The Smaratungga Journal of and Education

SJBSE Vol. I (March-August 2017) ISSN …

Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Agama Buddha Smaratungga Jl. Semarang-Solo Km 60, Ampel-Boyolali Jawa Tengah Boyolali Central Java 57352, Indonesia Phone/Fax: + 662276330835 M.:+628159223291 Website: http://www.smaratungga.ac.id and

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BE 2561 CE 2017 Advisors The Most Venerable Nyanasuryanadi Partono, M.Pd. Chair of General Assembly Agung Indonesia, Indonesia Executive Editor Ven. Ditthisampanno Budi Utomo, S.Ag., MA. (Buddhist Studies, Mahaculalongcorn Unversity, Thailand) Rector, Smaratungga Buddhist College, Indonesia Chief Editor Ven. Dr. Sulaiman Girivirya, M.Pd. (Educational Technology in Buddhist Religion Education, State University of Jakarta) Dean of Graduate Program, Smaratungga Buddhist College, Indonesia

Editorial Team (Mitra Bestari) The Most Venerable Dr. Khammai Dhammasami (Buddhist Studies, Oxford) General Secretary IABU and ATBU. Ven. Dr. Naw Kham La Dhammasami, Ph.D. (Buddhist Psychology, University of Peradeniya). Dean of Department of Psychology Shan State Buddhist University, Myanmar. Dr. Kim Leung Darga, Ph.D. (Buddhist Studies, University of Kelaniya) Visiting Lecturer, Smaratungga Buddhist College. Assistant Editors Tjia Khie Khiong, Ph.D. (Frontier Bioscience, Osaka University) Smaratungga Buddhist College, Indonesia Dr. Suherman, S.Kom., MM. (Educational Management, Indonesia University of Education). Lecturer, Smaratungga Buddhist College, Indonesia Dr. Ponijan, M.Pd. (Communication, and Political Management Science, University of Satyagama, Indonesia).

Lecturer, Smaratungga Buddhist College, Indonesia Dr. Adi W. Gunawan, M.Pd., CCH. (Mind Technology Expert, Indonesia). Lecturer, Smaratungga Buddhist College, Indonesia Publisher Team Suharno, M.Pd.B., Head of Research and Development, Smaratungga Buddhist College, Indonesia Rieke Jolen Jonathan, B.A., M.Sw. Clinician, Australia Sutarno, M.Pd. Youth Buddhist Scholar, Indonesia

Foreword This is the first edition of the academic Journal of The Smaratungga Journal of Buddhist Studies and Education (SJBSE). It is a collection of papers presented at the seminar and the first international Buddhist academic conference. They were held respectively in October and December 2015 at our institution, and organized by the Graduate School of Smaratungga Buddhist College (SBC).The focus of the seminar was Buddhist education and Buddhist psychology, whereas the theme of the conference was “ Practice for the Continuous Flourishing of in the ASEAN Region.”

Buddhist knowledge, albeit “hidden” today is what Indonesia possesses, as accounted for, by the stories of the famous monks who studied in Indonesia, for example, by the great Tibetan Atisha, Vajrabodhi, Dharamapala and Sakyakirti and many eminent Chinese monks. Through its mission to nurture Buddhist intellectuals, both from Indonesia and internationally, the Graduate School of Smaratungga Buddhist College seeks to put back Indonesian Buddhism in its rightful place in the modern world. Though many articles have been written in the Indonesian language, this journal is the first Indonesian Buddhist Academic journal, written in English. Our aim is to give Indonesian Buddhist intellectuals, as well as their neighbors in South East Asia, and elsewhere, a space to create new knowledge and to share their thoughts and findings with the largest number of people in the world, thus the choice of publishing in English.

Our challenge is to motivate more Buddhist intellectuals in Indonesia and the region to express their knowledge in

English, which is probably their 3rd or 4th language. It’s important in our times where interactions are no more confined to local or national boundaries, and where Buddhism has indeed gone beyond its shores in Asia; that more academics and scholars from countries with long Buddhist traditions be able to come forward and share their insight and participate in global discussions on dhamma. Thus in the journal, there are papers from seasoned Buddhist scholars, as well as from promising young intellectuals. The themes covered in Buddhism are diverse and range from the theoretical to the applied science of Buddhism. Authors have shared their thoughts and knowledge on some of the most debated topics in academia, as well as how these are applied in the practitioners’ world. Readers will enjoy discovering new ideas in , the Buddhist concept of management, Buddhist psychology, and Buddhist education. 2017 is a significant year as it is the 31st anniversary of Smaratungga Buddhist College, and the 52st birthday of our Patron, the Most Venerable Nyanasuryanadi, M. Pd., M. Pd. B, who celebrated his birthday in July. This journal is a commemorative symbol of the culmination of many years of the College’s and the Most Venerable Nyanasuryanadi’s dedication to the revival of Buddhist Education and its pursuit to excellence in Indonesia. Our thanks go to all those who have contributed to the publication of this journal.

The Editorial Committee

Contents Foreword……………………………………………………..I

Buddhist Concept of Bare Attention……………………1-28 Ven. Santacitto Sentot, Ph.D

“Applied ” – A Change Management Tool for Buddhist Leaders……………………………………….29-46 Kim Leung Darga, Ph.D

The Schopenhauer Cure and the : A Comparative Study of Schopenhauer & Buddha Perspectives on Human Liberation……………………47-84 Naw Kham La Dhammasami, Ph.D

A Story in Promoting Meditation in Central Java: Opportunity and Challenge…………………………….85-93 Kustiani, Ph.D

Popularization Meditation Practice by Using Simple Techniques……………………………………………..94-102 Ven. Sasana Bodhi, Sutikyanto, S.Ag., M. Hum

Buddhism as a System of Psychotherapy…………103-125 Wasantha Priyadarshana, Ph.D

Buddhist Education: Morality, Concentration, and ……………………………………………….126-136 Asst. Prof. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji

BUDDHIST CONCEPT OF BARE ATTENTION

Ven. Santacitto Sentot, Ph.D

Introduction

It is a well-known fact that Buddhism is uniquely different from other religions, relying on the fact that the former is enriched with various techniques of meditation. Meditation plays an important role in Buddhism for it is widely considered as a highly important factor for liberation. In general, there are two kinds of , namely samathabhavanā and vipassanabhavanā. The first type of meditation refers to meditation which brings the calmness of mind, while the second is known as insight meditation which when practiced produces proper insight into the nature of things. It is this latter type of meditation which is reckoned by Buddhists as being genuine Buddhist meditation, for besides directly leading to liberation, it has been discovered by the Buddha only. Not all types of meditation are easy to practise. Among the two kinds of Buddhist meditation, the development of or calmness very often needs one to be in particular places in order to be successful in it. When samathabhavanā is practiced, it leads to the higher mental absorptions (jhānā). However, in order to attain jhānā, one needs to be in a quiet place free from uproar and noise. This is important for sound is said to be an obstruction to achieving jhānā (saddakaṇṭakā

jhānā).1 That is probably the reason why while urging his disciples to develop mental absorptions the Buddha generally instructs them to go to solitary lodgings, root of forest trees, mountains, charnel grounds, etc.2 With this in mind, it is practically more difficult for those who are involved in a lot of activities to develop calmness meditation. Different from samathabhavanā, the practice of insight meditation is not limited by place or condition. One can train oneself in this type of meditation even in the crowd. While the loud sound will hinder one who develops calmness meditation, in vipassanā, the sound can become the object of meditation. In fact, all phenomena can be used as an object of meditation. What one primarily needs here is just to be aware of their presence with proper understanding. Because of its significant role, awareness is highly emphasized here, and therefore vipassanabhavanā is also known as awareness meditation. It should be noted here that presently, vipassanabhavanā is generally called by several meditation teachers as the practice of bare attention or bare awareness.3 The reason of this is that the awareness or attention employed in this meditation refers to unalloyed attention. It means that while observing the object, one is aware of or attend to it without interfering with the experience by like and dislike or any other mental judgment. That attention is of pure

1 A. V. 133. 2 D. I. 71. 3 . The Power of Mindfulness. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society (BPS), 2005, p. 3. See also: Anālayo. Satipaṭṭhāna: the Direct Path to Realization. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society (BPS), 2003, p. 190.

uninvolved and detached receptivity. In this paper, the phrase “bare attention” is used pertaining to this particular attention. What is Bare Attention?

