The evidence from the Pruşṭhapālasutra allows us to rethink the historical succession of doctrinal and practical developments and makes it explicit that a model of Buddhist practice that prioritized the attainment of cessation after the practice of the four dhyānas was quite possible one of the earliest Buddhist models of liberation.’ – (Stuart Daniel. 2013: pp.37, 43-45).

In this context, Anālayo also quotes the opinion of Stuart. With reference to the Dutiyakāmabhūsutta84 of the Cittasaṃyutta, Anālayo opines that ‘Not only full awakening, but also the attainment of cessation requires that the two supposedly different paths are combined. A discourse in the Saṃyutta-nikāya and its Saṃyutta-āgama parallel explicitly state to reach the attainment of cessation requires both tranquillity and insight. At this juncture, Anālayo also refers the Stuart in the following words: ‘As summed up by Stuart (2013: p.44) in a discussion of the attainment of cessation that, even though there may seem to be a ‘fundamental difference’ beween a mindless state of cessation and mindful realization of the Four Noble Truths, the practice said to lead to these states may very well have originally been singular.’ – (Anālayo. 2017: p.99).

As discussed above there are additional references of the Nimokkhasutta, of the Saṃyuttanikāya and the Upādānaparipavattasutta and the Sattaṭṭhānasutta of the Khandhasaṃyutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya in support to the opinion of Stuart. – (S.I:2; S.III:

84 Saññāvedayitanirodhasamāpattiyā kho, gahapati, dve dhammā bahūpakārā – samatho ca vipassanā cā’ti. – (S.IV: p.296).

177 pp.59-66). Further, we can trace some clues in the explanation of the seven persons dicussed in the Kiṭāgirisutta of the Majjhimanikāya. According to the description of the sutta regarding ubhatobhāgavimutto: ‘Some person contacts with the body and abides in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, transcending forms, and his taints are destroyed by seeing with wisdom.’ It describes the phenomena in accordance with the eight deliverances aṭṭhavimokkha. According to the commentary in the description of Ubhatobhāgavimutto (as discussed in the earlier section of this chapter) there are two components to it. Firstly, he is liberated from the physical body by the immaterial attainments. Secondly, he is liberated from the mental body by the path [of arahantaship]. – (M.I: pp.477-478; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.580,1274). This commentarial description and explanation of the Upādānaparipavattasutta and the Sattaṭṭhānasutta of the Khandhasaṃyutta indicates that Arhantaship is liberation from the mental body. The commentary of the Kiṭāgirisutta says Ubhatobhāgavimutta persons are of five types, out of these, four types of persons are those who attain arahantship after emerging from either of the four respective immaterial attainments and one type of person attains it after emerging from the attainment of cessation. Hence, out of these five arahants only one attains the state of cessation or eighth deliverance.

In the case of the ‘one liberated-by-wisdom’ (Paññāvimutto), the Kiṭāgirisutta says that, ‘some person does not contact with the body and abide in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, transcending [material]forms, but his taints are destroyed by his seeing with wisdom. The commentary of the Kiṭāgirisutta says paññāvimutta persons are of five types, out of these, four types of persons are those who attain arahantship after emerging from one or another of the four absorptions and one type of person attains arahantship as a dry-insight meditator (sukkah-vipassaka). Here, it merely indicates the possibility that these five arahants (liberated-by-wisdom) attain cessation not through eight deliverances. As discussed above by Stuart there is a possibility that the arhant who is liberated-by-wisdom after emerging from fourth absorption can attain the cessation. The early part of the text does not say that the state of cessation of perception and feeling is not possible after the fourth fine material absorption.

According to the Cūḷavedallasutta of the Majjhimanikāya and the Upādānaparipavattasutta, the Sattaṭṭhānasutta of the Khndhasaṃyutta the cessation of speech formation is possible after the second absorption, and the cessation of body formation is possible after attainment of the fourth fine material absorption. These suttās of the Khandhasaṃyutta explain the cessation of corporeality, feeling and perception after the fourth fine material absorption. The Mahāmālukyasutta etc of the Majjhimanikāya mentions that after the fourth absorption one

178 overcomes the perception of form or corporeality due to which one can practice immaterial attainments, or one can practice six or three higher knowledges (abhiññā) as mentioned in the Mahāassapursutta. Therefore, it seems that any arahant can practice or dwell in the state of cessation of perception and feeling, except the three types of persons of the Paññāvimutta (the sukkha-vipassaka and who practice first three absoptions only).

One very peculiar thing mentioned in the Mahācattārisakasutta of the Majjhimanikāya is that: ‘The path of the disciple in higher training possesses eight factors, the arahant possesses ten factors.’ The eight factors are factors of the Noble Eightfold Path ie right view, right intention and so on. The arahant possesses additional two factors of right knowledge and right deliverance (sammā ñāṇa, sammā vimutti). – (M.III: pp.76-77). Here, the term vimutti meaning deliverance, liberation, emancipation. It can be deliverance of mind and deliverance by wisdom (cetovimutti, paññāvimutti), or it can be one of the five deliverances, identical with five abandoning i.e. Nissaraṇa. The ‘abandoning by escape’ (nissaraṇapahāna) is identical with the ‘extinction and Nibbāna’ (nirodho nibbānaṃ). – (Nyanatiloka. 1987: pp.193,121). The term vimokkha meaning deliverance, liberation. The eighth deliverance is the cessation of perception and feeling. Here, both the terms are closely related to the arahantship. Hence, as mentioned in the Mahācattārisakasutta ‘the right deliverance’ sammāvimutti can be associated with the state of cessation of perception and feeling which can be practiced after the right concentration i.e. four fine material absorptions.

With this discussion I would like to put the essence of it in the following words. As we have seen in the chapter three sub-sections 3.3.10, 3.5.2 and 3.7.2 that Goenka tradition presents the description of Nibbāna as the cessation of perception and feeling. Tradition believes that the attainment of nirodhasamāpatti (ie saññāvedayitanirodha), which is another name for the state of nibbāna, is possible by undergoing the first four absorptions only. It describes the stage of nibbāna wherein body function stops, or body becomes as good as dead. (Tandon. 1995: pp.88, 101). This position of the Goenka-tradition, along with the relevant research of Stuart, suggests that the Goenka-tradition shows affinity to the textual tradition of the (Mula)Sarvāstivādin or what Stuart suggests ‘The Sanskrit text represents an early textual tradition’, rather than the Pāli Textual tradition.

With respect to the state of cessation of perception and feeling the suttās of the Dīghanikāya and Majjhimanikāya give an apparent impression that the attainment of saññāvedayitanirodha necessarily requires the practice of eight attainments (anupubbavihāra) or the practice of eight

179 deliverances. The Uppaṭipāṭikasutta of the Indriyasaṃyutta (S.V: pp.213-215) exceptionally describes the attainment of the saññāvedayitanirodha after the four fine material absorptions. The Upādānaparipavattasutta, the Sattaṭṭhānasutta of the Khandhasaṃyutta (S.III: pp.59-66), and the Nimokkhasutta of the Devatāsaṃyutta (S.I.i:2) indicate that the state of nibbāna and the state of saññāvedayitanirodha are similar in nature. The Rahogatasutta of the Vedanāsaṃyutta (S.IV: p.217) also supports the stand point of the attainment of saññāvedayitanirodha after the four fine material absorptions. The Dutiyakāmabhūsutta (S.IV: pp.293-296) of the Cittasaṃyutta explains that the state of serenity and insight are very helpful to attain the state of saññāvedayitanirodha. It does not mention about the four immaterial attainments. This stand point of the Pāli textual tradition is supported by the various studies of the academicians.

4.4 - The Fourth Noble Truth – The Noble Eightfold Path

In this section, initially I will discuss general aspect of the Path or Paṭipadā, classification, nature and function of it. Then, in the three separate sections path factors will be dicussed under the classification of Sīla, Samādhi and Paññā. The intention behind it is to understand the intricacies between the Noble Eightfold Path and its’ interpretation or classification into these three aspects of Sīla, Samādhi and Paññā. These sections reveal the subtle, delicate and important role of the traditions of meditation practice in the development of the path.

Sayagyi U Ba Khin commented on the Path: ‘Of these Four Noble Truths, the noble path (magga sacca) which constitutes the Eightfold Path is of the utmost importance. Although the Buddha delivered eighty-four thousand discourses, as occasions arose during the forty-five years of his ministry, the basic practical aspect of his teaching is the Eightfold Noble Path.’ He further said: ‘Whoever is desirous of undergoing a course of training in Buddhist meditation must go along the Noble Eightfold Path. This Noble Eightfold Path was laid down by the Buddha in his first sermon to the five ascetics (pañca vaggiya) as a means to the end, and all that is necessary for the student is to follow strictly and diligently the three steps of sīla, samādhi, and paññā, which form the essence of the said Noble Eightfold Path.’ He very confidently stated: ‘As soon as sīla, samādhi and paññā – with paññā as the leading factor – are properly combined in practice, one is sure to reach the noble path. If one has not reached the path, it is because sīla, samādhi and paññā are not yet properly balanced. The path prepared

180 with these three aspects of practice, is the revolutionary path of the Buddha. – (VRI. 1994: pp.69,56).

The Noble Eightfold Path is explained in detail in the Saccavibhṅgasutta and the Mahācattārisakasutta of the Majjhimanikāya. The first sutta gives a factorial analysis of the eight components of the path. The latter sutta expounds the path from a different angle under the rubric of ‘noble right concentration with its support and its requisites.’ The Buddha there makes the important distinction between the mundane and supramundane stages of the path, defines the first five factors for both stages, and shows how the path factors function in unison in the common task of providing an outlet from suffering. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.32).

In the discourse of the Dhammacakkapavattanasutta, the Buddha explains Noble Eight-fold Path as the Middle Path (Majjhimā Paṭipadā): The Tathāgata has seen with eyes of wisdom and knowedge the Middle Path, by avoiding both the extremes of sense pleasure and self- mortification, which leads to calming down defilements, for indepth knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, for the enlightenment, for the emancipation.

How one can venerate, worship the Tathāgata is explained in the Dīghanikāya: ‘Monks and lay disciples, who dwell practising the teaching properly, and perfectly fulfils the Dhamma-way, can be deemed to honour, venerate, and worship the Tathāgata with highest regard’ - (D.II: p.138). Practicing the teaching is to walk on the Path leading to the cessation of suffering - Dukkhanirodha-gāmini-paṭipada. Paṭipadā is a path, a mode of progress. This is the entire holi life, that is, good friendship, good companionship, good comradeship (kalyāṇamittatā, kalyāṇasahāyatā, kalyāṇasampavaṅkatā) - (S.I: p.88). Because of this good friendship etc., one follows the Noble Eight-fold Path and one beomes vigilant in acquiring merits.

Paṭipadā and Bodhipakkhiya dhammā

The word ‘paṭipadā’ is ‘paṭi + pada’ i.e. ‘means of reaching a goal or destination’, path, way, means, method, mode of progress. It is quāsi synonym of ‘magga’ with which it is frequently combined. - (Rhys Davids T.W., Stede William.1997). It appears number of times in the text in the sense of path, ‘dukkhanirodha-gāmini-paṭipadā’.

The Mahāsakuludāyisutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains nineteen types of mode of progress (Paṭipadā), and thereby many disciples dwell having reached the consummation and perfection of direct knowledge (abhiññāvosāṇapārmippattā). The commentary explains that, with the practice of ten types, the disciples dwell in the fruition state of arahantaship

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(abhiññāvosāṇapārmippattā), and with the practice of remaining nine types, the disciple develops mastery by practice (ciṇṇavasībhāvāyeva) - (Ps.III: p.265). The ten types are nothing but thirty-seven states belonging to enlightenment, insight knowledge, and the knowledge of destruction of intoxicants. The nine types include eight deliverances, eight fields of mastery, and ten fields of object for meditation (kasiṇa), and five out of six special knowledge.

Paṭipadā classified under different categories

Paṭipadā a path or a mode of progress is mainly the practice of serenity and insight, but it can be classified into different categories based on faculties etc. Although the usual sequence of meditative training proceeds from concentration to wisdom, several suttas in the Aṅguttaranikāya show that practitioner can choose various routes to reach the world- transcending path. In the Paṭipadāvaggo of the Aṅguttaranikāya different modes of progress are explained mainly in three groups, consisting of four modes of progress in each group. The modes of progress in the first group are - a) the painful mode of progress with slow indepth knowledge (dukkhā paṭipadā dandhābhiññā); the painful mode with swift indepth knowledge (khippābhiññā); the happy mode of progress (sukhāpaṭipadā) with slow indepth knowledge; the happy mode with swift indepth knowledge.

Modes of progress in second group are - b) The mode of progress that is impatient (akkhamā); the mode of progress that is patient (khamā); the mode of progress that is restrained or tamed (damā); the mode of progress that is calmed (samā).

Modes of progress in third group are - c) One develops insight preceded by serenity; One develops serenity preceded by insight (Commentary reads ‘this is a person who naturally gains insight. Based on insight, he produces concentration.’); One develops serenity and insight in congruence; and One’s mind is seized by restlessness about the dhamma. The time comes when his mind becomes internally steady, composed, unified, and concentrated. – (A.II: pp.150-157).

According to the sub-commentary: Develops insight preceded by serenity – here serenity means first there arises proximity or complete concentration (upacārasamādhiṃ vā appanāsamādhiṃ vā uppādeti.). Insight means to observe as impermanent and so on, these states associated with that concentration. At first, this is serenity and later insight. Develops serenity preceded by insight – here without attaining serenity, he observes five aggregates as impermanent and so on. - (A. II: p.157; Mp-ṭ. II: p.314).

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In the first group, the term abhiññā (dandha and khippa) is used with reference to five faculties of saddhā, viriya etc. By means of these faculties one attains ānantariyaṃ or ānantarika samādhi, that is magga samādhi for the fruition state of Arahanta (āsavānaṃ khayāya).

According to the Paṭipadāvaggo, the distinction between the use of repugnant objects (such as impermanence in all conditioned phenomena - sabbasaṅkhāresu aniccānupassi) and the jhānas determines whether one attains nibbāna through exertion (sasaṅkhāraparinibbāyī) or without exertion (asasaṅkhāraparinibbāyī). The distinction between prominent faculties and feeble faculties determines whether one attains nibbāna in this very life (diṭṭheva dhamme) or with the break up of body (kāyassa bhedā). Commentary says that the first and second persons are dry-insight meditators (sukkhavipassakā) who attend to conditioned phenomena as their meditation object (saṅkhāranimittaṃ upaṭṭhapenti). Sasaṅkhārena is glossed with sappayogena, which means ‘through exertion’. The third and fourth persons are those who take serenity as their vehicle (samathayānikā). - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1706).

After analysing all the ten suttās of the Paṭipadāvagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya we can say that, ‘the painful mode of progress with slow indepth knowledge (dukkhā paṭipadā dandhābhiññā); and the painful mode with swift indepth knowledge (khippābhiññā);’ from the first group are related to the Goenka tradition, since one contemplates impermanence in all conditioned phenomena (sabbasaṅkhāresu aniccānupassi). The seventh sutta clarifies that the Ven. Mahamoggallana himself practiced the painful mode with swift indepth knowledge (yāyaṃ paṭipadā dukkha khippābhiññā imaṃ me paṭipadaṃ āgamma anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuttanti). Whereas ‘One’s mind is seized by restlessness about the dhamma. The time comes when his mind becomes internally steady, composed, unified, and cocentrated’ from the third group can be related to the Goenka tradition. Because Goenka explains, in the discourse of the long course, the ten corruptions of insight (dasa vipassanā upakkilesā) with respect to the dhammas. ‘A practitioner who reflects deeply on the Dhamma, acquires a sense of urgency, and then finally settles down and gains insight when meeting with favourable supporting conditions.’

With respect to the Yuganaddhaṃ bhāveti the third mode of progress in the third group, commentary says that each time he attains a meditative attainment (samāpatti), he explores it by way of its conditioned phenomena. And having explored its conditioned phenomena, he enters the next attainment. Thus, having attained the first jhāna, he emerges and explores its conditioned phenomena as impermanent, etc. Then he enters the second jhāna, emerges, and

183 explores its conditioned phenomena, and so on up to the base of neither-perception-nor-non- perception. Since, however, yuganaddha means literally “yoked together,” some interpret the term to mean that in this mode of practice serenity and insight occur simultaneously. The commentarial system does not acknowledge this possibility but several suttas of the Majjhimaniāya and Aṅguttaranikāya such as the Aṭṭhakanāgarasutta, the Mahāmālunkyasutta etc might be read as suggesting that insight can occur within the jhāna and does not require the meditator to withdraw before beginning contemplation. (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.1706-1707). It supports the tradition of Goenka, who mentions this aspect in the discourse of the long course.

The Aṅguttaranikāya explains the eight wonderful marvels in this discipline of dhamma. The first is: just as the mighty ocean gradually bent down, gradually slopes, gradually inclines, not dropping off abruptly; similarly, in this dhamma and discipline penetration to final knowledge occurs by gradual training (anupubbasikkhā), gradual action (anupubbakirīyā), gradual mode of practice (anupubbapaṭipadā), not abruptly. - (A.IV: p.201).

The Commentary says: gradual training means threefold training, the gradual action means thirteen ascetic practices (terasa dhutaṅgāni), the gradual mode of practice means seven thorough scrutinies or considerations (satta anupassanā), eighteen great-insights (aṭṭhārasa mahāvipassanā), thirty-eight divisions of sense-objects (aṭṭhatinsa ārammaṇavibhattiyo), thirty-seven states belonging to enlightenment (sattatinsa bodhipakkhiyadhammā). - (Mp. IV: pp.111-112). There is no penetration into arahantship all at once without having fulfilled virtuous behaviour etc like hopping of a frog.

The Asaṅkhatasaṃyutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya explains unconditioned as the destruction of lust, hatred and ignorance. According to this Saṃyutta, path leading to the unconditioned can be grouped in following ways: i) Mindfulness directed to the body (Kāyagatāsati). It supports Goenka tradition. ii) Serenity and insight. iii) Concentration with thought and examination; concentration without thought, with examination only; concentration without thought and examination. (It appears that the first three absorptions are of the five-fold absorption scheme). iv) The emptiness concentration, the signless concentration and undirected concentration. v) All thirtyseven states belonging to enlightenment. - (S.IV: pp.360-361).

Maggasacca – Dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā

Right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. This is the Noble Eightfold Path.

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Sammādiṭṭhi sammāsankappo sammāvācā sammākammanto sammāājivo sammāvāyāmo sammāsati sammāsamādhi.

Nature of the Path

The following verse explains briefly nature of the path:

‘To abstain from all evil, to cultivate merit,

To purify the mind totally, this is the teaching of the Buddhas.’ - (Dhammapada – verse no. 183).

This verse indicates the threefold nature of the path as Sīla, Samādhi and Paññā. This threefold classification appears in the Cūlavedallasutta of the Majjhimanikāya. There is a dialogue between Bhikkhuni Dhammadinnā and Visākha. Dhammadinnā explains what is identity (sakkāya) or five aggregates of grasping, in the framework of the Four Noble Truths and then Visākha asks questions related to identity view and dukkhanirodhagāminipaṭipadā. After mentioning the eight factors of the Noble Eight-fold Path, it is made clear that the Noble Eight- fold Path is conditioned (saṅkhato). At this juncture, the next question categoricaly asked by the Visakha is very important: ‘Lady, are the three aggregates (tayo khandhā – a body of training principles, the three divisions of Sīla, Samādhi, Paññā) included by the Noble Eight- fold Path, or is the Noble Eight-fold Path included by the three aggregates?’ The answer given by Dhammadinnā was: ‘The three aggregates are not included by the Noble Eight-fold Path, but the Noble Eight-fold Path is included by the three aggregates. Right speech, right action, and right livelihood- these states are included in the aggregate of virtue. Right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration – these states are included in the aggregates of concentration. Right view and right intention – these states are included in the aggregate of wisdom.’

The Dīghanikāya explains the Noble Eightfold Path or Four Noble Truths, as these states are certain to lead to Nibbāna (ekaṃsikā dhammā). It also says that the Buddha never answered the not designated (avyākata) questions, but it states: ‘Ascetic Gotama teaches a true, real, and correct way of practice, having the dhamma (supermundane states) as its basis, and which is enduring according to the dhamma85.’ The commentary explains the meaning of adjectives

85 Samaṇo Gotamo bhūtaṃ tacchaṃ tathaṃ paṭipadaṃ paññapeti Dhammaṭṭhitataṃ Dhammaniyāmataṃ. - (D.I: p.190).

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(bhūta, taccha and tatha) of the way (paṭipadā), as the way which is existant by nature or on its own (bhūtanti sabhāvato vijjamānaṃ). - (D. I: pp.190-191; Sv. II: p.378).

The Sumaṅgalavilāsinī explains functions of factors of the Eightfold Noble Path as follows: Each factor has three functions (kicca), as right view abandons wrong view of oneself along with so many other contrary defilements, makes cessation the object, and sees the disillusionment with associated states by way of demolishing an illusion which hinders it. (Sammādiṭṭhi tāva aññehipi attano paccanīkakilesehi saddhiṃ micchādiṭṭhiṃ pajahati, nirodhaṃ ārammaṇaṃ karoti, saṃpayuttadhamme ca passati tappaṭicchādaka-moha- vidhamana-vasena asammohato.) In this way, right intention etc, abandon wrong intention etc, and makes cessation the object, but here distinctively right intention implants the states born together. (Sammāsaṅkappādayopi tatheva micchāsaṅkappādīni pajahanti, nirodhañca ārammaṇaṃ karonti, visesato panettha sammāsaṅkappo sahajātadhamme anbhiniropeti.) Similarly, right speech explores (pariggaṇhāti) rightly. Right action raises/produces (samuṭṭhāpeti) rightly. Right livelihood purifies (vodāpeti) rightly. Right effort supports (paggaṇhāti) rightly. Right mindfulness serves (upaṭṭhāpeti) rightly. Right concentration strives (padahati) rightly. - (Sv. I: pp.313-315).

The Jaṃbukhādakasaṃyutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya explain various purposes of the Noble Eight-fold Path. Those can be grouped in the following manner: The Noble Eightfold Path is for (a) the realisation of - nibbāna; Arahantaship; consolation (assāsappatta); and supreme consolation. (When, a monk understands as it really is, the arising, passing away, gratification, danger, and escape in the case of six bases for contact, in this way he has attained consolation.) (b)Abandonment of – lust, hatred, and delusion or ignorance; the taints of sensuality, state of existance and ignorance; the craving for sense pleasure, for becoming, and for not-becoming; the flood of sensuality, of becoming, of view, and of ignorance; the grasping after sensuality view, ceremonial observances, theory of self. (c) For the full understanding of - the suffering; the three feelings - pleasant, painful and neutral; becoming in the sensual plane, fine material plane, and immaterial plane; suffering – the suffering caused by pain, caused by the conditioned formations, caused by the changeable nature of things; Identity (sakkāya), which are these five aggregates of grasping. - (S.IV: pp.252-262).

Since, the Goenka-tradition emphasizes the path as Sīla, Samādhi and Paññā, let us discuss the path in detail and step by step according to the threefold classification of Sīla, Samādhi and Paññā.

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4.4.1. - Sīla

This group of morality consists three factors of the Noble Eightfold Path: right speech, right action, and right livelihood (sammā vācā, sammā kammanto, and sammā ājivo). Though morality, concentration, and wisdom help each other in the process of the development of insight, morality lays a strong foundation of the path for the development of futher steps of concentration. Since, morality brings in happiness through sense-restraint, it starts building a foundation for concentration and insight.

Morality and happiness

The process of purification starts with the observance of morality ie Cessation of suffering starts with the observance of morality. One who is endowed with noble morality and contented, experiences within himself (ajjhattaṃ) a happiness that is blameless (anavajjasukhaṃ). One endowed with noble restraint of the senses, experiences within himself a happiness that is unsullied (abyāsekasukhaṃ). - (M.I: pp.346-347). By means of the reflection (paccavekkhana) of the actions of body, speech and mind - (M.I: pp.415-420), one expects to understand the actions done, so neither harmful to self nor to others nor to both; there are meritorious actions, they give happiness, and due to that, one may dwell in joy and delight training day and night in the meritorious states. Goenka explains the morality aspect in the discourses in this way.

Firm footing of morality

The Saṃyuttanikāya explains, with various similes, the importance of morality, virtues. Based upon virtue, established upon virtue, a monk develops and cultivates the Noble Eight-fold Path. By developing the Noble Eightfold Path, one develops all thirty-seven states belonging to enlightenment. By developing the noble eightfold path, the arisen de-meritorious states disappear and calm down. - (S.V: pp.46-48, 50-51).

The Saṃyutanikāya explains restraint of sense faculties (Indriyasaṃvaro), when developed and cultivated, fulfils the three kinds of good conduct. Establishing in morality is the base for development of the seven factors of enlightenment. It states: ‘Having contacted an agreeable sense object with the respective senses, a monk does not long for it, or become excited by it, or generate lust for it. His body is steady, and his mind is steady, inwardly well composed and well liberated. But having seen a disagreeable sense object with the respective senses, he is not dismayed by it, not daunted, not dejected, without ill will. His body is steady, and his mind is

187 steady, inwardly well composed and well liberated.’ Thus, it is well liberated with respect to both agreeable and disagreeable. Then his restraint of the sense faculties has been developed and cultivated in such a way that it fulfils the three kinds of good conduct. The three kinds of good conduct are of body, speech and mind. When, developed and cultivated the three kinds of good conduct, fulfil the four establishments of mindfulness. The development and cultivation of these four establishments of mindfulness, fulfils the seven factors of enlightenment. The development and cultivation of these seven factors of enlightenment, fulfils true knowledge and liberation. - (S.V: p.73-75,78,189). The commentary explains the inter- relation of indriyasaṃvara, vipassanā, and indriyasaṃvarasila. - (Spk.III: p.147).

Indriyasaṃvara and practice of insight

‘To inculcate sense restraint there are two formulas explained in the Saṃyuttanikāya, Dīghanikāya, and Majjhimanikāya. One is the stock description of sense restraint (indriyasaṃvara) usually embedded in the sequence on the gradual training. This formula enjoins the practice of sense restraint to keep the “evil unwholesome states of covetousness and displeasure” from invading the mind. The second formula posits a contrast between one who is “intent upon a pleasing form and repelled by a displeasing form” and one who is not swayed by these pairs of opposites. The latter has set up mindfulness of the body, dwells with a measureless mind, and understands the “liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom” where the evil states of lust and aversion cease without remainder. Though no explicit doctrinal allocations are made for these two formulas, it seems the first is prescribed in general for a bhikkhu in the initial stages of training, while the second describes the sense restraint of the trainee (sekha), one at a minimal level of stream-enterer, perhaps too the natural sense restraint of the arahant. The practice of sense restraint is necessary in the Buddhist training, for a reason more deeply connected to the ultimate aim of the Dhamma. The doctrine of dependent origination reveals that craving is the propelling cause of suffering, and craving springs up with feeling as its proximate cause. Feeling occurs in the six sense bases, as pleasant, painful, and neutral feeling, and through our unwholesome responses to these feelings we nourish the craving that holds us in bondage. To gain full deliverance from suffering, craving must be contained and eradicated, and thus the restraint of the senses becomes an integral part of the discipline aimed at the removal of craving.

There is also a cognitive side to the teaching on sense restraint. Craving and other defilements arise and flourish because the mind seizes upon the “sign” (nimitta) and “features’

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(anubyañjana) of sensory objects and uses them as raw material for creating imaginative constructs, to which it clings as a basis for security. This process, called mental proliferation (papañca), is effectively synonymous with conceiving (maññanā). These constructs, created under the influence of the defilements, serve in turn as springboards for still stronger and more tenacious defilements, thus sustaining a vicious cycle. To break this cycle, what is needed as a preliminary step is to restrain the senses, which involves stopping at the bare sensum, without plastering it over with layers of meaning whose origins are purely subjective. The six senses are like six animals each drawn to their natural habitat, which must be tied by the rope of sense restraint and bound to the strong post of body-directed mindfulness.’ – (Bodhi Bhikkhu.2000: pp.1126-1128). It supports the practice of insight in the tradition of Goenka.

Advantages of Morality, in sickness and so on

For the strong painful feelings related to sickness etc, the Saṃyuttanikāya suggests, that the remedy is to establish upon the four factors of steam-entry (cattāri sotāpattiyaṅgāni). ‘One should train oneself thus: I will be one who possesses perfect faith (aveccappasādena samannāgato) in the Buddha, Dhamma, Saṅgha, and endowed with the virtues dear to the noble ones, unbroken, conducive to the concentration and so on.’ - (S.V: pp.345-346).

In any case, the observation of precepts does not go waste, it bears fruit for sure as is explained in the Suttās. The Aṅguttaranikāya reads: One who practises or cultivates in part, attains in part; one who practises in its entirety, attains perfectly, reaches fulfillment. These training rules, I say, are not barren.

Padesaṃ padesakāri ārādheti paripuraṃ paripūrakārī. Avañjhāni tvevāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sikkhāpadāni vadāmī’ti.

- (A.I: p.233; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.318). Goenka mentions this in the long course discourses. The commentary reads - padesakāri puggala as stream-enterer, once returner, and non-returner; whereas paripūrkāri as Arahata. - (Mp. II: p.350).

Morality and thorough scrutinising as arising and passing away (udayabbayānupassī) with regard to five aggregates of grasping, are two conditions out of eight, for attainment and development of wisdom. - (A.IV: pp.152-153).

Sikkhāpada and three higher trainings

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The observance of moral precepts is adhisīlasikkhā, the attainment of four fine material absorptions is adhicittasikkhā, and the attainment of four paths and fruits from stream entry to arahataship is adhipaññāsikkhā. - (A.I: pp.235-237).

The Aṅguttaranikāya explains morality as the necessary condition to attain the path and fruition states. More than one hundred fifty precepts (diyaḍḍha-sikkhāpada-sataṃ), encompass three higher trainings as adhisila, adhicitta, and adhipaññā sikkhā.86 i) A Monk fulfils virtuous behaviour, but cultivates concentration and wisdom only to a moderate extent. So, with the utter destruction of three fetters, he is a stream-enterer, once-returner, no longer subject to (rebirth in) the lower world, fixed in destiny, with enlightenment as his destination. ii) A Monk fulfils virtuous behaviour and concentration but cultivates wisdom only to a moderate extent. So, with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters, he is non-returner. iii) A Monk fulfils virtuous behaviour, concentration, and wisdom. So, with the destruction of the taints he is an Arahat, ‘ceto-vimutto paññā-vimutto’. - (A.I: pp.232-233; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.317-318).

4.5 - Samādhi

In this section we will discuss regarding what is the Samādhi, Jhāna, Samāpatti, Sammā- samādhi, Ānantarika-samādhi and limitation of the absorption attainment in the practice etc. Why and how one developes right concentration and overcomes the difficulties during the practice etc? The content of following discussion will cover the answers to these questions with respect to the discourses of the Sutta-piṭaka.

Samādhi is indispensable for the penetration or realization of the goal (nibbāna). The breakthrough to the Four Noble Truths is not possible with physical and mental suffering or displeasure, but it is accompanied only by happiness and joy.87 The nature of Samādhi is happiness, joy, stability, one pointedness. These are also the three factors of concentration or absorption. In Buddhism, precondition for the concentration is to do away with the happiness born of sense pleasure and unwholesome states. The scope or temporal range of oncentration

86 Adhisīlasikkhā adhicittasikkhā adhipaññāsikkhā imā kho, bhikkhave, tisso sikkhā, yatthetaṃ sabbaṃ samodhānaṃ gacchati. – (A.I: p.232). 87 Na kho panāhaṃ, bhikkhave, saha dukkhena, saha domanassena catuannaṃ ariyasaccānaṃ abhisamayaṃ vadāmi; api cāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sahāva sukhena, sahāva somanassena catunnaṃ ariyasaccānaṃ abhisamayaṃ vadāmi. – (S.V: p.441).

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varies from momentary to proximate to complete absorption (khaṇika, upacāra, appanā). Either one can start from any one of these three concentrations and further develope the insight or one can develop the insight prior to the concentration. But at the time of penetration, the state of happiness and joy or concentration is must. In what follows I will discuss various aspects of concentration.

Samādhi is a very broad concept. In fact, now adays presentation of the Noble Eightfold Path into the three groups of Sīla, Samādhi and Paññā is very common. In this chapter, I have presented it in the same way too, but at the outset of this section I would like to put forth some observatioins related to it. In the early literature, though the Dīghanikāya mentions the noble groups of sīla, samādhi and paññā, there is the Cūlavedallasutta of the Majjhimanikāya wherein this classification of the Noble Eightfold Path appears clearly. Then in the later literature such as Visuddhimagga etc., it is emphasized much, and the trend is set to classify the path into three groups. Since, it adds confusion in the minds of a lay people regarding the concept of sammāsamādhi, samādhi, jhāna, samāpatti etc. It is an inadequate classification with respect to the path factors. As discussed earlier the Cūlavedallasutta is a dialogue between Dhammadinnā and Visākha. The question88 categoricaly asked by the Visakha is very important: ‘Lady, are the three aggregates (tayo khandhā – a body of training principles, the three divisions of Sīla, Samādhi, Paññā) included by the Noble Eight-fold Path, or is the Noble Eight-fold Path included by the three aggregates?’ The answer given by Dhammadinnā was: ‘The three aggregates are not included by the Noble Eight-fold Path, but the Noble Eight-fold Path is included by the three aggregates. – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.398). It is very relevant here, to think about ‘why Visākha felt a need to ask this question.’ Generally, in the explanation of the Noble Eightfold Path as Sīla, Samādhi and Paññā, this specific question from the sutta is neglected. The path or the factors of the path are very much related to the practice, phenomenologically they are very important terms. Sammāsamādhi is a very simple and clearly explained term in the early literature. The Buddha introduced many concepts to the contemporary spiritual world and tried to make them crystal clear. Rather, Samādhi is one of the complex and broad concepts. I have tried to reveal the intricacies of it in the following discussion. In this context Lance Cousins in his aricle ‘The Origins of Insight Meditation’ while explaining ‘historical roots’ said: ‘Its primary source is the commentarial writings of Buddhaghosa, particularly the Visuddhimagga. Undoubtedly, some of the monks who have

88 Ariyena nu kho, ayye, aṭṭhaṅgikena maggena tayo khandhā saṅgahitā udāhu tīhi khandhehi ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo saṅgahito’ti? ‘Na kho, āvuso Visakha, ariyena aṭṭhaṅgikena maggena tayo khandhā saṅgahitā, tīhi ca kho, āvuso Visakha, khandhehi ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo saṅgahito. – (M.I: p.301).

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been influential teachers of vipassanā in Burma were very learned in abhidhamma, but, as we shall see, this is not the main basis for their presentation of insight meditation. (I do not mean to suggest that they did not draw on their knowledge of canonical Buddhism. Indeed, they certainly did. The point is that their presentation is structured on the Visuddhimagga model.)’ – (Cousins Lance. 1996: p.42).

In this context the opinion of Anālayo, who in his paper ‘A Brief Criticism of The ‘Two Paths To Liberation Theory’ concludes that: ‘Regarding the role and significance of absorption, it remains a fact that in later tradition these no longer carry the importance they had in the early discourses. This, I contend, would be the result of the in itself natural attempt to systematize the teachings …. Even the basic division of the path into morality, concentration, and wisom can easily result in obscuring the basic interrelation of these three aspects of the gradual path, if this division is interpreted in a manner that is too literal and narrow. With the growing systematization of the teachings, it was perhaps inevitable that the interrelationship between the three basic aspects of the path to awakening was no longer as clearly in the foreground of attention as it had in earlier times.’ – (Anālayo. 2016: p.173).

Right concentration (Sammāsamādhi) is explained as the four fine-material absorptions in the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta and many other suttas too. As far as the Noble Eightfold Path is concerned the four immaterial absorptions do not come into picture at all. If we equate mundane Samādhi and Sammāsamādhi then it contradicts with the Mahācattārisakasutta of the Majjhimanikāya and a similar sutta of the Aṅguttaranikāya. The Subhasutta of the Dīghanikāya also confirms that the samādhikkhandho is related to the four fine material absorptions. In relation to the Fourth Noble truth or the path factors, the term Sammāsamādhi appears alone. It is never related to any other Samādhi, or mundane jhānas or Samāpatti etc. Whenever Buddha explained Sammāsamādhi or Samādhi as four fine material abosrptions they are supermundane and it is confirmed by Ven. Aanand in the Gopakamoggalānasutta of the Majjhimanikāya. Infact Sammāsaṅkappo plays a crucial role in the development of the samādhi is explained in the Mahācattārisakasutta too.

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was also of the opinion that the Sammā-Samādhi of the Noble Eightfold Path is the preaching of the Buddha and not mundane Samādhi. (Ambedkar B.R. 1997: pp.126- 127, 293, 64, 75).

In the Pāli canon we find the terms Samādhi, Sammāsamādhi, Jhāna, Samāpatti, Vimokkha and so on. All these terms appear overlapping in nature, let us see their intricacies.

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Samādhi or concentration has the nature of ‘one pointedness of mind.’ Hence, ‘Samādhi’ aspect can encompass all the three aspects of jhāna, vimokkha, and samāpatti, except nirodhasamāpatti or saññāvedayitanirodha. Samādhi makes a differentiation between the state of Nibbāna – Magga-Phala Samādhi, and Saññāvedayitanirodha. This will be very clear from the following explanation of the text.

Jhāna, Vimokkha, Samādhi, Samāpatti

These four different aspects are very clear from the following explanation of the text and commentary. In one of the ten powers of the Tathāgata it is mentioned that ‘the Tathāgata clearly understands, as they really are, the defilement, the cleansing, and the emergence in regard to the absorptions, deliverances, concentrations, and attainments89. The commentary explains: These are four absorptions, eight deliverances, three concentrations, and nine attainments (anupubbasamāpatti). - (Ps. II: pp.30-31). The four absorptions of fine material plane are four jhānās. Out of eight deliverances, the first seven are vimokkaha and the eighth ‘saññāvedayita’ is apagamavimokkha. Samādhi or concentration means the last three fine material absorptions or jhānās, excluding the first one, since it is with ‘vitakka and vicāra’. Eight absorptions are samāpatti, or we can call it eight-concentrations (Samādhi) also, because all samāpatti are of the nature of one pointedness of the mind – samāpattītipi cittekaggatāsabbhāvato’; but nirodhasamāptti cannot come under this category due to the absence of one pointedness of mind. Coming out or emergence (Vuṭṭhāna) means to emerge from the first absorption and become condition for the second absorption (Tañhi pathamajhānādīhi vuṭṭhahitvā dutiyajhānādi adhigamassa paccayatā ‘Vuṭṭhāna’nti vuttaṃ.). - (Ps-ṭ. II: pp.21-22).

The Aṅguttarnikāya mentions that from the first fine-material absorption onwards one can attain ‘Arahantaship’ or the state of non-returner. (It can be jhāna-anāgāmi.) It explains the eleven gates to attain Arahantaship or non-returner state. - (A.V: p.344; M.I: pp.350-353). The peculiarities of the first and second absorptions are explained with respect to the right intention in the Samaṇamuṇḍikasutta of the Majjhimanikāya. It states though mind is multiple, varied, and of different aspects, there is mind unaffected by lust, by hate, or by delusion. Wholesome virtues (kusalā sīlā) originate from this mind. Unwholesome intentions (akusalā saṅkappā) cease without remainder in the attainment of the first fine material absorption. The commentary

89Tathāgato jhāna-vimokkha-samādhi-samāpattinaṃ sankilesaṃ vodānaṃ vuṭṭhānaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti. - (M.I: p.70).

193 refers this to the first absorption pertaining to the fruit of non-returner. It mentions that though perception is multiple, varied, and of different aspects, there is perception of renunciation, of non-ill will, and of non-cruelty. Wholesome intentions (kusalā saṅkappā) originate form this perception. These wholesome intentions (kusalā saṅkappā) cease without remainder in the attainment of the second fine material absorption. The commetrary refers this to the second absorption pertaining to the fruit of arahantship. - (M.II: pp.25-28; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.651,652,1287).

Before entering in the further discussion in regard to the text let us see two opinions about the jhāna and Samādhi.