Several Buddhist scholars have referred to the act of bare attention as , one of the important Buddhist psychological terms. 4 Sati itself is translated into various meanings according to different contexts, such as memory, recognition, consciousness, intentness of mind, wakefulness of mind, mindfulness, alertness, lucidity of mind, self-possession, conscience, and self-consciousness. However, in many English translations of , the term has been commonly translated as mindfulness. Meanwhile, in early discourses, the term sati has been generally defined by the Buddha as an ability of mind to remember what was done and said long ago. Thus in the Paṭhamavibhaṅga Sutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya, it is stated: Here, , the noble disciple is mindful, possessing supreme mindfulness and discretion, one who remembers and recollects what was done and said long ago.5 Another definition is found in the Paṭisambhidāmagga, one of the texts belonging to Khuddakanikāya. The text states that mindfulness (sati) lies on its power which is unshaken by carelessness (pamāde na kampatīti satibalaṃ). 6 This

4 Nyanaponika Thera. The Power of Mindfulness. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society (BPS), 2005, p. 3. 5 S. V. 197. 6 M. II. 169.

definition, in another word, implies that one who is possessed of mindfulness is ever in vigilant state (appamāda). This too draws another conclusion that sati corresponds to appamāda in meaning. Taking into account several definitions mentioned above, sati has a dynamic and active nature. However, in order to understand its true power, this inner quality should be continuously trained in its passive and pure form. It is in its very passive form that the dynamic nature of mindfulness will manifest its strength. In his book “The Power of Mindfulness”, Venerable Nyanaponika calls mindfulness that is developed in its passive form as “bare attention” or “bare awareness”. According to him, it is called “bare” because it attends to the bare facts of a perception without reacting to them by deed, speech or mental comments.7 Thus, by utilizing bare attention, one experiences arising and disappearing phenomena, be it mentality or materiality (nāmarūpa) without getting involved in it, free from judging, and not trying to suppress their arising. Even if the arising phenomena are those of negative thoughts, one who cultivates bare attention does not force them to go away. One’s task is to just observe and know their arising and falling. This way is in particular different from samathabhavanā. If in samathabhavanā one chooses a certain object and should focus one’s mind on that object, in the practice of bare attention, any object connected to body or mind whether it is positive or negative, can be used as the object of practice. Bare attention

7 Nyanaponika Thera. The Power of Mindfulness. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society (BPS), 2005, p. 3.

merely observes how those phenomena arise and let them disappear naturally. Due to the fact that all mental conditions can be used as objects of bare attention, the way of this inner quality’s work is also often called as “choiceless awareness”.8 The same view is expressed by Weisman in his book, “Meditation, Compassion and Loving-Kindness”. In explaining about mental hindrances in meditation, he views that suppressing mental hindrances is one extreme, while following them is another extreme; for by suppressing them one will not understand their nature so that one loses one’s opportunity to eliminate them; meanwhile, by complying with them, one will never escape from their power.9 As stated earlier, general definition of sati is an ability to recall what was done and spoken long ago. However, in its development, a practitioner should exercise the power of sati for keeping continuous awareness and vigilance towards any presently arising phenomenon. Keeping awareness in such a manner is highly needed to give way to the arising of understanding of suffering, cause of suffering and the elimination of suffering. It is due to the fact that all these understanding can be totally understood through observation of

8 Anālayo. Satipaṭṭhāna: the Direct Path to Realization. Sri Lanka: BPS, 2003, p. 58. 9 Weissman, S and Weissman, R. Meditation, Compassion and Loving Kindness. Maine: Samuel Weiser Inc, 1996, p. 11. Meanwhile, Joseph Golden and Jack Kornfield in their book, “Seeking the Heart of Wisdom: the Path of Insight Meditation” state that suppressing, in this regard , is a form of aversion. They agree that awareness is the best way to know the five hindrances. See: Joseph Goldstein and Jack Kornfield. Seeking the Heart of Wisdom: the Path of Insight Meditation. Boston: Shambala South Asia Editions, 1987, p. 36.

any phenomenon which presently occurs, and neither those of past nor future phenomena. Observing any presently arising phenomena here and now is one of the characteristics of bare attention. It should be noted that normally, that purely receptive state of mind or bare attention is just a very brief phase of the thought process of which one is often scarcely aware of. Nevertheless, in the methodical development of mindfulness aimed at the unfolding of its latent powers, bare attention is sustained for as long a time as one’s strength of concentration permits.

Vipassanā and Bare Attention

As stated earlier, vipassanabhavanā is the development of the mind which emphasises the understanding of the nature of phenomena. What it means is that by practicing this mental cultivation one comes to understand that all conditioned things undergo the nature of (anicca), unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) and non-self (). This understanding is very important for this leads practitioners to disenchantment (nibbidā) towards all worlds which in turn brings about dispassion (virāga) and liberation (vimutta).10 In other words, the realization of liberation (nibbāna) takes place. Although vipassanā is popularly practiced by Buddhists up to the present days, the term vipassanā is in fact seldom to be found in early discourses. Mention of this term is found in some discourses such as Mahāvaccha Sutta,

10 M. III. 20.

Mahāsālāyataṇika Sutta, and Yuganaddha Sutta. The first two discourses belong to Majjhimanikāya, while the last one belongs to Aṅguttaranikāya. In these discourses, the term vipassanā is in fact mentioned along with samathabhavanā. For instance, as stated in Mahāsālāyataṇika Sutta, vipassanā should be practiced along with samatha for the full understanding of the five aggregates.11 Despite the fact that the term vipassanā has been mentioned in several discourses, the method of mental cultivation through vipassanā is never described clearly in early discourses. However, commentarial literatures generally view that vipassanā is an insight meditation which brings the above mentioned understanding of anicca, dukkha and anatta. Whereas samatha is the development of mind which leads to the attainment of high absorptions (jhāna). This explanation has been for instance stated in the commentary of Yuganaddha Sutta.12 Since vipassanā is practiced for the understanding of the impermanent nature of phenomena as well as their suffering and non-self nature, all the teachings of the Buddha which lead to such a purpose can be regarded as belonging to the practice of vipassanā. In this regard, many meditation teachers generally agree that the method given in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta is that of vipassanā itself. The reason is that in this particular discourse the Buddha invites practitioners to see all phenomena in terms of their arising and disappearance. The duty of practitioners is just to be aware of

11 Ibid., 290. 12 AA. III. 143.

them without choosing certain objects in particular. This way of observing phenomena is concomitant with the practice of bare attention. Besides that, the advice given in this discourse is to observe not only mental objects but also includes all the activities such as walking, standing, laying down, looking at, talking, etc which belongs to bodily observation. All these activities are also under the category of bare attention. Thus, here we can understand that the practice of vipassanā is another name for bare attention.

The Method of Bare Attention in Early Discourses

On further studying the Pāli Canon, we can observe that some discourses have directly presented the method of bare attention. As stated above, Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna is one of those discourses which concord with bare attention. Here, the entire method of Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna is therefore of the practice of bare attention itself. The first point is that, as already mentioned above, in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna, one is trained to see the arising and disappearance of any presently phenomenon. One should focus on the present object here and now, and should therefore neither go about the past nor hanker after the future. This method which is one of important points of bare attention is also found in the Bhaddekaratta Sutta of Majjhimanikāya. The discourse says: “Let not a person revive the past or on the future build his hopes; for the past has been left behind and the future has not been reached.