4.5.1 - Dhyāna or jhāna – Opinion of Sangharakshita

‘The Sanskrit word dhyāna (Pāli jhāna) is derived from the verbal root dhyai which means ‘to think of’, ‘imagine’, ‘contemplate’, ‘meditate on’, ‘call to mind’, ‘recollect’. The term later developed quite a different meaning, and I think Dr Marion put his finger on it when he said that the goal of dhyāna is ‘to pass through the door of the mind to other regions of experience than those provided by the common faculties of thought and sense perception’. This is a good general definition. We can consider dhyāna as comprising two things: higher or supernormal states of consciousness – states of consciousness above and beyond those of our ordinary everyday waking minds – and the various practices leading to the experience of those higher states of consciousness.

The Buddhist tradition has a number of ways of describing the different levels within, or different dimensions of, the higher consciousness.’ Generally, the use of two is very common: the four dhyānas of the world of form (rūpā dhyānas) and the four formless (arūpā) dhyānas. - (Sangharakshita. 2012: p.231).

4.5.2 – Samādhi - Opinion of T.W. Rhys Davids

It is interesting here to know the opinion of T.W. Rhys Davids quoted at the introduction of the Subhasutta of the Dīghanikāya - (Rhys Davids T.W. 2007: p.265).

‘Samādhi has not yet been found in any Indian book older than the Pitakas. And as in them, it is used exclusively for a mental state, never in a concrete sense, its meaning is not easy to fix exactly. It is not the same as jhāna, which is a pre-Buddhist term applied to four special forms of meditation, culminating in self-induced ecstasy. Samādhi on the other hand is a constant

194 habit, or faculty of mind. The oldest Sanskrit text in which it occurs is the Maitrī Upanişada; and it has the same meaning there as it has in the Pitakas.

In our present sutta - and the principal reason for its existence as a separate sutta is that it points out just this – it is pointed out that Samādhi includes, it is true, the jhānas, but also other, and very different things. These are the habit of guarding the doors of one’s senses; constant mindfulness and self-possession; and the faculty of being content with little. From the negative point of view, it is said to include emancipation from ill-temper, inertness of mind and body, worry and perplexity; from the positive point of view, it is said to include a constant state of joy and peace.

Wilson’s Sanskrit Dictionary (1819) gives the meaning ‘devout meditation’; and the rendering ‘meditation’ has been used for it in subsequent works in English by Western Scholars. It is quite clear that this would be a very inadequate and misleading rendering in our sutta. But exigencies of space preclude the discussion here, either of the meaning, or of the very interesting and suggestive history of the word in India.

How far was the word (literally ‘allocation’) invented or adopted by the Buddhist or by their immediate spiritual forerunners, to express ‘self-concentration’ with implied co-ordination, harmonisation, of the mental faculties – an idea they wanted, in the statement of their most essential and ethical doctrines, to be used in preference to the more limited, more physical, notion of jhāna? (It is Samādhi, and not jhāna, that we find in the Four Truths, in the noble path, and in the thirty-seven constituent parts of Arahataship). How far, through the constant association of the two ideas, did the larger, as ethical feeling died away, become swallowed up by the smaller? At what date, in what circles, and under what reservations, did the word Samādhi come to mean nothing more than meditation? The history of the two ideas, Samādhi and jhāna, has constant analogies with the history of the two similarly related ideas of Tāpasa and Bhikshu, and like it, is of utmost importance in following the evolution of philosophical and religious thought in India.’

The term Samādhi is a broad, all pervasive term. Now, let us turn again to the text.

4.5.3 – Samādhi and Samādhibhāvanā

Samādhi is one of the five faculties and powers too. It is one of the seven factors of enlightenment.

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The Saṃyuttanikāya explains importance of concentration (samādhi) and meditation in solitude or seclusion (paṭisallāṇa). One with a concentrated mind understands things as they really are. He understands as they really are the arising and passing away of the five aggregates. - (S.III: pp.14-16; S.IV: p.81).

Concentration of a mind helps to understand the Four Noble Truths: ‘One who develops concentration, undestands things as they really are. He understands as it really is: This is suffering, this is arising of suffering, this is cessation of suffering, and this is the path leading to the cessation of suffering’. - (S.V: p.414).

Right concentration is explained in the form of the four fine material absorptions. The nature of these absorptions is supermundane. The middle path is attainment of four fine material absorptions, by avoiding the two extremes of sense pleasure and the self-mortification, is indicated in the Sampasādanīyasutta of the Dīghanikāya: ‘Whatever, Lord, it is possible for a clansman endowed with confiedence to achieve by putting forth and by persistence, by human effort, human exertion and human endurance, that the Blessed Lord has achieved. For the Blessed Lord gives himself up neither to the pleasure of the senses, which are base, vulgar, for worldings and not for the Noble, and unprofitable. The Blessed Lord is able, here and now, to enjoy the surpassing happiness of dwelling in the four jhānas.’ - (Walshe Maurice. 2012: p.424).

Four concentrations

The Dasuttarasutta of the Dīghanikāya classifies Samādhi into four groups, which are hard to penetrate. The four things which are hard to penetrate are: Four concentrations; concentration conducing to decline (hānabhāgiyo), it is related to the arising of opposing qualities; concentration conducing to stability (ṭhitibhāgiyo), it is related to the stability of the corresponding attentiveness; concentation conducive to distinction, progress (visesabhāgiyo), it is related to the higher excellency; concentration conducive to penetration (nibbedhabhāgiyo samādhi), it is related to the arising of perception and reflection connected with the turning away from existence. According to the Mahāṭika the nibbedhabhāgiya-samādhi is vipassana- samādhi. - (D.III: p.276; Nyanatiloka. 1987: p.62).

One can develop concentration after getting rid of five sense pleasures or in other words after developing morality alone. These sense pleasures are directly related to five bodily sense faculites of eye, ear etc. The restraint of five senses or morality is very important in order to develop concentration of mind.

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How one can develop the concentration, is very well explained in the Majjhimanikāya. One- pointedness of mind is concentration; the four foundations of mindfulness are the basis (sign) of concentration; the four right efforts are the requisites or equipments for concentration; whatever is the practice, the development, the continuous practice of these things, this is herein the development of concentration. - (M.I: p.301). The commentary says, explanation of concentration is regarding the path-concentration (maggasamādhi), and there are differences of opinion about it. - (Ps. II: pp.363-364).

The Aṅguttaranikāya states: There are four different out-comes of developing concentration, or four different ways of developing concentration (samādhibhāvanā). a) there is a development of concentration that, when developed and cultivated, leads to dwelling happily in this very life (diṭṭhadhammasukhavihārāya). b) There is a development of concentration that, when developed and cultivated, leads to attaining knowledge and vision or perfect knowledge (ñāṇadassanappaṭilābhāya). c) There is a development of concentration that, when developed and cultivated, leads to mindfulness and clear comprehension (satisampajaññāya). d) There is a development of concentration that, when developed and cultivated, leads to the destruction of intoxicants of mind (āsavānam khayāya).

a) Diṭṭhadhammasukhavihārāya - is the dwelling in four fine material absorptions. b) Ñāṇadassanappaṭilābhāya - ‘attainment of perfect knowledge’- here, a monk gives attention to perception of light, he fixes attention on daylight thus: ‘As by day, so at night; as at night, so by day.’ Thus, with open mind (vivaṭena cetasa), an uncovered mind (apariyonaddhena), he develops a mind (concentration) with splendour (sappabhāsam cittam bhāveti). The commentary says in this context it is divine eye (dibbacakkhuñāṇadassana’). - (Mp.III: p.85; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1689). Elsewhere it is used to mean insight or even full enlightenment. c) Satisampjaññāya – here, a monk knows feelings as they arise, as they remain present, as they disappear (viditā vedanā uppajjanti, viditā upaṭṭhahanti, viditā abbhathaṃ gacchanti); Similar description is there for perceptions (saññā), and initial thoughts (vitakka). The commentary: ‘How are feelings known as they arise, etc.? Here, a bhikkhu comprehends the base (vatthu, the sense organ) and the object (ārammaṇa). By comprehending the base and the object, he knows: ‘Thus those feelings have arisen; thus they stand; thus they cease.’ The same method applies to perceptions and thoughts.’ (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1689).

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d) Āsavānam khayāya – here, a monk dwells contemplating (thorough scrutinising) arising and vanishing (udayabbayānupassi) in the five aggregates subject to clinging: ‘Such is material form, (The commentary says: ‘This is form, only this much is form, beyond this, there is no form.’ Mp.III: p.85), such its arising, such its passing away. Similar descrtiption is there for feeling, perception, conditioned formations, and consciousness. - (A.II: pp.45-46).

Only after the attainment of absorptions it is said in the text that, the mind is composed, purified, clarified, without blemish, without defilement, becomes soft, workable, fixed and immovable. Then alone, can one direct it towards the development of three knowledges. These are knowledges which dispel ignorance, darkness and cause light to arise.

In the Aṅguttaranikāya a description about the concentration appears which states: Ven. Ānanda asks the Buddha: ‘could a monk attain such a state of concentration (samādhi) (which the commentary explains as cittekaggatā. Mp.II: pp.205-206), that a) he would have no egotism or I-making, selfish attachment or mine-making, and underlying tendency to conceit in regard to this conscious body; b) he would have no egotism or I-making, selfish attachment or mine- making, and underlying tendency to conceit in regard to all external objects (bahiddhā ca sabbanimittesu); and c) he would enter and dwell in that liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom (ceto-vimutti and paññā-vimutti), through which there is no more I-making, mine- making, and underlying tendency to conceit for one who enters and dwells in it?’ The Buddha says he could. With regard to this he explains: ‘Here, a monk thinks thus: ‘This is peaceful, this is sublime, that is, the stilling of all activites (sabbasankhārasamatho), the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the destruction of craving, dispassion, cessation, nibbāna.’ - (A.I: p.133; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.228-229). The sub-commentary explains: When the Buddha says yes, he can attain samādhi it is with regard to lokuttarasamādhippaṭilābhaṃ - the attainment of the samādhi - one pointedness of the mind, which is super-mundane, that alone is nibbāna. - (Mp- ṭ. II: p.91).

Upakkilesa - its classification, and relation to Samādhi

The Aṅguttaranikāya classifies the impurities, defilements (upakkiles) mainly into three groups: i) Gross, ii) Middle, and iii) Subtle. When a monk is practising higher training of concentration (adhicitta), i) there are in him gross defilements: bodily, verbal, and mental misconduct. An earnest, capable monk abandons them, keeps away from them, abolishes them, and obliterates them. When this has been done, ii) there remain in him middling defilements:

198 thoughts concerning sense pleasure, malevolence, and cruelty (kāma, byāpāda, and vihiṃsā vitakko). An earnest, capable monk abandons them, keeps away from them, abolishes them, and obliterates them. When this has been done, iii) there remains in him subtle defilements: thoughts concerning his relations, thoughts concerning his province, country, and thoughts connecting with self-image or reputation (wherein one thinks that others should not hate him, they should respect him.). (ñātivitakko, janapadavitakko, anavaññattipaṭisaṃyutto-vitakko). The commentary says, ‘aho vata maṃ pare na avajāneyyu’nti evaṃ uppanno vitakko anavaññattipaṭisaṃyutto-vitakko nāma.). An earnest, capable monk abandons them, keeps away from them, abolishes them, and obliterates them.

When this has been done, then there remain thoughts connected with the dhamma (dhammvitakka). That concentration (samādhi) is not peaceful and sublime, not gained by full tranquilization, not attained to unification, but is reined in and checked by forcefully suppressing [the defilements] (sasaṅkhāraniggayhavāritagato). But, monks, there comes a (an appropriate) time when his mind becomes internally steady, composed, unified, and concentrated (samādhiyati). That concentration (samādhi) is peaceful and sublime, gained by full tranquilization, and attained to unification; it is not reined in and checked by forcefully suppressing [the defilements] (na sasaṅkhāraniggayhavāritagato). Then, there being a suitable basis, he is capable of realizing any state realizable by direct knowledge toward which he might incline his mind - (A.I: pp.254-255; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.335-336). This implies that this concentration is equivalent to the fourth fine material absorption, as the foundation absorption, after which, one can attain various accomplishments along with tevijja and attain the stage of cetovimutti paññāvimutti with the destruction of intoxicants. The commentary explains ‘adhicitta’ as - samathavipassanācitta. Dhammavitakkā nāma dasavipassanupakkilesavitakkā - means thoughts connected with the ten defilements or corruptions of insight, but it seems this could just as well mean reflections on the teaching or on the meditation subject. It further explains that this samādhi is vipassanāsamādhi which is not calm because the defilements are not allayed/calmed, na paṇītoti means not excellent (na atappako), it has not arisen due to the destruction of defilements but rather attained somehow by preventing, with restrain the conditioned formations. Hoti so, bhikkhave, samayoti - monks, a (appropriate) time comes when one gets five suitable conditions as, utusappāya - suitable atmospheric condition, āhārasappāya - suitable food/nutriment, senāsanasappāya - suitable lodging, puggalasappāya - suitable person, dhammassavanasappāya - suitability to listen to the teachings of the Buddha. Yam taṃ cittaṃ - when that insightful-mind - vipassanācittaṃ. Ajjhattaṃyeva santiṭṭhati -

199 completely abides inwardly - means it is two-fold, i) attaniyeva tiṭṭhati, niyakajjhattañhi idha ajjhattaṃ nāma - abides on its own inwardly. ii) Gocarajjhattaṃpi vaṭṭati, puthuttārammaṇaṃ pahāya ekasmiṃ nibbānagocareyeva tiṭṭhatīti vuttaṃ hoti- by abandoning worldly object, he takes the object as nibbāna. This way, he attains Arahataship. - (Mp. II: pp.361-364; Bodhi

Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1668).90

Overcoming the difficulties in concentration – role of action and non-action

Awareness with action and without any action, or just mere awareness, are explained with two similes, along with the importance of the right intention in the Dvedhāvitakkasutta of the Majjhimanikāya. When the Bodhisatta, before full awakening, was dwelling on vigilant, ardent and strong determination, the thought of sense pleasure arose; with very clear understanding of this fact, he comprehended that this sense pleasure leads to self-affliction, to affliction of others’ and to the affliction of both. It obstructs wisdom, causes difficulties, does not lead to nibbāna. While discriminating this way, it fades away. So, he kept on abandoning, dispelling and removing the thought of sense pleasure continuously. It happens in a similar manner with the thought of malevolence and the thought of cruelty. Whatever a monk reflects and ponders on, his mind inclines, towards that. If a monk reflects and ponders much on thoughts of sense pleasure or malevolence or cruelty, they increase, and the thoughts of renunciation, non-malice and non-cruelty decrease. - (M.I: p.115).

‘Just as in the last month of the rainy season, in the autumn, when the crops thicken, a cowherd would guard his cows by constantly tapping and poking them on this side and that with a stick to check and curb them. Why is that? Because he sees that he could be flogged, imprisoned, fined, or blamed [if he let them stray into the crops].’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.208). Similarly, Bodhisatta sees the danger, lowliness and defilement in unwholesome states, and the advantage of renunciation, the aspect of cleansing in wholesome states.

When dwelling with vigilance, ardour and strong determination, thought of renunciation arose in the mind of the Bodhisatta; with very clear understanding of this fact, he comprehended that,

90The sub-commentary explains adhicitta as dasakusalakammapathavasena uppannaṃ cittaṃ cittameva, vipassanāpādaka-aṭṭhasamāpatticittaṃ vipassanācittañca tato cittato adhikaṃ cittanti adhicittanti āha “adhicittanti samathavipassanācitta” nti. Dasavipassanupakkilesavitakkāti obhāsādidasavipassanupakkilese ārabbha upannavitakkā - it means, the thought regarding ten- defilements arisen with regard to insight, beginning with light and so on. Avasiṭṭhadhammavitakko is vipassanāsamādhi. Sammā ādhiyatīti yathā ārammaṇe suṭṭhu appitaṃ hoti, evaṃ sammā sammadeva ādhiyati - well fixed on/applied to the object. - (Mp-ṭ. II: pp.180-181).

200 renunciation leads neither to self-affliction, nor to affliction of others’ nor to the affliction of both. It is for the development of wisdom, does not cause difficulties, and leads to nibbāna. It happens in a similar manner with the thought of non-malice and the thought of non-cruelty. Then he quietened and concentrated the mind. The same law works again with the thought of renunciation, non-malice and non-cruelty, ‘whatever a monk frequently thinks and ponders upon, that will become the inclination of his mind.’ - (M.I: p.117).

‘Just as in the last month of the hot season, when all the crops have been brought inside the villages, a cowherd would guard his cows while staying at the root of a tree or out in the open, since he needs only to be mindful that the cows are there; so too, there was need for me (the Bodhisatta) only to be mindful that those states were there. Tireless energy was aroused in me and unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was tranquil and untroubled, my mind concentrated and unified.’ (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.209).

According to the commentary Dhammā is calm (samatha) and insight (vipassanā). This is the period when both samatha-vipassanā strengthen each other. – (Ps. II: p.85).

When a wrong intention (micchāsaṅkappo) is there then at that point, mere awareness of the fact is not enough; along with that, act of comprehension, reflection, right view, right effort – (sammāvāyāmo) and right awareness are required. And when right intention (sammāsaṅkappo) is there ie the lokiya part of right intention is there, like thought of renunciation, non-malice ie mettā and non-cruelty ie karuṇā - (Ps. II: p.79), then at that point mere awareness of the fact is good enough. As per the Mahācattarisaka-sutta right view precedes along with right effort and right awareness, which moves around and helps eradicate wrong intention and develops the right intention. From the second absorption onwards, instead of vitakka the appanā- lokuttara part of the right intention plays its role. And since the work of right effort is over, only right awareness has to play its role. Infact, the role of right effort in the Noble Eight-fold Path is for abandoning the wrong (micchā) aspect of the remaining factors and to establish in the right aspect. The role of right view is to understand clearly the wrong and right aspect. The role of right awareness is to take note or to remain aware, mindful, about the completion of the process of abandoning the wrong aspect and establishing the right one. In this way, these two similes aptly explain the role of right effort and right awareness. They emphasize the importance of contemplation in the practice of meditation, this is lacking in the Goenka tradition. If any storm arises in the mind during the practice, like thoughts of sense pleasure or malevolence or cruelty, then a student is asked to practise with few hard, conscious, intentional breaths. During a ten-

201 day course there is no emphasis on right mode of thinking, however during the longer courses Goenka certainly discusses to some extent about this aspect of right intention.

Right effort and right mindfulness

Ven. Ledi Sayadaw explained these two factors in the following manner. The path factor of the right effort is analysed into four components. The first two deal with unwholesome volitional actions (kamma), divided into unwholesome mental states which have arisen and those which have not arisen. He explained these two as the ten paths of unwholesome kamma (dasa- akusala-kamma-path). These two constantly cause anxiety, corruption, and debasement for living beings. The other two deal with wholesome kamma, either with those states which have arisen or those which have not. He explained these two as seven purificatioins (satta visuddhi). They always bring peace, purity, nobility, and progress for beings. He further states: ‘These four are the right efforts which have been explained in this way for easy understanding. They are four in number only with reference to their four functions (namely: avoiding, overcoming, developing, maintaining). But really there is only one factor here – effort or viriya – for the reason that when one tries to attain to any of the purities, the effort so exercised covers these four functions automatically.’

Regarding the right mindfulness he states: ‘To eliminate the unsteady and flighty mind and to fix it continuously on the meditation subject one has to practice the four applications of mindfulness.’ – (Sayadaw Ledi. 1998: pp.40,43).

4.5.4 – Concentration and hindrances

The covetousness and anger are like hindrances for the concentration. The Aṅguttaranikāya explains failure and success of concentration with respect to it as follows: ‘A person is covetous or full of longing (abhijjhālu) and has a mind of ill will (byāpannacitto). This is a failure of concentration. A person who is not covetous, and not having an angry mind is the success of concentration. - (A.I: pp.268-270).

The Buddha did not praise every kind of meditative absorption, that is to say the practice of absorptions with the hindrances. But he praised the development of four fine material absorptions after abandoning the five hindrances - (M.III: p.14). Five hindrances of the mind, defiled by which, the mind is neither malleable nor wieldy nor radiant but brittle, not fit to work perfectly and not concentrated for the destruction of the intoxicants (āsavā). - (S.V: p.93).

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Factors, helpful to abandon the five hindrances and develop concentration are: The sign of foulness (asubhanimitta), liberation of the mind by loving kindness (mettā cetovimutti), strenuous effort (āraddhaviriya), a pacified mind (vūpasanta citta), and wise consideration or carefull attention (yonisomanasikāra). These are the opposites, antidotes of the five hindrances. - (A.I: pp.4-5).

4.5.5 - Concentration and wise consideration (yonisomanasikāra)

At many occasions the Dīghanikāya, Majjhimanikāya, and Saṃyuttanikaya explain in a very simple and straightforward way how one can attain concentration. How one attains concentration due to wise consideration, joy, delight, calm, happiness, and consequentially attains freedom is explained as follows. The Dauttarasutta of the Dīghanikāya states: ‘Which nine things greatly help? Nine conditions rooted in wise consideration (yonisomanasikāramūlakā dhammā): When a monk practices wise consideration, (a) joy (pāmojja) arise in him, and (b) from his being joyful, delight (pīti) arises, and (c) from his feeling delight, his senses are calmed; (d) as a result of this calming he feels happiness (sukha), and (e) from his feeling happy, his mind becomes concentrated; (f) with his mind thus concentrated, he knows and sees things as they really are; (g) with his thus knowing and seeing things as they really are, he becomes disenchanted (nibbindati); (h) with disenchantment he becomes dispassionate (virajjati), and (i) by disapassion he is liberated.’ - (Walshe Maurice. 2012: p.519.; D.III: p.288.; S.V: p.399). Most of these factors are essential in the process of penetration. It is clear from the simile of the cloth where the mind is compared with a clean or dirty cloth. Just as a dirty cloth, cannot be dyed well but a clean one can, similarly, the defiled mind would lead to a realm of miserable existence, but the pure mind would lead to the happy states. Knowing this, one abandons defilements of the mind and develops firm confidence in the Buddha, dhamma and sangha. At this stage, he renounces, gives up and develops joy. To the joyful-one, tranquillity and happiness develop and consequently the mind is concentrated. Such a monk with morality, concentration and wisdom develops all the four-divine states of the mind (Brahmavihāra), ie: loving kindness, compassionate love, sympathetic joy and equanimity. He understands that there is a further escape. One is freed from intoxicants of sense sphere, becoming and ignorance.91 – (M.I: pp.37-39; M.I: 283).

91 Similar type of description appears in the Cūḷassapurasutta of the Majjhimanikāya. In addition to that it mentions as ‘having developed four divine states of mind – loving kindness, compassionate love, sympathetic joy and equanimity one attains inward calmness. Evaṃ mettaṃ karunaṃ muditaṃ upekkhaṃ bhāvetvā labhati

203

Happiness of the concentration regarding the four-fine material and four immaterial absorptions

The sense pleasure is a filthy happiness, common world-ling’s happiness, and ignoble happiness. It should not be used, developed, practised frequently, and it should be feared. But the happiness born of the four fine material absorptions is the happiness of renunciation, detachment, calm, and of self-awakening. It should be used, developed, practised frequently, and it is not to be feared. – (M.I: pp.454-455). The first absorption is called perturbable (iñjitasmiṃ), because the applied thought and sustained thought have not ceased therein. The second absorption is called perturbable because the joy and happiness has not ceased there. The third absorption is called perturbable, because the happiness of equanimity has not ceased there. But the fourth absorption is called imperturbable (āniñjitasmiṃ).

Out of the two types of happiness, the one which is the foremost, is explained in the Aṅguttaranikāya. The happiness of equanimity (upekkhāsukha), is foremost. The pleasurable happiness (sātasukha) is not foremost. The commentary explains sātasukha as the happiness of the first three absorptions and upekkhāsukha as the happiness of the fourth absorption. - (Mp. II: p.153).

The Nivāpasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains the area where Māra and his following cannot go. - A monk who attains the four fine material absorptions and four immaterial absorptions as bases for insight. During the attainment of the very first absorption and then onwards when a monk has entered such absorption, Māra cannot see how his mind is proceeding. This disappearance from Māra’s influence, is as yet only temporary. But after attaining the state of cessation of perception and feeling with destruction of intoxicants, the monk becomes permanently inaccessible to Māra and his following.92 This emphasizes the importance of meditative practice of samatha and vipassanā. Mere physical detachment is not helpful. These absorptions are the base for Insight practice. - (M. I: pp.159-160; Ps. II: p.163; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.250-251, 1216).

ajjhataṃ vupasamaṃ. And it is with the inward calmness one follows the path proper to the recluse. Ajjhattaṃ vupasama samaṇa-sāmicippaṭipadaṃ paṭipannoti vadāmi. (M.I: pp.283-284).

92 The importance of the four fine material absorptions and tevijja are also explained in the Cūḷahatthipadopamasutta of the Majjhimanikāya. - (M.I: pp.182-183).

204

Serenity, four divine states and doors to the deathless -ambrosia

The eleven doors to the Deathless are the four fine material absorptions, the four divine states of mind (brahamavihāras), and the first three immaterial attainments used as bases for the development of insight and attainment of arahantship. - (M.I: pp.351-353; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.1254). After each of the fine material and immaterial absorptions (according to the commentary this practice is insight preceded by serenity-samatshadhuraṃ), and each state of freedom of mind, that is loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity; one understands properly that, whatever is formed, prepared and intended is of impermanent nature, and is liable to cease. With this concentration and insight, one attains either canker-less state of ambrosia or the stage of non-returner.

4.5.6 Limitation of the absorption attainments in the practice

The need of the one-pointed, balanced mind in order to understand or judge things properly is mentioned in the Saṃyuttanikāya. The Samādhi-sutta explains: Monks, develop concentration; the monk with concentrated mind understands things as they really are. He understands as it really is the arising and passing away of the five aggregates as form, feeling, perception, and so on.93 - (S.III: p.14). The need of the balanced, equanimous mind without any preconceived blind reaction is one of the important aspects of the concentration which helps to see the things as they really are.

Attainment of four fine material absorptions or gratification, danger, and escape with respect to feelings are crucial in the practice of the teachings of the Buddha. Only gratification of the feelings ie attainment of the four fine material absorptions can lead to the wrong views. This is explained in the Dīghanikāya with respect to the Diṭṭhadhammanibbānavāda ‘the view held by some recluses and brahmaṇas that the attainment of the four fine material absorptions itself, is the realisation of supreme nibbāna by oneself in this very life’, is not correct. Most of the wrong views are directly related with or the outcome of the practice of jhāna, Samadhi and so on. Hence, the practice of concentration must be associated with insight. The gratification of feeling is nothing but the happiness, mental joy of the attainment of the four fine material absorptions and so on.

93 The Samādhi-sutta - Monks, develop concentration; the monk with concentrated mind understands as it really is. He understands as it really is the arising and passing away of the five aggregates as form, feeling, perception, and so on. ‘Samāhito bhikkhave, bhikkhu yathābhutaṃ pajānāti.’ - (S.III:14).

205

Anālayo opines that the parallel versions of the Brahmajālasutta agree closely in presenting the attainment of absorption (without insight practice) as a source for the arising of mistaken views. - (Anālayo. 2017: p.171; Anālayo. 2016: p.47). He also states: ‘The Brahmajālasutta and its parallels show rather substantial differences in their presentation of the first part of the discourse, concerned with morality; they also have variations in their expositions of some of the different viewpoints. Comparative study makes it fair to conclude that the long exposition on morality in the Pāli version, for example, is probably the outcome of a later expansion. Alongside such variations, however, the parallel versions agree closely in presenting the attainment of absorption as a source for the arising of mistaken views, namely by way of identifying such attainment as being in itself the realization of Nirvāṇa here and now. Needless to say, according to the Brahmajāla-sutta and its parallels these are wrong views. …. The Buddha’s assessment of such absorption attainers then takes the following form in the Dirgha- āgama version: Recluses and brahmins who declare [of the first absorption] that: ‘This is reckoned Nirvāṇa here and now’, [do so] conditioned by feeling, which produces craving. Craving having arisen they do not realize by themselves that they are being defiled by attachment through craving and are under the power of craving.

This part of the discourse reflects what Katz (1982/1989:150) has aptly called a “psychoanalysis of metaphysical claims”. Far from being informed by doxographical concerns, the issue at stake in the Brhamjāla is to lay bare the psychological underpinnings of the tendency to view formation. The central intent is not to present a survey of views, held in ancient India or elsewhere, but to show how clinging to any view has its basis in craving.

Bodhi (1978/1992:9) comments that ‘the primary focus …. is not so much content of the view as the underlying malady of which the addiction to speculative tenets is a symptom.’

Fuller (2005:115) argues that ‘the Brahmjāla-sutta proposes neither a sixty-third view … nor the rejection of all views …. but knowledge of the cessation of craving. This is right view.

Needless to say, such right view is not the automatic outcome of absorption attainment, as the above passage amply demonstrates. It is precisely insight into the role of craving that is missing in the case of the absorption attainers described in the Brahmajālasutta and its parallels. In this way, the Brahmajālsutta and its parallels confirm the conclusions suggested above, in that the early discourses do not seem to reckon the attainment of aborption as an experience that in itself is necessarily productive of liberating insight.’ – (Anālayo. 2017: pp.169-171).

It is very clear that the Brahmajālasutta underlines the crucial role of feeling (vedanā) in the

206 practice of insight.

The mention of the term sati-sampajañña in the description of third absorption while explaining the view of Diṭṭhadhammanibbānavāda indicates that the sati-sampajañña is a pre- Buddhist term.

4.5.7 - Sammāsamādhi – The Unique approach

The criterion which is to be applied to decide whether things are to be done or not, worthy of thinking or not, in any respect, is mentioned by the Exalted-One in a specific phrase, in the Dīghanikāya, the Majjhimanikāya, and the Saṃyuttanikāya: If it is beneficial, it belongs to the fundamentals of the holy life, it leads to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna.94 - (M.I: p.432). If these criteria are fulfilled, then the thing is worth considering, doing and so on. This is the approach of the Exalted-One towards the handling of the situation in any respect. The practice of four fine material absorptions as explained by the Exalted-One satisfies the above-mentioned criteria. The advantages of the practice of four fine material absorptions are the attainment of four fruits of stream-entry, once-returner, non-returner, and Arhantship.

Right concentration and other aspects of the Noble Eight-fold Path, preceded by the right view, are well-defined and explained in the Mahācattārisakasutta95 - (M.III: pp.72-78; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.934-940; Similar description is found also in the D. II: p.216; S. V: pp.18- 23; A.IV: p.41). In-fact it explains the structure and mechanism of the Fourth Noble Truth (Dukkhanirodhagāmini paṭipadā). It throws light on the interconnected and holistic nature of all factors of the Noble Eightfold Path, which strengthens the vision and mission of the observer. It also gives microscopic view of the interwoven fabric of the Noble Eightfold Path, which provides proper dimension to investigate the horizons of the mundane and super- mundane existence. Supports and requisites of the noble right concentration are, ‘the right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, and right mindfulness’. Unification of mind equipped with these seven factors is called noble right concentration with its supports and its requisites. The discourse explains the two-fold nature of each factor of the Noble Eightfold Path, except the right effort, right mindfulness and right

94 Etañhi atthasaṃhitaṃ etaṃ ādibrahmacariyakaṃ nibbidāya, virāgāya, nirodhāya, upasamāya, abhiññāya, sambhodhāya, nibbānaya saṃvattati. (M.I: p.432). 95 Similar explanation is there in the Janavasabhasutta of the Dīghanikāya. - (D.II: p.216).

207 concentration. These three factors comprise the Samādhi aspect in the threefold division of the path sīla, Samādhi and paññā.

This is very peculiar and important because right concentration is only one-fold and not explained as sāsavā and anāsavā. Therefore, it appears that lokiya samādhi, or only samatha is not intended by the Buddha when he uses the term right concentration (sammā-samādhi). Samādhi must be with the right view or wisdom, then alone it can be called right concentration. Sīla and Paññā both are explained as two-fold ie lokiya and lokuttara. But Samādhi is explained one-fold (ie lokuttara) and the right effort and right mindfulness are also explained only one-fold.

The eight factors of the ground of the learner and two factors of the ground of the non-learner are explained as sammā and micchā - right and wrong. The two-fold aspect of the five factors of the Noble Eightfold Path are, i) that which is affected by taints, partaking of merit, ripening in the acquisitions; and ii) that which is noble, taintless, super-mundane and a factor of the path (magga). The first one is mundane; and other is super-mundane. The mutation or transformation from mundane to super-mundane takes place in the one who walks on the Noble Eightfold Path. The right effort, and right mindfulness are two factors of the Noble Eightfold Path which reinforce this process of mutation, along with the right view. These three states run and circle around (anuparidhāvanti and anuparivattanti) the five factors of the Noble Eightfold Path, namely the right view, right intention, right speech, right action and right livelihood. As mentioned in the discourse, unification of mind equipped with these seven factors is called noble right concentration with its supports and its requisites.96 Because of this process involving seven factors of the Noble Eightfold Path, the right concentration develops gradually and culminates in the ground of the learner. This means the path and fruition of stream-entry, once returner and non-returner. The right concentration becomes the condition or cause for the generation of the right knowledge and the right release, for the Arahant. These ten factors of the path are conditions for a non-learner. The function of the right concentration is to lead the practitioner from mundane to the super-mundane, up-to the ground of learner, and become the condition for the ground of non-learner. The right concentration is the factor of the enlightenment and it is super-mundane concentration (lokuttar Samādhi). It is lokuttar Samādhi as it is mentioned at the beginning of the discourse, Ariyaṃ vo, bhikkave, sammāsamādhiṃ

96 Imehi sattahaṅgehi cittassa ekaggatā parikkhatā ayam vuccati, bhikkave, ariyo sammāsamādhi. - (M.III: p.72).

208 desessāmi - I shall teach you monks, the noble (super-mundane) right concentration. The right knowledge of an arahant can be identified with the review of knowledge that he has destroyed all the defilements. The right release of an arahant can be identified with the experience of liberation from all defilements.

Since the right view precedes the other factors, one comprehends or understands properly the wrong and right aspects of all the factors of the path.

The right view followed by the remaining seven constituents of the path first brings about the state of a learner and then being further accompanied by right knowledge and right release results in the state of a non-learner.

Since the right view is a forerunner, the wrong aspect of each factor along with its conditioned evil paraphernalia is abandoned and right aspect along with its meritorious paraphernalia develops to perfection. This is the process of purification. (The purification, as expected in the practice of the insight meditation).

This discourse agrees conceptually with Goenka tradition. The anupubba sikkhā, anupubba kiriyā and anupubba paṭipadā pattern of the teaching of the Buddha is evident in the Mahacattārisakasutta. Faith and morality are parts of the anupubba sikkhā which is nothing but the mundane part of the right view along with the right effort and right awareness. Indriya saṃvara, sati sampajañña, nivaran pahāna are parts of the anupubbakiriyā which is nothing but the mundane part of the right thought along with the right effort and right awareness. Development of right concentration and insight as anupubba paṭipadā is nothing but the super- mundane part of the right view, right thought along with the right effort and right awareness. In the Long courses, Goenka encourages the participants to practise both aspects of right thought in order to develop the first absorption as right concentration. When one develops the mundane part of right thought as the thought of renunciation, non-ill will (non-malice), non- cruelty; it counters the wrong thought and helps to develop one-pointedness of the mind, which is the condition for the first absorption which is free from sensual desire and unwholesome state (vivicceva kāmehi, vivicca akusalehi dhammehi). Again, the super-mundane part of the right thought consists of ‘the thinking, thought, intention, mental absorption, mental fixity, directing of mind, verbal formation in one whose mind is noble, whose mind is taintless, who possesses the noble path and is developing the noble path’ this is right thought is noble (takko, vitakko, saṅkappo, appanā, byappanā, cetaso abhiniropanā vacisaṅkharo). This is an important aspect of the development of absorptions for concentration. Here appanā is related

209 with samādhi. Since process of concentration or first absorption begins with the practice of mundane aspect of right thought: nekkhammasaṅkappo etc, it is a necessity of the first absorption. It culminates in appanā, with supermundane aspect of right thought. Avijjā is delusion, due to which one does not see things as impermanent etc. Vijjā is the knowledge of impermanence. As a fore-runner it helps one to acquire meritorious states and right view followed by other factors. This is in accordance with Goenka’s tradition.

Ānāpānassatisamādhi can be treated as the practice of right concentration since it satisfies the description of all the factors of Noble Eightfold Path. Mindfulness of breathing is the unique object in the sense, it can be used to develop either calm, or insight or both together. In this context Ven. Ledi Sayadaw expressed his views as follows: ‘When a person takes up meditation and makes an effort with the exercise of mindfully breathing in and out, this “preparatory work on development,” which is just to get rid of the mad and deranged mind, is included in the first jhāna. It should be noted that the practice of applying mindfulness to breathing in and out serves both purposes: the establishing of mindfulness and the attainment of the first jhāna.’ – (Sayadaw Ledi. 1998: p.47).

The commentary and sub-commentary of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains: Samādhiparikkhārāti maggasamādhissa sambhārā - requisites for concentration means the requisite ingredients for the path concentration. An analogy of a Soverign King, who is surrounded by seven jwells, is given to explain the status of right concentration. - (Mp. IV: p.29; Mp-ṭ. III: p.158)

Saya U Chit Tin discusses the explanation of the Eight Path Factors given by Ven. Ledi Sayadaw, which is in congruence with the Mahācattārisakasutta: ‘The eight Path factors can be developed on the mundane level, but when the Noble Path of Stream-winner is reached, they are developed on the supramundane level.’ He further says regarding the ten-day course: ‘In these Vipassanā courses we learn to develop pure insight only (Suddha-vipassana-yān) without first developing the Jhānas. In the first stage we develop purity through the precepts and mindful body contemplation through Ānāpāna. At this stage, the three Path factors of concentration – right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration – serve to bring temporary concentration (Khaṇika-samādhi). These three Path factors of concentration fulfil the functions of calm and purification of mind. In observing sensations and appreciating their impermanence (Anicca), we fulfil the Path factors of wisdom: right thought and right view.’ – (Chit Tin U Saya, WKH. 1988: pp.64 - 67).

210

Five knowledges due to the attainment of right-concentration

The Dasuttarasutta states five things are to be made to arise. ‘The five knowledges of right concentration (pañcaññāṇiko sammā samādhi): the knowledge that arises within one that: a) ‘this concentration is both present happiness and a productive of future resultant happiness. (āyatiñ ca sukha-vipāko), b) ‘This concentration is Ariyan and free from worldiness (nirāmiso), c) ‘This concentration is not practiced by the unworthy (akāpurisasevito), d) ‘This concentration is calm and perfect, has attained tranquillisation, has attained unification, and is not instigated, it cannot be denied or prevented, e) ‘I myself attain this concentration with mindfulness, and emerge from it with mindfulness.’ - (Walshe Maurice. 2009: p.515).

Sammā-Samādhi and ānantariyaṃ samādhi

The Paṭipadāvaggo of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains various modes of practices. Initially it explains four modes of practice: ‘Practice that is painful with sluggish direct knowledge; practice that is painful with quick direct knowledge; practice that is pleasant with sluggish direct knowledge; practice that is pleasant with quick direct knowledge.

The first is explained as follows: ‘A monk dwells contemplating unattractiveness of the body, perceiving the repulsiveness of food, perceiving non-delight in the entire world, contemplating impermanence in all conditioned phenomena; and he has the perception of death well established internally. He dwells depending upon these five trainee powers: the power of faith, the power of moral shame, the power of moral dread, the power of energy, and the power of wisdom. These five faculties arise in him feebly: the faculty of faith, the faculty of energy, the faculty of mindfulness, the faculty of concentration, the faculty of wisdom. Because these five faculties are feeble, he sluggishly attains the immediacy condition (ānantariyaṃ pāpuṇāti āsavānaṃ khayāya) for the destruction of the taints.’ The Ratanasutta of the Suttanipāta says: That purity praised by the foremost Buddha, called concentration without interruption; there is nothing equal to that concentration. (yaṃ buddhaseṭṭho parivaṇṇayī suciṃ samādhiṃ ānantarikaññaṃ āhu; samādhinā tena samo na vijjati. - Sn 226). Difference between ānantarika and ānanrariya is insignificant, as the terminations -iya and -ika are often interchangeable. In the Khandhasaṃyutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya (S.III: pp.96-100), the Buddha addresses the question: ‘How should one know and see to attain immediately (without interval) the destruction of the taints?’ (evaṃ …. Jānato evaṃ passato anatarā āsavānaṃ khayāya). The suttās of the Aṅguttaranikāya speak about the mind being ‘properly concentrated for the destruction of the taints’ (sammā samādhiyati āsavānaṃ khayāya) (A.I:

211 p.257; A.III: pp.16-17). Thus, the ‘immediacy condition’ spoken of here seems to be a state in which the mind is properly concentrated and, at the same time, has acquired the insight that brings about the destruction of the taints. The commentary explains ānanatariy with reference to the Abhidhamma concept of an immediate succession between path and fruit: ‘The ‘immediacy condition’ is the concentration of the path, which immediately yields its result (anantaravipākadāyakaṃ maggasamādhiṃ).’ Though the suttas do not employ the scheme of the cognitive process that underlies the concept to path and fruition moments, the expression “immediacy condition” does suggest a state of complete ripeness for the breakthrough to arahantship. (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.529-530, 1075, 1705). Thus, the terms Sammāsamādhi and ānantariya or ānanatarika samādhi appears to be similar. The Paṭisambhidāmagga explains the relation between ānantariya smādhi and ānāpānassati too. - (Paṭis. I: p.96).

In the conclusion of this chapter I would like to quote the opinion of Anālayo: ‘Tranquillity and insight are closely interrelated in the early discourses, and it is only in later tradition that these came to be seen as two distinct paths of meditative practice. An illustrative example is when the Āneñjasappāya-sutta and its parallels showcase the contribution the cultivation of insight can make for the development of tranquillity. An example for the contribution of tranquillity to insight can be seen in the Cūḷasuññata-sutta and its parallels, which employ the perceptions of the immaterial attainments for the sake of a gradual deepening of insight into emptiness. The possibility of such cross-fertilization between tranquillity and insight shows that in the early discourses these two do not function as separate paths, but rather constitute complementary dimensions of the path.’ – (Anālayo. 2017: pp.173-174).

Thus, now we can imagine why Visakah would have asked a question to Dhammdinnā regarding the classification of the Eightfold Noble Path into the Sīla, Samādhi, and Paññā. Many people mistake these three as separate constituents altogether. The aspect of Samādhi again becomes misleading due to its broad nature. Strictly speaking as far as the factors of the Eightfold Noble Path are concerned there is no scope for any immaterial attainments at all. It does not mean that the immaterial attainments do not have importance or place in Buddhism. Certainly, it has but the point here is it has no role to play in the Eightfold Noble Path. We can infer that the Buddha emphasized the happiness born out of concentration i.e. four fine material absorptions rather than sensual pleasure.

4.6 - Paññā

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This section covers the discussion on the following points: wisdom (paññā), the structure of the aggregate of wisdom (Paññākhandha), the development of insight, dry-insight (sukkah- vipassanā), the insight-knowledge, and Is insight practice possible during absorption? etc.

The word Paññā means intelligence, comprising all the higher faculties of cognition, “intellect as conversant with general truths”, reason, wisdom, insight, knowledge, recognition. (Davids Rhys T.W. Stede William. 1997). According to Nyanatiloka ‘the specific Buddhist knowledge or wisdom, however, as part of the noble eightfold path to deliverance, is insight, i.e. that intuitive knowledge which brings about the four stages of Holiness and the realization of Nibbāna, and which consists in the penetration of the Impermanency, Misery and Impersonality of all forms of existence.’ – (Nyanatiloka. 1987: p.122).

The path factors of right-view and right-intention are included in the group of wisdom. Just as dawn is the fore-runner, the fore-sign of the rising of the sun, even so, the right view is the fore-runner, the fore-sign of the realisation of the four noble truths as they really are. In fact, by seeing any one of the four noble truths, one sees all the four. - (S.V: pp.436-437, 442). According to Ven. Ledi Sayadaw: The training in wisdom (Paññā) comprises the knowledge that belongs to insight, and the knowledge that pertains to the supermundane path. – (Sayadaw Ledi. 2007-b:87).

Though the eight path factors are interrelated, an inherent relation between the group of virtue and wisdom is specifically explained in the Dīghanikāya in the following words. Wisdom is purified by virtue and virtue is purified by wisdom. Where there is virtue, wisdom is there; and where there is wisdom, virtue is there. To the virtuous-one there is wisdom, to the wise there is virtue. Virtue and wisdom are called the highest thing in the world. Just as one might clean one hand with another hand, or one foot with another foot; just like that, wisdom is purified by virtue and virtue is purified by wisdom. - (D.I: pp.123-124).

The Aṅguttaranikāya explains relation between insight and three concentrations of emptiness, markless and wishless: Three states are to be developed in order to understand well, gain indepth knowledge, and for the cessation of the lust, anger, delusion, (rāga, dosa, moha) etc.; they are emptiness concentration, markless concentration, and wishless concentration (suññato samādhi, animitto samādhi, appaṇihito samādhi.) – (A.I: p.299). The Commentary says, these three samādhi are nothing but vipassanā (tīhipi samādhīhi vipassanāva kathitā.) - (Mp. II: p.386).

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4.6.1 - Structure of the Paññākhanda

According to the twofold classification of the group of Sīla and Paññā, the group of paññā covers mindfulness and clear comprehension (sati-sampajañña), contentment, abandoning of hindrances, four fine material absorptions, knowledge and vision (ñāṇa-dassana) the stage of insight knowledge up to the knowledge of destruction of taints (āsavakhayañāṇa) including special knowledges (abhiññā). - (D.I: p.124). ‘The three higher knowledges are precisely about the cultivation of insight. The knowledge of remembrance of one’s former existence and the knowledge of vanishing and arising (the first and the second higher knowledge) have the potential to disclose dependent arising, and the knowledge of destruction of taints (the third higher knowledge) corresponds to the highest level of insight possible. – (Anālayo. 2017: pp.100-101).

According to the twofold classification into caraṇa and vijjā, the group of vijjā covers the knowledge and vision (ñāṇadassana), the stage of insight knowledge up to the knowledge of destruction of taints (āsavakhaya ñāṇa) including special knowledges (abhiññā). - (D.I: p.100).

According to the threefold classification of the group of Sīla, Samādhi, and Paññā, the Paññākhanda comprises knowledge and vision (ñāṇadassana), the stage of insight knowledge up to the knowledge of destruction of taints (āsavakhaya ñāṇa) including special knowledges (abhiññā). - (D.I: pp.208-209).

Ven. Ledi Sayadaw explained the right view in three ways. a) That one is the owner of the intentional action (kamma) one makes by body, speech or mind. b) That one has right view in respect of ten subjects concerned with kamma, its fruits, this world, other worlds, and the superknowledge revealing them. c) That one has right view regarding the Four Noble Truths. Right Thought is explained under three headings. a) Thoughts of renunciation - The mental state where there is absence of greed and ability therefore to renounce the five sense pleasures, that is pleasant sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and touches. Or it is ability to renounce attachment to the five groups (khandha), or to mind and body. Thought arising out of such absence of greed is this mode of right thought. b) Thoughts of non-harming - Loving-kindness (metta) for all beings, visible such as men and animals, or invisible such as devas and ghosts; the mind or heart which wishes their good and welfare. c) Thoughts of non-violence – compassion and sympathy for all beings, all of whom are subject to some suffering while most beings have much suffering to bear. Thoughts which ‘tremble with’ the sufferings of others are the practice of this aspect of right thought. – (Sayadaw Ledi. 1998: pp. 6, 35-36).

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While explaining the ‘Insight in the earlier period’Lance Cousins said: ‘If then the period of the development of the abhidhamma schools is the time when the elaborated versions of the path of insight begin to take form, the question arises as to the source material for these enlarged versions. In fact, the Nikāyas contain a large quantity of such material.’ He mentions in sequence from ‘knowing and seeing things as they are to disenchantment to greedlessness to release’ (yathābūtañāṇadassana to nibbidā to virāga to vimutti). The ‘knowing and seeing things as they are’ may represent the beginnings of insight and the release its result. Hence, we can take the two terms disenchantment and greedlessness as representing the heart of the process of insight. Disenchantment in insight meditation can be seen as parallel to pīti (joy) in calm meditation. Thus, in one case, joy if successfully tranquilized, leads to happiness and success in controlling one’s emotional life. In the other, disenchantment with the things with which one identifies, or to which one clings leads to mental clarity and deepening of knowledge. There are many parallel sequences namely: ‘vivekanissitaṃ virāganissitaṃ nirodhanissitaṃ vosaggapariṇāmiṃ’ which occurs with regard to the development of the seven factors of knowledge (bojjhaṅgā), and ‘aniccanupassī, virāgānupasssī, nirodhānupassī, paṭinissaggānupassī’ - the last quadrate of the mindfulness of breathing. - (Cousins Lance. 1996: pp.55-56).

4.6.2 – Vipassasnā bhāvanā

Opinion of Sangharakshita

‘You can’t develop insight with the same mind with which you carry on your work, or talk to your friends, or read books and newspapers.

With mind thus composed, cleansed, free from defilements, pliant and fit to work, remaining unpurturbed he directs and bends it to the purpose of perfect Insight. In this way, he comes to know: This is my body, possessing material qualities, formed of the four elements, produced by father and mother, an accumulation of rice and fluid, a thing by its very nature impermanent, fragile, perishable, and subject to total destruction; and this is my consciousness, bound up with and dependent on it.

This paragraph represents an extremely important point: the point of transition from samādhi to prajñā, from samath to vipassanā. It represents the point at which Insight arises or begins to arise. It’s quite important to see or to realize that Insight can be developed only by a mind of a certain kind. With your ordinary, everyday mind you can’t develop Insight. Your mind needs

215 to be trained, or it needs to go through cetain experiences first, represented mainly by the whole range of samatha-type experiences, especially the dhyānas.

In other words, the mind has to be prepared before Insight can arise. This is the important point. It’s as though the mind, by passing through the whole samatha experience, passing through the dhyānas, is cleansed and purified, and refined and made more pliable, and therefore able to develop Insight.

With that kind of a mind you start seeing everything more clearly. And the first thing you see is your own body, because there you are, sitting, and you just realize the true nature of the body. You see that it’s impermanent, and this is the point of this passage. You see that the body is impermanent, and you see that your usual, everyday consciousness is bound up with that body. You see how it is conditioned. So, this is the beginning of Insight. You don’t regard the body as a self, you don’t regard it as unchanging. You see that the body is also a process – a process that has beginning and an end. So, you are less attached to it. Seeing conditioned existence, seeing life, as invariably subject to suffering, to impermanence, to emptiness of slef, is called vipassanā – Insight.’ - (Sangharakshita. 2012: pp.401-402).

Development of Insight

Wisdom is to be developed by the practice of insight meditation. Importance and process of Insight meditation is explained as follows. The removal of clinging from five aggregates is necessary for the attainment of release. The removal of clinging is achieved by wisdom, and the kind of wisdom needed is precisely clear insight into the real nature of the aggregates. The elimination of clinging occurs in two distinct stages. The first is the elimination of the conceptual types of clinging expressed by wrong views, above all by identity view. This stage of release comes with the breakthrough to the Dhamma, the attainment of stream-entry. At this point the disciple sees the selfless nature of the aggregates and thus overcomes all views of self. However, disciples in training (sekha), even those at the penultimate stage of nonreturner, still retain a subtle notion of “I am” that continues to linger over the five aggregates like the scent of soap over newly washed clothes. This is spoken of as “a residual conceit ‘I am,’ a desire ‘I am,’ an underlying tendency “I am”. However, as the noble disciple continues to contemplate the rise and fall of the aggregates, in time even this residual notion of “I am” disappears. It is only the arhant who has fully understood the five aggregates down to the root and thus eradicated the subtlest tendencies to self-affirmation. The stream-enterer is defined as one who understands the five aggregates by way of their arising, passing away, gratification,

216 danger, and escape, while the arhant is one who, having understood the aggregates thus, is liberated by non-clinging. The trainee has arrived at this liberating knowledge and thereby eliminated the conceptually explicit types of ignorance crystallized in wrong views, but he has not yet fully utilized it to eradicate the emotively tinged types of ignorance which manifest as clinging. The arhant has masterd this liberating knowledge and fully developed it, so that in his mind all the defilements along with the subtlest shades of ignorance have been abolished. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.840, 846, 847).

In general, three-step pattern is seen in the Saṃyuttanikāya to explain insight meditation. a) The thought or opinion to be developed of impermanence, suffering, and non-self, with respect to five aggregates, in order to get rid of the wrong view of ‘self’. b) Five aggregates are to be seen ‘as they really are, with insight wisdom’, for the development of detachment from it. c) The learned noble disciple who perceives in this way, is disgusted with five aggregates; on being disgusted, he is free from attachment; on being free from attachment, he is liberated; in one who is liberated, knowledge of liberation arises. He knows distinctly: all that needs to be done to realise magga has been done, there is nothing more to be done for such realization. – (S.III: pp.3-22).

Process of the insight development with respect to the mindfulness of the body (kāyasati) is explained in the Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhayasutta of the Majjhimanikāya which states: ‘On seeing a material form with the eye, he lusts after it if it is pleasing; he dislikes it if it is unpleasing. He abides with mindfulness of the body unestablished (anupaṭṭhitakāyasati), with a limited mind, and he does not understand as it actually is the deliverance of mind and deliverance by wisdom wherein those evil unwholesome states cease without remainder. Engaged as he is in favouring and opposing, whatever feeling he feels – whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor- pleasant – he delights in that feeling, welcomes it, and remains holding to it. (The commentary explains that he delights in “I” and “mine.”). As he does so, delight arises in him. Now delight in feelings is clinging. With his clinging as condition, being [comes to be]; with being as condition, birth; with birth as condition, ageing and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair come to be. Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering. - (M.I: p.267; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.359).

Here, limited mind (parittacitta) can be considered as ‘conscious part of mind excluding subconscious part’. Normally, people remain unaware of the mechanical habit pattern of the subconscious part of the mind because of ignorance and hence suffer. According to the

217 commentary Paritta is akusala - unskilled, and appamāṇa is boundless, lokuttar which is related with path consciousness - (Ps. II: p.311). Probably paritta is called akusala since, it remains unaware of the happenings in the appamāṇa or subconscious mind and he suffers. In the Goenka tradition when one deals with sensation he deals with the subconscious mind. The demarcation between these two gets abolished and mind becomes one with wisdom i.e kusala.

The same thing happens with all the other sense objects and sense doors. In short, because of the contact of six sense doors and their respective objects, feeling arises and because of the blind reaction to it, craving arises, and the wheel of suffering starts rotating. The key to the process of insight practice is mentioned here - (M.I: pp.266-267). ‘On seeing a form with eye, he does not lust after it if it is pleasing; he does not dislike it if it is unpleasing. He abides with mindfulness of body established (upaṭṭhitakāyasati), with an immeasurable mind, and he understands as it actually is the deliverance of mind and deliverance by wisdom wherein those evil unwholesome states cease without remainder. Having thus abandoned favouring and opposing, whatever feeling he feels, whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor- pleasant, he does not delight in that feeling, welcome it, or remain holding to it.’ As he does not do so, delight in feelings ceases in him. With the cessation of his delight comes cessation of clinging and so on, consequently cessation of mass of suffering. These statements reveal that ‘the chain of dependent origination is broken at the link between feeling and craving. Feeling arises necessarily because the body acquired through past craving is subject to the maturation of past kamma. However, if one does not delight in feeling, craving will not have the opportunity to arise and set off reactions of like and dislike that provide further fuel for the round, and thus the round will come to an end.’ – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.360;1234).

Here, importance is given to three types of feelings, this supports Goenka tradition, which believes that all states come together in feeling. In this discourse, the suggested way out is, with the background of morality, sense restraint, sati-sampajañña, one should develop the four absorptions by abandoning the hindrances with the mindfulness of breathing. Then one should not develop craving out of blind reaction to the feeling with the help of awareness of body (kāyasati) and so on. Here the word appamāṇcetaso is used as against parittacetaso. This is related to the development of four absorptions. But Goenka says when one learns to remain aware of sensations, then the barrier between the conscious and subconscious mind breaks down and it becomes one.

Meditation practice

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While explaining the path for the attainment to liberation The Udāyisutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya mentions the procedure of meditation practice in the following way. Udayi spoke to the Lord that Blessed-One taught me the dhamma with respect to the five aggregates as ‘this is a form, this is the arising of it, this is the passing away of it’ and so on. Then Udayi described his practice in the following manner: ‘Bhante indeed, I went to the empty cell, and while rolling about97 (saṃparivattento), from top to bottom and bottom to top (ukkujja avakujja), through the five aggregates, realised as it really is ‘this is the suffering, this is the arising of suffering, this is the cessation of suffering, this is the path leading to the cessation of suffering.’ Bhante I realised the dhamma (dhammo ca me, bhante, abhisamito), I attained the path (maggo ca me paṭiladdho); this path when practised and developed will bring me, who is practising in this manner, to that state of reality where I would understand as: ‘destroyed is the birth, accomplished the righteous life, done whatever is to be done, nothing is to be done further.’ In the conclusion of the sutta the Blessed-One says: ‘Good! Indeed, this is the path that you have obtained’ and so on. - (S.V: p.90). It supports Goenka tradition with reference to the procedure of practice involving sequential body scan from top to bottom and bottom to top.

Bhikkhu Bodhi translates this passage as follows: ‘Then, venerable sir, while I was staying in an empty hut following along the surge and decline of the five aggregates subject to clinging, I directly knew as it really is: ‘This is suffering’; I directly knew as it really is: ‘This is the orgin of suffering’; I directly knew as it really is: ‘This is the cessation of suffering’; I directly knew as it really is: ‘This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.1588). Here, the expression ukkujja-avakujja is translated as ‘surge and decline’ respectively and the word samparivattento as ‘following along’ in accordance with the explanation of the commentary and sub-commentary.

Here, the Commentary explains the phrase Ukkujjāvakujja as ‘arising and passing’ in order to show impermanence, suffering, and non-self, as the nature of the five aggregates. It also explains the word samparivattento as contemplating (ukkujjaṃ vuccati udayo, avakujjaṃ vayoti udayabbayavasena parivattento sammasantoti dīpeti). - (Spk.III: p.151; Spk-ṭ. II.ii:135).

97 So khvāhaṃ, bhante, suññāgāragato imesaṃ pañcupādānakkhandhānaṃ ukkujjāvakujjaṃ saṃparivattento ‘idaṃ dukkhaṃ’nti …. yathābhūtaṃ abbhaññāsiṃ. Dhammo ca me, bhante, abhisamito, maggo ca me paṭiladdho; yo me bhāvito bahulikato tathā tathā viharantaṃ tathattāya upanessati yathāhaṃ - khiṇā jāti … nāparaṃ itthattāyā’ti pajānissāmi. – (S.V: p.90)

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Although the commentary and following it, Bhikkhu Bodhi understands the phrase ukkujāvakujja as referring to arising and passing, in my opinion the phrase rather refers to top to bottom and bottom to top sequential investigation of the five aggregates. The dictionary meaning of the term ukkujja is ‘set up, upturned’ and that of avakujja is ‘head first, prone, bent over, face downward or topsy-turvy’. The term saṃparivattati is to turn, to run, to roll about. This dictionary meaning is closer to the mode of practice taught by Goenka wherein one observes the body from top of the head to the tips of the toes and vice versa. The literal meaning of the word samparivattento namely ‘following along’ and its commentarial explanation namely ‘contemplating’ capture very well the idea of sequential reflection on the body.

The importance and process of the vipassanā meditation is explained in the many suttas of the Majjhimanikāya. The list of a few suttas are as follows. The Dhātuvibhaṅgasutta, the Bhaddekaratta, the Anandabhaddekarattasutta, the Mahākaccānabhaddekarattasutta, the Lomasakaṅgiyabhaddekarattasutta of the Vibahṅgavagga - (M.III: pp.238, 188-200); the Madhupiṇḍikasutta of the Sīhanādavagga, the Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhayasutta of the Mahāyamakavagga - (M.I: pp.109, 257); the Anāthapiṇḍikovādasutta, the Puṇṇovādasutta, the Nandakovādasutta, the Chūḷarāhulovādasutta, the Chachakkasutta, the Nagaravindeyyasutta, the Piṇḍapātapārisuddhisutta of the Saḷāyatanavagga - (M.III: pp.258, 267, 271, 278, 281, 291, 294). In this chapter I have discussed few of these suttas.

The Chachakkasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains the process of Insight meditation and the importance of feeling. The six groups of sixes consist of the important segments of the twelve- link conditioned origination. A very important segment from the point of view of practice is explained in detail with respect to Insight meditation. It states: ‘The six internal bases should be understood. The six external bases should be understood. The six classes of consciousness shoud be understood. The six classes of contact should be understood. The six classes of feeling should be understood. The six classes of craving should be understood.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.1129).

Cha ajjhattikāni āyatanāni veditabbāni, cha bāhirāni āyatanāni veditabbāni, cha viññāṇakāyā veditabbā, cha phassakāyā veditabbā, cha vedanākāyā veditabbā, cha taṇhākāyā veditabbā. - (M.III: p.281).

The commentary says: ‘should be understood with the insight along with path’ (Veditabbānīti sahavipassanena maggena jānitabbāni) - (Ps. V:100). The sub-commentary explains: ‘it is said, the exactly understanding feeling, and that which should be done with path, its way is

220 insight.’ (Vedanā yāthāvato jānanaṃ, tañca maggakiccaṃ, tassa upāyo vipassanātiāha – “sahavipassanena maggena jānitabbānī” ti.) - (Ps-ṭ. III: p.211). It is supportive to the Goenka tradition.

The segment of ‘consciousness, mind and matter and six sense fields,’ is explained with the three groups of sixes as six internal and six external sense-fields and six types of consciousness. Then the segment of ‘contact, feeling and craving’ is explained with the three groups of sixes as six types of each of contact, feeling and craving. With respect to these, the important aspects of impermanence and non-self are explained. It explains the underlying tendencies and their corelation with the three types of feeling, similar as the Cūlavedallasutta - (M.III: pp.281-287; M.I: p.303).

The process of Insight meditation and in it the important role of feeling, in order to abandon the underlying tendencies, is explained in the Chachakkasutta as follows: ‘Bhikkhus, dependent on the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises; the meeting of the three is contact; with contact as condition there arises [a feeling] felt as pleasant or painful or neither-painful- nor-pleasant. When one is touched by a pleasant feeling, if one does not delight in it, welcome it, and remain holding to it, then the underlying tendency to lust does not lie within one. When one is touched by a painful feeling, if done does not sorrow, grieve and lament, does not weep beating one’s breast and become distraught, then the underlying tendency to aversion does not lie within one. When one is touched by a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, if one understands as it actually is the origination, the disappearance, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to that feeling, then the underlying tendency to ignorance does not lie within one. Bhikkhus, that one shall here and now make an end of suffering by abandoning the underlying tendency to lust for pleasant feeling, by abolishing the underlying tendency to aversion towards painful feeling, by extirpating the underlying tendency to ignorance in regard to neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge – this is possible.’ (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.1135). The same explanation is given for all other five sense fields.

Thus, having seen and heard this, the learned disciple of the noble ones becomes disgusted with eye, material form, eye consciousness, and disgusted with contact of eye, feeling, and craving. Being disgusted one detaches oneself, by detachment one is freed; in freedom is the knowledge of freedom and so on.

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When this discourse was being given, the minds of sixty monks were freed from the cankers without grasping.

In this discourse, practice of samatha is not mentioned directly. The gratification aspect of feeling is mentioned which is nothing but the attainment of four fine material absorptions. The relation of the gratification, the danger and escape aspects of the feeling are shown with respect to neutral feeling only. Further, it mentions the understanding, as it really is, of these aspects with respect to neutral feeling, the tendency of ignorance is not dormant in him, thus he abandons ignorance. It indicates that the uprooting of ignorance is directly related to very subtle feelings neither painful nor pleasurable, and gratification aspect of feeling is in turn directly related to the four fine material absorptions. Goenka explains the uprooting of ignorance with neutral feeling.

Insight meditation during absorption

With respect to the point ‘Insight Meditation During Absorption’ Anālayo opines that: ‘Insight contemplation of impermanence can be practiced while immersed in an absorption relies for the most part on passages that are in themselves ambivalent and could be read in two ways. The one passage held to provide certain indications in this respect turns out on closer investigation to yield the opposite result; it shows that contemplation of the impermanence of mental factors present during an absorption would take place either when not yet having fully entered attainment or else when having just emerged from it.’ – (Anālayo. 2017: p.172). Before coming to this conclusion Aanālayo rejected the Anupada-sutta in its present form as available in the Pāli canon. The Pāli Anupada-sutta describes that Sāriputta observes the states of the first absorption up to the state of the cessation of perception and feeling. ‘Known these states arise, known they remain, known they disappear.’ He understood thus: ‘Indeed, in this way these states, which have not been, come into being; having been, they disappear.’ According to Anālayo the Anupada-sutta’s description does not depict the practice of insight into impermanence while the practitioner is immersed in an absorption. Reasons behind his conclusion are: ‘i) The presentation of insight practice while being immersed in absoprion lacks validity, since it has no parallels in scriptures of other tradtions. ii) The notion of momentariness, according to which phenomena pass away on the spot at every moment, is in fact a relatively late development in Buddhist thought. iii) To cultivate such awareness of these mental qualities arising and disappearing while being in an absorption is impossible, because the very presence of these qualities is required for there to be an absorption in the first place

222 and for it to continue being a state of absorption. iv) In case of the four fine material absorptions and the first three immaterial attainments practitioner can and in fact should be aware of the condition of the mind during actual attainment. But such awareness is concerned with a stable condition of the mind, the stability of continuously knowing the meditation object. In contrast the coming into being of that mental condition and its disappearance, can only happen when one is not yet or no longer in the actual attainment.’

The stand taken by Anālayo may be correct with respect to the eighth immaterial attainment and the state of the cessation of perception and feeling. Which infact is categoricaly mentioned in the Anupadasutta itself. It may also be correct with regard to the practice of insight preceded by serenity. Wherein one practices serenity first and after emerging from it one can practice insight. In this case the question may not arise regarding the practice of insight during the absorption. In principle, I disagree with Anālayo’s opinion that insight practice is not possible during absorption. Analayo’s opinion gives rise to certain fundamental questions such as: Whether the factor of enlightenment of investigation of states (dhammavicaya) has no role to play during absorption? What is the role of perception (saññā) during the absorption? How insight practice operates when one practices serenity in congruence with insight? How insight and serenity operate when one’s mode of practice is: One’s mind is seized by restlessness about the dhamma. The time comes when his mind becomes internally steady, composed, unified, and concentrated.? The arguments of Anālayo indirectly give the impression that in the absorption state perception does not have any function, somewhat similar as the saññāvedayitanirodha state.

The Poṭṭhapādasutta of the Dīghanikāya very cleary says: ‘It is through reason and cause, that forms of saññā in a being arise and cease. A certain form of saññā arises through practice and a certain form of saññā ceases through practice. (Sahetu hi, Poṭṭhapāda, sapaccayā purisassa saññā uppajjantipi nirujjhantipi. Sikkhā ekā saññā uppajjati, sikkhā ekā saññā nirujjhati).’ Further it explains how a certain form of saññā arises through practice, and a certain form of saññā ceases through practice with respect to the four fine material absorptions and first three immaterial attainments. – (D.I: pp.180-184; Ten sutta … 1987: p.127).

The necessity of absorption concentration or state of happiness is emphasized in the Saṃyuttanikāya in the following words: ‘Breakthrough to the Four Noble Truths is not possible with physical and mental suffering or displeasure, but it is accompanied only by happiness and

223 joy’.98 – (S.V: p.441). It implies that during the absorption or in the state of non-sensual happiness alone breakthrough is possible. The best way to achieve it is the attainment of four fine material absorptions. Text provides us many evidences such as the house holder Yash, his father etc who attained stream-entry by merely listening to the Buddha. It implies that without practicing absorptions one can achieve a state of non-sensual happiness and break through is possible. Hence, happiness born of non-sensuality is an utmost important factor rather than practicing insight during absorption or after emerging from it. It appears that both ways it is possible. In-fact Anālayo very nicely explained how non-sensual happiness arises out of the practice of morality, sense restraint, and contentment etc. He also showed the gradual deepening of the happiness from first to fourth absorption, and how there is a possibility that one may hesitate to practice insight at the cost of such happiness. That is why in the Goenka- tradition one practices concentration and insight in congruence along with sensation as an object right from the beginning.

The Saddhammapakāsinī, the commentary of the Paṭisambhidāmagga, while explaining the dhammaṭṭhitiñāṇa discusses about the congruent nature of concentration and insight (samathavipassanānaṃ yuganaddhattā). The congruent practice is explained categorically as: ‘congruently practicing concentration and knowledge without disturbing the concentration till the arising of noble path’.99

With respect to the arguments given by Anālayo the second argument of momentariness is not actually a point of focus here. The description in the passage indicates causal conditioning and non-self, nature of the states rather than momentariness or mere impermanence. I would like to quote here the Aṅguttaranikāya commentary which says: When one perceives impermanence, the perception of non-self is stabilized. Among these three characteristics when one is seen other two are also seen.100 (Anattasaññā saṇṭhātīti aniccalakkhaṇe diṭṭhe anattalakkhaṇam diṭṭhameva hoti. Etesu hi tīsu lakkhaṇesu ekasmim diṭṭhe itaradvayam diṭṭhameva hoti.) - (Mp. IV: pp.163-164). In this context the opinion of Ven. Ledi Sayadaw about non-self, while explaining ultimate truth (paramattha-sacca), is very much important.

98 Na kho panāhaṃ, bhikkhave, saha dukkhena, saha domanassena catunnaṃ ariyasaccānaṃ abhisamayṃ vadāmi; api cāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sahāva sukhena, sahāva somanassena catunnaṃ ariyasaccānaṃ abhisamayaṃ vadāmi. – (S.V: p.441). 99 Tasmā samādhiṃ avissajjetvā samādhiñca ñāṇañca yuganaddhaṃ katvā yāva ariyamaggo, tāva ussukkāpetabbanti ñāpanatthaṃ ‘paccayapariggahe paññā dhammaṭṭhitiñāṇa’micceva vuttanti veditabbaṃ. – (Paṭis-a. I: pp.19-20). 100 Anattasaññā saṇṭhātīti aniccalakkhane diṭṭhe anattalakkhaṇaṃ diṭṭhameva hoti. Etesu hi tīsu lakkhaṇesu ekasmiṃ diṭṭhe itaradvayaṃ diṭṭhameva hoti. Tena vuttaṃ - ‘aniccasaññino, bhikkhave, anattasaññā saṇṭhātī’ti. – (Mp. IV: pp.163-164).

224

He says: ‘In saying here: “No self exists,” “no living soul exists,” we mean that there is no such ultimate entity as a self or living soul which persists unchanged during the whole term of life, without momentarily coming to be and passing away.’ – (Sayadaw Ledi. 2007-b: p.19).

Regarding the third argument I say there is a possibility that, Sāriputta knows its arising, staying and disappearance as and when it takes place. He knows with mindfulness that he is entering in an absorption state, these states arise in him, stay, and when they disappear he comes out of that absorption knowing the fact mindfully. The stipulated time frame is not at all mentioned here. Mindfully one can enter in and emerge out of the state of absorption. The continuation of these qualities along with awareness of it in an absorption was very much possible for Sāriputta, while they arise and pass away momentarily. This is evident from the example of electricity or an oil lamp.

The fourth argument is also invalid, because such stability was possible to Sāriputta. It may be difficult, but it is not impossible. With stable condition of the mind he remains mindful of the fact that whatever states arise, and stay are due to some causal conditions and when those states disappear he remains mindful that now those conditions are not there. – (Anālayo. 2017: pp.116-123). In-short insight meditation during absorption is possible with non-self, nature of the states with respect to the law of causal arising.

The Paṭhamavibhaṅgasutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya states: Here monks, a noble disciple having made release the object attains concentration, attains one pointedness of mind – Monk, this is called the faculty of concentration. (Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako vosaggārammaṇaṃ karitvā labhati samādhiṃ, labhati cittassa ekaggataṃ - idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, samādhi-indriyaṃ). – (S.V: pp.197-198). Regarding this context Anālayo refutes the opinion of Arbel (2015: 186f) who gives different interpretations of the term vosagga. Arbel argues that the phrase found in this discourse implies the cultivation of the factors of awakening and thereby points to the intrinsically insight-related nature of absorption attainment. Though, the commentary and sub- commentary explains vosaggārammaṇa as nibbānārammaṇa Anālayo disagrees with it saying ‘the description given in this Pāli discourse is not found in its Saṃyutta-āgama parallels, it also needs to be kept in mind that in other Pāli discourses the term vosagga can convey various meanings. Here, I would like to mention the opinion of Bhikkhu Bodhi which is note worthy, he states: ‘Since, however, yuganaddha means literally ‘yoked together,’ some interprete the term to mean that in this mode of practice serenity and insight occur simultaneously. The commentarial system does not acknowledge this possibility but several suttas might be read as

225 suggesting that insight can occur within the jhāna and does not require the meditator to withdraw before beginning contemplation.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.1706-1707). (The fifth sutta of the Mahāvaggo of the Aṅguttaranikāya (A.IV: pp.422-423); Aṭṭhakanāgarasutta and Mahāmālukyasutta of the Majjhimanikāya). The Mahāvaggo of the Aṅguttaranikāya very cleary explains that ‘Thus, Bhikkhus, there is penetration to final knowledge as far as meditative attainments accompanied by perception reach. But these two bases – the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and the cessation of perception and feeling – I say are to be described by meditative bhikkhus skilled in attainments and skilled in emerging from attainments after they have attained them and emerged from them’.101 – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1301). Hence, I disagree with all these arguments by Aanālayo.

4.6.3 - Avijjā and vijjā

Ven. Ledi Sayadaw with respect to the vijjā from the practice point of view expressed that it is hard to understand the functioning of the four great elements in all things due to its complexity and subtlity. It is truly incomprehensible (acinteyya), their inherent powers are also incomprehensible. He states that: ‘Mastery of their nature through insight (in pursing) the Buddha’s teaching (of the Noble Eightfold Path) leads to wisdom which penetrates Nibbāna (paṭivedha-ñāṇa), which is also called supramundane wisdom (lokuttara-vijjā-ñāṇa).’

Ignorance and knowledge are discussed in the ten discourses of the Avijjāvaggo of the Saṃyuttanikāya which can be grouped into three. The first group has the first three discourses, the second group has the forth to ninth discourses, and the tenth discourse is in the third group. The first group discusses the ‘understanding, as it really is, of the arising, passing, and arising- passing with respect to the five aggregates.’ This is knowledge, and this is how one attains knowledge. The second group discusses the ‘understanding, as it really is, of the gratification, danger, and escape with respect to the five aggregates’. In the third group, the five aggregates are to be understood in the form of the four noble truths. This is the knowledge, and this is how one attains it. - (S.III: pp.171-177). It indicates that the sampajañña is the synonym of

101 Iti kho, bhikkhave, yāvatā saññāsamāsamāpatti tāvatā aññāpaṭivedho. Yāni ca kho imāni, bhikkhave, nissāya dve āyatanāni – nevasaññānāsaññāyatanasamāpatti ca saññāvedayitanirodho ca, jhāhihete, bhikkhave, samāpattikusalehi samāpattivuṭṭhānakusalehi samāpajjitvā vuṭṭhahitvā sammā akkhātabbānīti vadāmī’ti. – (A.IV: pp.426-427).

226 knowledge (vijjā). Goenka also explains the arising, passing away, and arising-passing away as sampajañña.

The Saṃyuttanikāya explains well purified vision (dassanaṃsuvisuddhiṃ), in four ways, one understands, as they really are, (a) the arising and passing away of six bases for contact, (b) the arising and passing away of the five aggregates subject to clinging, (c) the arising and passing away of the four great elements, and (d) ‘Whatever is subject to arising all that is subject to cessation.’ Generally, vision (dassana) means the attainment of stream-entry. (However, according to the commentary, here since the term suvisuddhi is attached to dassana, the path to arahantship is referred to). - (S.IV: pp.192-196).

The Aṅguttaranikāya explains aspects of arising, passing away, gratification, danger, and escape with respect to the bond of sensuality (kāmayoga), the bond of existence (bhavayoga), the bond of views (diṭṭhiyoga), and the bond of ignorance (avijjā yoga). Those who do not understand these five aspects, as they really are, with regard to sensuality, existence, views, and ignorance; in them lust, pleasure, affection, infatuation, thirst, fever, attachment, craving in sensuality, existence etc. lie dormant. Therefore, one is said to be ‘not secure from bondage’.

Those who understand these five aspects, as they really are, with regard to sensuality, existence, views, and ignorance, lust, pleasure, affection, infatuation, thirst, fever, attachment, craving in passion, becoming etc. do not lie dormant in him. Therefore, one is said to be ‘secure from bondage.’ - (A.II: pp.10-12).

4.6.4 – Sukkha-vipassanā

One can be freed by wisdom (paññāvimutto) without attaining any of the accomplishments or peaceful deliverances (santāvimokkha). While explaining this phenomenon the Blessed One states: ‘First comes knowledge of the stability of the Dhamma, afterwards knowledge of Nibbāna.’ (Pubbe dhammaṭṭhitiñāṇaṃ pacchā nibbāne ñāṇaṃ). It emphasizes the impermanence, suffering and non-self aspects. The commentary states: Insight knowledge is ‘knowledge of the stability of the Dhamma,’ (dhammaṭṭhitiñāṇa) which arises first. At the end of the course of insight, path knowledge arises; that is ‘knowledge of the Nibbāna,’ which arises later. The commentary states: ‘Friend, we are without jhāna, dry-insighters, liberated simply by wisdom.’ The sub-commentary says: Liberated simply by wisdom: not both-ways- liberated (na ubhatobhāgavimuttā). But the sutta itself establishes only that they lacked the abhiññās and āruppas; nothing is said about whether or not they had achieved the four jhānas. The commentaries explain the paññāvumutta arahant to be of five kinds: those who attain one

227 or another of the four jhānas, and the “dry-insighter” (sukkhavipassaka) who lacks mundane jhāna but still has the supramundane jhāna inseparable from the noble path.

The sub-commentary states regarding the dhammaṭṭhitiñāṇa as follows: The “stability of the Dhamma” is the stableness of phenomena, their intrinsic nature (dhammānaṃ ṭhitatā taṃ sabhāvatā): namely, impermanence, suffering, nonself. Knowledge of that is “knowledge of the stability of the Dhamma.” The Paṭisaṃbhidāmagga explains it as the knowledge of the relations between each pair of factors in the law of dependent origination (paṭicca-samuppāda). - (S.II: p.124; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.785).

Ven. Ledi Sayadaw mentioned about the sukkha-vipassanā: ‘According to the method followed by the dry-visioned person (sukkah-vipassaka puggala), the way of calm (samatha) through such exercises as mindfully breathing in and out is not practiced separately. Such a person, having established in himself the three factors of the morality group in the Eightfold Path, then undertakes the practice of the wisdom group. In this practice the three constituents of the concentration group accompany the two wisdom factors and are together known as the path with five factors (pañcaṅgikamagga). These five, in such practice, form one group and with the three remaining factors, the morality group, make up the Noble Eightfold Path. But insight- only as practiced by these dry-visioned people can succeed only if one has great penetrative wisdom and makes strenuous effort. Mental restlessness will then disappear as it does with the practice of calm.’ - (Sayadaw Ledi. 1998: pp.69,70).

4.6.5 - Arising, passing away, gratification, danger, and escape

Although the Buddhist path is inward and therefore subjective, we can find many objective methods of investigation of the reality, in the vast literature of the Pāli canon. The scheme of the Four Noble Truths, Dependent Origination and Four-fold Establishment of the Mindfulness are well known and widely discussed by the academicians. The objective approach adopted by the Buddha to analyse and understand the subjective experience of the mind and matter phenomenon is very peculiar. The objective observation of the mind and matter, without prejudice and preference is congruent with material science. By applying these methodologies, one can judge one’s progress on the path. One such method namely ‘The Fivefold Method of Investigation to Discern Reality’ is discussed in many discourses of all the five nikāya-s such as the Brahmajāla-sutta of the Dīghanikāya and the Mahādukkhakkhanda-sutta of the Majjhimanikāya.