Instead with insight let him see each presently arisen state.”13 It is interesting to note here that in another discourse named Arañña Sutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya, it is stated that those who do not sorrow over the past nor do they hanker after the future but maintain themselves what is present, are possessed with serene complexion.14 Furthermore, the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta emphasizes another important factor in observing phenomena. In this discourse, it is asserted that in the process of scrutinizing any occurring object one should abide independent, not clinging to anything in the world (anissito ca viharati, na ca kiñci loke upādiyati).15 This statement is in agreement with the particular characteristic of bare attention. In the state of bare attention, one just merely observes objects like a passive spectator who watches the show without getting involved in it, for he is not an actor of the show, so he just sits and enjoys it. The commentarial literature on this discourse gives further explanation. The meaning of the phrase “anissito viharati” is understood that one does not abide on craving (taṇhā) and wrong views (diṭṭhi), while “na kiñci loke upādiyati” refers to mental attitude which is free from wrong notion that five aggregates (pañcakkhandhā) is “self” or that they “belonging to self”.16 The explanation explicated in this commentarial literature draws one significant point that in observing an

13 M. III. 187. 14 S. I. 5. 15 D. II. 292. 16 DA. III. 766.

object with bare attention one should not give rise to craving toward the observed object, nor should one speculate by arousing unnecessary views of self notion connected to the object. The method of bare attention is also found in the Bahiya Sutta of the Udānapāli. This discourse is delivered by the Buddha to a wanderer named Bahiya. Here, the Buddha advises him to train himself: “Tasmātiha te, bāhiya, evaṃ sikkhitabbaṃ: diṭṭhe diṭṭhamattaṃ bhavissati, sute sutamattaṃ bhavissati, mute mutamattaṃ bhavissati, viññāte viññātamattaṃ bhavissatī”.17 That can be translated as follows: “In the seen will be merely what is seen; in the heard will be merely what is heard; in the sensed will be merely what is sensed; in the cognized will be merely what is cognized.” Here, additional suffix of ‘matta’ in the above mentioned quotation which means ‘merely’ is an important key in the development of bare attention. One who is not skilled in bare attention, when one of his six senses contacts with an object, his mind immediately tends to react. When eyes contact with a beautiful form, for example, the mind instantly reacts by relating its experience of the object with the past or future, which in turn gives rise to further new reactions of mind like a craving to get a hold of it. On the contrary, when one sees such a process of seeing with bare attention that is to say ‘merely seeing’ without getting involved in it, with no

17 Ud. 8.

judgment, there will be no occurrence of new reaction, but only a process of arising and disappearance of experience. There will be no self notion of ‘mine’, ‘I’ or ‘myself’. The same idea has been expressed by Ven. Khantipalo while discussing about the five hindrances. He states that by observing any of the hindrances without labeling, then only ‘dhammas’ or ‘events’ are noticed, and the idea of self is also excluded. That way, he further says, although not nibbāna, is the way leading to it.18

Why Does One Need Bare Attention?

According to the Buddha, the mind of ordinary people is difficult to keep still. It continuously runs from one object to another. Just like a fish thrown on dry ground fluttering here and there,19 mind is such a nature, ever reacting and agitating. It continuously moves because of the contact with objects of the six senses. Like a monkey in the forest searching fruits would jump from one branch to another branch of tree, in the same way the nature of mind endlessly runs after objects which are reckoned to give sensual pleasures.20 Thus, the mind of ordinary people generally is being slaved by their own cravings (atitto taṇhādāso).21 As a result of this search of sensual pleasures, it builds two dispositions, namely favoring

18 Khantipalo, . Calm and Insight: a Buddhist Manual for Meditators. London: Curzon Press Ltd, 1981, p. 42. 19 Dhp. Verse 34. 20 Ibid., Verse 344. 21 M. II. 68.

and opposing (anurodhavirodhaṃ). 22 Being touched by pleasant objects, the mind attaches to them right away. On the contrary, facing unpleasant feeling, there arises in one’s mind aversion. For ordinary people, searching after sensual pleasures is considered as a normal thing. However, according to Buddhism, the mind that cannot keep still, ever agitated by likes and dislikes, searching only for sensual pleasures here and there (tatratatrābhinandinī),23 is fuel from which beings are unable to escape from the snare of rounds of death and birth. Endless suffering of every being in this round of birth and death happens because of this worldly searching which manifests in multifarious mental reactions. On this basis, the aim of practicing the Buddha’s teaching is to put an end to these habitual reactions of mind. In this regard, the practice of bare attention plays an important role to appease and eliminate them. By means of bare attention, mental reactions which have enslaved the mind subside and cease to exist. A further following elaboration will clarify this point. On studying the thought process, the Madhupiṇḍika Sutta of the Majjhimanikāya is considered as an important discourse in this regard. The discourse shows us that the thought process of the six sense-bases causes the acquiring of experiences. As explained earlier, when the six sense-bases come in contact with their related objects, the mind quickly responds to them. Such a response often leads the mind to continually reacting. This matter has been elucidated in the

22 Ibid., I. 266-67. 23 Ibid., III. 250.

Madhupiṇḍika Sutta. It is stated that after the arising of a certain consciousness (viññāṇa) as a result of the contact of certain sense-base with its object, there will naturally be contact (phassa). With phassa as condition, feeling (vedana) arises. Thereafter, it is stated that when one feels, one tends to build perception (sañjānati) related to that feeling. Taking the perception as its base, one proceeds to think (vitakketi) about one’s now experience. Thereafter, one is forced to think over and over or in other words, mentally proliferate (papañceti) about the same thing and relate them with one’s experiences of the past, present and imagined future. In this juncture, due to mental proliferation (papañca), mental suffering, stress and conflict arise. 24 Even according to Bhikkhu Ñānananda, craving, attachment to views as well as conceit which are the sources of conflict and suffering are derived from this papañca.25 Thus, papañca is reckoned to be a source of mental disorders, thereby needs to be dealt with. What is important in relation to the present matter is that papañca is a manifestation of mental reactions discussed above. Therefore, getting rid of this mental proliferation is itself an attempt to overcome the devastating nature of mental reactions. Bare attention is useful to stop a lingering thought process, so that it will not bring about mental proliferation or obsession of mind. Here, on the arising of a certain reaction of mind, one should see it with bare attention – only observing without getting involved in it – just like a thief calls off his

24 Ibid., I. 112. 25 Bhikkhu Ñāṇananda, Concept and Reality in the Buddhist Thought. Kandy: BPS, 1997, p. 121.

action on being caught red-handed by the house owner. Such a mental reaction stops from proceeding and appears no more than a mere experience which arises and then disappears. A similar reaction might arise again from time to time in the future. However, on being caught red-handed by bare attention every time it comes up, that similar reaction will lose its strength and finally will no more arise. A simile has been given in the Vīṇopama Sutta by the Buddha to make this point clear. It says as follows: "Suppose, bhikkhus, the barley has ripened and the watchman is vigilant. If a bull fond of barley enters the barley field, the watchman would catch hold of him firmly by the muzzle. While holding him firmly by the muzzle, he would get a secure grip on the locks between his horns and, keeping him in check there, would give him a sound beating with his staff. After giving him that beating, he would drive the bull away. This might happen a second time and a third time. Thus that bull fond of barley, whether he has gone to the village or the forest, whether he is accustomed to standing or to sitting, remembering the previous beating he got from the staff, would not enter that barley field again.”26 Thus in the same way, if every time when mental reactions invade one’s mind and bare attention stands on guard there, then they eventually lose their strength and finally

26 S. IV. 196.

disappear. Even if such memories which in the past created mental havoc arise again, they will not be capable of disturbing the mind again. It should be highlighted here that the strength of bare attention is still functioning even though the mind is already occupied with papañca, and where it appears as if impossible to overcome. In such a condition, while other inner qualities are often unable to subdue it, bare attention is needed and with its power, even mental proliferation will lose its strength. Thus, however uncivilized the mind is, bare attention (sati) is capable to subjugate it. It is on this basis that the Buddha asserts “Satiñca khvāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sabbatthikaṃ vadāmi” which means “Mindfulness, bhikkhus, I say, is always useful”.27

Bare Attention and Sampajañña

A person who develops mindfulness or attention in its pure and bare state should not be taken as if that person is living without knowledge. By bare attention, one is given a wide opportunity to observe an occurring object without being polluted by mental partiality or bias, and thus giving way for proper knowledge to arise. Such a knowledge which arises along with bare attention is called sampajañña. It should be noted here that one who is not skilled in bare attention and tends to let his mind get involved in experiences with favoring and opposing, normally becomes partial in viewing those phenomena. Such a person is unable to

27 S. V. 115.

wisely analyze his experiences from various viewpoints. For example, one whose mind is overpowered and led by anger is incapable to see one’s own anger, let alone to see the dangers of anger. One cannot see within one’s own mind to find out the cause of one’s anger. On the contrary, one sees only outside and sees the cause of one’s anger deriving from outside. As a result, without subduing one’s own anger from within, one begins to attack others for one’s suffering. Different from the agitated mind which hinders one from having right view, attention or mindfulness which is developed in its bare mode, provides the practitioner of this mental cultivation a wide space to observe and learn an observed object at that very moment in its unalloyed state. His mind is not deceived by mental bias. With clear mind, he sees every arising and disappearing phenomenon as it is. As a result, the knowledge of what is beneficial and what is unbeneficial in relation to his present experience, naturally comes to manifest. A simile to further support this point is given in the Kimsukopama Sutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya. Here, the power of mindfulness is comparable to a wise, intelligent and competent gatekeeper of a city built with strong wall. Such a gatekeeper knows those who should be sent away and those who are allowed to enter (aññātānaṃ nivāretā, ñātānaṃ pavesetā).28 In the same way, by bare attention, one knows what should be developed for they are beneficial and what should be avoided as they are harmful. The capacity of sati in distinguishing wholesome from unwholesome is also stressed in the Milindapañha. Therefore, in the same text, one who

28 Ibid., IV. 193.

abides with proper mindfulness knows well factors that need to be developed and those that need to be abandoned while cultivating the mind (yogāvacaro sevitabbe dhamme sevati, asevitabbe dhamme na sevati).29 The same function of sati or in other words ‘bare attention’ as above can also be seen from its relation to the dhammavicayabojjhaṅga (enlightenment factor of discrimination of states. The Sīla Sutta from Saṃyuttanikāya explicates that one who is endowed with strong established mindfulness towards the dhamma he hears, is naturally compelled to analyze, inspect, and make investigation into that same dhamma through wisdom (paññā).30 This fact further confirms that bare attention provides greater opportunities for practitioners to examine a phenomena as an object of attention as deeply as possible. From this too, a wide range of enlightening knowledge comes to manifest. The understanding into the nature of all phenomena as impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) and non-self (anatta) brings about the insight knowledge, which takes place because of the virtue of sati. Thus, in this regard, dhammavicaya is another name of sampajañña. It should be underlined here that the knowledge that occurs along with bare attention is not gained through imagination or thinking. This knowledge dawns in a natural way and arises at that very moment when the observation on to the object takes place. Here, while imagination or thinking often gives rise to mental exhaustion, the knowledge derived

29 Mil. 37-38. 30 S. V. 68.

from bare attention has a freeing nature. This point is in concomitance with the explanation of the Buddha in which he asserts that the development of sati and dhammavicaya (as a form of satisampajañña), should always be based upon seclusion (viveka), dispassion (virāga), cessation (nirodhā) and maturing in release (vosaggapariṇāmiṃ). 31 Here, viveka, virāga, nirodhā and vosaggapariṇāmiṃ reflect the factors which have a freeing nature, without making the mind weary, they lead to the abandonment of mental burdens.

The Function of Balancing Inner Qualities

The Buddha’s way of crossing the ocean of birth and death is by exercising the middle path. Generally, the propounded by the Buddha is shown in his teaching of the which consists of right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.32 Apart from that, the Oghataraṇa Sutta, the first discourse of the Buddha, offers another explanation reflecting the Buddha’s teaching of middle way. In this discourse, a certain deity raises a question to the Buddha about the method of how he crosses the flood. Responding to this question, the Buddha explains that he crosses the flood neither by standing still (appatiṭṭhaṃ) nor by struggling (anāyūhaṃ). The reason is that by standing still one sinks, while by struggling one gets swept away.33 This answer of the Buddha conveys two meaningful messages. The first is

31 Ibid., 63. 32 Ibid., 421. 33 S. I. 1.

that in order to be free from dukkha, one should exercise the middle way, a particular way which avoids two extremes.34 The second reason is that in order to maintain the middle way, one should possess a constantly balanced mind; for without it, it is possible to fall into one of the two extreme ways. This mental balance or in other words, ‘equilibrium mind’ is just like a straight path heading right away to the destination one wants to arrive at. In this regard, mental balance is a proper and straight path to nibbāna. A significant point that needs to be underlined here is that the balanced mind which is acquired for one to proceed firmly in the middle way, grows through the development of bare attention. As mentioned earlier, bare attention gives way to a practitioner to understand what is beneficial and what is harmful. This particular understanding, in turn, will also keep his mind balanced. Thus, at the time when the mind is agitated and loses its balance, he knows how to find the solution for overcoming that situation. As a result, the mind of such a mindful one tends to be calm and balanced, and he does not easily fall into two extreme ways. The gives an example of how sati (here to be understood as bare attention) is able to neutralize two extreme ways. In this text, it is stated that when one is too

34 Commentarial literature on this discourse says that provides several instances of how one stands still and struggles. It is stated, one whose mind is being overcome by laziness is just like one who stands still, while being too much enthusiastic is similar to a struggling one; one who runs after sensual pleasures is like one who stands still, while practicing self- mortification is like a struggling person. These examples show us the importance of the middle way by avoiding two extremes.

excessive in exercising faith (saddha) or effort (viriya) or knowledge (paññā), one tends to be restless. In such a condition, the power of sati plays an important role to keep one from falling into restlessness caused by saddha, viriya and paññā, while at the same time, hinders one from being overpowered by idleness caused by an excessive samādhi. Thus, by sati or in this regard, bare attention, one’s mind is kept balanced, free from restlessness as well as from sluggishness. Five faculties (pañcindriya: saddha, viriya, sati, samādhi and paññā) are highly needed for the development of mind to become balanced, mutually supporting, establishing and developing.35 The function of sati in neutralizing two extreme ways can also be explicitly studied in the Aggi Sutta of Saṃyuttanikāya. In this discourse, it is stated that during the time one is under the power of mental sluggishness (līnacitta), that is not the right time to develop tranquility () or concentration (samādhi) or equanimity (upekkha), but that is the right time to develop effort (viriya), investigation into phenomena (dhammavicaya) and rapture (pīti). On the other hand, when one’s mind is dominated by excessive endeavor (uddhattacitta), that is not the right time for cultivating effort (viriya) or investigation into phenomena (dhammavicaya) or rapture (pīti), but it is proper in such a situation to develop tranquility (passaddhi) or concentration (samādhi) or equanimity (upekkha). In the same discourse, it is interesting to note that while other inner qualities are useful only in certain

35 Vism. 45-49. The same idea is stated by Venerable Nyanaponika in his book, “The Power of Mindfulness”. See: Nyanaponika Thera. The Power of Mindfulness. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society (BPS), 2005, p. 24.

conditions, the power of sati is ever helpful and should be utilized in all conditions.36 Thus, be it in the time when the mind is overpowered by sluggishness or when burnt by excessive endeavor, sati is always needed. This is because through sati one knows the qualities which should be cultivated and which ones should be abandoned. In this way a balanced mind is well maintained, and one will not fall away from the middle way.

The Power of Eliminating Mental Defilements

At the very beginning it has been mentioned that the power of bare attention is to cut off continuous mental reactions. As already understood, mental reactions, in this regard, is the manifestation of mental defilements. Hence, we can draw a conclusion that bare attention plays a significant role in eliminating defilements of mind. This function of bare attention is symbolically implied in several stories incorporated in the Bhikkhunisaṃyutta of the Saṃyuttanikāya. The discourses written in this part of the text, relate stories of how , the Evil One, approached a certain bhikkhuni to create terror and trepidation so that she might fall away from her seclusion. Generally, by simply recognizing Mara’s presence and addressing him, Mara, which is a manifestation of mental defilements, loses his strength and disappears there and then.37

36 S. V. 112-15. 37 Ibid., I. 128-35.

In eliminating mental taints, bare attention does not do that function all alone. As already discussed above, knowledge or wisdom which arises along with this inner quality also plays an important role. By bare attention, one knows what is beneficial and what is harmful. Knowing that, such a person develops what is beneficial only, while at the same time, abandons what is harmful. Furthermore, if we take into consideration the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna, a discourse popularly employed as a guide for the practitioner of bare attention, it is found that while observing mental defilements ,for instance the five hindrances, the yogi knows not only the process of their occurrence and disappearance, but also knows (pajānāti)38 the factors that can be utilized for their elimination. The function of bare attention as well as wisdom in cutting off habitual reactions of mind has also been discussed in the Ajitamāṇavapuccha of the Suttanipāta. In this discourse, a youth Brahmin named Ajita asks the Buddha the way to check (slow down) streams that flow from various directions, and how to cut it off. The Buddha replies that by mindfulness (sati) one enables the slow down of the streams and by wisdom (paññā) the same streams are cut off.39 Here, the word ‘stream’ refers to process of consciousness (viññāṇa) which takes place through the six sense bases together with their related external objects.40 With this, we now know how through mindfulness,