In the Brahmajālasutta of the Dīghanikāya and in various other discourses the Buddha has

228 mentioned ‘fivefold method of investigation to discern reality’ as it is. These five-folds are (1) samudaya (arising); (2) atthaṅgama (passing away); (3) assāda (gratification); (4) ādinava (danger); (5) nissaraṇa (escape). One can use these angles or aspects of the method to understand the real nature of one’s experience, which consists of the sense field, the sense object, consciousness, contact, feeling, perception and so on. The fivefold method of investigation is an important objective method of discerning reality.

In the beginning of the Brahmajāla-sutta (D I: p.3) the Buddha advises the monks, ‘if others should blame the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, then do not be angry, sulky, or dissatisfied with it. Your agitation and displeasure is obstacle for you (because then you will not see or judge the situation properly), you will not understand, assess the good or bad properly. In this situation, you should explain the false as false, by explaining ‘it is not real, it is false; it does not exist in us and so on.’ Similarly, in case of praise by others, you should not be joyful, excited, and overwhelmed by it, it is obstacle for you. You will not understand the real as real, true as true, it exists in us or not’ (Ten Sutta…2003:5). Beginning with this common, simple advice the Buddha gradually explains the complex nature of the sixty-two views by adopting the fivefold method of investigation. In this discourse (D I: p.16), it is explained in short as follows:

‘Monks, the Tathāgata understands that (with respect to the views mentioned earlier or the position of the view holder), this way is the destination, this way future rebirth would be, if these places of views are thus taken and thus attached. The Tathāgata understands more superior states than these. By understanding that, he does not become attached to it; and remaining detached knows by him-self the final bliss.

Monks, the Tathāgata freed without attachment by knowing ‘as it really is’ the arising, passing away, gratification, danger, and escape with respect to feelings/field of contacts.

Monks, these are the states/dhammā-s, which are deep, difficult to understand, calm, excellent, beyond logic, subtle and understandable to the wise. The Tathāgata expounded them, after realising and understanding well by himself. Whosoever wishing to praise in reality the Tathāgata, should do so with respect to these states/dhammā-s.’

Let us analyse these sentences into three parts as mentioned above.

In the first part, the Buddha reveals his true-position in the world. The Buddha is the foremost

229 in the world, the All-knower (Sabbaññu), the Omniscient One. - (ANALYO. 2009: pp.129-30)102 It is because of this Omniscience that the Buddha knew the actual status of the sixty-two heretical views. He could understand things beyond the sphere of contact and feeling. This is again explained at the end of the discourse with the simile of the fisherman and his net.

The second part describes how the Buddha attained the ‘detached freedom’ (anupadavimutti), what is the method used to know the feelings as they really are. This method consists of nothing but five aspects that of ‘arising, passing away, gratification, danger, and escape’ (ANALYAO. 2009: pp.131-32)103.

The third part refers to the subtle and profound nature of this five-fold method. The Buddha taught this method to others only after realising it himself. According to the Buddha, only with respect to these five aspects one can praise the Tathāgata truly. (Bikkhu Bodhi, 1978: p.13. The

102 Analayo, pg.129-130. – The Brahmajāla-sutta records that the Buddha reached final liberation through having seen according to reality, yathābhutamviditvā, the arising and passing away of feelings, their advantage, their disadvantage, and the release from them...... ‘In this way these discourses workout in detail various aspects of the comprehensive direct knowledge in accordance with reality that the Buddha attained on the night of his awakening. Had this knowledge and vision been only on intellectual appreciation, one might wonder how a single insight could cover such a range of different topics. As the treatment in the Dhammacakkapavattana- sutta shows, however, this was not the case, since the knowledge and vision according to reality attained by the Buddha involved a progression from initial insight, via a process of development, to retrospective knowledge of having reached full realization. Such full realization, then, can be described from a variety of angles, be these the noble truths, the elements, the aggregates, the senses, the faculties, or the world. All these would be but facets of the Buddha’s comprehensive knowledge and vision according to reality, perfected on the night of his awakening. Thus, the scope of the Buddha’s awakening could be compared to a “circular vision, as when one is on top of a mountain...... However different the sceneries may be from the different directions, all the scenes constitute one integrated experience” if viewed from the perspective of one who stands on top of the mountain.

103 Analayo, pg. 131-132. - ‘The indication given in the Dhammacakkapavttana-sutta that there are different levels of knowledge and vision according to reality is echoed in other discourses, which similarly indicate that there are stages of growth in regard to knowledge that is in accordance with reality. Thus, a discourse in the Samyutta-nikāya distinguishes between becoming one who has “mastered knowledge”, Vedagu, and one who has attained “to the victory”, Sabbaji (SN iv 83). Here “mastery of knowledge” comes through knowing according to reality the arising and passing away, as well as the advantage, disadvantage and release in regard to the six spheres of contact. But only one who through such knowledge has become liberated, can be reckoned as having attained “total victory”.

One who knows according to reality, yathābhutam pajānāti, the arising and passing away, as well as the advantage, disadvantage and release in regard to the five faculties, can become a stream-enterer. When the same type of knowing develops further until it becomes a complete and full experience according to reality, yathābhutam viditvā, total liberation will be attained (SN V 194). That is, while the scope of insight and its truthfulness to reality remain the same, the deepening of such knowledge through continuous practice will lead from lower to higher stages of liberation.

230 point is raised regarding - use of the plural ‘dhammās’ in the Buddhās statement.)104

‘The sixty-two views mentioned in the Brahmajāla-sutta, can be classified into two main categories of (a) Pubbantānudiṭṭhi- the group of eighteen views based on the past existences; and (b) Aparantānudiṭṭhi- the group of forty-four views based on the speculation about the future. The group of eighteen views can be further classified into five sub-categories; and the group of forty-four views also can be further classified into five sub-categories.’ The above- mentioned passage of few sentences repeats like refrain after each main and sub-category of the sixty-two views. Most of these views except a few like Amarāvikkhepavāda, are directly related with or the outcome of the practice of absorptions or samādhi.

After explaining in detail all sixty-two views the Buddha states, “the excitement and struggle of these view holders is due to not understanding and not seeing the feeling which leads to the desire. All these views are within the sphere of contact and feeling, none is out of them. When a monk understands the arising, passing away, gratification, danger and escape with respect to the field of contacts ‘as they really are’, then only he understands those things, that are beyond the sphere of contact and feeling.” (D I: pp.38-39).

The commentary of Culasihanāda-sutta explains the ‘samudaya’ as the arising of two views of eternality and annihilation both as ‘khaṇikasamudaya’ (momentary arising) and ‘paccayasamudaya’ (causal arising); the ‘atthaṅgama’ as the passing away of two views of eternality and annihilation as momentary passing away and causal passing away; the ‘assāda’ as ‘diṭṭhimulakaṃānisaṃsaṃ,’ (advantage, benefit because of the root of the wrong view); and danger as ‘diṭṭhiggahaṇamulakaṃupaddavaṃ’ (distress, danger because of the root of the

104 Bhikku Bodhi, 1978, Introduction, pg.13. - ‘The second point calling for explanation is the remark in the commentary that the “dhammās that are deep, difficult to understand” mentioned by the Buddha in the preamble to the classification of views denote his knowledge of omniscience (sabbaññutaññāna). Two questions arise out of this: first, how this statement can be construed to indicate the knowledge of omniscience; and second, whether the texts actually justify the ascription of omniscience to the Buddha.

The commentary vindicates its position by pointing out that there are four special occasions when the greatness of the “Buddha-knowledge” becomes manifest: (1) The promulgation of the rules of Discipline (Vinaya); (2) the classification of dhammās according to plane and category; (3) the exposition of conditionality or dependent origination; and (4) the classification of the diversity of creeds. The Brahmajāla represents the working of the “Buddha knowledge” in the last-mentioned category. Some hesistancy may be felt over the use of the plural “dhammās” in the Buddha’s statement, but the commentary clears this by explaining that the plural is used because the omniscient knowledge occurs in several classes of consciousness and takes a plurality of objects. The first explanation is fanciful, the second has some justification in the present context. The Buddha’s statement about “deep dhammās” is repeated after each group of views, and in this setting, it evidently refers to his understanding of the various views by way of their cause and result as well as to his enlightenment and emancipation. Since no one but a Buddha can analyse and classify these views completely, only the knowledge peculiar to a Buddha can be the subject of this refrain.

231 wrong view); and escape is escape from wrong view i.e. ‘Nibbāna’.

The Dīghanikāya explains the aspect of arising, passing away, gratification, danger, and escape of seven areas and two dwelling places of consciousness i.e. to say it encompasses all the thirty- one planes of existence. One becomes Arhat by experiencing all of them as they really are, only through these aspects. These five aspets include practices of samatha and vipassana as well as the Noble Eight-fold Path. - (D.II: p.69).

The third sutta of the Sambodhavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains that, ‘if there would not have been gratification, danger, and escape in the world, then beings would not have been attached to, be disgusted with, and escaped from the world respectively. Since gratification, danger, and escape exist in the world, they attach to, be disgusted with, and escape from the world respectively. It explains the importance of ‘seeing as it really is’ the gratification as gratifiaction, danger as danger, and escape as escape in the world, to free oneself from the suffering world. - (A.I: pp.259-260).

If one knows well the arising and passing away of the things, his view can be proper or right. The repeated observation of arising and passing away of the things can correct the view of a practitioner. This is congruent with the noble eight-fold path which is preceded by the right view. The right view is the fore runner of the noble eight-fold path and the penetration by the five-fold investigation is the path in itself.

The gratification of the feelings is necessary to understand the plane of fine material and immaterial. It appears to be the highest peak of the field of gratification. The gratification of the sense pleasure and material form is related with the sensual plane only. So, with the experience of the gratification of feelings the entire field of thirty-one planes can be fully understood. With the danger-angle of feelings one can understand well the impermanent, unsatisfactory, and changeable nature of feelings, which in turn can lead to the escape-angle of it.

The importance of feeling in the practice of meditation is emphasized here. It is also evident that the improper or inadequate understanding of feeling leads to the wrong view. (Same applies to the improper understanding of the other four aggregates also).

4.6.6 - Vipassanāñāṇa - Insight knowledge

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In the early Buddhist literature, we find a fixed peculiar pattern of the description of insight knowledge along-with few other knowledges namely, udayabbay, sammassana, ādinava etc. Which are some of the many knowledges developed at later stages of the development of Buddhism. The elaborate list of the seventy-three insight knowledges is found in the Paṭisambhidāmagga. Let us have a look at the insight knowledge explained in the discourses of the Majjhima and Dīgha Nikāya (which corresponds to the nāmarūpapariccheda of the vipassanāñāṇa). In the Majjhimanikāya it is explained as the path or mode of progress for dwelling in the Arahantaship. In the Subhasutta of the Dighanikāya it is explained as the part of the noble-wisdom (ariyao paññākkhandho) leading to the perfect knowledge (ñāṇadassanāya). In both the places insight knowledge is mentioned after the attainment of fourth fine material absorption and before the practice of special knowledge or supernormal powers (abhiññā).

The Buddha announces to his disciples that mode of progress (paṭipadā), by walking on which they would understand well, ‘this body of mine, made of material form, consisting of the four great elements, produced by a mother and father, and built up out of boiled rice and vegetables. It is subject to impermanence, to being worn and rubbed away, to breaking up and disintegrating. This consciousness of mine is dependent on it and bound with it.’ Suppose there were a beautiful, eight-faceted, well-cut, clear, and in all respects excellent gem, and through it a blue, yellow, red, white, or brown thread would be strung. Then a man with good sight, holding it in his hand, might review it thus: This is a beautiful, eight-faceted, well-cut, clear, and in all respects excellent gem, and through it a blue, yellow, red, white, or brown thread is strung.’ Thereby many disciples dwelt on it attaining perfection. - (M.II: pp.17-18).

The Papañcasudanī explains the simile of a gem and thread as follows: The corporeal body is like a beautiful, eight-faceted, gem; insight knowledge is like the blue, yellow, red, white, or pale-yellow thread which is strung through the gem; the person who attains insight is like a man with good insight; the time when the gem is clearly perceived while holding it in hand and reviewing it, is like the time when one clearly sees the corporeal body made of four great elements while observing it by means of insight knowledge.’ - (Ps.III: pp.262-263).

It clearly implies the process of insight practice, wherein the corporeal body made up of four elements is to be reviewed or observed. As a result, one acquires various insight knowledges. In the Commentarial explanation the importance of the body with respect to the insight knowledge is made very clear. It brings out the equal importance given to mind and body in

233 the process of insight meditation. This supports the Goenka-tradition, wherein the corporeal body is to be reviewed or observed from top to bottom, with insight.

The Path – opinion of Anālayo

Buddha always advises the monks to meditate, we find a particular phrase in the suttas which indicates it: ‘these are the roots of the trees, these are the empty places, meditate, do not be negligent, do not become remorseful later, this is my teaching’.105 Similarly, Goenka’s stand point of the experiential knowledge or meditative practice rather than mere intellectual understanding of the Buddha’s teaching is appreciated by the following discussion of Anālayo.

In the book ‘Early Buddhist Meditation Studies’ while explaining ‘The Path’, Anālayo concludes as follows: ‘In later exegesis, depictions of the path tend to become more fixed and reflect a drive toward comprehensiveness. As an almost inevitable result, the intrinsic interrelation between complementary aspects of the path, such as concentration and wisdom or tranquillity and insight, can be lost out of sight.

The same tendency has been taken considerably further in modern scholarship, leading to the assumption that the early Buddhist discourses reflect an irreconcilable conflict between advocates of two different paths to liberation. One of these two paths presumably involves an intellectual insight into the four noble truths, whereas the other path cultivates absorption attainment as in and of itself productive of liberating insight. ….. Insight into the four noble truths can take place at various depths, ranging from an initial appreciation that inspires one to embark on the path all the way to the profound insight of one who has reached the final consummation of this path.

In relation to the moment of awakening, the scheme of four truths functions as a description of the Buddha’s realization of Nirvāṇa. Apparently inspired by an ancient Indian scheme of medical diagnosis, such a pragmatic form of description serves to flesh out the implications of the experience of awakening in relation to the overarching task of finding a way out of the predicament of dukkha and at the same time serves to convey in a succinct manner the main elements of the path to be adopted by those who are in quest of the supreme health of Nirvāṇa.

Contrary to the assumption underpinning one of chief planks of the theory of two seperate paths to awakening, full realization of the four noble truths appears to be very much a matter of

105 Etāni, Cunda, rukkhamūlāni, etāni sññāgārāni, jhāyatha, Cunda, mā pamādattha, mā pacchāvippaṭisārino ahuvattha’ - ayaṃ kho amhākaṃ anusāsanī’ti. – (M. I: p.46).

234 meditative cultivation, rather than being the result of intellectual reflection only.’ – (Anālayo. 2017: pp.107-108).

In this context the explanation as an internal evidence is found in the Mahacattārisakasutta of the Majjhimanikāya, wherein the two-fold functioning of different constituents of the Noble Eightfold Path is explained. Generally, in the text the right view is explained as the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. While explaining the supermundane part of the right view different terminology is used in this discourse as ‘the wisdom, the faculty of wisdom, the power of wisdom, the enlightemment factor of investigation-of-states, the path factor of right view in one whose mind is noble, whose mind is taintless, who possesses the noble path and is developing the noble path.’ Bhikkhu Bodhi aptly says that, ‘This definition is formulated by way of the cognitive function rather than the objective content of right view. We may understand that the conceptual comprehension of the four truths falls under mundane right view, while the direct penetration of the truths by realising Nibbāna with the path constitutes supermundane right view.’ – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.935, 1328). The mundane part of the right view is also explained in this sutta and it depicts how these twofolds of right view function to lead an ordinary practitioner to the plane of learner and ultimately to the plane of non-learner. This is already discussed in the previous chapter of concentration. The Mahcattārisakasutta provides strong support to the Goenka-tradition.

4.7 - Dhamma and Paṭiccasamuppāda

a) - Dhamma

The Dhamma is a very broad term, the text, the commentaries and sub-commentaries present its’ meaning in a varied manner. In the third chapter we have seen that Goenka specifically emphasizes interpretation of the dhamma as the laws of nature and so on. In the beginning of the fourth chapter we have discussed in detail the aspect of dhamma as the Four Noble Truths. Here, in this section initially we will discuss few aspects of the dhamma and then will see its’ qualities and features with respect to the early Buddshist literature. Buddha says, one who knows dhamma, knows paṭiccasamuppāda and vice-versa. Hence, after the discussion of the dhamma, for our better understaning we will discuss in brief other side of the same coin the Paṭiccasamuppāda separately.

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Syagyi U Ba Khin says, ‘Dhamma eradicates suffering and gives happiness. Who gives this happiness? It is not the Buddha but the Dhamma, the knowledge of anicca (impermanence) within the body, which gives this happiness. That is why you must meditate and be aware of anicca continually.’ – (VRI. 2002: p.3). It clarifies the stand point of the Goenka-tradition. On this back-ground, Goenka presents Dhamma as the laws of nature, the universal law which governs everything living and non-living. Let us first see the meaning of the word Dhamma and then we will see how early Buddhist literature presents it. ‘Generic meaning of the word Dhamma, which is derived from the root dhr, is ‘to sustain’. Its specific meaning based on realisation is nature or characteristic.’ (VRI. 2003: p.9). Nyantiloka records the following meanings of the word Dhamma: ‘the Bearer, Constitution (or Nature of a thing), Norm, Law, Doctrine; Justice, Righteousness; Quality; Thing, Object of Mind; Phenomenon. According to Buddhaghosa, the meaning of the word dhamma is fourfold – ‘quality, virtue; instruction; text; and soullessness. ‘The Dhamma, as the liberating law discovered and proclaimed by the Buddha, is summed up in the four Noble Truths. It forms one of the three Gems and one of the ten Recollections. Dhamma, as object of the mind may be anything past, present or future, corporeal or mental, conditioned or not, real or imaginary’. - (Nyanatiloka.1987: p.47).

Another fourfold definition by Buddhaghosa is – pariyatti, or doctrine that is formulated; hetu or condition, causal antecedent; guṇa, or moral quality or action; and nissatta-nijīvaatā, or “the phenomenal” as opposed to “the substantial,” “the noumenal,” “animistic entity.” - (Rhys Davids T.W., Stede William.1997).

The term Dhamma has a very broad spectrum of meaning. In the sense of teachings of the Buddha, it has two versions. One is ‘the truth transmitted by the teachings’ and another is ‘the conceptual verbal medium by which that truth is expressed in order that it can be communicated and made comprehensible. Dhamma is essentially a means, a raft for crossing over from the near-shore of ignorance, craving, and suffering to the far-shore of transcendental peace and freedom. The Four Noble Truths are the core of Dhamma. The Four Noble Truths cover the entire teaching of the Buddha, containing its many other principles just like the footprint of an elephant which encompasses the footprints of all other animals.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.24-25).

‘Dhamma is more than a particular religious teaching that has appeared at a particular epoch of human history. It is the timeless law in which reality, truth, and righteousness are merged in

236 a seamless unity, and also the conceptual expression of this law in a body of spiritual and ethical teachings leading to the highest goal, Nibbāna, which is likewise comprised by the Dhamma.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.42). This explanation of the dhamma is in congruence with Goenka’s interpretation.

Six Qualities of the Dhamma

Six qualities of the Dhamma are mentioned in the following way in the suttas. The Dhamma is well proclaimed by the Blessed One (Svākhāto Bhagavatā Dhammo), visible here and now (sandiṭṭhiko), immediately effective (akāliko), inviting inspection (ehipassiko), onward leading (opaneyiko), to be experienced by the wise for themselves (paccattaṃ veditabbo viññuhi’ti) - (M.I:38; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.119). These qualities are also non-secterian and very secular in nature. The Goenka-tradition also interpretes the term dhamma in same way.

Sayagyi U Ba Khin in his article ‘The Real Values of True Buddhist Meditation’ says: ‘He, who has by the practice of Buddha-Dhamma passed into the four streams of sanctity and enjoyed the four fruitions, can appreciate the six attributes of the Dhamma, namely: 1) The Dhamma is not the result of conjecture or speculation, but the result of personal attainments, and it is precise in every aspect. 2) The Dhamma produces beneficial results here and now for those who practise it in accordance with the techniques evolved by the Buddha. 3) The effect of Dhamma on the person practising it is immediate in that it has the quality of simultaneously removing the causes of suffering with the understanding of the truth of suffering. 4) The Dhamma can stand the test of those who are anxious to do so. They can know for themselves what the benefits are. 5) The Dhamma is part of one’s own self and is therefore susceptible of ready investigation. 6) The fruits of Dhamma can be fully experienced by the eight types of noble disciples.’ – (VRI. 1994: pp.55, 56).

Dhamma – the teachings

Dhamma is the law of nature, the characteristics, because when one generates any defilement like anger, greed, hatered and so on then immediately he becomes the first victim of that defilement, this is the law of nature – dhamma.

According to the Saṃyuttanikāya Dhamma (exposition) is - the fulfilment of aggregate of virtue (sīlakkhandha), aggregate of concentration (samādhikkhandha), aggregate of wisdom (paññākkhandha), aggregate of liberation (vimuttikkhandha), and aggregate of the knowledge and vision of liberation (vimuttiñāṇadassanakkhandha) which are superior to all. All who dwelt

237 in it in the past, are dwelling in it now and will dwell in it in future, honour the saddhamma, this is the nature (dhammatā) of all Buddhās. - (S.I: pp.139-140). Goenka explains these aspects of dhammā as sīla, Samādhi, Paññā, (the nature of which goes form gross to subtle to subtlest) and Nibbāna.

The Aṅguttaranikāya explains eight reflections/thoughts of a great person with respect to the Dhamma. 1) ‘This Dhamma is for one with few desires, not for one with strong desires. 2)This Dhamma is for one who is content, not for one who is discontent. 3)This Dhamma is for one who resorts to solitude, not for one who delights in company. 4)This Dhamma is for one who is energetic, not for one who is lazy. 5) This Dhamma is for one with mindfulness established, not for one who is muddle-minded. 6) This Dhamma is for one who is concentrated, not for one who is unconcentrated. 7) This Dhamma is for one who is wise, not for one who is unwise. The eighth thought is: ‘This dhamma is for one who delights in non-proliferation (freedom from defilements/illusion), who takes delight in non-proliferation, not for one who delights in proliferation, who takes delight in proliferation106.’ It is said with reference to this that: ‘Here, a bhikkhu’s mind launches out upon the cessation of proliferation, becomes placid, settles down, and is liberated in it. - (A.IV: pp.228-230; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.1160,1161,1165). The commentary says: ‘Nippapañcārāmassaa– means without illusion or obstacle of craving, conceit, and wrong view, the contentment in the state of nibbāna107, which agreed on in non- proliferation. ‘This Dhamma is for one ‘who delights in non-proliferation,’ who takes delight in the state of nibbāna, called ‘non-proliferation’ because it is devoid of proliferation by craving, conceit, and views.’ - (Mp. IV: pp.120-121; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1798). It is very clear from this statement that taṇhā-māna-diṭṭhi are at the root of illusion or suffering, and it is to be dealt with by the practice of arising and passing away or udayatthagāminiyā paññā or insight. The meditative practice in Goenka-tradition in principle agrees with all these eight reflections.

Features of the Dhamma

The following suttas of the Aṅguttaranikāya explain some features of the Dhamma. Goenka discusses these features of dhamma in his discourses. ‘The Buddha proclaims the Dhamma, which is excellent the beginning, middle, and end, in the spirit and in the letter, and displays

106 Nippapañcārāmassāyaṃ dhammo nippapañcaratino, nāyaṃ dhammo papañcārāmassa papañcaratino. – (A.IV: p.230). 107 Taṇhāmānadiṭṭhipapañcarahitattāti - taṇhāmānadiṭṭhipapañcarahitattā nippapañcasaṅkhāte nibbānapade abhiratassa. – (Mp. IV: pp.120-121).

238 the absolutely perfect and extremely pure holy life (noble practice of morality, concentration, and wisdom).’ - (D.I: p.62).

The Vinayavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains the Dhamma in brief. Ven. Upāli asks the Buddha: ‘Bhante, it would be good if the Lord would teach me the Dhamma in brief, and so on.’ The Buddha explains in brief: ‘Upāli, those things which you might know thus: ‘These things do not lead exclusively to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to nibbāna,’ you should definitely recognize: ‘This is not the Dhamma; this is not the discipline; this is not the teaching of the Teacher.’ But those things which you might know thus: ‘These things lead exclusively to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to nibbāna,’ you should definitely recognize: ‘This is the Dhamma; this is the discipline; this is the teaching of the Teacher.’ - (A.IV: p.144; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1100). As explained similarly in many other discourses of the Majjhimanikāya and so on, it gives very clear guideline to recognise the authentic teachings, the Dhamma.

The Dhammikavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains the directly visible Dhamma thus: ‘Directly visible Dhamma (Sandiṭṭhiko dhammo), is that when one understands that I have, internally greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), delusion (moha),’ when they are present; and I have no greed, hatred, and delusion internally when they are not present. Similarly, one understands when defilements such as lust, a bodily fault, a verbal fault, a mental fault (rāga, kāyasandosa, vacīsandosa, manosandosa) are present or not. - (A.III: pp.357-358). Goenka explains these features in his discourses regarding the Satipaṭṭhānasutta.

The three suttās of the Brahmaṇavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya explain the nature of directly visible Dhamma with regard to abandoning the lust (rāga), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha) by giving three advantages: i) One does not intend for his own affliction, for the affliction of others, or for the affliction of both, and he does not experience mental suffering and dejection. ii) One does not engage in misconduct by body, speech, and mind. iii) One understands as it really is his own good, the good of others, and the good of both. - (A.I: pp.156-159; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.251,252). The sub- commentary explains it as the great majesty, great advantage of the noble dhamma which should be seen by oneself (sandiṭṭhiko). - (Mp-ṭ. II: p.118). The Goenka-tradition emphasizes these features. b) - Paṭiccasamuppāda

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‘One who knows dhamma knows paṭiccasamuppāda and one who knows paṭiccasamuppāda knows dhamma.’ This is like the motto of the Goenka-tradition. The depenedent origination (Paṭiccasamuppāda) is usually expounded in a sequence of twelve factors and in two orders: by way of origination and by way of cessation. The whole formula in turn exemplifies an abstract structural principle of conditionality, ‘When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not come to be; with the cessation of this, that ceases.’ This structural principle can have different applications than those found in the formula of dependent origination, and indeed underlies almost every aspect of the Buddha’s teaching, from his ideas about social reformation to his outline of the path to Nibbāna. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.517).

In what follows, the Dhamma is explained as the law of nature. The Saṃyuttanikāya explains dependent origination as: ‘With birth as condition, aging-and-death [comes to be].’ The law of dependent origination is universal, it remains irrespective of the arising of Tathāgata, this causality just stands or that element still persists (ṭhitāva sā dhatu), the stableness of the Dhamma (dhammaṭṭhitatā), the fixed course of the Dhamma (dhammaniyāmatā), specific conditionality (idappaccayatā). A Tathāgata awakens to this and breaks through to it. Having done so, he explains it, teaches it, proclaims it, establishes it, discloses it, analyses it, elucidates it. And he says: ‘See! With birth as condition, bhikkhus, aging-and-death.’ The dependently arisen phenomena (paṭiccasamuppannā dhammā) namely oldage, death, birth, becoming, ignorance and so on are impermanent, conditioned, dependently arisen, subject to destruction, vanishing, fading away and cessation. - (S.II: pp.26-27; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.551).

Different types of causal associations starting with suffering and culminating in the knowledge about extinction of cankers are explained in the Saṃyuttanikāya - (S.II: pp. 30-33). Here, the in-between links are faith, delight, joy, tranquillity, happiness, concentration, knowledge and vision into states as they really are, disgust, dispassionateness, and release. These links are nothing but the factors of absorptions, factors of enlightenment, and insight. But there is no direct mention of absorptions and insight and so on. On the background of extreme views of eternity and annihilation, the ‘law of dependent origination’ is explained as the middle path. - (S.II: pp.39-41). The Four Noble Truths are presented in the form of condition (paccaya) - (S.II: pp.42-45). The links of dependent origination are also presented in the form of the Four Noble Truths. Though Goenka does not discuss about all these aspects of the Paṭiccasamuppāda in his discourses, in essence he gives importance to the Paṭiccasamuppāda from the practice point of view. In this context the following opinion of Rhys Davids is very

240 important. In the Introduction to the Mahānidānasutta of the Dīghanikāya, Rhys Davids says, ‘Hence in trying to account adequately for the profound significance and high importance attached by the founder of Buddhism to the doctrine of the paṭiccasamuppāda, we need to keep in view this dual aspect of it – that it is a way of explaining phenomena, and that the most interesting phenomenon to be explained is that of suffering. The later standpoint is that of man as recipient or percipient, the former, that of man as intellective or interpreting. - (Rhys Davids T.W. 2007: pp.43-44).

The Nidānasaṃyutta is related to the law of dependent origination. The regular order of the law of dependent origination is mentioned as wrong way or wrong mode of progress (miccāpaṭipadā), and ‘the reverse order of the law of dependent origination’ is mentioned as the right mode of progress (sammāpaṭipadā). - (S.II: pp.4-5). Goenka tradition expects one to work as per the reverse order of the law of dependent origination. The regular order is arising of suffering and the reverse order is cessation of suffering. The wrong mode of progress depicts feeling as the causal condition of craving which results into suffering. Hence, in the right mode of progress much importance is given to the link of feeling in the practice, to come out of suffering. The ‘law of dependant origination’ is also explained as the middle path in the Kaccānagottasutta of the Nidānasaṃyutta. It states: “‘All exists’: Kaccāna, this is one extreme. ‘All does not exist’: this is the second extreme. Without veering towards either of these extremes, the Tathāgata teaches the Dhamma by the middle: ‘With ignorance as condition, volitional formations [come to be]’ and so on. - (S.II: pp.17, 21-24; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.544). It supports the stand point of Goenka-tradition wherein one of the twelve links - sensation, is given prime importance in the practice of insight.

The Aṅguttaranikāya explains dependent origination: ‘A first point of ignorance is not seen such that before this there was no ignorance and afterward it came into being. Still, ignorance is seen to have a specific condition (idappaccayā). Ignorance has a nutriment; it is not without nutriment (condition). Ignorance has as its nutriment five hindrances, and in turn, three kinds of misconduct, non-restraint of the sense faculties, lack of mindfulness and clear comprehension, careless attention, lack of faith, listening to wrong teaching, and association with bad persons are the nutriment in succession with next. Similarly, true knowledge and liberation has as its nutriment seven factors of enlightenment, and four establishments of mindfulness, three kinds good conduct, restraint of the sense faculties, mindfulness and clear comprehension, careful attention, faith, listening to the good Dhamma or true teaching, and association with good persons are the nutriment in succession with next. - (A.V: pp.113-118).

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4.7.1 - Vedanā

Vedanā is the key aspect of the Goenka-tradition. Let us study in detail various aspects of vedanā and references of it from the early Buddhist literature.

The root Vid – vedeti – is to know or feel, to sense, to experience. The word vedanā meaning feeling, sensation. - (Rhys Davids T.W., Stede William.1997). Goenka emphasizes on sensations as the meaning of the word vedanā and in the practice ordinary bodily sensations gross or subtle are given prime importance.

Feeling is one of the five aggregates. According to the six senses, there are six kinds of feelings. Feeling is one of the seven mental factors associated with all consciousness. In the law of dependent origination, feeling is the condition for arising of craving. Feelings are also constitutent factors of twenty-two faculties. – (Nyanatiloka. 1987: p.189).

Nature of vedanā – physical and mental

The Majjhimanikāya mentions various kinds of feelings namely pleasant, painful, neither pleasant nor painful, and racking, rough, piercing and so on.108 - (M.II: pp.216-219).

According to its nature feeling can be divided in to, ‘bodily agreeable feeling; bodily disagreeable feeling; mentally agreeable feeling; mentally disagreeable feeling; and indifferent or neutral feeling. – (Nyanatiloka. 1987: p.189).

Anālayo aptly pointed out that ‘the point of the distinction between bodily and mental feeling in the early discourses, then, is not that some feelings are only experienced in the body, others only in the mind. Instead, this distinction refers to where they originate from. That is, the point at stake is which sense-door has been the basis for the coming into being of pleasant or painful feeling, whose experience usually involves the body as well as the mind.’ – (Anālayo. 2011-a: p.161).

Vedanāsamosaraṇā sabbe dhammā

Goenka gives much importance to this aspect of junction or convergence upon feeling during his discourses. The Aṅguttaranikāya explains the importance of feeling: ‘All things are rooted in desire. They come into being through attention. They originate from contact. They converge

108 Sukhā, dukkhā, adukkhasukhā, and tibbā, kharā, katukā veadanā. – (M.II: pp.216-219).

242 upon feeling (vedanāsamosaraṇā sabbe dhamma - all states coming together or meeting with feelings. This is Sahajātasamosaraṇa.). They are headed by concentration. Mindfulness exercises authority over them. Wisdom is their superior. Liberation is their core. - (A.IV: p.339; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.1231,1232). They converge upon feeling in the sense that feeling is the most important aspect of our experience, the basic motivating factor in everything we do. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1813).

The word samosaraṇa meaning [saṃ+osaraṇa] coming together, meeting, union, junction. – (Rhys Davids T.W. 1997). The idea of a junction route or bottle-neck can give a better picture of this aspect. In this sense the term feeling (vedanā) appears many times in the text. At times the term perception of impermanence (aniccasaññā), diligence (appamāda) also occurs along with the term samosaraṇa as a simile of apex of the building. - (S.III: pp.156-157; A.III: p.365). In this context the Brhamajālasutta underlines the unique importance and crucial role of feeling (veanā) in the formation of a view. Feeling is the junction, the point which is responsible for forming either one of the sixty-two wrong views or the right view. The Taṇhāsaṅkhayasutta of the Majjhimanikāya and other suttas of the text very frequently mention the importance of feeling in the practice.

The Mahānidānasutta of the Dīghanikāya not only refers to the junction (samosaraṇa) of feeling but also clarifies the nature of it. By doing so it points out sensation - the very important object of insight meditation. The explanation in the sutta goes like this: ‘Thus, indeed O Ananda, in two ways these two (types of craving) have feeling as the only condition109.’ The commentary says, ‘these two kinds of states are two kinds of craving: craving leading to the round of existences and craving in actual conduct and practices.110 The first kind of craving which gives rise to clinging (upādāna), i.e. the craving which is the fundamental root cause, of the round of existences. The second kind of craving which gives rise to quest for possessions, pleasures etc, i.e. the craving as mechanical habit pattern. The commentary enumerates three kinds of junction (samosaraṇa): junction as entry or meeting (Osaraṇasamosaraṇaṃ)111, junction as ‘born at the same time’ or together (Sahajātasamosaraṇaṃ), and junction as cause or motive etc (Paccayasamosaraṇaṃ). Here it is paccayasamosaraṇa.

The Mahānidānasutta further explains that: Mind and matter are the cause of contact. It can be understood this way – The group of mental phenomena (nāma-kāya) is manifested through

109 Iti kho, Ananad, ime dve dhammā dvayena vedanāya ekasamosaraṇā bhavanti. – (D.II: p.61). 110 Ime dve dhammāti vaṭṭamūlataṇhā ca samudācārataṇhā cāti ime dve dhamma. – (Sv. II: pp.499-500). 111 Atha kho sabbāni tāni kāmasamosaraṇāni bhantī’ti idaṃ osaraṇasamosaraṇaṃ nāma. – (Sv. II: pp.499-500).

243 these properties, features, signs and indications (according to the commentary, these are feeling, perception, volitional activities, and consciousness); and the various mental phenomena (of that group) are designated by terms (such as feeling, perception etc). If these properties, features, signs or indications all are absent, then the ‘mind-contact’ (adhivacanasamphassa) would not appear in the group of (purely) physical phenomena (rupa- kāya).’ Simiarly, ‘The group of physical phenomena (rupa-kāya), is manifested through these proerties, features, signs, and indications (such as texture i.e. hardness, softness etc, cohesiveness, temperature, movement); and the various physical phenomena are designated by terms (such as the element of solidity, cohesion etc). If these properties, features, signs or indications, all are absent, then the contact of sense organs with sense objects or physical body (paṭighasamphassa) would not appear in the group of mental phenomena (nāma-kāya).’

‘The group of mental phenomena, and the group of physical phenomena, are manifested only through their respective properties, features, signs, and indications. If these are absent, then the ‘contact of mind’ (adhivacanasamphassa) or contact of the (five sense organs) physical body would not appear’. ‘The mind and body (nāmarūpa) are manifested by these properties, features, signs and indications. If these are absent, then contact would not appear at all’. ‘Therefore, the mind and body are the cause of, the arising of, and the condition for, contact’. Sensation is conditioned by contact (phassapaccayā vedanā). Through just this mutual conditioning of consciousness (viññāṇa), and mind-matter (nāma-rupa), there arises what is designated as the group of five aggregates. - (D.II: pp.61-63; Refer Ten suttas … 1987: p.168- 170).

Since contact is the condition for sensation to arise, the above-mentioned four explanations are applicable for sensation to arise. Sensation can arise only when there is mind and body together, or mind contact and physical body contact (adhivacanasamphasso and paṭighasamphasso). These sensations which arise due to the contact of the body (kāyasamphassajā vedanā loke), which are always available throughout the life of a person, are the object of meditation in the Goenka-tradition. These physical sensations satisfy three kinds of junction (samosaraṇa) as mentioned above.

Physicality plays a very crucial, important role with regared to feeling and overall introspection of mind and matter i.e. insight meditation. The importance of bodily sensations is explained in the tenth sutta of the Cūḷavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya: Bhikkhus, in three cases ardour should be exercised. i)Ardour should be exercised for the non-arising of unarisen bad unwholesome

244 qualities. ii) Ardour should be exercised for the arising of unarisen wholesome qualities. iii)Ardour should be exercised for enduring arisen bodily feelings (sārīrikānaṃ vedanānaṃ) that are painful, racking, sharp, piercing, harrowing, disagreeable, sapping one’s vitality. When a monk exercises ardour in these three ways, he is called a bhikkhu who is ardent, alert, and mindful in order to make a complete end of suffering. - (A.I: p.153; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.247). Aṅguttaranikāya also mentions various types of painful feelings: ‘violent winds cut through head, violent headpains in the head, violent winds are carving up the belly, violent burning in the body.’ and so on. - (A.III: pp.380-381).

Feelings – how many?

Though Goenka for the practical purpose gives importance to three, or nine feelings according to the Satipaṭṭhānasutta, the Majjhimanikāya and the Saṃyuttanikāya enumerates feelings upto one hundred and eight. Once the dispute arose among the disciples, about the number of feelings. Some said that the Enlightened One explained only two types: pleasant and painful feelings. The neither painful nor pleasant feeling belongs to the excellent happiness only. Some said that three types are mentioned by the Enlightened One. To resolve this dispute, the Buddha explained as follows: ‘I have stated two kinds of feeling in one presentation (pariyāyena); three, five, six, eighteen, thirty-six, and one hundred and eight kinds of feeling in another presentation. That is how the Dhamma has been shown by me in [different] presentations. When a dispute arises, it is to be resolved with togetherness, friendliness, and in harmony. (M. I: pp.397-398; S.IV: pp.224-229; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.503).

As mentioned above various kinds of feelings are explained in the Aṭṭhasatasutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya: (a)I have spoken of two kinds of feelings, monk, by one method of exposition. They are bodily and mental feelings. (b)Three kinds of feelings: pleasant, painful, and neither- painful-nor-pleasant. (c)Five kinds of feelings: the pleasure faculty, the pain faculty, the joy faculty, the displeasure faculty, and equanimity faculty. (d)Six kinds of feelings: the feeling born of by eye contact, ear contact, tongue, body and mind contacts. (e)Eighteen kinds of feelings: six ways each of giving attention to or six examinations accompanied by joy (somanassūpavicārā), six by displeasure (domanassūpavicārā)’, and six by equanimity (upekkhūpavicārā). (f)Thirty-six kinds of feelings: six types of joy based on the household life, six types of joy based on renunciation. Similarly, the remaining twenty-four are accompanied by displeasure and equanimity. (g)One hundred and eight kinds of feelings: the [above] thirty-

245 six feelings in the past, thirty-six in the future, and thirty-six at the present. This is the Dhamma exposition on the theme of the one hundred and eight feelings. - (S.IV: pp.231-233).