38 It is important to note here that the verb ‘knows’ in this discourse uses the term ‘pajānati’ which is the verb from the noun ‘paññā’ meaning ‘wisdom’. This shows that the knowledge that arises in the observation through bare attention here is not a common knowledge but deeper knowledge into the nature of the observed objects. See: D. ii. 300-01. 39 Sn. verses 197-98. 40 SnA. II. 258.

the coming and going of mental process through the six senses can slow down.41 In reality, mental processes that come and go, happen in a normal way, whether one uses bare attention or not. However, when one is not trained in bare attention, these mental processes mostly are undetected so they seem to work very fast. On the other hand, when every arising and disappearing of the mental processes is detected under the watch of bare attention, they appears to move slowly. Being aware in such a way enables one to check and investigate thoroughly every mental process so that one knows the factors which follow that same mental state. If then at that time, one knows one’s mind is being driven by negative thoughts such as greed, hatred or delusion,42 wisdom (paññā) can play its role by immediately cutting off and preventing some mental state from growing. Apart from that, the power of bare attention in this regard can be seen in its function in breaking off the drama between consciousness (viññāṇa) and mentality-materiality (nāmarūpa). According to Buddhism, the life of every being is not more than the drama between consciousness and mentality- materiality (ettāvatā vaṭṭaṃ vattati itthattaṃ paññāpanāya yadidaṃ nāmarūpaṃ saha viññāṇena aññamaññapaccayatā

41 The role of mindfulness or bare attention that slows down mental processes is also stressed upon by Venerable Nyanaponika. See: Nyanaponika Thera. The Power of Mindfulness. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society (BPS), 2005, p. 27. 42 According to the Abhidhammatthasangaha, in general, unwholesome mental states are divided into three categories namely those of rooted in greed (lobhamūlacitta), those rooted in hatred (dosamūlacitta) and those rooted in delusion (mohamūlacitta). See: . A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma. Kandy: BPS, 1999, p. 28.

pavattati). Beings incessantly continue to wander in the round of birth and death because of the interdependent nature of these two factors. In this connection, the characteristic of consciousness is always to find the object for its footing or resting place for its continuous existence. Meanwhile, the object as a resting place of consciousness is none other than mentality-materiality. Just like the existence of consciousness depends on the mentality-materiality, in the same way, the latter being held by consciousness continues to exist.43 Since consciousness always gets mentality-materiality as its footing, at the same time, mentality-materiality continues to exist because of the virtue of consciousness, and as a result, life- becoming (bhava) never ends. Hence, the development of bare attention is highly needed to cut off their play. In this practice, the mind is trained not to attach to mentality-materiality. Consciousness along with bare attention just observes mentality-materiality with a detached attitude, independent, and without clinging. This mental development provides a training for the mind not to attach to any arising object. If, by means of this practice, consciousness finds no footing on the mentality-materiality, then the latter is unable to continue to exist, and in turn, the consciousness which does not get its resting-place also disappears. Here, the mind finds freedom.

Conclusion

Although a specific explanation of the method of improving the mind through bare attention is not found in the

43 D. II. 63-64.

Pāli Canon, from various data discussed above, the study of this mental training can be traced to the same canon. Generally, Buddhist scholars agree that bare attention finds its equivalent characteristic in the Buddhist philosophical term named “sati”, which is commonly translated as “mindfulness”. Since the inner quality of sati is taken as an important factor in the development of insight meditation (vipassanabhavanā), the mental training of bare attention is itself vipassanabhavanā. Thus, sati, vipassanabhavanā and bare attention refer to the same method of mental cultivation. The general understanding of mindfulness is that it is the ability to recall what has been done and spoken long ago. However, in the mental development of insight meditation, mindfulness is utilized for continuously remembering or being aware of what is presently happening with regards to body and mind, without interfering with them or creating agitation, through liking or disliking them. Due to this task carried out by mindfulness in insight meditation, the same mindfulness is popularly known as bare attention or bare awareness. By bare attention which is the unalloyed quality of mindfulness, one’s mind is unhindered by mental bias while observing any object, thereby paving the way for the arising of knowledge of what is beneficial and what is harmful with regard to one’s experience of the moment. The knowledge obtained along with bare attention is called “sampajañña”. Together with it, bare attention plays its function in balancing inner qualities, cutting off unwholesome mental states, guiding one to always be on the right track, and ultimately leading one to arrive at one’s final spiritual destination, i.e liberation (nibbāna).

Abbreviation A Aṅguttaranikāya AA Aṅguttaranikāya D Dīghānikāya DA Dīghānikāya Aṭṭhakathā Dhp M Majjhimanikāya Mil Milindapañha P Page Pts. M Paṭisambhidāmagga S Saṃyuttanikāya SA Saṃyuttanikāya Aṭṭhakathā Sn Suttanipāta SnA Suttanipāta Aṭṭhakathā Ud Udāna Vism Visuddhimagga

Bibliography

1. All Pāli terms as well as data from commentarial literatures are taken from Chaṭṭha Saṅgayana CD. See: CSCD Version 3.0. India: Vipassana Research Institute, 1999. 2. Anālayo. Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization. Sri Lanka: BPS, 2003.

3. Bodhi, Bhikkhu. Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha (A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma). Kandy: BPS, 1999. 4. ______. The Connected Discourses of the Buddha (Saṃyuttanikāya), Vol. I, II. Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2000. 5. ______. The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (Majjhimanikāya). Kandy: BPS, 1995. 6. ______. The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (Aṅguttaranikāya). Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2012. 7. Goldstein, Joseph and Jack Kornfield. Seeking the Heart of Wisdom: The Path of Insight Meditation. Boston: Shambala South Asia Editions, 1987. 8. Ireland, John D. The Udāna, Inspired Utterances of the Buddha. Kandy: BPS, 1990. 9. Jayawickrama, N. A. Suttanipāta, Text and Translation. Colombo: The Postgraduate Institute of and Buddhist Studies, University of Kelaniya, 2001. 10. Khantipalo, Bhikkhu. Calm and Insight: A Buddhist Manual for Meditators. London: Curzon Press Ltd, 1981. 11. Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu. The Path of Discrimination (Paṭisambhidāmagga). London: PTS, 1991. 12. ______. The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga). Kandy: BPS, 1999. 13. Ñāṇananda, Bhikkhu. Concept and Reality in the Buddhist Thought. Kandy: BPS, 1997.

14. Thera, Narada. Dhammapada. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Culture Centre, 2000. 15. Thera, Nyanaponika. The Power of Mindfulness. Sri Lanka: BPS, 2005. 16. Walshe, Maurice. The Long Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Dīghanikāya. Kandy: BPS, 1996. 17. Weissman, S and Weissman, R. Meditation, Compassion and Loving Kindness. Maine: Samuel Weiser Inc, 1996.

“Applied Mindfulness” – A Change Management Tool for Buddhist Leaders

Kim Leung Darga, Ph.D

Introduction

Countries in the ASEAN region have experienced a lowering of the number of people, especially among the younger generation who follows Buddhism, consequently, with even less who practice meditation. This paper proposes a management perspective to Buddhist leaders on how to effect change by using “Applied Mindfulness” as a Change Management tool in response to the above challenge, through the case study of Prof. Jon Kabat-Zinn and his meditation program, Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction program (MBSR). It should be clearly noted that this paper will not discuss the central theories and practice of meditation, but will focus on how to apply mindfulness in secular activities, in this case, in management. As managers and leaders have little time for sitting meditation, applying mindfulness in their daily activities, and in this case, while carrying out a change program, will help them to enjoy the benefits of meditation. We shall look at the modern management process of how a specialized concept can be developed from a local

outreach, to grow regional, and expand into other fields. This will be done through the case study of Prof. Jon Kabat-Zinn, who has developed the meditation program, Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction program or “MBSR” in the US in 1979. He has largely contributed to the popularization of the concept of “mindfulness” in America, making it into a common health promoting practice. On the other hand, with time it has also developed into a highly sought after trendy “corporate management” tool. The management lessons extracted from this case study will be analysed to see whether they conform to Buddhist teachings and can be used in “Applied Meditation” practice in the Buddhist context in ASEAN countries.

Overview of Mindfulness Meditation

Many renowned teachers and academics have taught, proved and written about the benefits of meditation for the self and for the world. These benefits cover a broad spectrum, from simple relaxation, to the development of physical and mental skills and talents, to the acquisition of deep spiritual powers, and to final enlightenment. Meditation is not unique to Buddhism, they are available in all religions and spiritual practices. In general, these other practices are however based on either a theistic concept and/or a soul concept. Buddhism is based on neither of them, making it suitable for a more scientific oriented world, which seeks truth through tangible proofs. Most meditation methods either develop concentration “samatha” or insight “vipassana”; whereas some programs make use of

both.44 It is dependent upon the final outcome wished for, on the personalities of the practitioners and available meditation teachers and their techniques.

Case Study: Jon Kabat-Zinn and the MBSR program

This case study is taken from an article written by Mary Skykes Wylie 45 onthe Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program devised by Jon Kabat - Zinn46 in the United States. Jon Kabat-Zinn is Professor of Medicine Emeritus and founder of the Stress Reduction Clinic, and Center for Mindulness in Medicine, Health Care and Society at the University of Massachusetts Medical School. He was then a molecular biologist lecturing at the above university, and a student of meditation with 13-years experience. In 1979, he decides to bring mindfulness meditation and yoga to people with chronic health problems in the United States. He manages to introduce into a western highly selective medical environment, the totally “foreign” and “unscientific” Buddhist practice of mindfulness meditation. Today, after 35 years, mindfulness meditation has become not only a regular western health method, but also one of the most “sought after” management tool by corporate America’s leaders and in the global world. The MBSR is a program which is managed over 8

44 M. III. 290. 45 Mary Skykes Wylie, 2015,How the Mindfulness Movement Went Mainstream, www.alternet.org 46 Center for Mindfulness, www.umassmed.edu

weeks with daily practice of 2.5 to 3.5 hours, consisting of 45 minutes class and the rest in self-practice, and an all day silent retreat in the sixth week. The meditation techniques are the usual techniques propounded in the Sutta, and combines other techniques as taught by different Buddhist teachers such as Mahasi, and Goenka. The “formal” meditation methods used are: Body Scan Meditation, Hatha Yoga, a body exercise practiced with mindful awareness of the body, Sitting Meditation based on mindfulness of breath, body, feelings, thoughts, emotions and choiceless awareness, as well as Walking Meditation.47 The practitioners are asked to apply mindfulness in their daily chores, i.e Applied Meditation. Individual and group meetings explore the hindrances to the development and integration of mindfulness according to individual capacities. Before and at the end of the program, participants are assessed, and they also carry out self- evaluations. The group is encouraged to continue its mindfulness and activities.

The MBSR Management Process

The crux of this paper is not about the meditation techniques or the program itself, but the change management process used to spread this concept throughout America, to other parts of the world, and from the health sector into the corporate world. The aim is to see what management lessons can be extracted from this case study, whether they are concordant with Buddhist teachings, and whether Buddhist

47Satipatthana Sutta and .

leaders can use them as Applied Meditation tools. As mentioned in the introduction, leaders often find no time for extended sitting meditation. Thus their solution for meditation practice, would be to actually apply “mindfulness” in their daily activities. The following is an investigation into the history of the MBSR program.

The Mission

In 1979, Prof. Jon Kabat - Zinn decides to bring meditation and yoga to the medical sector in the US. It appears an impossible mission to convince one of America’s most respected scientificinstitution, but he manages to set up a pilot project in the university/hospital where he works. The program is short term, no one is forced to join, there is little financial outlay and all stakeholders are reassured that there is no risk. He works on the group’s real needs, speaks in terms they understand, gives clear explanations of results to avoid false illusions, demands discipline and self motivation, coaches individually and in group. At the end, the quick wins are assessed and success of the program proved. To offer the program to the general public requires a good understanding of the barriers and to be clear about the end result. With an acceptable method for the target market, Jon Kabat-Zinn manages to convince hospitals and doctors about his program, by using a language which is totally unrelated to Buddhism and to religion. For the next 20 years, almost alone he will do research, analyse, document and publish his works, until the academic

community finally picks it up, and there are nowadays many researchers in this field. Success is confirmed after 30 years investment and patients with chronic diseases are often referred to this program by doctors today, trendsetters such as universities and public figures participate in MBSR workshops, but above all leaders in the corporate world in the States have actively integrated the MBSR to boost up the efficiency and management of their teams.

The Context

In 1979, the US is coming out of the difficult Vietnam war. Precursors to Jon Kabat-Zinn, Maharishi who taught hindu meditation, and Goenka, and Mahasi who taught Buddhist meditation are already teaching in the US. The from Tibet is on his first visit to the US and is a great success due partly to his interest in science. As the voice of researchers and of the scientific world is very powerful, they have to be enlisted. Media is actively interested and promotes the MBSR concept and through their award to Kabat-Zinn makes his mindfulness meditation program better known and accepted.

Dissension

However, “Tradition Masters” disagree with this commercial use of mindfulness, which to them does not hold the essence of the Buddha’s Teachings. Some researchers also disagree on the effectiveness of the program finding the data

collection not rigorous enough. Media often exaggerates some parts of the program and managers and corporate leaders use the program for greater financial performance. The ordinary users take meditation as a panacea for all their wishes. However, practitioners who really believe in the effectiveness of the program find that authenticity or traditional views do not matter. What matters most to them is getting what they want.

APPLIED MINDFULNESS - MANAGEMENT LESSONS Change Management - Nothing Permanent

Early Buddhism teaches about the three realities of existence, the Tilakkhana, the first one is about the impermanence of all phenomena; nothing is fixed nor permanent in this world. Everything undergoes change and gets altered or decays, and dies and becomes again. Impermanent are all component things, They arise and cease, that is their nature: They come into being and pass away, Release from them is bliss supreme.48 Buddhism is itself the result of this impermanence of existence, being the change brought by the Buddha to the Indian society 2500 years ago. He first had a vision of the suffering of sickness, old age and death, and on the other hand saw the serenity of a yogi in full meditation. He was resolved to attain that state where he will be above those sorrows and to

48D. 16. 1 ff.

find the way to end the sufferings of beings. 49 Thus having had his vision and decided on his mission, he set out to find the method to accomplish his objective. After attaining enlightenment, although at first reluctant to teach, the Buddha finally shared his findings with his five ascetic friends. The Buddha had embarked on what today would be called a change management program. The analysis of the case study of Jon Kabat-Zinn and the MBSR program is definitely a perfect case of change management. Change management is the process and activities through which people within an organization acquire new values, attitudes and behaviors in order to do their work differently and overcome any resistance. It also involves bringing all stakeholders: from customers, suppliers to organization leaders to agree on specific changes required so as to better suit their needs. Other activities included in making the transition from one state to another or one structure to another are planning, testing and implementing. The Society for Human Resource Managers defines it as “The systematic approach and application of knowledge, tools and resources to deal with change. Change management means defining and adopting corporate strategies, structures, procedures and technologies to deal with changes in external conditions and the business environment.”50 The first concept in a change management program is the vision and the mission which will drive the change, and always be the guiding principle, and which must not be forgotten, so that the project remains on course. In the story

49Narada, Ven. Mahatera,2010, The Buddha and His Teachings, Buddhist Publication Society, Sri Lanka, 3rd edition, p. 6-7. 50 SHRM Glossary of Human Resources Terms, www.shrm.org.