Many discourses discuss three kinds of feelings. Agarasutta discusses six or nine kinds of feelings as in the Satipaṭṭhānasutta. Three feelings discussed are in combination with carnal desires (sāmisa) and without carnal desires (nirāmisa).

Moral behaviour etc. and feelings

Different kinds of very strong painful feelings are mentioned in the Anāthapiḍikovāda and Channovādasutta of the Majjhimanikāya - (M.III: pp.259, 264). Anāthapiḍika says to the Sāriputta: My painful feelings are increasing, not subsiding; their increase and not their subsiding is apparent. Just as if a strong man were splitting my head open with a sharp sword, so too, violent winds cut through my head. Just as if a strong man were tightening a tough leather strap around my head as a headband, so too, there are violent pains in my head. Just as if a skilled butcher or his apprentice were to carve up an ox’s belly with a sharp butcher’s knife, so too, violent winds are carving up my belly. Just as if two strong men were to seize a weaker man by both arms and roast him over a pit of hot coals, so too, there is a violent burning in my body. - (Bodhi bhikkhu. 2009: p.1110). In the Goenka-tradition retreats some practitioners do experience such type of bodily painful sensations.

Some relation between strong painful feelings and moral behaviour or doubt in the doctrine or some regret, is shown in the Saṃyuttanikāya. The Buddha or an elder monk asks a sick monk or lay disciple about his health: ‘I hope you are bearing up, you are getting better. I hope that your painful feelings are subsiding, and not increasing, and that their subsiding, not their increase, is to be discerned.’ When one answers, ‘I am not bearing up, not getting better, strong painful feelings are increasing in me, not subsiding, and their increase, not their subsiding, is being discerned. Then Buddha asks, ‘I hope then, monk, that you are not troubled by remorse and regret’. If the answer is ‘no’ then he would say, ‘I hope you yourself make no reproach as to morals, virtue’. If the answer is ‘no’, then the Buddha would say, ‘if so, you must have some doubt, some regret’. Then one would raise some doubt and Buddha would clarify the doctrine to him and so on. At the conclusion of this discourse, to the monk there arose the pure and stainless eye of the state, ‘whatsoever is of a nature to arise, all that is of a nature to cease’.112 - (S.IV: pp.46-48).

112 Similar description appears in S.IV: p.108.

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Feeling and cessation, Mindfulness and clear comprehension, and dormant tendencies

The Vedanāsaṃyutta discusses regarding relation of the nibbāna and cessation of feeling. The Vedanāsaṃyutta discusses mainly three kinds of feelings: pleasant, painful and neither-painful- nor-pleasant. The verse states: ‘A follower of the Buddha, who is concentrated, mindful, comprehending clearly, understands feelings; how feelings arise, where they cease; and the path leading to their destruction. With the destruction of feelings, a monk, is freed and satisfied.113 - (S.IV: p.205). The commentary explains the understanding of feelings, their arising, their ceasing and the path leading to their cessation as the unedertanding of the Four Noble Truths with respect to feelings. According to the commentary, ‘He attains parinibbāna being free from desires means he after becoming free from craving, attains parinibbāna by extinguishing defilements. The commentary explains the adjective Samāhito with reference to samatha of both access or absorption type, and adjective sato-sampajāno in the context of vipassanā. - (Spk.III: p.74; Spk-ṭ. II.ii: p.67). Here, nibbāna is described as the cessation of feeling.

All sensations are of the nature of suffering is explained in the Sukhasutta of the Vedanāsaṃyutta. One experiences either of the three feelings internally and externally. Whatever type of feeling there is: Having known, ‘This is suffering, perishable, disintegrating,’ having touched them again and agian, seeing their fall, thus one loses one’s passion for them. - (S.IV: pp.205-206). The commentary says, touching again and again with knowledge, one sees the decaying nature, its fall. - (Spk.III: p.74). These suttas provide a ground on which one can justify the Goenka-tradition in which the cessation of feeling and perception is considered as the state of cessation – nibbāna.

The Pahānasutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya explains, ‘by means of the pleasant feelings, the dormant tendency to lust or craving should be abandoned.114 By means of the painful feeling, the dormant tendency to repulsion or aversion should be abandoned. By means of the neutral feeling, the dormant tendency to ignorance should be abandoned. Then after abadnonig them,

113 Samāhito sampajāno, sato Buddhassa sāvako. Vedanā ca pajānāti, vedanānañca sambhavaṃ. Yattha cetā nurujjhanti, maggañca khayagāminaṃ. vedanānaṃ khayā bhikkhu, nicchāto parinibbuto’ti. – (S.IV:205). 114 Sukhāya, bhikkhave, vedanāya rāgānusayo pahātabbo, dukkhāya vedanāya paṭighānusayo pahātabbo, adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo pahātabbo. – (S.II.ii:203).

247 one is called without underlying tendencies, one who sees rightly. One cuts off craving, breaks the fetters, by completely breaking through conceit, he has put an end to suffering.115

He who experiences the pleasure or pain yet does not understand the feelings, he who does not find the escape retains the dormant tendencies of craving or repulsion. If one rejoices in the peaceful neutral feeling, he is not freed from suffering.116

Since, a monk is ardent and does not miss clear comprehension, such a wise man fully understands feelings in their entirety.117 He understands the complete field of feeling, in this very life becomes free from intoxicants, impurities; Such a saintly person does not come back to this field of feelings after death. - (S.IV: p.206). Goenka mentions this verse in the long course discourse to inculcate in students the importance of sensation and clear comprehension. According to Goenka the dormant tendency (anusaya kilesa) is the latent behaviour pattern, of blind reactions to sensations.

Three feelings

The nineth sutta of the Mahāvagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya discusses penetrative exposition (nibbedhikapariyāya), the Dhamma exposition (dhammapariyāya), with regard to sensual pleasures, feelings, perception and so on. ‘A penetrative exposition is one that penetrates and splits the mass of greed, hatred, and delusion, that had not been penetrated and split before.’ It explains three kinds of feelings: pleasant feeling, painful feeling, and neither painful nor pleasant feeling. These feelings arise due to contact. Diversity of these three feelings is based on they being worldly (sāmisa), or spiritual (nirāmisa). (according to the commentary, sāmisā vedanā are associated with the bait of the defilements – kilesāmisasaṃpayuttā. - Mp.III: pp.408-409). The result (vipāko) of feelings is explained thus: ‘One produces an individual existence that corresponds with whatever [feelings] one experiences, and which may be the consequence either of merit or demerit118 .’ The cessation of contact is the cessation of feelings.

115 Yato kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno sukhāya vedanāya rāgānusayo pahino hoti, … ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, ‘bhikkhu niranusayo sammaddaso acchecchi taṇhaṃ, vivattayi saṃyojanaṃ, sammā mānābhisamayā antamakāsi dukkhassā’ti. – (S.IV: p.206). 116 Sukhaṃ vedayamānassa, vedanaṃ appajānato. So rāgānusayo hoti, anissaraṇadassino. … adukkhaṃsukhaṃ santaṃ, bhuripaññena desitaṃ. Tañcāpi abhinandati, neva dukkhā pamuccati. – (S.IV: p.206). 117 Yato ca bhikkhu ātāpi, sampajaññaṃ na riñcati. Tato so vedanā sabbā, parijānāti paṇdito. So vedanā pariññāya, diṭṭhe dhamme anāsavo. Kāyassa bhedā dhammaṭṭho, saṅkhyaṃ nopeti vedagu’ti – (S.IV: p206). 118 Yaṃ kho, bhikkhave, vediyamāno tajjaṃ tajjaṃ attabhāvaṃ abhinibbatteti puññabhāgiyaṃ vā apuññabhāgiyaṃ vā, ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, vedanānaṃ vipāko. – (A.III: pp.412-413).

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The path leading to the cessation of feeling is the noble eightfold path. When one understands these aspects of feeling, he understands this penetrative spiritual life to be the cessation of feelings.119 - (A.III: pp.412-413; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.961, 1767). Here cessation of sensation is shown to be equal to the cessation of suffering i.e. nibbāna. The Goenka-tradition also explains the cessation in the same way.

The Buddha said that the three feelings are spoken by him, and whatever is experienced or felt is suffering only (yaṃ kiñci vedayitaṃ taṃ dukkhasmi’nti) - (S.IV: p.217). That has been said with reference to the impermanence of formations. That has been said with reference to formations being subject to destruction, vanishing, fading away, cessation, and change.

Goenka many times explains mainly three sensations. The kkhandavaggo and salāyatanavaggo of the Saṃyuttanikāya mainly mentions three kinds of feelings: pleasant, painful, and neither painful nor pleasant. The Esanāvaggo of the Maggasaṃyutta explains that, ‘There are three feelings, namely pleasant, painful, and neutral. To understand well, to know accurately, to destroy and abandon these three feelings, the noble eightfold path is to be developed.120 - (S.V: p.57).

Sphere of vedanā

From the practice point of view the sphere of vedanā in the Buddha’s teaching is clear and self evident from the following discussion of the suttas of the Saṃyuttanikāya and so on. In the Vihāravaggo of the Maggasaṃyutta the Blessed One states: “Monks, I have been dwelling in part of the abode (padesena vihāsiṃ) in which I dwelt just after I became fully enlightened. I have understood thus: There is feeling with wrong view as conditon, also feeling with right view as condition.121There is feeling with wrong thought as condition, also feeling with right thought as conditon, and so on. (The same is explained regarding all eight factors of the path as wrong and right). … There is feeling with desire as condition, also feeling with initial thought as condition, also feeling with perception as condition. When desire has not subsided, and initial thought has not subsided, and perception has not subsided, there is feeling with that as condition. … When desire, initial thought, perception has subsided, there is also feeling with

119 Yato kho, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako evaṃ vedanaṃ pajānāti, … evaṃ vedanānirodhagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ pajānāti. So imaṃ nibbedhikaṃ brahmacariyaṃ pajānāti vedanānirodhaṃ. – (A.III: p.413). 120 Sukhā vedanā, dukkhā vedanā, adukkhamasukhā vedanā – imā kho, bhikkhave, tisso vedanā. Imāsaṃ kho, bhikkhave, tissannaṃ vedanānaṃ abhiññāya pariññāya parikkhayāya pahānāya ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo bhāvettabo. – (S.V: p.57). 121 So evaṃ pajānāmi – ‘micchādiṭṭhipaccayāpi vedayitaṃ; sammādiṭṭhipaccayāpi vedayitaṃ; … - (S.V: p.12).

249 that as condtion. There is effort for the attainment of the as-yet-unattained. When that stage has been reached, there is also feeling with that as condition.’ - (S.V: pp.12-13; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.1531). The commentary takes this to refer to the Buddha’s forty-nine days of meditation in the vicinity of the Bodhi Tree just after his enlightenment. During that period he contemplated the aggregates, sense bases, elements, Four Noble Truths, etc., in full (nippadesena); but now he contemplated them only partly (padesena), namely in relation to feeling. The commentary and sub-commentary thus explain dwelling of the Buddha with respect to vedanā. - (Spk. III: p.129; Spk-ṭ. II.ii: pp.112-113; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.1894).

Goenka explains dormant tendencies and its eradication with respect to the sensations. He also explains the identity view in relation to the sensations. The Cuḷavedallasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains Rāgānusaya, patighānusaya, avijjānusaya with respect to vedanā and its different aspects. The five aggregates affected by clinging are called identity (Sakkāya). This aspect of sakkāya is presented in the form of four noble truths too. - (M.I: pp.299-300). The Mahāpuṇṇamasutta and Cūḷavedallasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explain the identity view. In reply to the question, ‘how does there come to be (wrong) view as to the identity (sakkāyadiṭṭhi)?’ Dhammadinna says, ‘an untaught ordinary person, who has no regard for noble ones and is unskilled and unsdisciplined in their Dhamma, who has no regard for true men and is unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma, regards material form as self, or self as possessed of material form, or material form as in self, or self as in material form. He regards feeling, perception, formations and consciousness in the same manner. That is how identity view comes to be.122 (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.397).

Similarly, there does not come to be view as to the identity, when a well-taught noble disciple, who has regard for noble ones and so on, does not regard five aggregates affected by clinging as self and so on.

The Cūḷavedallasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains three feelings with respect to the physicality and mentality as follows: “Whatever is felt bodily or mentally, as pleasant and soothing is pleasant feeling. Whatever is felt bodily or mentally, as painful and hurting is painful feeling. Whatever is felt bodily or mentally, as neither soothing nor hurting is neither-

122 These are the twenty kinds of identity view. MA quotes Pṭs.144-45 to illustrate the four basic modes of identity view in regard to material form. One may regard material form as self, in the way the flame of a burning oil-lamp is identical with the colour (of the flame). Or one may regard self as possessing material form, as a tree possesses a shadow; or one may regard material form as in self, as the scent is in the flower; or one may regard self as in material form, as a jewel is in a casket. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.1241).

250 painful-nor-pleasant feeling. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.401). Similarly, Goenka explains in his discourses the physical and mental aspects of sensations.

The commentary says, ‘bodily feeling is related with five-door process of cognition, and mental feeling is related with mind-door process of congnition’ (kāyikaṃ vātiādisu pañcadvārikaṃ sukhaṃ kāyikaṃ nāma; manodvārikaṃ cetasikaṃ nāmāti veditabbaṃ). The sub-commentary says, in the ultimate true-sense feeling itself experiences, feels or senses the object (Vedanā eva hi paramatthato ārammaṇaṃ vedeti). - (Ps-ṭ. I.ii: p264). Here it indicates the non-self nature of the five aggregates, where there is no other experiencer. This is a very important aspect of it. It further says, ‘one who understands neutral feelings experiences happiness due to the subtle nature of that feeling, and similarly, one who understands other states with their own and common characteristics, experiences ultimate excellent happiness123. Due to this it is said: ‘Whenever he reflects on the arising and passing of the aggregates, he experiences joy and happiness. To ‘those who know’ that is deathless. Goenka refers to this verse in his discourses when student experiences happiness while observing sensations with equanimity.

The Cūlavedallasutta further explains three feelings and their related latent tendencies. ‘Pleasant feeling is that which is lasting, pain variable; painful feeling is that which is lasting, pleasantness variable; neutral feeling is pleasant as to knowing, painful as to not knowing. A tendency to attachment does not lie latent in all pleasant feelings. Similar is the case for tendency to repulsion and ignorance.’

A tendency to attachment is to be abandoned in pleasant feeling, a tendency to repulsion is to be abandoned in painful feeling, and a tendency to ignorance is to be abandoned in neutral feeling. A tendency to attachment is not to be abandoned for all pleasant feelings, a tendency to repulsion is not to be abandoned for all painful feelings, and a tendency to ignorance is not to be abandoned for all neutral feelings. In this case, a monk attains and dwells in the first absorption. It is by this means that he abandons the attachment, no tendency to attachment lies latent there. (according to the commentary - Having supressed the latent tendency to attachment he enters in the first absorption, and having grown insight with the non-returner path, he totally eradicates it. - Ps. II: pp.368-369). In this case, a monk, discriminates /considers thus, ‘Surely, I, entering it, will dwell in that plane which the noble ones, having entered on, are now dwelling in. From setting up a desire for the excellent release there arises, as a result of the desire,

123 Adukkhamasukhañhi vedanaṃ jānanatassa sukhaṃ hoti tassa sukhumabhāvato, yathā tadaññe dhamme salakkhaṇato sāmaññalakkhaṇato ca sammadeva avabodho paramaṃ sukhaṃ. Tenevāha – ‘Yato yato sammasati, khandhānaṃ udayabbayaṃ. Labhati pītipāmojjaṃ, amataṃ taṃ vijānata’nti. – (Ps-ṭ. II: p.264).

251 displeasure; it is by this means that he abandons repulsion, no tendency to repulsion lies latent there. In this case, a monk, attains and dwells in the fourth absorption. It is by this means that he abandons ignorance, no tendency to ignorance lies latent there. - (Ps. II: p.370). Having supressed the latent tendency of ignorance, he enters the fourth absorption, and having grown insight with the arahata path, he totally eradicates it. Ps-ṭ. I.ii: p.267). Ignorance should be suppressed by the third absorption and then it is eradicated by the noble path, so it is mentioned as ‘having supressed the latent tendency of ignorance’. Similar explanation is applicable to ‘having suppressed the latent tendency of attachment.) (Here, the second and third absorptions are not mentioned, but it appears that since it abandons the latent tendency of repulsion, he attains third absorption and dwells in happiness. The second absorption is taken for granted.). In this context with respect to the Goenka-tradition some observations by Anālayo are noteworthy. The Cūlavedallasutta (M.I: p.303) explains that “friend Visākha, the underlying tendency to desire tends to underlie pleasant feeling, the underlying tendency to aversion tends to underlie painful feeling, the underlying tendency to ignorance tends to underlie neutral feeling124.’ Anālayo observes that ‘the same statement is found in the parallel version MĀ 210 at T 1, 789 … whereas a Tibetan parallel differs, as in each case it speaks of the feeling leading to an “increase” of the respective defilement, instead of referring to a respective “underlying tendency”, cf. D mngon pa ju or Q t4 10 b7 ….’. – (Anālayo. 2011-a: p.158).

Sources of feelings

In the Goenka-tradition you are supposed to observe each bodily sensation irrespective of their source. Whether it could be born out of sitting for long hours, the posture, or any disease, or climatic conditions around, or result of the past kamma and so on. The important thing for practical puropose is to observe any sensation with awareness and equanimity. In this background let us see some suttas of the Saṃyuttanikāya wherein the sources of feelings are explained.

The Sīvakasutta of the Vedanāsaṃyutta explains the sources of feelings. The wanderer Moḷiyasīvaka asked to the Blessed One: ‘Master Gotama, there are some ascetics and brahmins who hold such a doctrine and view as this: ‘Whatever person experiences, whether it is pleasant or painful or neutral, all that is caused by what was done in the past.’ What does Master Gotama

124 Sukhāya kho, āvuso Visākha, vedanāya rāgānusayo anuseti, dukkhāya vedanāya paṭighānusayo anuseti, adukkhaṃsukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo anusetī’ti. - (M.I: p.303).

252 say about this?’ The Blessed One explains eight different sources of arising of feelings or sensory experiences thus: ‘Some feelings, Sīvaka, arise here originating from bile disorders: that some feelings arise here from bile disorders one can know for oneself, and that is considered to be true in the world. Now when those ascetics and brahmins hold such a doctrine they overshoot what one knows by oneself and they overshoot what is considered to be true in the world.125 Therefore, I say that this is wrong on the part of those ascetics and brahmins. Similarly, as bile, feelings arise here originating from disorders of phlegm, wind, an imbalance of these three, feelings arise here produced by change of climate, by careless behaviour, feelings caused by assault, feelings produced as the result of kamma. By explaining in this way, the Buddha disproves the view (pubbakatahetuvāda) that ‘all pleasant or painful or neutral experiences of human beings, are due to the previous action.’ - (S.IV: p.231; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.1279, 1435; and similar reference in A.II: p.87-88).

Similarly, arising of diverse feelings are also explained by the simile of a guest house and diverse winds blowing in the sky. Emphasizing the fact that vedanā manifests in the body, Buddha said, ‘Suppose there is a guest house. People come from the east, west, north, and south and lodge there; khattiyas brahmins etc., people from various cast come and stay there. So too, various feeling arises in this body. Following words of the Buddha also clarify that vedanā indicates sensations on the body: ‘just as various winds blow in the sky: winds from the east, west, north, south, dusty winds and dustless winds, cold winds and hot winds, mild and strong winds; so too various feelings arise in this body. - (S.IV: pp.218-219). Three feelings along with the combination of carnal and spiritual, are also mentioned. The commentary says, carnal feelings are related to sense-pleasure and spiritual are related to higher and higher fine material absorptions, insight, and release. - (Spk.III: p.80).

The Sabbavaggo of the Saḷāyatanasaṃyutta explains six internal and six external sense fields means all (sabbaṃ). Six consciousnesses arise in dependence on the sense bases and its respective objects; the meeting of the three is contact; and with contact as condition there arise feeling, perception, and volition. - (S.IV: pp.16-25).

Relation of the feelings and wisdom

125 Yañca sāmaṃ ñātaṃ tañca atidhāvanti, yañca loke saccasammataṃ tañca atidhāvanti. – (S.IV: p.231).

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In the Goenka-tradition wisdom of impermanence, suffering, and non-self is developed by observing and understanding the impermanent nature of a sensation. We can find such relation in the suttas of the Majjhimanikāya and so on.

The Cūḷataṇhāsaṅkhayasutta of the Majjhimanikāya mentions, the Sakka of the realm of the Thirty-Three Gods (Tāvatimsa), the lord of Gods, requested the Buddha to advise in brief as to what extent, does a monk come to be freed by the destruction of craving, absolutely perfect, ultimate security from bondage, and so on?’ The Buddha very briefly answeres: “Here, ruler of Gods, a bhikkhu has heard that nothing is worth adhering to. When a bhikkhu has heard that nothing is worth adhering to, he directly knows everything; having fully understood everything, whatever feeling he feels, whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-pleasant, he abides contemplating impermanence in those feelings, contemplating fading away, contemplating cessation, contemplating relinquishment. Contemplating thus, he does not cling to anything in the world. When he does not cling, he is not agitated. When he is not agitated, he personally attains Nibbāna.” ‘MA explains this passage as follows: “Everything” (sabbe dhammā) is the five aggregates, the twelve bases, the eighteen elements. These are “not worth adhering to” by way of craving and views because they turn out in actuality to be different from the way they are grasped: grasped as permanent, pleasurable, and not self, they turn out to be impermanent, suffering, and not slef. He “directly knows” them as impermanent, suffering, and not self, and “fully understands” them by scrutinising them in the same way. “Contemplating impermanence,” etc., is accomplished by the insight knowledges of rise and fall and of destruction and disappearance. “He does not cling” to any formation by way of craving, and views, does not become agitated because of craving, and personally attains Nibbāna by the extinguishing of all defilements.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.344, 1231).

In this way, Buddha advised him in short. It appears that since Sakka is from fine material plane, the Buddha did not mention about the four absorptions to him; also, he expected the answer in brief. This discourse is specifically given to him only. The mention of painful feeling seems peculiar at this juncture. Again, the relation of vedanā and the process of purification, insight, is made very clear. The commentary explains that the knowledge after seeing degeneration and passing away of mind-matter phenomena is aniccānupassanā. The Virāgānupassanā is two-fold: one, is observation of degeneration and passing away of conditioned formations; and the other, absolute dispassionateness nibbāna is the knowledge of the path, after the gradual destruction of all the conditioned formations - (Ps. II: pp.299-300). The sub-commentary explains, nirodhānupassanā is also two-fold. The Paṭinissagānupassana

254 is two-fold, the momentary relinquishing of defilements and aggregates is Vipassanā; and the leap towards the nibbāna as subject is path (magga) - (Ps-ṭ. II: p.204).

The Buddha explained it very quickly, in short, and having been frugal, the Mahamoggalana doubted his understanding. So, he confirms that the Sakka has properly heard, learnt, attended to, and reflected upon the exposition. These are the pre-requisites with respect to the practice of insight. This discourse explains the fourth quadrate of the Ānāpānassatisutta, along with feelings. Which is related purely to insight, as explained in the Visuddhimaggo. Hence, the relation of feeling and insight is very evident, which supports the Goenka-tradition.

How suffering arises and increases due to the ignorance and it ceases because of the wisdom in relation with the feeling is explained in the Saṃyuttanikāya. The Sallasutta of the Vedanāsaṃyutta explains the distinction, the specific feature, and difference between the uninstructed world-ling and instructed noble-disciple, while experiencing the same three feelings. The uninstructed word-ling reacts to the painful feeling with aversion, he grieves, laments, beats his breast, gets in to confusion, delusion. He experiences two-fold feelings, bodily and mental. Due to the repulsion for the painful feeling, the dormant tendency to repulsion lies in him.

Being contacted by that same painful feeling, he develops aversion towards it. When he develops aversion towards painful feeling, the underlying tendency to aversion towards painful feeling lies behind this. Due to the contact of painful feeling, he seeks delight in sense pleasure (As an antidote to it). Because the uninstructed word-ling does not know the escape of painful feeling other than the sense pleasure. He rejoices in sense pleasure and by rejoicing in pleasant feeling, the dormant tendency to lust lies behind this. He does not understand feeling as it really is with respect to the arising, passing away, gratification, danger, and escape. Since he does not understand these things, the dormant tendency to ignorance in regard to neutral feeling lies behind this.

If he feels the pleasant or painful or neutral feeling, he feels attached to it. This is called an uninstructed worldling who is attached to birth, ageing, and death; who is attached to suffering.

As against above description, the approach to the same feelings by instructed noble disciple is different and paves the path for the practice of insight mediation. ‘When the instructed noble disciple is contacted by a painful feeling, he does not sorrow, grieve or lament; he does not weep beating his breast and become distraught. He feels one feeling – a bodily one, not a mental

255 one. Being contacted by that same painful feeling, he develops no aversion towards it. Since he develops no aversion towards painful feeling, the underlying tendency to aversion towards painful feeling does not lie behind this. Being contacted by painful feeling, he does not seek delight in sensual pleasure. Because the instructed noble disciple knows of an escape from painful feelings other than sensual pleasure. Since he does not seek delight in sensual pleasure, the underlying tendency to lust for pleasant feeling does not lie behind this. He understands as it really is the arising and the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in the case of these feelings. Since he understands these things, the underlying tendency to ignorance in regard to neutral feeling does not lie behind this.

If he feels a pleasant feeling or painful or neutral feeling, he feels it with detachment. This is called a noble disciple who is detached from birth, aging, and death; who is detached from suffering. - (S.IV: pp.208-210; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.1264-1265).

The Saṃyuttanikāya explains mindfulness and clear comprehenston with respect to feeling in the following manner. A monk dwells being mindful and with clear comprehension, diligent, ardent, and resolute, there arise in him pleasant or painful or neutral feeling, and he understands that, ‘the arisen feeling is conditioned by the body; and the body is impermanent, compounded, dependently arisen. Hence the feeling is also impermanent, compounded and dependently arisen. He dwells observing their impermanence, passing away, their fading away, their cessation, and relinquishment (aniccānupassi, vayānupassi, virāgānupassi, nirodhānupassi, paṭinissaggānupassi). The dormant tendency to lust, repulsion, and ignorance in regard to body and these feelings is abandoned by him. - (S.IV: pp.212-215).

Vedanā and other traditions

The conditioned relationship between the vedanā and extinction of dukkha, in a limited sense, was known to other traditions also, such as niganṭhas - (M.I: pp.84, 93; M. II: pp.214-215). Some recluses and brāhmanās, especially niganṭhas (Jains), were of the opinion that, ‘whatever this person experiences, either pleasant or painful or neutral, all is because of the actions done in the past. Thus, by religious austerity the past actions are extinguished, by not doing any new actions, there is no flow into the future. Since there is no flow into the future, actions are destroyed. Consequently, suffering ends with the destruction of feelings, because of the destruction of feelings all suffering will become exhausted. This sutta further explains the

256 importance of equanimity and detachment in order to eradicate suffering, and in this way, only effort and striving become fruitful. Though the other traditions know the relation of suffering and feeling, as discussed above Buddha rejected the wrong view of pubbakatahetuvāda wherein all feelings are related to the past kammās and so on.

According to Goenka defilements arise at the level of vedanā and in response to vedanā. Hence, when one observes bodily sensations during the insight practice infact one deals with the roots of the defilements. Experience of the truth through bodily sensations gives here-and-now result of the insight practice. The Buddha always enumerates three types of vedanā in the manner mentioned above. He included somanassaindriyaṃ and domanassaindriyaṃ only when he enumerated five types of vedanā. This indicates the primacy of bodily sensations over mental feelings in the Buddha’s teaching. For the meditation of liberation from misery, bodily sensations are important. This does not mean that mental feeling (somanassa and domanassa) is to be ignored; it continues simultaneously. Goenka expresses that, ‘I needed no further proof that the Buddha was referring to the physical, bodily sensations when he described vedanā! Not only did these exhortations of the Buddha clear all my doubts, they also made me feel as if the Buddha himself was instructing me to give importance to the bodily sensations.’ He further states that, ‘The study of Tikapaṭṭhāna reveals the clear and explicit guidance from the Buddha that bodily sensations are the nearest strongly dependent relations to the attainment of nibbāna. Pleasant bodily sensation is the cause for the arising of pleasant sensation of the body, unpleasant sensation of the body, and attainment of fruition (nibbāna) in relation to the strong dependent condition. Unpleasant bodily sensation is the cause for the arising of pleasant sensation of the body, unpleasant sensation of the body, and attainment of fruition (nibbāna) in relation to the strong dependent condition’.126 ‘Dependent on pleasant bodily sensations … Vipassanā arises … Path arises … Knowledge arises … attainment of (nibbāna) arises’.127 Thus, it is clear that vedanā as a part of the nāma that is firmly rooted in kāya is what the Buddha wanted us to focus on when he talked about meditation to eradicate suffering. It is noteworthy that in practising samādhi, somanassa and domanassa disappear in the third jhāna but sukhā and dukkha vedanā disappear only in the fourth jhāna. Adukkhamasukhā vedanā remains even in the fourth jhāna. From this, one may reasonably conclude that bodily

126 Pakatūpanissayo - kāyikaṃ sukhaṃ kāyikassa sukhassa, kāyikassa dukkhassa, phalasamāpattiyā upanissayapaccayena paccayo. Kāyikaṃ dukkhaṃ kāyikassa sukhassa, kāyikassa dukkhassa, phalasamāpattiyā upanissayapaccayena paccayo. – (VRI. 2002: p.8). 127 Pakatūpanissayo - kāyikaṃ sukhaṃ upanissāya … vipassanaṃ uppādeti, maggaṃ uppādeti, abhiññaṃ uppādeti, samāpattiṃ uppādeti. – (VRI. 2002: p.8).

257 sensations give us a stronger and more continuous hold on reality, and thus, on the root cause of taṇhā. One can clearly comprehend sensations and they offer a tangible tool to attain one’s own salvation.’ – (VRI. 2002: pp.3-9).

4.7.2 - Kamma

The Goenka-tradition gives importance to the action (kamma) and its result, as a part and parcel of the Buddha’s teaching. Let us see how it is reflectd in the early Buddhist literature. The gist of it can be explained in the following manner. Kamma is a force and it is the governing factor in the process of round of rebirths (saṃsāra). The whole doctrine of kamma/karma and rebirth has its validity only in the realm of conventional truth. That is why, by liberating ourselves from the viewpoint of conventional truth we cease to be subject to karmic law. The literal meaning of the word is ‘action’, and it is volition (cetanā). It is any deliberate act, good or bad (kusala or akusala). Actions born from unwholesome roots are necessarily bound to the round of rebirth, whereas actions born from the wholesome roots are of two kinds, mundane and supermundane. Mundane wholesome actions have the potential to produce a fortunate rebith in the higher realms. The supermundane wholesome actions i.e. the kamma generated by practicing the Noble Eight-fold Path and seven factors of enlightenment, dismantles the entire process of karmic causation and thereby leads to liberation from the round of rebirths. All actions good or bad will normally lead to pleasant or unpleasant results for the doer. The word for such results is ripening (vipāka), though kamma tends in practice to be used loosely for the results as well as the deeds that produced them. Each karmic act is the exercise of a choice, good or bad. Thus, though our actions are limited by conditions, they are not totally determined. The aim of the practice is to get beyond all kamma. - (Walshe Maurice. 2012: pp.33-34).

Kamma – its nature and roots

The importance of the deeds or actions of beings is explained in the Cūḷakammavibhaṅgasutta of the Majjhimanikāya: ‘Beings are owners of their actions, heirs of their ations; they originate from their actions, are bound to their actions, have their actions as their refuge. It is actions that distinguishes beings as inferior and superior. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.1053). Goenka mentions this in the discourses of the long course.

The Nidānasaṃyutta explains the conditioned relation of kamma and body etc. ‘Monks, this body is not yours, nor does it belong to others. It is old kamma, to be seen as generated and

258 fashioned by volition, as something to be felt.128 - (S.II: p.65). The commentary says this is said to show the non-self nature of the body (anattaniyabhāvadassanameva). - (Spk-ṭ. II. i: p.69, Spk.II:71). The sutta further explains that, ‘Therein, monks, the instructed noble disciple attends carefully and closely to dependent origination itself thus: ‘When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that aises. When this does not exist, that does not come to be; with the cessation of this that ceases. That is, with ignorance as condition, volitional formations [come to be]; and so on … such is the cessation of this whole mass of suffering. The commentary says: Since there actually is no self, there is nothing belonging to self; thus he says, “It is not yours” (na tumhākaṃ). And since there is no self of others, he says, “Neither does it belong to others” (na pi aññesaṃ). Further it says, ‘It is old kamma (purāṇam idaṃ kammaṃ): This body is not actually old kamma, but because it is produced by old kamma it is spoken of in terms of its condition. It should be seen as generated (abhisaṅkhata), in that it is made by condtions; as fashioned by volition (abhisañcetayita), in that it is based on volition, rooted in volition; and as something to be felt (vedaniya), in that it is a basis for what is to be felt [because it is a basis and object of feeling]. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.575-576,757). This body comes to be due to the old action (purāṇamidaṃ kammaṃ), due to the formations (abhisankhataṃ), as intended (abhisañcetayitaṃ), and due to the feelings (vedaniyaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ). The subcommentary says, body comes to be because of all these conditions put together and not merely by old actions. - (Spk-ṭ. ii: p.69). This is nothing but the deep understanding of the conditioned dependent origination.

The nineth sutta of the Mahāvagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya (the penetrative exposition of the Dhamma with regard to sensual pleasures, feelings, kamma and so on), explains kamma thus: ‘It is volition, bhikkhus, that I call kamma. For having willed, one acts by body, speech, or mind. Contact is its source and origin. With regard to the statement, ‘Cetanā haṃ bhikkhave kammaṃ vadāmi’ Bhikkhu Bodhi says: ‘This should probably be understood to mean that volition is a necessary factor in creating kamma, not that volition on its own invariably and in all instances creates kamma. The diversity of kamma is explained thus: ‘There is kamma to be experienced in hell; there is kamma to be experienced in the animal realm or afflicted spirits or human world or deva world.’ (nirayavedanīya-kamma, tiracchānayonivedanīya, pettivisayavedaniya, manussalokavedaniya, and devalokavedaniy-kamma).

128 Nāyaṃ, bhikkhave, kāyo tumhākaṃ napi aññesaṃ. Purāṇamidaṃ, bhikkhave, kammaṃ abhisaṅkhataṃ abhisañcetayitaṃ vedaniyaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ. – (S.II: p.65).

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The result of kamma is threefold: [to be experienced] in this very life, or in the [next] rebirth, or on some subsequent occasion. (Tividhāhaṃ, bhikkhave, kammānaṃ vipākaṃ - diṭṭheva- dhamme upapajje vā apare vā pariyāye). Contact is the source of kamma. With the cessation of contact there is cessation of kamma.129 The way leading to the cessation of kamma is the Noble Eightfold Path. When one understands these aspects of kamma, he understands this penetrative spiritual life to be the cessation of kamma. - (A.III: pp.415-416; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.963,1768).

How the intention or mind is important is mentioned further while explaining a penetrative exposition with regard to sensual pleasures it states: ‘There are, bhikkhus, these five objects of sensual pleasure: forms cognizable by the eye that are wished for, desired, agreeable, pleasing, connected with sensual pleasure, tantalizing; sounds cognizable with ear … odors cognizable with nose … tastes cognizable by the tongue … tactile objects cognizable by the body that are wished for, desired, agreeable, pleasing, connected with sensual pleasure, tantalizing. However, these are not sensual pleasures; in the Noble One’s discipline, these are called ‘objects of sensual pleasure.’ A person’s sensual pleasure is lustful intention.’

‘They are not sensual pleasures, the pretty things in the world: a person’s sensual pleasure is lustful intention; the pretty things remain just as they are in the world, but the wise remove the desire for them.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.960; A.III: p.411).

Law of kamma and its fruit

Sayagyi U Ba Khin explains the kamma in relation to human world: ‘We experience pleasure and pain mixed together in degrees, as determined by our own past kamma.’ He further points out that: ‘All are subject to the law of kamma. As this kamma comes out of “mind” which is ever-changing, the effects of kamma must necessarily also be changing.’ – (VRI. 1994: p.50).

In the Saṃyuttanikāya Kamma is presented in the format of the Four Noble Truths; Action that is old, action that is new, cessation of the action, and path leading to the cessation of action. The six internal sense fields are mentioned as ‘action that is old’ (kamma or purāṇakamma), and the present action of body, speech, and mind is ‘action that is new’ (arising of kamma or

129 Phasso, bhikkhave, kammānaṃ nidānasaṃbhavo. … Phassanirodho, bhikkhave, kammanirodho. – (A.III: pp.415-416).

260 navakamma). When one reaches liberation through the cessation of bodily action, verbal action, and mental action, (kāyakamma-vacikamma-manokammassa nirodhā vimuttiṃ phusati) that is ‘the cessation of action’. The path leading to the cessation of action is the Noble Eight-fold Path. - (S.IV: pp.132-134).

The fourth sutta of the Devadūtavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains the six roots greed, hatred, delusion, and non-greed, non-hatred, non-delusion (lobho, doso, moho, and alobho, adoso, and amoho) as the causes for the arising of deeds or actions (kamma). Any kamma, fashioned through greed or hatred or delusion, born of greed or hatred or delusion, caused by greed or hatred or delusion, originated by greed or hatred or delusion, ripens wherever the individual is reborn. Wherever that kamma ripens, it is there that one experiences its result, either in this very life, or in the [next] rebirth, or on some subsequent occasion. (diṭṭhe vā dhamme upapajja vā apare vā pariyāye). - (The commentary mentions the first three roots as the source of deeds which lead to the cycle of rebirth (vaṭṭagāmikammānam). - Mp. II: p.210. The Commentary and sub-commentary explain in detail various kinds of ‘kamma’). Any kamma, fashioned through non-greed or non-hatred or non-delusion, born of non-greed or non- hatred or non-delusion, caused by non-greed or non-hatred or non-delusion, originated by non- greed or non-hatred or non-delusion, is abandoned when greed or hatred or delusion has vanished; it is cut off at the root, made like a palm stump, obliterated so that it is no more subject to future arising. This phenomenon is explained with the simile of seeds which are burnt and could not bear fruit. - (A.I:135-136; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.230-232).

The verses:

‘Whatever kamma an ignorant person [has done]

born of greed, hatred, and delusion,

whether what was fashioned by him be little or much,

it is to be experienced right here:

there exists no other site [for it].

Therefore, a wise person should abandon

[any deed] born of greed, hatred, and delusion.

A bhikkhu, giving rise to knowledge,

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should abandon all bad destinations.’

‘Whatever kamma the blind, ignorant worldling creats born of greed, hatred, and delusion – whether the kamma so fashioned be little or much – it is to be experienced right here, that is, it is to be experienced by the fool here in his very being; this means that it ripens in his own individual being. There exists no other site [for it]: there is no other site for the ripening of that kamma; for the kamma done by one person does not ripen in another’s being.’ - (Bodhi Bhikhu. 2012: pp.232, 1640).

The Aṅguttaranikāya discusses about the kamma - action, and its fruit or result. The Buddha explains: ‘Bhikkhus, if one were to say thus: ‘A person experiences kamma in precisely the same way that he created it,’ in such a case there could be no living of the spiritual life and no opportunity would be seen for completely making an end of suffering.130 (The commentary says in addition to this, ‘na hi sakkā katassa kammassa vipākaṃ paṭisedhetuṃ’ - he cannot ward off/prevent the result of action done by him. – Mp. II: p.360). But if anyone were to say thus: ‘When a person creats kamma that is to be experienced in a particular way, he experiences its results precisely in that way,’ in such a case the living of the spiritual life is possible, and an opportunity is seen for completely making an end of suffering.131

Further he explains: ‘Here, Bhikkhus, some person has created trifling bad kamma yet it leads him to hell, while some other person here has created exactly the same trifling kamma yet it is to be experienced in this very life, without even a slight [residue] being seen, much less abundant [residue].

What kind of person creats trifling bad kamma that leads him to hell? Here, some person is undeveloped in body (Mp. II: pp.360-362. - reads, ‘kāyānupassi’), virtuous behaviour, mind, and wisdom (abhāvitakāyo, abhāvitasīlo, abhāvitacitto, abhāvitapañño); he is limited (paritto) or not having importance and has a mean character (appātumo) or without any qualities, and he dwells in suffering due to triffle bad action (appadukkhavihārī). When such a person creats trifling bad kamma, it leads him to hell.