told by Ven. Narada, it is a Brahma51 who reminds the Buddha after coming out enlightened from his long meditation, that he has to liberate others through his teachings. The Brahma is the symbol of the mindfulness which has to be present so as not to forget the objective of the program. The second concept is pilot testing, that is, to bring together a small group who can understand the project, “who have little dust in their eyes”52, and are willing to undergo the experience, as the 5 ascetics. The program at this stage is usually carried out with little financial outlay. The Buddha’s philosophy about the management of new projects is to start small, as in the Cullaka Setthi Jataka53 who starts his project with a dead mouse. Leaders can learn quite a few principles in this third concept of a change management program which is about opening the program to a larger public and tailoring it to their needs, speaking in a language which they can understand and identify with. In the PotthapadaSutta 54 , Ven. Thanissaro explains how the Buddha has the skill to adapt the terms of the discussion of the day, and the language of his interlocutors to his own purposes on the practice of all evicting suffering. At the end of the sutta, the Buddha describes the terms he has used in his discussion with Potthapada as “the world’s designations, the world’s expressions, the world’s ways of speaking, the world’s descriptions, with which the Tathagata

51Narada, Ven. p. 36. 52Narada, Ven , p. 36. 53 Jataka 4. 54 D. I. 178 ff.

expresses himself but without grasping at them.” In the Visuddhimagga,55 it is clear that there are different types of personalities and meditation themes are given according to the needs of each type. In Buddhism, the Lotus in the Parable of the Burning House discusses the use of Upaya-kaushalya, “skill in means” – a concept which permits the practitioner to use methods or techniques mindfully according to the situation, even if it is not ultimately “true”,in order to gain enlightenment. In Buddhism, upaya is the Buddha’s ability to teach at different levels of understanding of the learners. The Nava Sutta of Sutta Nipata mentions that the one who knows Dhamma is like the skillful boatman who is able to ferry others across a dangerous river.56 This can be interpreted as one who has the moral ability and insight to apply Dhamma according to the situation. The fourth concept is open communication flow between program leaders and participants to clear hindrances, misunderstandings and false illusions. The Kalama Sutta57 advises practitioners to test any view or belief through practice and with yonisomanasikara or appropriate attention, and to have the results checked by people who are wise, Kalyamitta, or admirable friends. Soma Thera is of the opinion that “the spirit of the sutta signifies a teaching that is exempt from fanaticism, bigotry, dogmatism, and intolerance.” 58 The

55Visuddhimagga, Buddhist Publication Society, 4th ed. 2010,chapter 111 74, p 96 56 S. II.8. 57 A. 3.65, A. I. 188. 58 Soma Thera, Kalama Sutta – The Buddha’s Charter of Free Inquiry,www.accesstoinsight.org

Buddha’s management style was more of a democratic nature: meetings were with shared authority, distributed responsibility, balanced participation, and decision aspiring to consensus.59 He also favoured small group meetings in which opinions can be voiced out when disputes arise. There were also dialectic exchange so that members could find common grounds in order to reach the ultimate objective. The fifth concept in change management is the duration of the program which should be geared to the needs of the target group. People living in this modern world wants everything fast with quick wins and always need to be reassured of success. They are programmed to become like this, and the computerized system in which they live, makes them want everything at a click. Once the Buddha advised a monk who was impatient and wanted to quit because of too many rules to learn, to just keep his mind clear, and to forget about the rules. The monk did and soon found enlightenment. In the Satipatthana Sutta,60 it is said that enlightenment is assured from 7 days to 7 years. It is understandable why leaders have difficulty to convince youths to engage in meditation, as the latter also believe that it is too difficult and takes a long time to reap the benefits. The sixth concept deals with evaluation to measure change. In change programs, management is required to show whether the target set has been attained. Sila which are the 5

59Thich Nhat Hanh, 2003. Creating True Peace: Ending Violence in Yourself, Your Family, Your Community, and the World, New York: Free Press. 60M. I. 55.

or 8 precepts which are to be kept mindfully by laypeople are a means to help them develop their morality, which is one of the three bases with concentration and wisdom to achieve liberation from suffering. The Buddhist monastic code holds 227 rules and 311 rules for nuns are also tools to help monastics protect their practice on their path to enlightenment. It is thus possible for the meditation practitioners to do self- evaluation, clear their mistakes, and easily restart again except in major problem cases.

Management of Interconnectedness – everything is devoid of a self

The second reality of the Tilakhanna is Anatta which is the theory that everything is devoid of a self. It is the denial of the existence of an unchanged substance, or essence, but considered more as conditioned processes. “If all things are dependently originated, then it follows that nothing has an independent self-hood.”61 Therefore the way human beings occur is not as independent selves, but is a result of a dependently originated world of experience. The same applies for a management program, project or organization, as they do not occur with an independent self, but arise within an environment and are connected to all in that environment. Mindfulness and meditation helps to see this interconnected reality and there is no independent self. Thus the world of scientists and researchers, media, predecessors and

61 Sue Hamilton-Blyth, 2013,Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder, Routledge, p. 22

contemporaries, customers of the program are all related and this interconnectedness must be mindfully managed. This concept is well explained in Mahayana Buddhism, in the Avatamsaka Sutra – The Jewel Net of Indra, a metaphor for emptiness and interpenetration of all phenomena, demonstrating the principles of Interdependent Origination. Research and publishing is important in that field, as the program has to be validated, in order to remove doubt about the efficacy of the program. The Akuppa Sutta62 states that for a monk to be unshakeable, he must attain “the discrimination of meanings, … discrimination of principles, … discrimination of language, … discrimination of the illuminating qualities of knowledge, and reflects upon the mind as liberated”. All things being interdependent, therefore the management of this interconnectedness is crucial, and that is the reason why the mindfulness program, MBSR, had to go through the same test with researchers and scientists to be fully accepted and integrated in America’s medical field. Buddhist leaders have to be aware that young people today are more scientifically oriented and demand proofs of truth before engaging themselves into certain activities which traditionally they would have done. The mindful use of media and management of interconnectedness with media people is also important as they are the ones who can inform, and bring together the people who need the program’s help. When Anattapindika invitesh is 500 friends to join him to listen to the Buddha63, or encourages

62A. 5. 95. 63Apannaka Jataka.

the people along the route to Savatthi to receive the Buddha in a respectful way, he is acting as a media relay, which today would be done through advertising, or creating an event or recruiting64on Facebook. The principle of media awards and other recognition awards is not unknown to Buddhism, as the Buddha himself attributed these honours to his followers and monks. Ven. Upali was designated as the authority on theVinaya, the disciplinary rules of the Buddhist community; whereas Visaka was the Leader among the female lay disciples of the Buddha.65 To obtain the support of public figures or “heroes” was also a practice during the Buddha’s time, for example, King Bimbisara of Magadha was a famous and great supporter of Buddhism.66 Predecessors and contemporaries are also part of the ecosystem in which a person or an institution evolves, and the interconnectedness managed bygiving them the appropriate consideration and respect. Sakyamuni Buddha, the Buddha in the present eon, speaks of the past Buddhas who came, and the future who will appear. He proclaims that his teachings have only been uncovered, but had existed before. He acknowledges his own teachers and the other teachers of his time, although he did not agree with their theories. Leaders can easily forget about this and would certainly benefit from meditating on this fact, if they wish to rally the youths around them.

64Donghua Temple, 1500 years temple recruits through social media and it goes viral. www.worldreligionnews.com 65A.IV. 348. 66Samannaphala Sutta, D. 2.