What kind of person creates exactly the same trifling bad kamma and yet it is to be experienced in this very life, without even a slight [residue] being seen, much less abundant [residie]? Here,

130 Yathā yathāyaṃ puriso kammaṃ karoti tathā tathā taṃ paṭisamvediyatī’ti, evaṃ santaṃ, bhikkhave, brahmacariyavāso na hoti, okāso na paññāyati sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāya. – (A.I: p.249). 131 Yathā yathā vedaniyaṃ ayaṃ puriso kammaṃ karoti tathā tathāssa vipākaṃ paṭisamvediyatī’ti, evaṃ santaṃ, bhikhave, brahmacariyāvāso hoti, okāso paññāyati sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāya. – (A.I: p.249).

262 some some person is developed in body (Mp. II: pp.361-362. - says, ‘kāyānupassi’), virtuous behaviour, mind, and wisdom (bhāvitakāyo, bhāvitasīlo, bhāvitacitto, bhāvitapañño). He is unlimited (aparitto) or having importance and has a lofty character (mahatto) or having qualities, and he dwells without measure (appamāṇavihārī). When such a person creates exactly the same trifling bad kamma, it is to be experienced in this very life, without even a slight [residue] being seen, much less abundant [residue].’

It is explained with three different similes of salt and water, theft of small money, and butcher. ‘Suppose a man would drop a lump of salt into a small bowl of water. What do you think, bhikkhus? Would that lump of salt make the small quantity of water in the bowl salty and undrinkable?’ ‘Yes, Bhante. For what reason? Because the water in the bowl is limited, thus that lump of salt would make it salty and undrinkable.’ ‘But suppose a man would drop a lump of salt into a rever Ganges. What do you think, Bhikkhus? Would that lump of salt make the river Ganges become salty and undrinkable?’ ‘No, Bhante. For what reason? Because the river Ganges contains a large volume of water, thus that lump of salt would not make it salty and undrinkable.’ - (A.I: pp.249-250; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.331-332).

The Noble Eight-fold Path is a kamma which destroys kamma

The Kammavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains four kinds of kamma. There is dark kamma with dark result; there is bright kamma with bright result; there is dark-and-bright kamma with dark-and-bright result; and there is kamma that is neither dark nor bright with neither-dark- nor-bright result, kamma that leads to the destruction of kamma. It explains the Eight-fold Noble Path and seven factors of wisdom and so on are the actions which are neither dark nor bright with a result neither dark nor bright, that leads to the destruction of kamma (kammakkhayāya saṃvattati). - (A.II: pp.232 -237; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.601).

The commentary of the Samāpattivagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains: Accomplishment of view (Diṭṭhisampadā) encompasses five right views: ‘kammassakatasammādiṭṭhi, jhānasammādiṭṭhi, vipassanāsammādiṭṭhi, maggasammādiṭṭhi, phalasammādiṭṭhi.’ - (Mp. II: p.162). It indicates close relation of kamma - action, and right view. It is explained in the Mahācattārisakasutta. Kammassakatasammādiṭṭhi can be related to the right view, right action, right speech, and right livelihood. Jhānasammādiṭṭhi to the right thought. Vipassanāsammādiṭṭhi to the right mindfulness, and right efforts. Magga, Phala sammādiṭṭhi to the right concentration.

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Goenka explains the kamma and its’ result in accordance with the law of nature, ‘As the seed is so the fruit will be’. In the discourses he explains that a person does three types of kamma in a day to day life namely action of the body, speech and mind. He gives importance to the mental action or volition of a person. Hence, in the practice focus remains on the purification of the mind i.e. volition of mind. The practice of morality, concentration, and wisdom is the process of purification. He insists that those who follow this path need not worry about the result of their action. In support of this view he recites few verses from the Dhammapada: ‘Mind is the forerunner of states. Mind is foremost, mind-made are they. If one speaks or acts with corrupt mind, due to that, suffering follows one, even as the wheel follows the foot of the draught-ox. Mind is the forerunner of states. Mind is foremost, mind-made are they. If one speaks or acts with clear/bright mind, due to that, happiness follows one, even as one’s shadow that never leaves.’ There is an interrelation and interconnectedness of the kamma and saṅkhāra, let us see it in the following section.

4.7.3 - Saṅkhāra

In the Goenka-tradition the terms kamma, saṅkhāra have significant importance with regard to the process of purification i.e. insight practice. The law of dependent origination exhibits its close connection with ignorance and consequently with suffering. In this section will see the nature of saṅkhāra and its role in the practice of insight.

Sankharoti - is to restore, to put together, to prepare. Sankhāra- is preparation, essential condition, a thing conditioned, mental-coefficients, formation. - (Buddhadatta Mahāthera A.P. 2009).

According to the context, there are different shades of meaning. - (Nyanatiloka.1987:162-163). I] ‘Formation’ may refer either to the act of ‘forming’ or to the passive state of ‘having’ been formed, or to both. II] As the link of the law of dependent origination, sankhāra has the active aspect, ‘forming’, and signifies Karma, i.e. wholesome or unwholesome volitional activity (cetanā) of body, speech, or mind (citta). III] Sankhāra is one of the five aggregates and includes all ‘Mental Formations’ whether they belong to ‘karmically forming’ consciousness or not. IV] It occurs in the sense of anything formed (sankhata) and conditioned, and includes all things in the world, all phenomena of existence. V] Sankhāra also sometimes means ‘volitional effort’.

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Sayagyi U Ba Khin while explaining the origin of suffering mentions that: ‘Philosophically speaking again, it is the mental forces of actions (saṅkhāra) which react in the course of time on the person originating them, which are responsible for the stream of mind and matter, the origin of suffering within.’ On another occasion he explains for how long one has to work for the liberation: ‘Until all the immeasurable, uncountable old akusala kamma (unwholesome actions) accumulated along one’s journey through the saṃsāra (cycle of rebirth) are eradicated by observing the nature of anicca. Then one becomes sotāpanna (one who has reached the first stage of saintliness, has experienced nibbāna), and ariyapuggal (noble person). This cannot be achieved easily. To reach the final nibbāna where all the saṅkhāras are abolished is very far off, but wouldn’t you like to try and see for yourself the minor nibbāna?’ – (VRI. 1994: pp.44, 66).

Interretation of kamma and saṅkhāra with respect to body

The nineth sutta of the Akkosavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya states ten things subsist through the body132: ‘Cold, heat, hunger, thirst, defecation, urination, restraint of body, restraint of speech, restraint in one’s livelihood, and the formative activity of existence that leads to renewed existence (ponobhaviko bhavasaṅkhāro). These ten states or things subsist through the body. - (A.V: pp.88-89; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1399). Presumably this is said to subsist through the body because the body is the instrument for forming and expressing volition.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.1844). The commentary says, Ponobbhavikoti punabbahvanibbattako, i.e. which results into new existance. Bhavasaṅkhāroti bhavasaṅkharaṇakammaṃ, i.e. the karmic activity forming a new existance (according to the sub-commentary it is punabbhavanibbattanakammaṃ). – (Mp. V: p.41; Mp-ṭ. III: p.307). The relation between saṅkhāra and kamma is depicted here. This sutta justifies the Goenka- tradition wherein bodily sensations are given importance in the insight practice. When one observes the impermanent nature of bodily sensations with equanimity ie one does not react with either craving or aversion to sensations, at that time one does not create any new conditioned formation (saṅkhāra) or kamma, that is new volition (cetanā). At that moment the accumulated old stock of conditioned formations comes upon the surface and manifests on the body as sensation. One still remains equanimous and slowly these sensations fade away. This way one gets rid of the one’s own accumulated stock of saṅkhāras or kamma i.e. misery.

132 Sītaṃ, uṇhaṃ, jighacchā, pipāsā, uccāro, passāvo, kāyasaṃvaro, vacisaṃvaro, ājivasaṃvaro, ponobhaviko bhavasaṅkhāro – ime kho, bhikkhave, dasa dhamma sariraṭṭhā’ti. – (A.V: pp.88-89).

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The last words of the Buddha as mentioned in the Mahāparinibbānasutta of the Dīghanikāya emphasize the importance of impermanent nature of the conditioned things and diligence. The sutta states: ‘Now, monks, (I) declare to you: all conditioned things, are of a nature to decay – strive on untiringly.’ These were the Tathāgata’s last words. - (Walshe Maurice. 2012: p.270).

According to the Goenka-traditon observation of sensation (vedanā) is the most direct and tangible way to experience the reality of the entire mind-matter phenomenon. Generally, each kamma produces blind mental reaction i.e. saṅkhāra and it consequentially strengthens the mental habit pattern. This blind habit pattern in turn compels one to react either with craving or aversion with every experience of sensation and remaining unaware of this process is ignorance. The latent, dormant tendencies of craving, aversion, and ignorance etc i.e. anusayas have accumulation of these defilements of present and past existences. These anusayas are nothing but the blind mental habit patterns built up and carried forward from one existance to another. One keeps on strengthening it until and unless he practices mindfulness and clear comprehension with respect to sensation. Freedom from this past habit pattern is possible when one works with the body sensations. When one experiences pleasant or painful or neutral sensations, at that moment, the past mental habit of craving or aversion or ignorance arises. If one observes this objectively with realization of impermanence, the force of craving or aversion or ignorance will gradually diminish and be eradicated. A vipassanā practitioner specifically uses sensation as a tool to change the habit pattern of the mind and to eradicate the deep-rooted latent tendencies of reaction. Since, formative activity of existence that leads to renewed existence (ponobhaviko bhavasaṅkhāro) is a state that subsists through the body, it is to be dealt well with bodily sensations. The exclamation of joy (Udāna) of the Buddha explains that:

‘Sabbakammajahassa bhikkhuno, Dhunamānassa pure kataṃ rajaṃ. Amamassa ṭhitassa tādino. Attho natthi janaṃ lapetave.

‘The monk who does not make new kamma

And combs out old defilements as they arise,

Has reached that meditative state where there remains no ‘I’ or ‘mine’.

For him mere babbling makes no sense.

Engrossed in silent practice, he is bent.’ – (VRI. 2002: pp.24).

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These few brief lines of Udāna set out the complete technique of Vipassanā meditation, the actual way to reach liberation.

During the insight practice one sits cross-legged, erect, with determination and in noble silence. Here, at the grossest physical level, all the bodily and vocal actions are suspended so there can be no new physical kamma or vocal kamma. Now one is in a position to try to stop mental kamma formations (citta saṅkhāra). For this one has to be aware of the truth of impermanence, the arising and passing of every compounded phenomenon within the framework of one’s physical structure. ‘The removal of illusion by truth-realisation, by self-realisation, is liberation. The direct experience of our own reality prevents new mental conditioning, while at the same time eradicating the bondage of the old accumulated kamma – khīnaṃ purānaṃ navaṃ natthi saṃbhavaṃ. The past has been destroyed, there is no new becoming’. In fact, Vipasssanā meditation is for the purpose of the process of combing out all the old defilements from the fabric of consciousness. – (VRI. 2002: pp.24, 25).

From the practice point of view the Goenka-tradition gives importance to active and passive aspects of the saṅkhāras. It is mainly related to the law of dependent origination – (avijjā paccayā saṅkhārā) ignorance causes saṅkhāras and so on. Sañcetanā is one of the four nutritional elements or condition for the continuation of being, hence it is to be stopped in order to come out of the suffering.

4.8 - Sati-sampajañña

Basically, Sati-sampajañña and Satipaṭṭhāna are not different in-essence and both are closely interrelated. Since, sati-sampajañña is a pre-Buddhist term, I would like to deal with these concepts separately. It will facilitate better understanding of these concepts.

The compound term Sati-sampajañña is made up of two terms sati and sampjañña. Sati is mindfulness, awareness, memory, consciousness, and Sampajañña is discrimination, comprehension, attention, consideration. As explained in the Satipaṭṭhānasutta, Sampajañña is the practice of mindfulness regarding all the major and minor physical activities continuously. Sammā-sati is explained as the four foundations of mindfulness. With respect to the mindfulness Anālayo opines that: ‘Mindfulness is a mental quality that enhances memory, without being identical with it. Such mindfulness can coexist with the intentional use of concepts and evaluations, without being confined to conceptual activity, as it can also take the

267 form of bare awareness. This can function as an integral aspect of the path of liberation as long as such awareness is informed by a previously established foundation in insight into impermanence.

Sati-sampajañña

The practice of mindfulness is often coupled with another quality, clear comprehension (sampajañña). Clear comprehension is explained with reference to the bodily postures and routine activities of everyday life, and with reference to the arising and passing away of feelings, initial thoughts, and perceptions. The commentaries explain clear comprehension to have a fourfold application: as full awareness of the purpose of one’s actions; as prudence in the choice of means; as engagement of the mind with the meditation subject; and as discernment of things in their true nature, free from delusion. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.1507).

The Aṅguttaranikāya reads: ‘Bhikkhus, I do not see even a single thing that so causes unarisen wholesome qualities to arise and arisen unwholesome qualities to decline as clear comprehension. For one who clearly comprehends (sampajānassa), unarisen wholesome qualities arise and arisen unwholesome qualities decline.’ The same is true with proper consideration, content, strenuous effort and so on. - (A.I: p.13, 17; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.100).

Practice of sati-sampajañña by the Buddha

In the text the practice of sati-sampajañña by the Buddha is shown at various occasions. The importance of sati-sampajañña is indicated in the Sekhasutta of the Majjhimanikāya. At times it is noticeable that the Buddha suggested to Anand to continue the discourse, as his back was paining and so on. Then the sutta describes that: the Buddha prepared his patchwork cloak folded in four and lay down on his right side in the lion’s posture, with one foot overlapping the other, mindful and fully aware (sato sampajāno), after noting in his mind the time for rising. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.461).

The strong, hard, severe, painful physical feelings of the Buddha who bears it with sati- sampajañña are mentioned in the Saṃyuttanikāya: Now on that occasion the Blessed One’s foot had been cut by a stone splinter. Severe pains assailed the Blessed One – bodily feelings that were painful, racking, sharp, piercing, harrowing, disagreeable. But the Blessed One endured them, mindful and clearly comprehending, without becoming distressed. The Blessed One had his outer robe folded in four, and he lay down on his right side in the lion posture with

268 one leg overlapping the other, mindful and clearly comprehending. - (S.I: pp.27-28; S.I: pp.110-111).

The Acchariya-abbhūtasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains in many ways the importance of the mindful and fully aware (sato-sampajāno) state of the Bodhisattta: For the Tathāgata feelings, perceptions, and initial thoughts, are known as they arise, as they are present, as they disappear. These are the wonderful, marvellous qualities of the Thathāgata. - (M.III: pp.120, 124).

The Saṃyuttanikāya and Dīghanikāya mention that three months before the Mahāparinibbāna, the Buddha, at Cāpāla shrine, mindfully and with clear comprehension gave up his vital formation. - (S.V: p.263).

The Role of sati-smpajañña in the practice

The practice of sati-sampajañña, right awareness, useful to abandon the five hindrances, is mentioned in the Majjhimanikāya. The following typical pattern occurs before the description of the four meditative absorptions. ‘Possessing this aggregate of noble virtue, and this noble restraint of the faculties, and possessing this noble mindfulness and full awareness, he resorts to a secluded resting place: the forest, the root of a tree, a mountain, a ravine, a hillside cave, a charnel ground, a jungle thicket, an open space, a heap of straw. On returning from his almsround, after his meal he sits down, folding his legs crosswise, setting his body erect, and establishing mindfulness before him.’ In this way meditator gets rid of five hindrances of covetousness, ill-will, sloth and torpor, restlessness, and doubt. Having thus abandoned these five hindrances, imperfections of the mind that weaken wisdom, one develops all the four meditative absorptions. - (M. II: pp.226-227; M.III: p.35; M. II: pp:162-163; M.I: pp.346-347; M.I: pp.354-356; M.I: pp.181-182; M.I: p.274). The abandoning of lust, identity view by the one who is mindful, is mentioned in the Saṃyuttanikāya verses: ‘As if smitten by a sword, as if his head was on fire, a bhikkhu should wander mindfully to abandon sensual lust.’ Similarly, it is said to abandon identity view. - (S.I: pp.53-54).

The gradual progression on the path is explained as follows. The noble disciple endowed with morality, restraint of senses, moderate in eating, engaged in vigilance, endowed with seven excellent states, attains four fine material absorptions without any difficulty and dwells in ease here and now. ‘Engaged in vigilance’ is explained: ‘Here, during the daytime, during walking and sitting, a noble disciple cleans his mind of hindrances. At the first watch of the night, he

269 cleans his mind of hindrances during walking and sitting meditation; in the middle watch of the night, he lies down on the right side, in the lion’s pose with one foot overlapping the other, mindful and fully aware (sato sampajāno), after noting in his mind the time for rising. At the last watch of the night, after rising, he cleans his mind of hindrances during walking and sitting meditation. It very clearly indicates the role of sati-sampajañña for cleansing the mind of hindrances prior to the practice of absorptions or insight. - (S. IV: p.176; S.IV: pp.104-105).

The noble disciple endowed with the following seven excellent states, faith, sense of shame, fear of doing wrong, much learned, energy and effort, awareness with memory, ie he possesses the highest mindfulness and skill; he recalls and recollects what has done long ago and spoken long ago;133 and wisdom, i.e. he is endowed with wisdom regarding arising and disappearance (means impermanence), that is noble and penetrative and leads to the complete destruction of suffering. He attains four fine material absorptions without any difficulty. - (M. I: pp.354-355; A.IV: pp.4-5; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.462-3).

It shows close relation between the terms, sati-sampajañña, satipaṭṭhāna, and Paññā with respect to the impermanent nature. Sati-sampajañña deals with arising and passing away of the feeling, perception, and initial thought. It also deals with bodily activities. Hence, it deals with materiality and mentality with the knowledge of arising and passing away. Satipaṭṭhāna deals with arising and passing away of the five aggregates, classified in to the four objects of body, feeling, mind, and mental contents or states. It deals with equanimity, detachment or anicca, anatta etc. Paññā deals with wisdom of penetration in to the nature, arising and passing away, leading towards the destruction of suffering.

The Aṅguttaranikāya explains the three important qualities by virtue of which, a monk practices in an unmistaken manner (apaṇṇakapaṭipadaṃ) and lays the basis for the destruction of the taints. A monk endowed with these three states, such as one who guards the doors of the sense faculties (indriyesu guttadvāro), observes moderation in eating (bhojane mattaññū), and one who is intent on wakewfulness (jāgariyam anuyutto).’ This is ‘apaṇṇakapaṭipadam paṭipanno’, one who follows the ‘unmistaken course or faultless path’, and this is the basis of the destruction of intoxicants. One can be engaged continuously in the practice of purification of hindrances with mindfulness and clear comprehension (sati-sampajañña) either walking

133Satimā hoti paramena satinepakkena samannāgato cirakatampi cirabhāsitampi saritā anussaritā. - (M.I: p.356).

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(cankamena), or sitting (nissajāya), or even sleeping. - (A.I: p.114). Many discourses of the Dīghanikāya explain these three qualities as a part of the gradual activities (anupubba-kiriyā).

Different aspects of clear comprehension are explained in the Satisutta. The sutta states: ‘Monks, a monk should dwell mindful and with clear comprehension. This is our instruction to you’. Further, it explains the exercise, clear comprehension as follows: ‘Here, monks, for a monk feelings are understood as they arise, understood as they remain present, understood as they pass away. Initial thoughts are understood as they arise, understood as they remain present, understood as they pass away. Perceptions are understood as they arise, understood as they remain present, understood as they pass away. It is in this way, monks, that a monk exercises clear comprehension.134’ From this description it becomes clear that one is sampajāna only when one realizes the characteristic of impermanence. This realization has to be on the basis of experience of sensation because our fundamental contact with the world is based on sensation. It is directly through sensastion that experience occurs. - (S.V: p.181; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.1657). The commentary explains the feelings, initial thoughts, and perceptions as those that occur in relation to the sense bases and objects comprehended in developing insight. In the Majjhimanikāya this practice is described as a wonderful quality of the Buddha; in the Aṅguttara and Dīghanikāy as a development of concentration; in the Aṅguttaranikāya as a factor leading to the four paṭisambhidās, and as a practice of mindfulness and clear comprehension. The Paṭisambhidāmagga treats this practice in relation to mindfulness of breathing. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.1927).

The commentary and sub-commentary explains: ‘Known feelings are the feelings reflecting on which one attains Arahantaship, these are the feelings that are known while arising, staying and passing away. But here it is mentioned that, the possessor of the object (of meditation) has existing feelings, those arising, staying and passing away.135 The same is true for initial thought and perception. Sub-commentary says, Whatever feelings, known thoroughly are feelings of the three planes (yā vedanā sammasitvāti yā tebhumakā vedanā sammasitvā.), - kāma, rūpa, and arūpa – sensual plane, fine material plane and immaterial plane, ie feelings related to eight absorptions.136 Further, it explains that, ‘contemplating on feeling means reflecting on feeling

134 Similar explanation is there in the Mettāvagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya – (A.IV: pp.166-168). 135 Viditā vedanāti yā vedanā sammasitvā arahattaṃ patto tāvassa viditā uppajjanti, viditā upaṭṭhahanti, viditā abbhatthaṃ gacchanti nāma. Yā ca pana pariggahitesu vtthārammaṇesu pavattā vedanā, tāpi viditā uppajjanti, viditā upaṭṭhahanti, viditā abbhatthaṃ gacchanti nāma. – (Spk.III: p.230). 136 Yā vedanā sammasitvāti yā tebhumakavedanā sammasitvā. Tāvassāti tā tebhūmakavedanā eva assa bhikkhuno. Sadisavasena cetaṃ vuttaṃ, aniccādisammasanavasena viditā pubbabhāge sammasanakāle upaṭṭhahanti. Pariggahitesūti parijānanavasena paricchijja gahitesu. – (Spk-ṭ. II.ii:186).

271 as a root condition of craving, contemplating on initial thought means reflecting on initial thought as a root condition of conceit or pride, contemplating on perception means reflecting on perception as a root condition of wrong view.137 - (Spk.III: p.230; Spk-ṭ. II.ii: p.186).

The four noble lineages

Mindfulness and clear comprehension along with contentment are important and necessary factors of the noble lineage. The Majjhimanikāya and Dīghanikāya explain these two as one of the many essential factors of gradual training, gradual action etc. Howevere, the Aṅguttaranikāya specifically mentions these two in the context of the noble lineage. The Aṅguttaranikāya explains four noble lineages which are primal, of long standing, traditional, ancient, unadulterated and never before adulterated and so on.138 The four noble lineages are clothes (civara), alms food (piṇdapātena), lodging (senāsanena), and development (bhāvanā). With regard to the four noble lineages mindfulness and clear comprehension is necessary. The sutta explains that, ‘Here, a monk is content with any sort of clothes, any sort of alms food, any sort of lodging, he delights in developing (good), and delights in abandoning (evil). He is not worried if he does not get it, and if he gets it he uses it without being tied to it, infatuated with it, blindly absorbed in it, and seeing the danger in it and with the wisdom of escape from it (ādīnavadassāvī nissaraṇapañño paribhuñjati). Yet he does not extol himself or disparage others because of this. The monk, who is skilful in this, diligent, clearly comprehending and ever mindful (sampajāno patissato/paṭissato) is said to be standing in an ancient, primal noble lineage. - (A.II: pp.27-28). The commentary says: endowed with clear comprehension and mindfulness (sampajānapaññāya ceva satiyā ca yutto) - (Mp.III: pp.52-53)

Importance of Sati-sampajañña

The suttās of the Asuravagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains the importance of mindfulness and clear comprehension in order to attain serenity and insight. It explains four kinds of persons: 1) ‘Some person gains internal serenity of mind but not the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena. (The commentarys says: ajjhattaṃ cetosamatha is internal concentration of mind at the level of absorption. Adhipaññādhammavipassanā – higher wisdom of insight into

137Vedanā taṇhāpapañcassa, vitakko mānapapañcassa, saññā diṭṭhipapañcassa mūlavasena sammasanaṃ vuttā’ti vadanti. Vedanāvitakkasaññā taṇhāmānadiṭṭhipapañcānaṃ mūladassanavasenā’ti apare. – (Spk-ṭ. II.ii:186). 138 Cattārome, bhikkhave, ariyavaṃsā aggaññā rattaññā vaṃasaññā porāṇā asaṃkiṇṇā asaṃkiṇṇapubbā, na saṃkīyanti na saṃkīyissanti, appaṭikuṭṭhā samaṇehi brāmhaṇehi viññuhi. – (A.II: p.27).

272 phenomena is the insight knowledge that comprehends conditioned phenomena (saṅkhārapariggāhakavipassanāñāṅa). This is the higher wisdom that consists of insight into phenomena, that is, into the five aggregates.). 2) Some other person gains the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena but not internal serenity of mind. 3) Still another gains neither internal serenity of mind nor the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena. 4) And still another gains both internal serenity of mind and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.’ The third type of ‘person who gains neither internal serenity of mind nor the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena should put forth extraordinary desire, effort, zeal, enthusiasm, indefatigability, mindfulness and clear comprehension to obtain both those wholesome qualities (sati ca sampajaññañca karaṇīyaṃ). Just as one whose clothes or head had caught fire would put forth extraordinary desire, effort and so on to extinguish fire on his clothes or head, so that person should put forth extraordinary desire, effort and so on to obtain both those wholesome qualities. Then in future, he gains both internal serenity and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena (ajjhattaṃ cetosamathassa lābhī ca adhipaññādhammavipassanāya). The Commentary explains insight as: seeing, exploring and discerning conditioned phenomenon as impermanent, suffering, and non-self. Similarly, the commentary explains concentration as: ‘The mind should be steadied, composed, unified, and concentrated by way of the first jhāna; and so too for the second and higher jhānas.’ - (A.II: pp.92-94; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: pp.474, 1696; A.V: pp.99-100). This sutta provides a firm basis for the Goenka-tradition. The first category can be related to the practitioner of insight preceded by concentration. The second can be related to the practitioner of concentration preceded by insight. The fourth one appears as the practitioner of concentration and insight in congruence. For the third type of practitioner development of sati-sampajañña are said to be most essential for the development of serenity and insight. This is also the approach taken by the Goenka- tradition where it empahsizses the practice of sati-sampjañña in congruence.

In this context if we analyse the suttas of the Majjhimanikāya and Dīghanikāya which generally explain four fine material absorptions followed by the three or six higher knowledges etc. we can also find that sati-sampajañña are considered to be important for the development of serenity and insight. To name a few of the some such suttas are: Cūḷahatthipadopamasutta, Kandarakasutta, Devadahasutta, Sāmaññaphalasutta, Aṃbaṭṭhasutta. and so on. These suttas follow the pattern of the gradual training, gradual action, and gradual mode of progress etc. wherein the development of sati-sampajañña or satipaṭṭhāna is explained along with the other practices of the restraint of faculties, contentedness, and so on. These (about thirty) suttas of

273 the Majjhimanikāya and Dīghanikāya indicate the practice which is in accordance with the explanation of right concentration (sammā samādhi). These Suttas imply the congruent practice of serenity and insight. Those who can-not develope either of these should follow the path by giving much importance to the cultivation of sati-sampjañña as suggested in the third sutta of the Asuravagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya (A.II: pp.92-94).

The Sativagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains the importance of mindfulness and clear comprehension and how it is at the root of the knowledge and liberation. When there is mindfulness and clear comprehension, for one possessing mindfulness and clear comprehension the sense of moral shame and moral dread possesses their proximate cause. When there is a sense of moral shame and moral dread, for one possessing a sense of moral shame and moral dread, restraint of the sense faculties possesses its proximate cause. When there is restraint of the sense faculties, for one who exercises the restraint over sense faculties, virtuous behaviour possesses its proximate cause. When there is present virtuous behaviour, for one whose behaviour is virtuous, right concentration possesses its proximate cause. When there is right concentration, for one possessing right concentration the knowledge and vision of things as thery really are possesses its proximate cause. When there is the knowledge and vision of things as they really are, for one possessing the knowledge and vison of things as they really are, disenchantment and dispassion possess their proximate cause. When there is disenchantment and dispassion, for one possessing disenchantment and dispassion, the knowledge and vision of liberation possesses its proximate cause. - (Bodhi Bhkkhu. 2012: p.1230; A.IV: p.337). It appears that mindfulness and clear comprehension is at the root of the sense of moral shame and moral dread.139 And consequentialy it is at the root of the the knowledge and vision of liberation (vimuttiñāṇadassana).

Mindfulness and clear comprehension is explained as one of the ten abodes of the noble ones in the Nāthavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya and the Saṅgitisutta of the Dīghanikāya - (A.V: pp.30-31).

The Ākaṅkhavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya explains the importance of mindfulness and clear comprehension as: ‘Having abandoned muddle-mindedness (muṭṭhasaccaṃ), lack of clear comprehension (asaṃpajaññaṃ), and mental distraction, one is capable of abandoning careless attention (ayonisomanasikāraṃ), wrong path, and mental sluggishness. - (A.V: pp.147-148).

139‘Satisampjaññe, bhikkhave, sati satisampajaññasampannassa upanisasampannaṃ hoti hirottappam.’ - (A.IV: p.337).

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Buddha’s teaching is summarised in the following manner: ‘Monks, a monk should await his time mindful and with clear comprehension. This is our instruction to you. (Sato, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sampjāno kālaṃ āgameyya ayaṃ vo amhākaṃ anusāsanī). Goenka mentions these words in the Hindi-discourse of Satipaṭṭhāna course.

Sati-sampajañña is the axis, core of the Goenka-tradition. Goenka interpretes sampajañña as, ‘continuous clear comprehension and thorough understanding of the impermanent nature of the physical and mental structure (particularly vedanā). Vedanā is felt on the body but it is part of the mind and its observation means the observation of the mind and matter phenomenon.’ Sampajañña is wisdom; the thorough understanding that all sensations, all that one calls ‘I’, all that one is attached to, are arising to pass away. One developes equanimity towards this change, by objectively observing this process. This is the ultimate aim of Vipassanā and this is the crux of the practice.

The following sentences are repeated at the end of each section following the thorough scrutiny of the body, feeling, mind, and mental objects. These are: ‘One dwells observing the phenomenon of arising. One dwells observing the phenomenon of passing away. One dwells observing the phenomenon of arising and passing away. These sentences reveal the essence of the practice of satipaṭṭhāna. Until and unless these three levels of anicca are practised, one will not develop wisdom. Therefore, in order to practise any of the fourfold satipaṭṭhāna, one has to develop the constant thorough understanding of impermanence, known as sampajañña in Pali. Here, the observation of sensations plays a vital role. Due to it the practitioner very clearly and tangibly realizes arising and passing away. Sampajañña in fact is knowing the arising and passing away of sensation and thereby all four facets of our being. – (VRI. 2002: pp.6, 39).

4.8.1 - Satipaṭṭhāna

As explained in the chapter three Goenka says, Satipaṭṭhāna is vipassanā and vipassanā is satipaṭṭhāna. It shows the central crucial role of the sati-sampajañña and satipaṭṭhāna in the Goenka-tradition. Here, we will discuss the Satipaṭṭhāna from various angles with respect to the early Buddhist literature.

The discourse on the foundations of mindfulness (Satipaṭṭhānasutta) of the Majjhima Nikāya and the Dīgha Nikāya is the most important discourse on the practice conducing to insight. The

275 sutta sets forth a comprehensive system called satipaṭṭhāna designed to train the mind to see with microscopic precision the true nature of the body, feelings, states of mind, and mental objects. The system is sometimes taken to be the paradigm for the practice of “bare insight” – the direct contemplation of mental and bodily phenomena without a prior foundation of jhāna – and, while several exercises described in the sutta can also lead to the jhānas, the arousing of insight is clearly the intent of the method. – (Bhikkhu Bodhi. 2009: p.40).

The practice of satipaṭṭhāna centres upon the cultivation of mindfulness, which may be understood as focused awareness applied to immediate experience in both its subjective and objective sectors. The heart of the practice is succinctly stated in the formula found in the satipaṭṭhānasaṃytta. The formula shows that the exercise of sati has a reflexive character: one is to contemplate the body in the body, feeling in feelings, mind in mind, phenomena in phenomena. The reiteration signals that the contemplative act must isolate each domain of mindfulness from the others and attend to it as it is in itself. This means the given object has to be laid bare, stripped of the layers of mental proliferation which usually clutter our perception and prevent us from seeing the true characteristics of phenomena. The meditator must see the body in the act of breathing as simply a breathing body, not a person or self who is breathing; feelings as simply feelings, not as episodes in a long biography; states of mind as simply states of mind, not as scenes in a personal drama; phenomena as mere phenomena, not as personal achievements or liabilities.

The full formula makes it clear that mindfulness does not work alone but in company. The term ‘ardent’ (ātāpi) implies energy, ‘clearly comprehending’ (sampajāno) implies incipient wisdom, and the occasional addition, ‘concentrated, with one-pointed mind (samāhitā ekaggacittā)’, points to the presence of concentration. Thus, the practice of satipaṭṭhāna spreads over the last three factors of the Noble Eightfold Path. And since virtue and straightened view are said to be its prerequisites, the former comprising the three ethical path factors of right speech, right action, and right livelihood, and the latter synonymous with right view, this implies that the development of the entire Noble Eightfold Path can be encapsulated within the practice of satipaṭṭhāna. This much is suggested when the eightfold path is called ‘the way leading to the development of the establishments of mindfulness.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.1506).

One should dwell with practicing four foundations of Mindfulness and clear comprehension is the teaching of the Buddha. ‘By practising mindfulness and clear comprehension in four ways,

276 a monk makes himself his own support and refuge, and makes the dhamma - the teaching, his support and refuge, and none else. It is explained in the Mahāparinibbānasutta that: ‘you should live as islands unto yourselves, being your own refuge, with no on else as your refuge, with the Dhamma as your refuge, with no other refuge. A monk abides contemplating the body as body, earnestly, clearly aware, mindful and having put away all craving and aversion for the world, and likewise with regard to feelings, mind and mind-objects. - (D.II: pp.94, 100-101; S.V: pp.141-143; Walshe Maurice. 2009: p.245). He gave the Saṅgha the same advice after the deaths of Sāriputta and Mahāmoggallāna, which for all must have been stirring reminders of the law of impermanence. One is mindful by dwelling in the four foundations of mindfulness, with clear comprehension, ardent, and mindful, by keeping away craving and aversion with regard to mind-matter phenomenon. Clear comprehension is continuous contemplation of all physical activities and processes.

Satipaṭṭhāna – meaning of the word

Sati + paṭṭhāna or upaṭṭhāna = intent contemplation and mindfulness, earnest thought, application of mindfulness. (Rhys Davids T.W. and Stede William. 1997).

Sati + paṭṭhāna meaning ‘the four foundations of mindfulness’ and emphasizes the objective bases of the practice: the body, feelings, mind, and phenomena. But if Satipaṭṭhāna be resolved into Sati + upaṭṭhāna, and thus translated ‘the establishment of mindfulness.’ Such an interpretation, which puts the spotlight on the subjective qualities marshalled in the development of mindfulness, is implied by the adjective upaṭṭhitasati used to describe one who has set up mindfulness. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.1504). The right mindfulness (sammāsati) is the four foundations of mindfulness. It appears that Buddha systematized and formulated the eight factors of the path with respect to the unique aspect of right or proper (sammā). In other word the axis of middle path (majjhima paṭipadā) is the aspect of sammā which indicates the state of equilibrium, equipoise, or balance. As discussed above we observe in the text that mindfulness and clear comprehension (sati-sampajañña) has a similar role or function as the four foundations of mindfulness (satipaṭṭhānā). When it is systematized and formulated under the heading of right mindfulness, the scope of the four foundations of mindfulness broadens. Out of the eight factors of the path only right mindfulness and right effort are of the mundane nature, and both play a crucial role in the development of the path from mundane to supermundane ie up to the attainment of arahantship. The Eightfold Noble Path is the way leading to the development of the four foundations of mindfulness as expressed in the

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Vibhaṅgasutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya which indicates the importance and interrelation of it - (S.V: p.183).

The four foundations of mindfulness, the four contemplations are, in reality, not to be taken as merely separate exercises, but on the contrary, at least in many cases, especially in the absorptions, as things inseparably associated with each other. Thereby the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta forms an illustration of the way in which these four contemplations relating to the five groups of existence (pañca khandha), simultaneously come to be realized, and finally lead to Insight into the Impersonality of all existence. These four contemplations cover the five groups of existence, because mindfulness is meant to encompass the whole personality. - (Nyanatiloka. 1987: pp.165, 166).

Tayo satipaṭṭhānā

The rare notion of three foundations of mindfulness (tayo satipaṭṭhānā), is very different from the usual four foundations of mindfulness. These three are explained in relation to the Buddha. His equanimity towards all the listeners, non-listeners, and partly listeners is shown by these three foundations of mindfulness. Noble One cultivates these three foundations of mindfulness, by means of which the Noble One is a teacher fit to instruct a group. - (M.III: pp.221-222).

Practice for all

In the order of the monks, there are arahanta, and learners. They continuously practise the four foundations of mindfulness. House holders also practise the same. In this way, the importance of the practice of four foundations of mindfulness for all is mentioned in the Majjhimanikāya. - (M.I: pp.340-341).

The Saṃyuttanikāya explains the practice to abandon hindrances, the development of four foundations of mindfulness and seven factors of enlightenment. This practice is explained for all in the following manner: Those Arhants, Perfectly Enlightened Ones who arose in the past or will arise in the future or are present, all those had first abandoned the five hindrances, corruptions of the mind and weakeners of wisdom; and with their minds well established in the four establishments of mindfulness, they had developed correctly the seven factors of enlightenment; and thereby they had awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. Further, it mentions that, ‘Lord advised Sāriputta that, you should repeat this Dhamma teaching frequently to the monks, and lay disciples to remove any doubt or confusion in the Tathāgata. - (S.V: p.161).

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Though, the practice of four foundations of mindfulness are given to all, it is specifically recommended to monks. In the Saṃyuttanikāya it is mentioned that, four foundations of mindfulness are the proper resort and domain of a monk. The five-sense field is not the resort or suitable place to dwell for monks, but it belongs to others. And the resort or own ancestral domain to dwell for monks is the four foundations of mindfulness. It is advised as: Dwell in your own resort, monks, in your own ancestral domain. Māra will not get access to those who dwell in their own resort, in their own ancestral domain; Māra will not get a hold on them.140 - (S.V: pp.147-148).

Satipaṭṭhāna for abandoning hindrances and other obstacles

The Dantabhūmisutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains the four foundations of mindfulness in the sense of abandoning hindrances, in order to attain true way and for realising Nibbāna. It explains that: ‘Having thus abandoned these five hindrances, imperfections of the mind that weaken wisdom, he abides contemplating the body as body, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world.’ Similarly, it is explained for feeling, mind and mental-objects. ‘These four foundations of mindfulness are the bindings for the mind of the noble disciple in order to subdue his habits based on the household life, to subdue his memories and intentions based on the household life, to subdue his distress, fatigue, and fever based on the household life, and in order that he may attain the true way and realise Nibbāna.’ Here the four foundations of mindfulness are expounded in the place usually reserved for the four jhānas. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.995,1338).

In the Saṃyuttanikāya it is mentioned that, ‘The Five hindrances are nothing but a heap of the unwholesome. The four foundations of mindfulness are nothing but a heap of wholesome.’ - (S.V: p.146). It shows that by developing merit in terms of the four foundations of mindfulness, it by default abandons the demerit in terms of the five hindrances. Consequentialy, one develops concentration (samādhi) and insight (vipassana) as well.

Co-relation among four foundations of mindfulness, right thought, animitta Samādhi ie vipassanā concentration

Three unwholesome initial thoughts: sensual desire, ill will, and harming cease without remainder for one who dwells with a mind well established in the four establishments of

140 Gocare, bhikkhave, caratha sake pettike visaye. Gocare, bhikkhave, caratṃ sake pettike visaye na lacchati māro otāraṃ, na lacchati māro ārammaṇaṃ. – (S.V: p.147-148).

279 mindfulness, or for one who cultivates the signless concentration (animitta samādhi) ie vipassanā concentration. Signless concentration is most suitable for cultivation, and if developed repeatedly and cultivated there will be great advantages. – (S.III: pp.93-94). The commentary says Animitta samādhi is Vipassanā samādhi that does away with niccanimittādinaṃ - the sign of or belief, that physical and mental phenomena are permanent. Here, the four establishments of mindfulness are said to be mixed with the former part of animitta-samādhi or the animitta-samādhi is said to be mixed with the former part of the four establishments of mindfulness - (Spk. II: pp.303-304). It indicates the co-relation between right thought with the four establishments of mindfulness and vipassanā concentration.

Lucidity of wisdom remains constant irrespective of oldage

The specific feature of the the lucidity of wisdom with respect to the four foundations of mindfulness is explained in the Mahāsihanādasutta of the Majjhimanikāya. The Buddha explains to the Ven. Sāriputta: ‘there are certain recluses and Brahmins whose doctrine and view is 'only at the young age lucidity of wisdom (paññāveyyattiya), remains but the same person loses that wisdom in old age. But this is not the case, Buddha gave his own example saying that his age is turned eighty years and he states: ‘Now suppose that I had four disciples with a hundred years’ life span, perfect in mindfulness, retentiveness, memory, and lucidity of wisdom.141 Just as a skilled archer, trained, practiced, and tested, could easily shoot a light arrow across the shadow of a palm tree, suppose that they were even to that extent perfect in mindfulness, retentiveness, memory, and lucidty of wisdom. Suppose that they continuously asked me about the four foundations of mindfulness and that I answered them when asked and that they remembered each answer of mine and never asked a subsidiary question or paused except to eat, drink, consume food, taste, urinate, defecate, and rest in order to remove sleepiness and tiredness. Still the Tathāgata’s exposition of the Dhamma, his explanations of factors of the Dhamma, and his replies to questions would not yet come to an end, but meanwhile those four disciples of mine with their hundred years’ life span would have died at the end of those hundred years. Sāriuptta, even if you have to carry me about on a bed, still there will be no change in the lucidity of the Tathāgata’s wisdom. - (M.I: pp.82-83; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.177).

Satipaṭṭhāna with respect to the endurance of the Dhamma and physical pain etc

141 Paramāya satiyā ca gatiyā ca dhitiyā ca samannāgatā paramena ca paññāveyyattiyena. – (M.I: pp.82-83).

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In the Saṃyuttanikāya the importance of four establishments of mindfulness is indicated thus: ‘It is because these four establishments of mindfulness are developed and cultivated that the true Dhamma endures long after a Tathāgata has attained final Nibbāna. And it does not endure long due to the failure of the development of the four establishments of mindfulness. - (S.V: pp.172-175). The Saṃyuttanikāya also states that, for direct knowledge, for the full understanding, for utter destruction, and for abandoning of the five higher fetters, such as ‘lust for fine material (plane), immaterial, conceit, restlessness and ignorance’, the four establishments of mindfulness are to be developed. - (S.V: p.192).

The Sickness of house holder with painful feelings is mentioned in the Sirivaḍḍhasutta of the Satipaṭṭhānasaṃyutta. After practising the four establishments of mindfulness he attained the fruition state of non-returner. - (S.V: pp.177-178).

The Bāḷagilānasutta of the Anuruddhasaṃyutta suggests the practice of the four establishments of mindfulness at the time of sickness, to cope with the strong pain. Venerable Anuruddha usually dwells in the four establishments of mindfulness, so that the arisen bodily painful feelings do not persist obsessing his mind. (This is similar to the usual practice of reciting the seven factors of enlightenment). - (S.V: pp.302-303).

The Gilānasutta of the Satipaṭṭhānasaṃyutta states that: ‘And how, Ānanda, does a bhikkhu dwell with himself as his own island, with himself as his own refuge, with no other refuge; with the Dhamma as his island, with the Dhamma as his refuge, with no other refuge? Here, Ānanada, a bhikkhu dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent clearly comprehending, mindful, having removed covetousness and displeasure in regard to the world. He dwells contemplating feelings in feeling, …, mind in mind, …, phenomena in phenomena….’ ‘Those bhikkhus, either now or after I am gone, who dwell with themselves as their own island, with themselves as their own refuge, with no other refuge; with the Dhamma as their island and so on – it is those bhikkhus, Ānanda, who will be for me topmost of those keen on the training.’ - (S.V: pp.153-154; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.1637).

Abandoning taints, fetters, suffering

In the Saṃyuttanikāya the Buddha says, ‘Monks, this Dhamma has been taught by me discriminately. The four establishments of mindfulness and so on, the thirty-seven states belonging to enlightenment, have been taught by me discriminately. Monks, this is how one

281 should know, and see, for the immediate destruction of the taints. The uninstructed worldling, regards material form as self. That, monks, is a formation. That formation – what is its source, what is its origin, from what is it born and produced? When the uninstructed worldling is contacted by a feeling born of ignorance (contact), craving arises: thence that formation is born. Thus, that formation is impermanent, conditioned and dependently arisen; That craving, that feeling, that contact, that ignorance also is impermanent, conditioned, and dependently arisen. In one who knows and sees thus, taints disappear in an instant. - (S.III: pp.96-97).

The importance of the meditative practice and its results are explained with many similes in the Vāsijaṭasutta of the Khandhasaṃyutta. The taints are extinguished in one who knows and sees the arising and passing of the five aggregates.

A monk who does not dwell devoted to development or does not practise insight meditation, though the wish might arise in him: ‘Oh, that my mind might be liberated from the taints by nonclinging!’ yet his mind is not liberated from the taints by nonclinging. Because he does not develop or not practise the four establishments of mindfulness and so on, the thirty-seven states belonging to enlightenment.

A monk who dwells devoted to development or practises insight meditation, though the wish might not arise in him: ‘to be free from taints, without clinging’, his mind is free from taints, without clinging, because he has practised the four applications of mindfulness and so on.

A monk who is practising insight meditation, does not have the knowledge ‘this much of taints has become extinct today, this much of taints became extinct yesterday; this much of taintss became extinct earlier’, but he knows that the taints are extinct when they have become extinct in him. - (S.III: p.153).

The Nālandavagga of the Satipaṭṭhānasaṃytta explains after every establishment in mindfulness as body and so on: ‘And how, Sāriputta, does one have a liberated mind? Here, Sāriputta, monk dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having removed covetousness and displeasure in regard to world. As he dewells contemplating the body in the body, the mind becomes dispassionate, and by nonclinging it is liberated from the taints. - (S.V: pp.158-159). There is direct mention of the release by practising body or feeling or mind or mental content; which indicates the fact that if one practises one of the four foundations of mindfulness, it is good for liberation from the taints.

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The Satipaṭṭhānavagga of the Aṅguttaranikāya mentions that, ‘the development of four establihments of mindfulness is to abandon the five sources of weaknesses regarding the training (training of five moral precepts) (sikkhādubbalyāni), five hindrances, five sensual pleasures, five aggregates of grasping and so on. – (A.IV: pp.458-462). It clears the usefulness of the practice of four foundations of mindfulness in the various steps of the gradual practice.

The Pāsādikasutta of the Dīghanikāya explains importance of the four foundations of mindfulness regarding views. It states that: ‘For abandoning and transcending the supports of all such views associated to the past and the future, I have taught and laid down the four foundations of mindfulness’.142 - (D.III: p.140). The importance of four-fold mindfulness is emphasized this way for the development of right view - sammādiṭṭhi.

Importance of the Development of Satipaṭṭhānā

The Satipaṭṭhānasaṃyutta explains that right action, right speech, right livelihood, and right view are the basis for the successful practice of mindfulness meditation. The Bhikkhusutta states: ‘Monks, purify the very starting point of wholesome states. The starting point of wholesome states is virtue that is well purified and view that is straight. When your virtue is well purified and your view straight, based upon virtue, established upon virtue, you should develop the four establishements of mindfulness in a threefold way. The commentary says: The view is that of one’s responsibility for one’s own action (kammassakatādiṭṭhi), i.e., belief in kamma and its fruits. Threefold way meaning practice internally, externally, and both internally and externally simultaneously. It further explains: ‘When, monk, based upon virtue, established upon virtue, you develop these four establishments of mindfulness thus in a threefold way, then, whether at night or by day comes, you may expect growth in wholesome states, not decline.’- (S.V: pp.143-144, 165-166, 188).

The Sālsutta recommends the four establishments of mindfulness to novices, learners, and even arahants, each for a different purpose, with respect to the stage of development. It states: i) Monks, those who are newly-ordained monks, not long gone forth, recently joined this dhamma and discipline, should be exhorted, settled and established by you in the development of the four establishments of mindfulness. Which four? Come, friends, dwell contemplating body in the body ardent, clearly comprehending, unified, with limpid mind, concentrated, with one- pointed mind, in order to know the body as it really is (kāyassa yathābhūtaṃ ñāṇāya). The

142 Imesañca, Cunda, pubbantasahagatānaṃ diṭṭhinissayānaṃ imesañca aparantasahagatānaṃ diṭṭhinissayānaṃ pahānāya samatikkamāya evaṃ mayā cattāro satipaṭṭhānā desitā paññattā. – (D.III: p.140).

283 same description is also given in the case of feeling, mind and phenomena. ii) Monks, those, monks who are trainees, who have not attained their mind’s ideal, who dwell wishing for the unsurpassed security form bondage, they also dwell contemplating body in the body, ardent, clear comprehending, unified, with limpid mind, concentrated, with and one pointed mind, in order to fully understand (pariññāya) the body as it really is. The same description is also given in the case of feeling, mind and phenomena. iii) Monks, those monks who are Arhants, whose taints are destroyed, who have lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached their own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, and are completely liberated through final knowledge, they also dwell contemplating body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, unified, with limpid mind, concentrated, with one-pointed mind, detached from the body (kāyena visaṃyuttā). The same description is also given in the case of feeling, mind and phenomena. - (S.V: pp.145--146; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: p.1630). This third stage of Arhant with detachment shows similarity with the description of a practitioner found in the Satipaṭṭhānasutta with respect to the phrase anissito ca viharati na ca kiñci loke upādiyati and so on. The expression atapi sampjāno satimā vineyya loke abhijjha domanassam which is found in the Satipaṭṭhānasutta is absent in the Sālsutta. Despite this the said phrase appears to be understood with the description of every satipaṭṭhāna. The newly ordained monks are to practice four satipaṭṭhāna to know body etc. as they really are i.e. to understand three characteristics especially the impermanent nature of it or to arouse the insight needed to reach the transcendental path. Learners who have attained the path, are to practice the four satipaṭṭhāna to fully understand the body etc. as they really are and therby reach arahantship, i.e. maturing stage of three characteristics. Arhantas practice these four satipaṭṭhāna being detached from body etc. since they are matured in all the three characteristics especially in the non-self.

Here, the encouragement, settling and establishing into four establishments of mindfulness, imply that the monk or devoted student should have clear and differentiative knowledge of the body, sensation, mind and dhammas. This is nothing but the ‘nāma-rupa pariccheda’ or insight knowledge. Body is the aggregate of material form, sensation represents the aggregates of perception and conditioned formation besides the aggregate of sensation, citta or mind is the aggregate of consciousness, and dhamma encompasses psycho-ethical entities such as hindrances, sense fields, five aggregates, seven factors of supreme knowledge and four noble truths. Again, these four establishments of mindfulness represesnt various aspects of the ultimate reality as rūpa, citta, and cetasika.

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Satipaṭṭhānabhāvanā and Samatha-Vipassanā

The Aññāsutta and Pariññātasutta explains that: ‘Here, monks, a monk dwells, contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having removed covetousness and displeasure in regard to the world. As he dwells thus, contemplating body in the body, whatever desire he has for the body is abandoned. The same description is also given in the case of feeling, mind and phenomena. With the abandoning of desire, the ambrosia, Deathless is realized. - (S.V: pp.181-182). It is mentioned with every foundation of mindfulness. It indicates that by developing either one of the four foundations of mindfulness, all the four are fulfilled.

The Vibhaṅgasutta of the Satipaṭṭhānasaṃyutta explains three aspects related to the four foundations of mindfulness. It helps to understand better the concepts of Satipaṭṭhāna and Sati- sampajañña and their mutual relation. These three aspects are explained in the following manner: One dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having removed covetousness and displeasure in regard to the world (loke) i.e. mind matter phenomenon. The same description is also given in the case of other three establishments of mindfulness. These are four estsablishment of mindfulness (satipaṭṭhānaṃ).

The development of establishment of mindfulness (satipaṭṭhānabhāvanā), is explained as the process of insight meditation: ‘Here, monks, a monk dwells contemplating the nature of arising in the body; he dwells contemplating the nature of vanishing in the body; he dwells contemplating the nature of arising and vanishing in the body – ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having removed covetousness and displeasure in regard to the world. The same description is also given in the case of feeling, mind and phenomena. This is the development of establishment of mindfulness.

The path leading to the development of establishment of mindfulness is nothing but the Noble Eight-fold Path (satipaṭṭhāna bhāvanā gāmini paṭipadā). - (S.V: p.183). Therefore, satipaṭṭhānabhāvanā encompasses the entire path of insight, including sammāsamādhi - serenity, and insight. In this sutta both explanations of the compound word satipaṭṭhāna are evident. The definition of the satipaṭṭhāna enumerates the four objects of the mindfulness wherein the compound can be analysed as ‘sati + paṭṭhāna’ meaning ‘domain’ or ‘the four foundations of mindfulness’ which emphasizes the objective bases of the practice: the body, feelings, mind, and phenomena. In the definition of the satipaṭṭhānabhāvanā the sati- sampjañña forms the core of the insight practice which is bhāvanā or the process of the

285 development of the four establishements of mindfulness. It is evident in the compound when it is analysed as ‘sati+upaṭṭhāna’ and it focuses on the subjective qualities in the development of mindfulness. It happens when the sati-sampajañña is attached with it. Satipaṭṭhāna is vipassanā and vipassanā is satipaṭṭhna this is explained very well in this sutta143. The Bhāvanā or insight meditation is ‘to dwell ardently observing arising and passing away in the body, feeling, mind and mental content with mindfulness and clear comprehension.

The Sūdasutta of the Satipaṭṭhānasaṃyutta explains the sign (nimitta) of one’s own mind with respect to the practice of the establishment of mindfulness: ‘Monks, here some wise, competent, skillful bhikkhu dwells contemplating the body in the body; feeling in feeling; mind in mind, and phenomena in the phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having removed covetousness and displeasure with regard to the world. As he dwells thus, his mind becomes concentrated, his defilements or corruptions are abandoned, he picks up that sign. That wise competent, skilful monk gains pleasant dwelling in this very life, and he gains mindfulness and clear comprehension (Dittheva dahmme sukhavihārānaṃ lābhī hoti sati- sampajaññassa’ – calm and insight.). Because that wise, competent, skilful monk picks up the sign of his own mind.’ According to the commentary satipaṭṭhāna is insight of the preliminary stage. He knows the sign of mind: ‘he knows that this meditation subject of mind reached up to conformity or change of lineage.’ He is able to grasp the sign of his own mind. The terms “conformity” (anuloma) and “change-of-lineage” (gotrabhū) denote the final occasions of sense-sphere consciousness before one attains either jhāna or the supramundane path and fruit; presumably the preliminary to jhāna is intended. ‘Sign of the mind: sign of the mind of concentration or insight, the mode of concentration or insight.’ - (S.V: pp.150-152; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.1635, 1919).

This discourse explains two advantages/gains of the mindfulness practice, one is the gain of concentration, serenity, calm, which is expressed by the term, ‘pleasant living in this very life’. The other is the gain of insight, which is expressed by the term, ‘mindfulness with clear comprehension’. This agrees with the explanation of the suttas the Majjhimanikāya and Dīghanikāya. These suttas explain the practice of mindfulness to abandon the hindrances and gaining concentration and insight.144 It supports the Goenka-tradition which says ‘satipaṭṭhāna is vipassanā, and vipassanā is satipaṭṭhāna.

143 The same is mentioned in ‘Goenka S.N. (1999). p.vi.’ 144 The similar explanation is there in the Saṃyuttanikāya – (S.V: p.306).

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The Bhikkhunupassayasutta explains two kinds of developments with respect to the four establishments of mindfulness. It assures that ‘Whosoever dwells with the mind well established in the four establishments of mindfulness, that such a one will perceive successively loftier stages of distinction.’ i) Development by direction or aspiration or intention (Paṇidhāyabhāvanā): ‘Here, a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having removed covetousness and displeasure in regard to the world. While he is contemplating the body in the body, there arises in him, based on the body, either a fever in the body or sluggishness of mind, or the mind is distracted outwardly. That monk should then direct his mind towards some inspiring sign (such as the Buddha and so on). When he directs his mind towards some inspiring sign, gladness is born. When he is gladdened, rapture is born. When the mind is uplifted by rapture, the body becomes tranquil. One tranquil in body experiences happiness. The mind of one who is happy becomes concentrated. He reflects thus: ‘The purpose for the sake of which I directed my mind has been achieved. Let me now withdraw it (Let me withdraw it from, the sign, inspiring object and redirect it towards the original meditation object ‘mula kammatthān’).’ So, he withdraws the mind and does not think or examine. He understands: ‘Without thought and examination, internally, mindful, I am happy (It implies he has reached the second jhāna).’ The same description is also given in case of the feeling, mind, and phenomena. It is in such a way, that there is development by direction. The commentary says: A fever of defilement (kilesapariḷāha) arises having made the body its basis (ārammaṅa). When this happens, one should not let oneself become excited by the defilement but “should then direct the mind to some inspiring sign”, that is, one should fix the meditating mind on some object that inspires confidence. The commentary explains Paṅidhāya bhāvanā as ṭhapetvā bhāvanā, “development having put aside.” Development by this method comes about by directing the mind away from its main object towards some other object. The commentary compares this to a man carrying a load of sugar to a refinery who pauses from time to time, puts down the load, eats a sugar cane, and then continues on his way. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.1638-1639, 1922-1923). ii) Development without direction, or aspiration or intention (Appaṇidhāya bhāvanā): ‘Not directing his mind outwardly, a monk understands: ‘My mind is not directed outwardly.’ Then he understands: ‘It is unconstricted after and before, liberated, undirected’.145 Then he further understands: ‘I dwell contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful; I am happy.’ The same description is also given in case of the feeling, mind, and

145 Atha pacchāpure ‘asaṅkhittaṃ vimuttaṃ appaṇihita’nti pajānāti. – (S.V: p.157).

287 phenomena. In this way, that there is development without direction. The commentary says: A bhikkhu who, after interpreting the root meditation subject, does not allow the mind to fall into the four undesirable conditions goes on to attain arahantship; he is called one who dwells “as before, so after.’ - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.1639, 1923, 1946). Thus, I have preached the development by direction and development without direction. Whatsoever should be done, by a compassionate teacher out of compassion for his disciples, desiring their welfare, that I have done for you.

The commentary explains ‘as before so after’ (atha pacchā pure)146 in three manners with respect to the object (kammaṭṭhānavasena), the body (Sariravasena), and the teaching (Desanāvasena).

With respect to the object ‘as before’ is the inclination to exercise, and ‘so after’ is Arahataship.147 He now attends neither to practice nor to goal, so is indifferent/equanimous. – With respect to the body ‘as before’ are the parts before tips of the toes and ‘so after’ is the top of the head.148 This detail description supports the procedure of progressive and regressive body scan found in the Goenka tradition.

With respect to the teaching out of thirty-two bodily parts ‘as before’ are hairs and ‘so after’ is brain.149 - (Spk.III: pp.206-207).

Goenka opines that, ‘sampajañña is the realisation of our own ephemeral nature at the deepest level. Far from being the equivalent of sati, it is the complement of sati. The uniting of theses two faculties is satipaṭṭhāna, the establishing of awareness, by means of which we can reach the goal of freedom from suffering.’ In the context of practice, the relation of vedanā and satipaṭṭhāna is explained in the Vedanāsutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya in the following manner. ‘Meditators, there are three types of bodily sensations. What are the three? Pleasant sensations, unpleasant sensations and neither painful nor pleasant sensations. Having completely

146 Atha pacchā pure asaṅkhittaṃ vimuttaṃ appaṇihitanti pajānātīti – ettha kammaṭṭhānavasena vā sarīravasena vā desanāvasena vā attho veditabbo. – (Spk.III: pp.206-207). 147 Tattha kammaṭṭhāne tāva kammaṭṭhānassa abhiniveso pure nāma, arahattaṃ pacchā nāma. – (Spk.III: pp.206-207). 148 Sarīre pana pādaṅgulīnaṃ aggapabbāni pure nāma, sīsakaṭāhaṃ pacchā nāma. Tattha yo bhikkhu pādaṅgulīnaṃ aggapabbaaṭṭhikesu abhinivisitvā byābhaṅgiyā yavakalāpaṃ mocento viya vaṇṇa-saṇṭhāna- disokāsa-paricchedavasena aṭṭhīni pariggaṇhanto antarā kilesapariḷāhādinaṃ uppattiṃ vāretvā yāva sīsakaṭāhā bhāvanaṃ pāpeti … – (Spk.III: pp.206-208). 149 Desanāyapi dvattinsākāradesanāya kesā pure nāma, matthaluṅga pacchā nāma. – (Spk.III:207-208).

288 understood these three sensations, meditators, the four-fold satipaṭṭhāna should be practiced.150 This sutta removes the doubt regarding the importance of sensation as the subject in the practice of the four establishments of mindfulness. ‘The practice of satipaṭṭhāna is complete only when one directly experiences impermanence. Body sensations provide the nexus where the entire mind and body are tangibly revealed as an impermanent phenomenon leading to liberation.’ – (VRI. 2002: p.39).

According to Goenka ‘when the Buddha says, sabbe dhammā vedanā samosaraṇā, it means that the experience of all mental concomitants includes and is inseparable from vedanā.’ Hence, not only do kāyānupassanā and vedanānupassanā involve the awareness of vedanā but vedanā also forms and itegral part of dhammānupassanā and cittānupassanā. A meditator whether practicing kāyānupassanā or vedanānupassanā or cittānupassanā or dhammānupassanā, continues to be aware of vedanā.

4.9 - Ānāpānasati

In this section we will discuss the importance and advantages of the ānāpānasati practice. The main features of the discourse on Ānāpānasati in the Majjhimanikāya are enumerated here. The efforts are made to show the emphasis on the practice of the ānāpāssati in the Saṃuttanikāya and Aṅguttaranikāya.

Central importance of the Ānāpānassati in the meditative practice

Sayagyi U Ba Khin expressed his views regarding the practice of ānāpānassati and carita (nature or character): ‘There are six types of character or nature (carita) affecting all human beings, but it is not possible to know which type a person belongs to, sicne we do not have the ability to do so. But it is a sure fact that no one is free from delusion (mohacarita), which is none other than ignorance itself. That is why one cannot argue that it is an unnatural process to establish samādhi by practising ānāpāna sati (awareness of the in and out breathing). This practice is suitable for persons with the nature and habitual inclination of delusion (moha). But

150 Tisso imā, bhikkhave, vedanā. Katame tisso? Sukhā vedanā, dukkha vedanā, adukkhamasaukhā vedanā. Imā kho, bhikkhave, tisso vedanā. Imāsaṃ kho, bhikkhave, tissannaṃ vedanānaṃ, pariññāya cattāro satipaṭṭhānā bhāvetabbā. - (S.V: p.189).

289 people may not believe that it is relatively easy to establish samādhi by the practice of Ānāpāna.’ – (VRI. 1994: p.70).

Buddha recommended the practice of Ānāpānassati, the practice of Satipaṭṭhānā in many discourses. In the Majjimanikāya etc this practice is introduced with the phrase: ‘sati parimukhaṃ upatthapetvā and/or arañña gato vā and so on.’

‘Ānāpānassati is one of the methods for penetrating the Four Noble Truths. - (Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu. 2010: p. viii). Many discourses of the Majjhimanikāya conclude with the words: ‘There are, Ānanada, these roots of a tree, these empty places. Meditate, Ānanada, do not delay, lest you regret it later. This is our instruction to you.’

The Ānāpānassatisutta, Satipaṭṭhānasutta, Kāyagatāsatisutta and Mahārāhulovāda-sutta etc are complementary to each other and very helpful to understand the core of the practical aspect of the Buddaha’s teaching. In all these discourses Ānāpānassatibhāvanā is a common factor, which is of much importance. Mindfulness of breathing provides, an ever accessible, meditation subject that can be pursued through all four fine material absorptions and also used to develop insight.

‘Mindfulness of breathing (ānāpānasati) is generally regarded as the most important meditation subject taught in the Nikāyas. The Pāli exegetical tradition holds that it was mindfulness of breathing that the Buddha practised on the night of his enlightenment, prior to attaining the four jhānas and the three true knowledges, and during his teaching career he occasionally would go off into seclusion to devote himself to this meditation. He calls it “the Tathāgata’s dwelling,” a lofty honour, and often recommends it to both trainees and arahants.

The practice of mindfulness of breathing is defined by a sixteen-step formula, these steps are not necessarily sequential but to some extent overlap; thus, they might be called phases rather than steps. The first four are also mentioned in the Satipaṭṭhānasutta, in the section on mindfulness of the body, but the sixteenfold formula gives the practice a wider range. The sixteen aspects are divided into four tetrads, each of which is correlated with one of the four establishments of mindfulness. Ānāpānasatisamādhi is the concentration obtained by being mindful of the breath. Here again, as with the path factors, enlightenment factors, and faculties, mindfulness is a condition for concentration. When a large number of monks, after hearing the Buddha preach on the foulness of the body, committed suicide. Subsequently the Buddha taught the bhikkhus ānāpānasati-samādhi as a “peaceful and sublime” dwelling. Mindfulness

290 of breathing is a complete subject of meditation that begins with simple attention to the breath and culminates in the highest deliverance of the mind.’ (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.1516, 1517).

Anālayo opines that: ‘Whereas mindfulness of breathing in sixteen steps appears to be a practice geared particularly to formal sitting in seclusion, for facing the challenge of everyday situations mindfulness of the body, in the sense of a proprioseptive type of awareness, falls into place. The type of embodied mindfulness cultivated in this way comes as part of a variety of perspectives on the body in early Buddhist meditation theory, ranging from insight into its lack of inherent beauty to the thrill of embodied joy and happiness during absorption.’ – (Anālayo. 2017: p.200).

4.9.1 - Mahapphalā Mahānisaṃsā Ānāpānassatibhāvanā

The importance of ānāpānasati, strong determination and purification of the mind is explained in the Majjhimanikāya. The Buddha advises Ven. Rahul that, the mind and matter phenomenon should be seen as it really is, with wisdom as ' this is not mine, this I am not, and this is not myself.' Inspired by this, Ven. Rahul skips the alms-round, and sits in the cross-legged erect posture under the tree focusing awareness in the front. Then, after seeing him, Ven. Sariputta tells him 'develop the ānāpānassatibhāvanā. Rahula, if ānāpānassati is developed and practised frequently, it is abundantly fruitful, of abundant merit. Then, one evening, Rāhula rose from meditation and approached the Buddha and asked: 'how is ānāpānassati developed and practiced frequently, so that it is of abundant fruit and abundant merit?' - (M.I: pp.421, 426; M.I: p.219). With this preparation then Buddha explains the four quadrates with all sixteen steps of the practice of ānāpānassati to Ven. Rahul. In this sutta the importance of ānāpānassati is concluded as, ‘when ānāpānassati has been developed thus, has been practised frequently thus, then those which are the last in-breaths (at the time of death) also cease only when one is aware, not with unawareness.'

This sutta has a parallel in the Ekottarika-āgama.151 Irrespective of some differences, this sutta in both the versions explains the practice of ānāpāassati. Both the versions begin with the Buddha approaching Sāvatthi to collect alms, together with his son Rāhula. ‘According to the Majjhimanikāya account, while they were walking on the road the Buddha turned around and told Rāhula that he should contemplate the not-self nature of the aggregate of form. The Ekottarika-āgama discourse differs slightly, as here the Buddha told Rāhula that he should

151 The parallel is EĀ 17.1 at T II 581c-582c. – (Anālayo. 2011: p.347).

291 contemplate the impermanent nature of form. Both versions report that the Buddha then extended the respective instruction to cover the other four aggregates.’ Accordingly, Rāhula sat down to meditate in order to put the instruction into practice.

‘The Mahārāhulovādasutta continues by reporting that, while Rāhula was seated in meditation, Sāriputta came by and told him to practise mindfulness of breathing. According to the Ekottarika-āgama presentation, however, this instruction was given by the Buddha who, on his way back from collecting alms, had seen Rāhula seated in meditation. The Ekottarika-āgama version reports that at this point the Buddha also instructed Rāhula on contemplation of impurity (asubha) and on the four brahamavihāras.’ Both the versions agree that Rāhula next approached the Buddha and inquired about how to undertake mindfulness of breathing so that it becomes fruitful. ‘Both versions begin by instructing that one should retire to a secluded spot, sit down cross-legged, and keep the body straight. The Majjhimanikāya account at this point recommends establishing mindfulness “in front” (parimukha), an expression that according to the explanation given in the Vibhaṅga and the Paṭisambhidāmagga refers to the nostril area as the proper location for being mindful of the breath. This explanation is reflected in the Ekottarika-āgama discourse, which explicitly instructs that one should be ‘keeping the mind at the tip of the nose’.152 – (Anālayo. 2011: pp.347-348, 350). This sutta indicates the relation between the practice of ānāpānassati and the phrase describing the posture for this practice as, 'sitting in the cross-legged erect posture under the tree, focusing awareness in the front'. This becomes clear from the following discussion. This particular phrase occurs in the Nikāyas mainly at two places. One is in the suttas namely Satipaṭṭhānasutta, Kāyagatāsatisutta etc. wherein it is directly associated with the practice of ānāpāna.

Secondly, the suttas in the Dīghanikāya and Majjhimanikāya describe a certain pattern of the gradual path with respect to the gradual training, gradual action, and gradual mode of progress (anupubbasikkhā, anupubbakiriyā, anupubbapaṭipadā), especially when there is an explantion of either four fine material absorptions or eight attainments and the practice of insight or three higher knowledges (tevijja) or six higher knowledges (chaḷabhiññā). The gradual path mainly consists of the practice of morality, moderation in eating, contentedness, restraint of the faculties (indriyasaṃvara), practice of the mindfulness and clear comprehension (sati- sampajañña) or the four foundations of mindfulness (satipaṭṭhānā), the practice of

152 Vibhaṅga 252,12: “mindfulness is established, well established, at the nose tip or the upper lip, therefore it is said: ‘having established mindfulness in front’”, sati upaṭṭhitā hoti supaṭṭhitā nāsikagge vā mukhanimitte vā, tena vuccati parimukhaṃ satiṃ upaṭṭhapetvā ti. – (Aanālayo. 2011: p.350).

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ānāpānassati and the abandonment of five hindrances followed by the practice of insight or higher knowledges. This pattern indicates the importance of the practice of the mindfulness and clear comprehension or the four foundations of mindfulness and the practice of ānāpānassati with respect to the insight practice. It is very peculiar that in this sequence of the gradual path, the practice of ānāpānassati (mentioned by the virtue of description or phrase), inevitably follows the abandonment of five hindrances. In this context it shows that the practice of ānāpānassati is also useful to abandon the hindrances. It might be possible that due to the specific use of this practice, instead of mentioning the term ānāpānassati it is mentioned by the virtue of the phrase. The Goenka-tradition appears to have adopted almost the similar pattern for the development of insight.

In the Mahāgosiṅgasutta when a question is put to the monks as: 'by what type of monk, would the Gosinga sal-wood be splendid? Ven. Anand, Revat, Anuruddha, Mahakassap, Mahamoggallan, and Sāriputta gave their opinion. Finally, Buddha praised every-one and gave his opinion as: 'a monk sits in cross-legged erect posture, and establishing mindfulness in front of him, resolves: ‘I shall not break this sitting posture until through not clinging my mind is liberated from the taints.’ That kind of monk could illuminate this Gosinga sal-wood.' - (M.I: p.219). Here, the practice of ānāpānassati is indicated. The strong determination (adhiṭṭhāna) and purification of mind are praised by the Buddha.

4.9.2 - Ānāpānasatisutta – the main features

i) Assemblage of the foremost disciples

Buddha expounded this discourse of Ānāpānasati of the Majjhimanikāya to the assembly of many well-known elder monks including more than ten foremost disciples, such as Venerable Sāriuptta, Moggallāna, Mahākassapa, and so on. This was a very rare and peculiar situation. - (M.III: p.79).

ii) Tradition of meditation practice

The foundation of the tradition of meditative practice is indicated here. Elder monks had been teaching and instructing the new monks, in groups of ten, twenty, thirty, or forty at a time. More intensive training is given to the new monks. Consequently, the new monks attained successive stages of high distinction. It shows the result-oriented nature of the paṭipatti dhamma.

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iii) Praise of the Saṅgha

Buddha is contented with the progress of the monks in the assembly and gives inspiration to them for further progress. The Assembly is very quiet, established in the pure essence of the teachings, and worthy of offerings and salutation. He praised the congregation for having many monks with either of the four fruits of stream entry, once returner, non-returner or arahatship.

iv) Various modes of progress

Buddaha enumerates the list of the modes of progress of these monks as: ‘the practice of the development of thirty-seven states belonging to enlightenment’, such as the four establishments of mindfulness, development of the four right efforts, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of the enlightenment. Buddha also mentions, the practice of the four divine states, along with the meditation on foulness, practice of the development of perception of impermanence, and practice of the development of mindfulness of breathing.

It is very clear from the above explanation that, the practice of four establishments of mindfulness and the practice of development of the mindfulness of breathing are two different modes of practices.

According to the commentary maximum number of monks have the object of ānāpāna (ānāpānakammaṭṭhāna), hence it is explained in detail here. - (Ps. IV: pp.139-140).

Out of the forty objects of meditation, we find only the mindfulness of breathing and the mindfulness of four foundations explained at great length in many discourses, directly or indirectly, by the Buddha himself. In suttas we rarely find the mention of other objects of meditation such as kasiṇa.

v) Fulfilment of the four foundations of mindfulness and seven factors of enlightenment

Development and cultivation of mindfulness of breathing gives great fruit and merit. Consequential evolution, development, and fulfilment of the four foundations of mindfulness and the seven factors of enlightenment (cattāro satipaṭṭhānā and satta bojjhangā) takes place due to the cultivation of mindfulness of breathing. This leads to the fulfilment of knowledge and deliverance (vijjāvimutti). From the discussion in the discourse it appears that the basic practice of meditation is the practice of the development of the mindfulness of breathing with four quadrates. Consequently, after much development of the mindfulness of breathing, the

294 mindfulness of four foundations is evolved and subsequently the seven factors of enlightenment are brought to fulfilment with each foundation of mindfulness. Through this, one achieves the total freedom through knowledge. - (M.III: pp.81-83).

vi) Pecularity in the process of the Ānāpānassati meditation

Then Buddha explains the process of meditative practice of the mindfulness of breathing in four quadrates. Each quadrate has four steps thus it has a total of sixteen steps. The sutta explains that after the development and cultivation of the mindfulness of breathing the four foundations of mindfulness are fulfilled. Here, process of the development of these four foundations of mindfulness is structured or synthesized in a different way than in the Satipaṭṭhanasutta. Especially in the second quadrate painful feeling is not mentioned. The third quadrate does not mention unconcentrated mind, malevolence, ignorance and other negative aspects of the mind. In this sutta with respect to the first three quadrates the development of the four foundations of mindfulness goes in accordance with the four fine material absorptions (jhānas). The last fourth quadrate explains purely the development of insight.

The four steps of the first quadrate culminate in the fulfilment of kāyānupassanā, wherein, one abides contemplating the body as body, ardent, mindful, keeping aside craving or aversion with respect to the five aggregates. The sutta reads: ‘I say that is a certain body among the bodies, namely, in-breathing and out-breathing. According to the commentary, ‘a certain body among the bodies means in-breath and out-breath. The body of air is one of the four bodies of earth, water heat, and air. Alternatively, the material body consists of twenty-five material elements such as forms sphere etc. among them since in-breath and out-breath is included in the sphere of touch, it is one of the bodies. - (Ps. IV: pp.140-141; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.945).

Goenka explains that when one experiences the whole body (sabbakāyapaṭisaṃvedi) one feels as if there is another body in the body. One observes subtle vibrations due to the practice of breathing. One experiences subtle vibrations in this gross body.

The four steps of the second quadrate culminate in the fulfilment of vedanānupassanā. These four steps are related to the rapture, pleasure, mental formation, and tranquilising the mental formation. The sutta further states: ‘I say that this is a certain feeling among the feelings, namely, giving close attention to in-breathing and out-breathing. The commentary explains that close attention (sādhuka manasikāra) is not itself actually feeling, but it is spoken of as such only figuratively. In the second quadrate the actual feeling is the pleasure mentioned in the

295 second clause and also the feeling comprised by the expression ‘mental formation’ in the third and fourth clauses. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.945, 1331).

Goenka explains it as the experience of undercurrent of subtle sensations through the gross painful sensations at a particular part of the body, during the practice.

The four steps in the third quadrate culminate in the cittānupassanā. The four steps are related to the mind, gladdening the mind, concentrating the mind, and liberating the mind. The sutta further explains as: ‘I do not say that there is the development of mindfulness of breathing for one who is forgetful, who is not fully aware (muṭṭhasatissa). The commentary says that ‘although the meditating bhikkhu takes as his object the sign of in-and-out breathing, he is said to be ‘contemplating mind as mind’ because he maintains his mind on the object by arousing mindfulness and full awareness, two factors of mind. – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.946,1331).

Goenka explains that, this sati-sampajañña is nothing but a quality of the mind. With this quality of the mind one observes different situations of mind such as agitation, calmness, tranquillity etc. In this way mind observes mind.

The four steps of the fourth quadrate culminate in the Dhammānupassanā. These four steps are related to the impermanence, fading away, cessation, and relinquishment. The fourth quadrate concludes as: ‘Having seen with wisdom the abandoning of covetousness and grief, he closely looks on with equanimity. According to the commentary: ‘Covetousness and grief signify the first two hindrances, sensual desire and ill will, and thus represent the contemplation of mind- objects, which begins with the five hindrances. The bhikkhu sees the abandoning of the hindrances effected by the contemplations of impermanence, fading away, cessation, and relinquishment, and thus comes to look upon the object with equanimity. – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.946,1331).

Goenka explains that, dhamma means nature, the characteristic. The characteristic of mind and matter, the area of entire sensorium or mundane field is arising and passing away. This is the area of formations (saṅkhārā) and all formations are impermanence and suffering. When one talks about dhamma then it is said that all states (dhammā) are non-self. The characteristic of supramundane field i.e. cessation (nirodha), nibbāna is eternal, permanent (nicca), excellent happiness (perama sukha), but it is also non-self. This non-self (anattā) has to be experienced by experiencing the cessation (nirodha). In this way a practitioner understands that all states mundane and supra-mundane, including nibbāna, are egoless, and with this understanding one dwells contemplating the mental contents in mental contents.

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According to the commentary, ‘the mindfulness that comprehends breathing is mundane; the mundane mindfulness of breathing perfects the mundane foundations of mindfulness; the mundane foundations of mindfulness perfect the supramundane enlightenment factors; and the supramundane enlightenment factors perfect (or fulfil) true knowledge and deliverance, i.e., the fruit and Nibbāna.’ – (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.1331,1332).

4.9.3 - Emphasis on the Ānāpānassati in the Saṃyuttanikāya and Aṅguttaranikāya etc

The Padīpopamasutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya states: ‘I too, monks, before my enlightenment, while I was Bodhisatta, not yet fully enlightened, generally dwelt in this dwelling of ‘ānāpānassatibhāvanā. While I generally dwelt in this dwelling, neither my body nor my eyes became fatigued (kilamati), and my mind, by not clinging, was released from the intoxicants. - (S.V: pp.317-320). The commentary says: “In some other meditation subjects (kammaṭhānesu), the body becomes fatigued and the eyes are strained. It mentions particularly about kasina-kammāṭṭhane, eyes throb and become fatigued and so on. But with the practice of ānāpāna that does not happen. - (Spk.III: pp.264-265). Concluding part of the sutta explains the practice of meditation as: “When, monks, the concentration by mindfulness of in-breath and out-breath has been developed and cultivated in this way, if he experiences a pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘It is impermanent’; he understands: ‘It is not held to’; he understands: ‘It is not delighted in.’ If he experiences a painful feeling and neutral feeling, he understands it the same way. If he experiences a pleasant or painful or neutral feeling, he experiences it in a detached way.

The Vesālīsutta describes the benefits of the ānāpānassatisamādhi: ‘This concentration by mindfulness of in-breath and out-breath, when developed and cultivated, is peaceful and sublime, an ambrosial pleasant dwelling, and it causes evil unwholesome states to disappear whenever they arise and relieves on the spot’. - (S.V: pp.321-322).

The Paṭhamaphalasutta and the Mahākappinasutta explain that: ‘When, monks, ānāpānassati has been developed and cultivated in this way, one of the two fruits may be expected: either final knowledge in this very life i.e. Arahantaship or if there is a residue of clinging, the state of non-returning.’ This assurance is the same as the onegiven at the end of the Satipaṭṭhāna- sutta. The sutta further states that, ‘when ānāpānassatisamādhi has been developed and cultivated that no shaking or agitation occurs in body and mind.’ - (S.V: pp.313-316).

The Icchānaṅgalasuta reads: ‘Monks, if the wanderers of other sects should thus question you: ‘Friends, in what dwelling did Gotama, the recluse, frequently dwell in the rainy season?’ -

297 you should reply to them: ‘Friends, in the rainy season, the Blessed One frequently dwelt in the concentration by mindfulness of in-breath and out-breath’. Further it explains that: ‘It is a noble dwelling, the divine (brahma) dwelling, the Tathagata’s dwelling,’ it is of concentration by mindfulness of in-breath and out-breath.’ Those monks who are Learners, who have not attained the intended goal, who dwell aspiring for the excellent security from bondage: for them concentration by mindfulness of in-breath and out-breath, when developed and made much of, leads to the destruction of taints. Monks, for those monks who are Arahants, concentration by mindfulness of in-breath and out-breath, when developed and made much of, leads to pleasant dwelling in this very life and to mindfulness and clear comprehension.’ - (S.V: pp.326-329).

The Aṅguttaranikāya explains the importance of the practice of ānāpānassati as: ‘Monks, possessing five things, a monk pursuing mindfulness of breathing in no long time penetrates to the unshakable. Here, a monk has few undertakings, few tasks, is easy to support and is easily contented with the requisites of life. He is moderate in eating. He is seldom drowsy and is intent on vigilance (associated with practising awareness), well read or learned in dhamma. He reviews the extent to which his mind is liberated.’ - (A.III: pp.120-121; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2012: p.724).

The Aṅguttaranikāya mentions that for abandoning the mental distraction (cetaso vikkhepa), mindfulness of breathing (ānāpānassati) is to be developed. - (A.III: p.449).

Recitation of the following ten perceptions in front of the diseased person in all probability helps to cure him immediately. Those are the perceptions of impermanence, non-self, foulness, danger, abandoning, dispassion, cessation, non-delight in all the world, disliking in all the compounded things, mindfulness of breathing. Here, the sixteen-step ānāpānassati is mentioned. - (A.V: pp.109-112). It is very peculiar that ānāpānassati is included in the group of ten perceptions. Since all meditative practices mainly deal with perception, so it might have been included in it.

Inspite of such emphasis, some traditions believe that, ‘Even though ānāpānabhāvanā can take the Yogi upto the fourth rūpa jhāna, this jhāna is not good enough for the Yogi to move up to the arūpa jhānās. Therefore, the Yogi must not use ānāpāna bhāvanā, if he plans to move up to the four arupa jhanas’.153

153 Comments by U Nu. (Burma Piṭaka Association.Rangoon.1987: p.543).

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4.9.4 - Ānāpānassati and Kāyagatāsati

The (discourse relating to the body) Kāyagatāsatisutta in the beginning explains the practice of ānāpānassati. At the end of each of the four steps of ānāpāna, and four fine material absorptions, it states: ‘As one dwells thus, vigilant, ardent, resolute, his memories and intentions based on the household life (gehasitā sarasaṅkappā) are abandoned; with their abandoning, his mind settles internally, becomes quiet, one-pointed, and concentrated. That is how a monk develops mindfulness of the body.’ - (M.III: p.89). The sutta further explais that, one who develops and cultivates the mindfulness of body is out of the reach of Māra. The ten great advantages of this practice are mentioned. Some of the advantages are: “One attains at will, without any difficulty, the four fine material absorptions that constitute the higher mind and provide a pleasant dwelling here and now. By realising for oneself with direct knowledge, one here and now enters upon and dwells in the release of mind and release by wisdom that are taintless with the destruction of the taints. - (M.III: pp.96-98).

The Goenka-tradition gives importance to the practice of awareness of body (Kāyagatāsati). If we see all six groups of Kāyānupassanā from the Satipaṭṭhānasutta or the Kāyagatāsatisutta these groups cover and explain all aspects of the material form (rūpa) with respect to the mind or consciousness. i) Ānāpānapabba – Breath, is the most fundamental, essential, and necessary condition of living beings. It is a bridge between mind and matter. This group deals with body of the breath and the function of matter and mind. ii) Iriyāpatha and Sampajaññapabba are related mainly with processes or physiological aspects of the body, mind and mental objects of a being. iii) Paṭikulamanasikāra-pabba is the analysis of the body in to thirty-two elements. iv) Dhātumanasikāra-pabba is the classification of matter – (rūpa), in to four basic elements. It helps in developing the insight knowledge as nāma-rūpa pariccheda. v) Navasivathika- pabba describes the result of the matter after separation from mind or viññāṇa. In Goenka- tradtion all six groups are accommodated in the practice of meditation in one or the other way.

In the Goenka-tradition at the initial stage, the mindfulness of breathing is practiced for the development of concentration and the purification of mind as well. It is not expected that the entire thought process be stopped before one can begin the practice of insight. Thoughts remain, but gradually the pattern of thinking changes. The defilements at the surface level of the mind start eradicating because of the mindfulness of breathing. Instead of thoughts of craving, aversion, and delusion, one begins to have healthy thoughts, thoughts about Dhamma, the way to liberate oneself and so on.

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4.10 - Bodhipakkhiya dhammā

We have discussed so far in detail some of the states belonging to enlightenment namely, the four establishments of mindfulness and the Noble Eightfold Path.

In the long course discourses Goenka discusses all thirty-seven states belonging to enlightenment in brief. However, he does not give much emphasis in general on the theoretical explanation of all these states. In this section some of the remaining states belonging to enlightenment are explained in brief. All Nikāyas mention the thirty-seven states belonging to enlightenment.

Buddha’s suggestion in regard to the Bodhipakkhiya dhammā in the Dīghanikāya is that: ‘These are the states, which when I had understood well, had made known to you. When you assemble, you are to chant it together, without dispute, with correct meaning and phrase, so that this pure way of life may last long, and for the benefit and happiness of many.’ - (D.III: pp.126-127).

The Mahavagga of the Saṃyuttanikāya, discusses mainly the thirty-seven states belonging to enlightenment.

In the Majjhimanikāya it is mentioned that the fruition states of arahanta etc are possible by means of the mode of progress of thirty-seven states belonging to the enlightment - (M.II: p.11). Similarly, the Aṅguttaranikāya explains that all thirty-seven states belonging to enlightenment are the middle path (majjhimā paṭipadā). - (A.I: pp.296-297).

4.10.1 - Indriya

The five faculties of faith, effort etc. play an important role in the development of the serenity and insight ie the Noble Eightfold Path. There are twenty-two indriyas which fall into five distinct groups but here we are discussing a group of spiritual faculties namely faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. All these faculties are called indriyas in the sense that they exercise dominion in a particular sphere of activity or experience.

The five faculties as well as the five powers draw upon the same selection of spiritual qualities, and this raises the question of their relationship. It may seem that the faculties represent these five qualities at an earlier phase, and the powers at a later, more advanced phase. The Buddha declares the two sets to be identical, with the designations “faculties” and “powers” being used simply to highlight different aspects of the same set of qualities; they are like the two streams

300 of the same river flowing around a midstream island. The commentary explains that the five factors become faculties when considered as exercising control in their respective domains, and powers when considered as unshaken by their opposites. - (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.1509- 1511).

The Importance, location, and function of the faculites

Regarding the relation of five faculties and the Deathless, the Indriyasaṃyutta states: ‘The Blessed One was dwelling at Uruvella, just after his attainment of full enlightenment. In his solitary meditation, there arose a thought in his mind thus: ‘The five faculties, when developed and made much of, have the Deathless as their ground, the Deathless as their destination, the Deathless their final goal.’ These are the faculty of faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. The Sahaṃpatibrahma gave the reference of the Kassapa, the fully enlightened one, who said the same thing. - (S.V: p.232).

With respect to the proper understanding of the five faculties and fruition states the Indriyasaṃyutta further explains that: ‘When, monks, a noble disciple understands as they really are, the arising, the passing away, the gratification, the danger and the escape in the case of these five faculties, such as faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom; then that noble disciple is called a stream-enterer, not a bad falling, assured, destined to enlightenment.’ ‘When, monks, having understood as they really are the arising and the passing, the gratification, the danger and the escape in the case of these five faculties, a bhikkhu is liberated by nonclinging, then he is called a bhikkhu who is an Arahant, one whose taints are destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached his own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, one completely liberated through final knowledge. - (S.V: pp.163-195).

The Mahāmāluṅkyasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains the dialogue between Venerable Māluṅkyaputta and the Blessed One and Venerable Ananad regarding the abandonment of the five lower fetters. At the conclusion in the discourse Venerable Anand asks: ‘Venerable Sir, if this is the path, the way to the abandoning of lower fetters, then how is it that some bhikkhus here [are said to] gain deliverance of mind and some [are said to] gain deliverance by wisdom?’ ‘The difference here, Ananda, is in their faculties, I say.’ The commentary says: Among those who proceed by way of serenity, one bhikkhu emphasises unification of mind – he is said to gain deliverance of mind; another emphasises wisdom – he is said to gain deliverance by wisdom. Among those who proceed by way of insight, one emphasises wisdom – he is said to

301 gain deliverance by wisdom; another emphasises unification of mind – he is said to gain deliverance of mind. The two chief disciples attained arahantship by emphasising both serenity and insight, but Ven. Sariputta became one who gained deliverance by wisdom and Ven. Mahamoggallana became one who gained deliverance of mind. Thus, the reason (for the different designations) is the difference in their faculties, i.e. between the predominance of the concnentration faculty and of the wisdom faculty. – (M.I: p.437; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.541, 1268-9).

The Dutiyasamaṇabrāhmaṇasutta of the Indriyasaṃyutta presents all the five faculties in the format of the Four Noble Truths. The Daṭṭhabbasutta explains where we can locate these faculites in the teachings as follows: ‘Where is the faculty of faith to be seen? It is to be seen here in the four factors of stream-entry. (These four factors are faith in the Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha, and intact noble virtues. The first three are included in the faculty of faith). The faculty of effort is to be ssen in the four right efforts. The faculty of mindfulness is to be seen in the four establishments of mindfulness. The faculty of concentration is to be seen in the four fine material absorptions. The faculty of wisdom is to be seen in the Four Noble truths. – (S.V: pp.196-197).

The Indriyasaṃyutta further explains how these five faculites function with respect to the teachings: ‘‘The noble disciple is a person of faith, one who places faith in the enlightenment of the Tathāgata thus: ‘The Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One.’ ‘The noble disciple dwells with energy aroused for the abandoning of unwholesome states and the acquisition of wholesome states; he is strong, firm in exertion, not shirking the responsibility of cultivating wholesome states. This is called the faculty of energy.’ ‘The noble disciple is mindful, possessing supreme mindfulness and discretion, one who remembers and recollects what was done and said long ago. This is called the faculty of mindfulness. It also includes practice of the four establishments of mindfulness.’ ‘The noble disciple gains concentration, gains one-pointedness of mind, having made release (vosagga) the object. This is called the faculty of concentration. It also includes the four fine material absorptions.’ ‘The noble disciple is wise; he possesses wisdom directed to arising and passing away, which is noble and penetrative, leading to the complete destruction of suffering’. This is called the faculty of wisdom. It also includes the Four Noble Truths. - (S.V: pp.197-200).

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Samatta and padesa aspect

The Indriyasaṃyutta explains: ‘By the completion (samattā) and fulfilment (paripūrattā) of five faculties, one is Arahanta. By having them in a lesser degree, one is a non-returner and likewise once-returner, stream-enterer, dhamma follower, and faith follower with respect to less and lesser degree of faculties. In this way, due to a difference in the faculties there is a difference in the fruits; due to a difference in the fruits there is a difference among persons. Thus, who activates them fully succeeds fully; one who activates them partly (padesaṃ) succeeds partly. The five faculties are not barren (avañjhāni), so I say. - (S.V: pp.201-202). According to the commentary and sub-commentary, he who fulfils the Arahant’s path, gets fruits of Arahantship. Others get fruits according to the path they fulfil i.e. non-returner, once- returner, and stream-enterer.154 - (Spk.III: p.236; Spk-ṭ. II.ii: p.193).

The Uppaṭipāṭikasutta of the Indriyasaṃyutta explains the successive cessation of each of the five faculties of pain, displeasure etc along with the development of the four fine material absorptions and the cessation of the perception and feeling. ‘A monk is dwelling diligent, ardent and resolute, there arises in him the pain faculty. He thus understands: There has arisen in me the pain faculty. That has a basis, a source, a causal formation, a condition. That the faculty of pain should arise without this basis, source, causal formation, condition is not possible. Thus, he understands the pain faculty; its arising, its cessation, and he understands where the arisen pain faculty ceases without remainder. Where it ceases? It ceases with the attainment of the first absorption. A monk who has understood the cessation of the pain faculty. He directs his mind accordingly. Similarly, the displeasure faculty ceases with the attainment of the second absorption. The pleasure faculty ceases with the attainment of the third absorption. The joy faculty ceases with the fourth absorption and the equanimity faculty ceases with the attainment of the ‘cessation of perception and feeling’. - (S.V: pp.213-216).

The two faculties of arahanta are explained in the Dutiyapubbārāmasutta as: ‘It is, monks, because he has developed and cultivated two faculties that a monk who has destroyed the taints declares final knowledge thus. What two? Noble wisdom and noble liberation (ariyāya ca paññāya, ariyāya ca vimuttiyā). For his noble wisdom is his faculty of wisdom; his noble liberation is his faculty of concentration.155 - (S.V: pp.222-224).

154 Paripuraṃ paripurakāri ārādheti, padesaṃ padesakāri’ti; ‘padesa’ is heṭṭhimaphalatayam. - (Spk-ṭ. II.ii: p.193). 155 Yā hissa, bhikkhave, ariyā paññā tadassa paññindriyaṃ. Yā hissa, bhikkhave, ariyā vimutti tadassa samādhindriya. – (S.V: pp.223-224).

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The Sālasutta explains the importance of the wisdom faculty as: ‘In the case of a noble disciple who possesses wisdom, the faith that follows from it becomes stable; the energy that follows from it becomes stable; the mindfulness that follows from it becomes stable; the concentration that follows from it becomes stable. - (S.V: pp.227-231, 222-223). Wisdom is said to be the faculty that stabilizes the other four faculties, making them faculties in the proper sense. Among the states belonging to the thirty-seven factors of awakwening the faculty of wisdom is declared to be their chief, that is, for the attainment of enlightment.

The Goenka-tradition gives importance to all these five faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom in the practice. While explaining how to put these into practice Goenka compares these faculties with the five friends which help in abandoning the five enemies or hindrances of craving, aversion, mental and physical laziness, agitation and remorse, and doubt. In the discourses of the long course he elaborates on the faculties and strengths in detail. Since, out of these five faculties except the faculty of faith the remaining four are also part of seven factors of enlightenment, they can be treated as an antidote for the five hindrances.

Goenka emphasizes that these faculties should remain pure in order to get good results. The purity of faith is that it should be without any expectation in returen then it gives fruits. The awareness or mindfulness should be with sensation then it gives result, mere awareness is of no use. It would not lead one to the final goal of liberation. Concentration alone is not the proper translation of the word Samādhi, but the concentration should be with the base of purity ie without any craving or aversion or ignorance (kusala cittassa ekagattā) then it is samādhi. The bhāvanāmayā paññā is real wisdom since it is experienced here and now at the actual level. Therefore, heard and intellectual wisdom (sutamya and cintāmaya) are pure only when there is experiential wisdom (bhāvanāmaya) with it. All these five faculties should be pure, with proper understanding and wisdom then they lead one to the final goal of liberation.

With respect to the abandonment of hindrances by these five faculties, we do have similar discussion in the Saṃyuttanikāya and in the Indriyakathā of the Paṭisambhidāmagga. The Indriyasaṃutta states that the development of these five faculties leads to the abandonment of the fetters, uprooting of the latent tendencies, destruction of the taints etc. – (S.V: p.236). The preliminary nature of these fetters or latent tendencies etc is similar to the five hindrances. The enumeration of these fetters etc includes most of these hindrances.

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The five hindrances are the main obstacles to the development of concentration and insight. The Bojjhaṅgasaṃyutta elaborates on the relation of unwise attention (ayonisomanasikāra) for the growth of the five hindrances and the relation of wise attention for the abandonment of them and the growth of the seven factors of enlightenment. – (S.V: pp.85-86). Since the five faculties can be called as wise attention certainly they are helpful for the abandonment of the five hindrances.

The Saṃyuttanikāya discusses the nutriment or conditins for the existance and growth of the five hindrances. The sensual desire (kāmacchanda) arises due to unwise attention (ayonisomanasikāra) to a sensually attractive object or a sign of beauty (subhanimitta) and is abandoned by the meditative practice of a foul object. Similarly, ill will arises due to unwise attention to a repugnant object or a sign of repulsion (paṭighanimitta) and is abandoned by the meditative practice of loving kindness. Sloth and torpor arise by submitting to laziness and are abandoned by effort or energy (viriya). Restlessness and remorse arise due to unwise attention to disturbing thoughts and are abandoned by concentration or tranquillity (samādhi). Doubt arises due to unwise attention on dubious matters and is abandoned by the wisdom or investigation and inquiry (paññā). The hindrances are fully eradicated only by the supramundane paths. (S.V: pp.64-65; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.1194).

4.10.2 - Different aspects of Bala

The Aṅguttaranikāya explains two kinds of strengths (bala), one as strength of discrimination or reflection (paṭisankhānabala); and the other as strength of development [by means of meditation] (bhāvanābala).

Paṭisankhānabala is explained in the following manner – One reflects (paṭisancikkhati) or discriminates thus: ‘Bodily, verbal and mental misconduct has a bad result, here and now, as well as here after. Hence one develops good actions of body, speech, and mind, in order to abandon all the evil actions to live a pure life.

Bhāvanābala is explained in three ways. a) This is the strength of trainees (Sekkha). The trainee, practitioner, abandons the lust, anger, and delusion with the help of this strength of development and keeps away the demeritorious, evil actions.

305 b) The strength of development is explained as the development of bojjhaṅga - the seven factors of enlightenment. c) It is also explained as the development of the four fine material absorptions. - (A.I: p.53-54). The commentary explains paṭisaṅkhānabala as paccavekkhaṇabala - strength of consideration, reviewing; and bhāvanābala as the strength of bruhana, vaḍḍhana - increase, growth - (Mp. II: pp.98-99).

In the long course Goenka explains that when one develops five faculites by developing the path consequently these five faculties become the five strengths.

4.10.3 - Bojjhaṅga

During the Satipaṭṭhāna course and the long course discourses Goenka explains the role and importance of the seven factors of enlightenment from the practice point of view. He also recites the Bojjhaṅgasutta during the morning chanting of the ten-day course. Let us discuss here the practice aspect of these seven factors of enlightenment as explained in the earlier literature.

The seven factors of enlightenment (bojjhaṅga) are factors that lead to enlightenment. They initially emerge in sequence, with each serving as the condition for the next. - (S.V: pp.67-71). They are the constellation of mental factors that function as causes and conditions for arriving at enlightenement, the liberating knowledge and vision. The commentary gives twofold definition of the factors of enlightenment: ‘Enlightenment factors are factors of enlightenment or (factors) of the one being enlightened (bodhiyā bodhissa vā aṅgā ti bojjhaṅgā). What is mean? It is through the assemblage of states consisting in mindfulness, discrimination of states, energy, rapture, tranquillity, concentration, and equanimity, arisen at the moment of the mundane and supramundane paths (lokiyalokuttaramaggakkhaṇe) …. that the noble disciple is enlightened; therefore (that assemblage of states) is called enlightenment. ‘He is enlightened’ means that he rises up from the sleep of the continuum of defilements; what is meant is that he penetrates the Four Noble Truths or realizes Nibbāna. The enlightenment factors are the factors of the enlightenment consisting in that assemblage of states. Also, the noble disciple who becomes enlightened through the aforesaid assemblage of states is called ‘one being enlightened’ (bodhi). The factors of the one being enlightened are enlightenment factors.’ (Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2000: pp.1898-1899).

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The Saṃyuttanikāya explains that, for a monk, the forerunner and precursor of the arising of the seven factors of enlightenment is, good friendship. When a monk has a good friend, it is to be expected that he will develop and cultivate the seven factors of enlightenment. - (S.V:78- 80, 90, 101). Based upon virtue, established upon virtue, a monk develops and cultivates the seven factors of enlightenment, and there by he achieves greatness and expansiveness in wholesome states.156 - (S.V: pp.63-64).

In the nikāyas bojjhanga is depicted also as the medicine for the treatment in sickness. One such example is the Gilānavaggo of the Bojjhaṅgasaṃyutta which states that: After listening to the seven factors of enlightenment Ven. Mahākassapa, Ven. Mahāmoggallāna, and Tathāgata himself, were cured of sickness. - (S.V: pp.80-82).

Nature of states and it’s relevance in the meditative practice

The Ṭhāniyasutta of the Udāyivaggo explains the specific nature of states. This is the principle behind the cultivation, development process of mind. When one keeps in mind (manasikāra) or gives attention, again and again, to the particular state, then unarisen states arise and arisen states grow further. It is true in case of the hindrances and seven factors of enlightenment as well. By making use of this nature all the seven factors are developed and fulfilled.

With improper consideration, unarisen hindrances arise and arisen hindrances grow; but the unarisen seven factors of enlightenment do not arise and arisen factors cease. With proper consideration unarisen hindrances do not arise and arisen cease; but the unarisen seven factors of enlightenment arise and arisen develops and fulfils. - (S.V: pp.83-85). In this context one can appreciate the importance and relevance of continuity of the meditative practice.

Hence, the Saṃyuttanikāya explains that, the five hindrances are makers of blindness, causing lack of vision, causing lack of knowledge, detrimental to wisdom, tending to vexation, leading away from nibbāna. Whereas the seven factors of enlightenment are makers of vision, makers of knowledge, promoting the growth of wisdom, free from vexation, leading towards nibbāna. - (S.V: p.97). It further states that, ‘Whatsoever states are wholesome, connected with wholesome, pertaining to the wholesome, all of them are rooted in diligence and proper consideration, come together in vigilance and proper consideration; the vigilance and proper consideration are declared to be the chief among them. When a monk, is vigilant/with proper

156 Sīlaṃ nissāya sīle patiṭṭhāya satta bojjhaṅge bhāvento satta bojjhaṅge bahulikaronto mahantattaṃ vepullattaṃ pāpuṇāti dhammesu. – (S.V: pp.63-64).

307 consideration, we may expect that he will develop and will make much of, the seven factors of enlightenment.’ - (S.V: pp.135, 138). - ‘Whatever states are meritorious, all of them are rooted in vigilance, come together in vigilance; vigilance is the top-most of the states. Of the monk who is vigilant, we may expect that he will develop and make much of, the seven factors of enlightenment. - (S.V:91-92).

The Imporatance of proper listening to the teaching

The Saṃyuttanikāya explains that, ‘A noble disciple listens to the teaching (dhamma) with much attention, applying mind, directing his whole mind to it, at that time five hindrances are not present in him; and at that time seven factors of enlightenment go to fulfilment by development. - (S.V: pp.95-96).

The importance and advantages of seeing, listening and following the noble-ones who are accomplished in virtue, concentration, wisdom and so on is explained in the Sīlasutta, with respect to the seven factors of enlightenment. While explaining concentration and equanimity as the factors of enlightenment the sutta states: ‘He closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated. Whenever, monks, a monk closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of equanimity is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of equanimity; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of equanimity comes to fulfilment by development in the monk. (so tathāsamāhitaṃ cittaṃ sādhukaṃ ajjhupekkhitā hoti). - (S.V: pp.68-70). (The description is very similar to the Ānāpānassatisutta of M.III: pp.86-87).

Practice aspects associated with the development of seven factors of enlightenment

The Saṃyuttanikāya explains various practice aspects associated with the development of seven factors of enlightenment. The practice of perception of a skeleton (aṭṭhikasaññā), associated with the development of seven factors of enlightenment is of great advantage, bears fruit, is conducive to great welfare. Similarly, the practice of ‘four sublime states’ associated with the development of seven factors of enlightenment is of great advantage and bears fruit. The practice of ānāpānasati associated with the development of the seven factors of enlightenment bears fruit. - (S.V: pp.129-132). Great advantages and fruit is borne after developing ‘the perception of foulness, death, impermanence, suffering, non-self and so on, with the development of the seven factors of enlightenment. - (S.V:132-134).

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The development of seven factors of enlightenment and it’s relation with Serenity and Insight

Serenity and insight are developed by default with the development of the Noble Eightfold Path and the seven factors of enlightenment. This is explained in the the Maggasaṃyutta and the Bojjhaṅgasaṃyutta as: When, a monk develops and cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path or seven factors of enlightenment, one develops serenity, insight, and so on. The suttas state: “When a monk develops and cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path/the seven factors of enlightenment, he fully understands (pariññeyya) by direct knowledge (abhiñña) those things that are to be fully understood by direct knowledge; he abandons by direct knowledge those things that are to be abandoned by direct knowledge; he realizes by direct knowledge those things that are to be realized by direct knowledge; he develops by direct knowledge those things that are to be developed by direct knowledge. The five aggregates subject to clinging are to be fully understood by direct knowledge. Ignorance and craving for existence are the things to be abandoned by direct knowledge. True knowledge and liberation are the things to be realized by direct knowledge. Serenity and insight are the things to be developed by direct knowledge. - (S.V:51-52, 136). The suttas further explain that, the purpose of the Noble Eightfold Path/seven factors of enlightenment is to abandon the becoming, intoxicants, suffering, feelings, impurities, desire, flood, grasping, dormant formations, sensual pleasures, hindrances fetters and so on. - (S.V: pp.55-56).

4.11 - Brahmavihāra - four divine states

Though, the Goenka-tradition for the practical purpose encourages the practice of loving kindness at the end of the ten-day course, here we will discuss in brief the importance of the four divine states in the teachings of the Buddha.

Relation of the Concentration and four divine states

When one develops the four divine states it is conducive to the concentration and vice versa. The Cūḷa-assapurasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains this relation in the following manner: ‘He sees himself purified of all these evil unwholesome states, he sees himself liberated from them. When one sees this, gladness is born in him. When he is glad, rapture is born in him; in one who is rapturous, the body becomes tranquil; one whose body is tranquil feels pleasure; in one who feels pleasure, the mind becomes concentrated. Then he dwells with loving kindness, compassionate love, sympathetic joy and equanimity. By development of these, he calms down

309 internally, and attains the state of freedom of mind, the freedom by wisdom. - (M.I: pp.282- 284; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: p.374).

The restraint of senses, practice of ānāpānassati, abandoning the five hindrances, and the practice of four sublime states as loving kindness are explained in the Udumbarikasutta of the Dīghanikāya. - (D.III: pp.48-50).

The Subhasutta of the Majjhimanikāya mentions that the brahmins prescribe five things for the performance of merit, for accomplishing the wholesome (puññassa kiriyāya, kusalassa ārādhanāya). These are: speaking truth, practising ascetiscism, observing celibacy, engaging in study, and generosity (saccavādi, tapassī, brahmacārī, sajjhāyabahulo, cāgabahulo). The Buddha proves that these five things are often seen among those gone forth rather than among householders. According to the Buddha those five things are equipment of mind, that is, for developing a mind that is with kindness and without ill-will. The Buddha mentions that the motive of compassion (anukampājātika) is the brahmins’ sixth basis for the performance of merit (chaṭṭhaṃ puññakiriyavatthu), ie brahmins give gifts motivated by compassion. The Blessed One explains necessity of abandoning the five hindrances, and the danger of sense pleasure. The first two fine material absorptions are explained in order to suggest the rapture and pleasure born of concentration, apart form sensual pleasure, apart from unwholesome states.

After being requested by a brahmin The Buddha declares that: ‘I understand Brahmā, and I understand the Brahma-world, and I understand the way leading to the Brahama-world, and I understand how one should practice to reappear in the Brahma-world’.157 Then, the Buddha explains the path leading to the companionship of the Gods of the Brahmā world (brahmānaṃ sahabyatāya maggaṃ): ‘Here a bhikkhu abides pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the fourth; so above, below, around, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he abides pervading the all-encompassing world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted, immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will. When the deliverance of mind by loving-kindness is developed in this way, no limiting action remains there, none persists there. Just as a vigorous trumpeter could make himself heard without difficulty in the four quarters, so too, when the deliverance of mind by loving-kindness is developed in this way, no limiting action remains there, none

157This knowledge pertains to the third of the Tathāgata’s powers, knowing the ways to all destinations. - (2009. Bodhi Bhikkhu. 1303).

310 persists there. This is the path to the company of Brahmā.’ Similar explanation is given with regard to compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. ‘The commentary explains limiting action (pamāṇakataṃ kammaṃ) as kamma pertaining to the sense sphere (kāmāvacara). It is contrasted with a limitless or immeasurable action, namely, the jhānas pertaining to the fine- material sphere or the immaterial sphere. In this case the brahmavihāras developed to the jhānika level are intended. When a jhāna pertaining to the fine-material sphere or the immaterial sphere is attained and mastered, a kamma pertaining to the sense sphere cannot overpower it and gain the opportunity to yield its own result. Rather, the kamma pertaining to the fine-material sphere or the immaterial sphere overpowers the sense-sphere kammas and produces its results. Obstructing the result of the sense-sphere kammas, the brahmavihāra that has been mastered leads to rebirth in the company of Brahmā.’ - (M.II: pp.203-209; Bodhi Bhikkhu. 2009: pp.814-816, 1304).

The Dhanañjānisutta of the Majjhimanikāya mentions the strong painful feeling, which increases but does not decrease. Hence, the practice of the four divine dwellings such as loving kindness, compassionate love, sympathetic joy and equanimity are suggested. - (M.II:192- 195).

Anālayo opines that: ‘Neither absoprptions nor the brahmavihāras appear to have been considered in early Buddhist thought as in and of themselves productive of liberating insight. … Just as the absorptions, so too the brahmavihāras seem to have been considered pre-Buddhist practices by the early generations of the Buddha’s followers, at least as far as the early discourses allow us to judge. – (Anālayo. 2017: p.201).

Practice of the Bramhavihāras and the role of the Sati-sampajañña

The Aṅguttaranikāya advises abandoning the three states of lust, hatred, and delusion, the three states that are to be developed are foulness, loving kindness, and wisdom respectively. - (A.III: p.446). The commentary says: Asubha kammaṭṭhānaṃ - foulness-object; metta kammaṭṭhānam - loving kindness object, and paññā - sahavipassanā maggapaññā.’ - (Mp.III: p.415). It appears that to abandon anger, the loving kindness object is to be developed. Goenka also recommends it during the long courses.

The Aṅguttaranikāya explains the importance of mindfulness and clear comprehension along with the four divine abodes. The noble disciple freed from greed, hatred, and ignorance, who is mindful and with clear comprehension (sati-sampajāna), dwells in all the four sublime states

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(brahmavihāra) with loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity158, and understands the higher stages where final release is possible. - (A.I:192, 196).

This explanation is in congruence with the Goenka-tradition. Goenka explains that when one practices insight meditation his mind gets purified little by little and after that one should practice metta. Then it will be spontaneous metta which springs from the depth of mind. If one practices metta before hand it may not have that quality, and one practices it at the superficial level of mind. Therefore, in this traditon in the initial days, metta is to be practiced after the practice of purification of mind ie insight.

Summary -

To conclude this chapter let us summarise the key points discussed above. The first point is to understand the concept of purity in the light of discourses from the four Nikāyas. The path of purification, and the process of purification is explained in the Suttapiṭaka. The Sāmaññaphalasutta of the Dīghanikāya explains the teachings of the Buddha as complete and pure (parisuddha).159 The Rathavinītasutta of the Majjhimanikāya explains the purification of the seven stages (visuddhi), which are an integral part of the holy-life. These stages are progressive, and gradually lead one to the final goal of liberation. The Satipaṭṭhānasutta in the Majjhimanikāya, Dīghanikāya, and the Saṃyuttanikāya describe the practice of satipaṭṭhana as the path for purification of beings (sattānaṃ visuddhiyā). The commentary of the Satipaṭṭhānasutta explains that ‘seven words or phrases are used in sequence by the Buddha to describe qualities of the uniform path (ekāyano maggo). This path kills four dangers or distress in sorrow, lamentation, pain and dejection, and brings three distinctions in purification, method, and nibbāna.’ These are explained in order to generate zeal and energy in the minds of monks. – (Ps. I:236-238). The verses in the Dhammapada read: The Eightfold Noble Path is excellent among the paths, and this is the only path. There is none other for purity of vision.160 The commetary of the Sāmaññaphalasutta explains the purity of the teaching as ‘the purity of intention of the teacher who teaches for the welfare of people, and not for any personal gain or fame’. The commentary of the Rathavinītasutta on the other hand speaks of the purity of the

158 Ariyasāvako evaṃ vigatābhijjho vigatbyāpādo asammūḷho sampajāno patissato mettāsahagatena cetasā ekaṃ disaṃ pharitvā viharati … - (A.I: pp.192, 196). 159 So dhammaṃ deseti ādikalyāṇaṃ majjhe kalyāṇaṃ pariyosānakalyāṇaṃ sātthaṃ sabyañjanaṃ, kevalparipuṇṇaṃ parisuddhaṃ brahmacariyaṃ pakāseti. – (D.I: p.62). 160 Maggānaṭṭhaṅgiko seṭṭho … eseva maggo natthañño, dassanassa visuddhiā. – (Dhammapada. 273, 274).

312 path in terms of overcoming the defilements which spoil the path and lead the traveller astray. This notion of purity is reflected in Goenka’s claim for purity of his tradition, and the method of practice. Based on the Satipaṭṭhānasutta or the above-mentioned verse of the Dhammapada, purity can be said to be the purity from the moral impurities, the mental defilements, hindrances, obstacles etc. Mental impurities overshadow the reality, the truth. They strengthen darkness of ignorance which is the mechanical habit pattern that becomes the condition for generating saṃkhārās. This is the source of misery.

In the absence of living meditation traditions, it would have been difficult to translate or interprete the teachings of the Buddha. Similarly, without the comprehensive knowledge of the suttas, it would not have been possible to appreciate the working of a living tradition. Thus, a living meditation practice, and scriptural-tradition are mutually related. A living tradition draws its’ support from the scriptures whereas scriptures get their meaning from a living tradition. This point has been made clear in this chapter with the help of some discourses. On the one hand the suttas mentioned here provide scriptural support to the Goenka-traditon, and on the other the same tradition points to certain interpretations of the scriptures, which are in line with the practice taught by it.

The fourth sutta of the Sacittavaggo and the third sutta of the Asuravaggo of the Aṅguttar- nikāya (A. V: pp.99-100; A. II: pp.92-94), provide a strong base for the practice of sati- sampajañña in the development of concentration and insight. These suttas and the sutta [related to Yuganaddha] of the Aṅguttaranikāya (A. II:156-157), pave the path for the congruent practice of concentration and insight. As explained in the [Yuganddha] sutta in general, the Goenka-tradition opens the platform for three modes of practices except the first-one wherein insight practice is preceded by concentration. From the practical point of view, the design of the technique of the Goenka-tradition expects the congruent mode of practice in particular. The Vibhaṅgasutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya forms the core of the practice of insight. The Anāpānasatisutta, the Satipaṭṭhānasutta, the Kāyagatāsatisutta, the Dhātuvibhaṅgasutta, the Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhayasutta, and the Bhaddekaratta-suttas of the Majjhimanikāya give a stable framework to the the meditative practice of concentration and insight. The Mahācattārisakasutta and the Cūlavedallasutta forms the axis around which the whole technique or method of practice rotates and leads one on the Eightfold Noble Path.

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Around thirty suttas161 of the Dīghanikāya and the Majjhimanikāya describe the practice in a gradual manner (anupubbasikkhā, anupubbakiriyā, anupubbapaṭipadā) i.e. practice of the sīla, indriyasaṃvara, sati-sampjañña, ānāpānasati, nivaraṇa-pahāna, and the description of the four fine material absorptions. This is generally followed by the discussion on insight knowledge, three or six abhiññās concluding with the state of extinction of cankers (anāsava). These suttās seem to refer to the practice of ānāpānssati as an essential component of the gradual mode of practice. The Mahārahulovādasutta of the Majjhimanikāya provides a clear testimony to the practice of the anāpānassati. This pattern indicates the importance of the practice of the mindfulness and clear comprehension or the four foundations of mindfulness, and the practice of ānāpānassati with respect to the insight practice. The Goenka-tradition adopted almost the similar pattern for the development of insight.

Ven. Anālayo carried out the comparative study between the Pāli suttas, and their parallels in the āgamas. The prime importance of feelings, and impermanence in the Goenka-tradition finds support in this study.

According to the Goenka-tradition the attainment of the saññāvedayitanirodha is possible after the four fine material absorptions, and the attainment of immaterial jhānas is not necessary as the absolute condition. This is supported by the following suttas: the Uppaṭipāṭikasutta of the Indriyasaṃyutta (S.V: pp.213-215), the Upādānaparipavattasutta, the Sattaṭṭhānasutta of the Khandhasaṃyutta (S.III: pp.59-65), the Cūḷavedallasutta of the Majjhimanikāya etc. The Rahogatasutta of the Vedanāsaṃyutta (S.IV: p.217) also supports the stand point of the attainment of saññāvedayitanirodha after the four fine material absorptions. The Dutiyakāmabhūsutta (S.IV: pp.293-296) of the Cittasaṃyutta explains that the state of serenity and insight are very helpful to attain the state of saññāvedayitanirodha. It does not mention about the four immaterial attainments. This stand point of the Pāli textual tradition is supported by the various studies of the academicians. The Goenka-tradition presents the description of Nibbāna similar to the cessation of perception and feeling. Tradition believes that the attainment of nirodhasamāpatti (ie saññāvedayitanirodha), is another name for the state of nibbana. In this background, the Sammādiṭṭhisutta of the Majjhimanikāya and the

161 The Sāmaññaphalasutta, Ambaṭṭhasutta, Soṇadaṇdasutta, Kūṭadantasutta, Mahālisutta, Jāliyasutta, Mahāsihanādasutta, Subhasutta, Kevaṭṭhasutta, Lohiccasutta, Mahāsatipaṭṭhanasutta etc in the Dīghanikāya, and the Devadahasutta, Chabbisodhanasutta, Kandarakasutta, Apaṇṇakasutta, Sandakasutta, Bhayabhairavasutta, dvedhāvitakkasutta, Cuḷahatthipadopamasutta, Mahāsaccakasutta, Mahāassapurasutta, Cuḷasakulādāyisutta, Bodhirajakumarasutta, Ghoṭamukhasutta, Sangāravasutta, Sekhasutta, Kāyagatāsatisutta, Dantabhūmisutta, Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhayasutta, Gaṇakamoggalānasutta, etc in the Majjhimanikāya.

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Nimokkhasutta of the Devatāsaṃyutta (S.I: p.2) indicate that the state of nibbāna and the state of saññāvedayitanirodha are similar in nature. Daniel Stuart also indicates that the cessation (nibbāna), and the cessation of perception and feeling are two angles to see one and the same thing.

Besides this, some specific modes of practice, and doctrinal stand points adopted by the Goenka-tradition can be traced back to certain discourses or their commentaries. These include issues such as proportion of samatha and vipassanā, practice of mettā, body scanning, additional emphasis on impermanence over non-self, importance given to the bodily feelings over the rest.

These are further discussed in detail in the seventh chapter of the thesis while examining the claim for purity and authenticity of this tradition.

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