The management of interconnectedness means that there is a deep understanding and caring about what happens to others around us, and in the global world. It is as important as caring about ourselves for in this very fathom-long body is “the world, the arising of the world, the ending of the world and the way leading to the ending of the world”.67

Resilience Management –Unsatisfactoriness

The third reality of existence, the Tilakkhana, is dukkha, which will be translated as unsatisfactoriness. As there is nothing which is permanent, and since all things are interconnected, life becomes a continuous changing flux, with context and human relationships always in perpetual transformation. People and most organizational leadershardly realize this reality of life and believe that happiness will be achieved when they attain the permanent stability of the objectives they have set. There will always be the eight worldly conditions – gain and loss, disrepute and fame, blame and praise, and pleasure and pain.68 Dissensions, oppositions, people having different views coexist alongside with cooperation, teamwork, and people having the same objectives. It is the belief in enduring states which causes suffering, unsatisfactoriness. The major breakthrough which the Buddha has brought to this world is the understanding that life is only a continuous changing flux, there is nothing permanent, not even the I. Stability lies in the consciousness of

67S. 2.26. 68A. 8.6.

all that is in the present instant and this is achieved through mindfulness. Resilience, the quality of being able to remain balanced and stable or achieve equanimity in Buddhist terminology, is then developed. This can be more easily achieved in meditation. Therefore, the art of resilience management is to manage mindfulness over longer periods to develop higher resilience which consequently decreases the level of unsatisfactoriness or dukkha. Most leaders are aware of this reality: opposing voices will always exist, however, it requires wisdom that they are simply calls to view situations with different perspectives. Opposition and conflicts arise when each side believes that theirs is the only right view and imposes their views consciously or unconsciously. Devadatta is portrayed as the archrival of the Buddha in the scriptures for opposing the Buddha’s instructions.69One step used in conflict resolution is to use mindfulness to hear each other’s views and objectives. Understanding the other’s perspective does not mean being in agreement with that view, and stopping at that level does not solve the conflict or problem that is causing unhappiness. The more difficult step is to come to a compromise or when that is not possible, not to continue blaming, whilst being able to accept being blamed by the other side. This can only be achieved through a deeper understanding of the realities of life, by being mindful and building up resilience. When Devadatta came with his proposition that the whole sangha should live more frugally and stay in meditation away far from the laypeople and society, the Buddha managed a compromise,

69 It. 18.

and gave the monks the choice of how they wished to lead their lives. There are some scholars who believe that Devadatta is one of the precursors of today’s forest meditation tradition.70And the Buddha, in his great wisdom, himself predicted that in the distant future, Devadatta, after much repentance, will become a Pacceka Buddha.71 In summary, the management lessons extracted from the case study on Jon Kabat-Zinn and the MBSR are with regards to Change management, Management of Interrelatedness and Resilience Management. All three together in Buddhist terminology are related to the concept of Tilakkhana or the three realities of existence which are impermanence, non-self, and unsatisfactoriness. As discussed at the beginning of this paper, applied meditation is the mindfulness that is carried into the daily activities. In management activities, leaders need to be mindful of the impermanence of situations and how to manage change; to be mindful of the interrelatedness of all people and situations, and how to manage these relationships. Finally one has to be mindful and develop resilience when there is criticism, opposition and dissension as they are part of the changing flux of the whole process of life. Seeing the arising and falling of the changing nature, the interrelatedness, and the unsatisfactoriness in our daily management activities is Applied meditation.

70 Arvind Kumar Singh, Schism in Early Buddhist Sangha and Role of Devadatta as Depicted in the Pali Tipitaka, http://buddhismandaustralia.com 71Saddharmapundarika chap xi.

Is the “Applied Mindfulness”- change management tool appropriate for Buddhist leaders in the ASEAN region?

There are many change management techniques, which are more or less the same and which are already taught and applied in the ASEAN countries and in the world. Buddhist leaders have this extraordinary device which is called “Applied Mindfulness” to help them in their change processes. Applied Mindfulness is used in conjunction with secular management techniques and with full dhamma understanding, and brings about a transformed attitude in our management activities. This is how any activity which is carried out with applied mindfulness, will lead to higher insight, wisdom, and is called enlightened activity. Even the busiest of leaders, managers, or anyone who has little time for sitting meditation, can apply these “mindfulness” while working or studying, or in any activity, because the activity itself, becomes the object of the meditation. The different countries in the ASEAN region are at different stages of development in their Buddhist organizational set up. Some are at the beginning of one cycle while others are booming and others are about to end and restart again. Some will readily use this tool, while others will be more reluctant. Since Buddhist leaders are looking for different solutions to the difficulty of motivating young people to do meditation, Applied Mindfulness is a tool which can be used to help them in successful Change Management. The best method to test the applicability of this tool is to start with a small pilot project.

The Schopenhauer Cure and the Four Noble Truths: A Comparative Study of Schopenhauer & Buddha Perspectives on Human Liberation

Naw Kham La Dhammasami, Ph.D

Prelude Throughout history, human freedom or liberation has been a poignant philosophical discourse. There have been many religious leaders, psychologists, and philosophical thinkers who expounded theories and taught about it. Buddha and Schopenhauer are two such people. According to Schopenhauer and Buddha, all human beings, whatever their race or country, are subject to suffering (dukkha), i. e., they suffer from disease, decay, death and anguish in various forms. Because this is such a universal malady common to all humanity, both the Buddha and Schopenhauer advocated a remedy that can be obtained by all mankind without any distinction. Some scholars have taken Schopenhauer for his word when he claimed that his philosophy was fundamentally the same as Buddhism. In this research study, comparison will be drawn between the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism and some of the Key Themes in Schopenhauer’s Centre of Philosophy.

The Piṭaka (Vinaya, Vol. I. 10 ff) Sutta Piṭaka (Saṃyutta Nikāya, Vol. V. 420 ff; Saṃyukta Āgama. 379 ff, Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 2, No. 99) will be utilized as a primary source for the Buddhist aspect of the concept. Other sources will also be thoroughly examined. With regard to the Schopenhauer aspect the following of his six books will be used as primary sources: “On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason; The World as Will and Representation; Parerga and Paralipomena; The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics and Early Manuscripts. Books written by other authors on Schopenhauer’s philosophy will also be discussed.

Definition of Liberation

Before discussing early Buddhist and Schopenhauer’s ideas on liberation or freedom, let us determine precisely what is meant by these terms. The definition of liberation varies in different societies and in different times. And it has changed from time to time according to their needs and goals. However, it has common factors that are beyond space and time. Oxford English Dictionary (2006) meanings of the term “liberation” state that liberation (noun) means “to be freed or change from not having freedom to having freedom.” A major use of the word is the act of the (forcible) removal of unwanted control of an area, person or people by an outside (sometimes military) force. Some have used the term to refer to the removal of sexual inhibitions. These criteria can now be applied to conditions described in our Buddhist materials to determine the extent to

which they conform to the criteria above. According to Buddhism, there are two kinds of liberation (Pāli: mutti, vimutti, 72 mokkha). 73 One is mundane liberation (lokiya- vimutti),74 that refers to the worldly aspect of liberation, which is freedom from unwanted things. The second, supra-mundane liberation (lokuttara-vimutti)75 is used to describe the complete removal of the kilesas or āsavas.76 In other words, the practice of the Buddhist path evolves in two distinct stages, a mundane (lokiya) or preparatory stage and a supramundane (lokuttara) or consummate stage. The mundane path is developed when the disciple undertakes the gradual training in virtue, concentration, and wisdom. This reaches its peak in the practice of insight meditation, which deepens direct experience of the three characteristics of existence. When the practitioner’s faculties have arrived at an adequate degree of maturity, the mundane path gives birth to the supramundane path, so called because it leads directly and infallibly out of (lokuttara) the world (loka) comprising the three realms of existence to the attainment of “the deathless element,” Nibbāna.

72 Paṭisambhidāmagga. II. 143. Majjhima Nikāya Aṭṭhakathā (Samantapāsādikā). IV. 168. 73 Rhys Davida, T. W and William Stede, eds., “Mutti, vimutti,” “Mokkha,” Pāli Text Society: pp. 537, 541. 74 Aṅguttara Nikāya (hereafter A). I. 152; Dhammasaṅgaṇī. 193. 75 Ibid. 76 Āsava: literally meaning influxes, but common translations are cankers, taints, corruptions, intoxicants and biases. There are four kinds of Āsava, Kāmasava (sense-desire), bhavāsava (desiring of existence), diṭṭhāsava (wrong-views) and avijjāsava (ignorance). Vibhaṅga. 373.

Regarding mundane liberation, mention has been made in numerous Buddhist sources, such as Ambaṭṭha Sutta, Soṇadanḍa Sutta in the Dīgha Nikāya; Madhurā Sutta, Kaṇṇakattha Sutta, Assalāyana Sutta, Esukāri Sutta in the Majjhima Nikāya, and Vāseṭṭha, Vasala Sutta of Sutta-nipāta. These suttas mention discussions of traditional Indian society on the well-known four castes priest (brāhmaṇa), warrior (khattiya), merchant (vessa), and slave (sudda). The claim of the Brāhmanic caste as being the highest among them was challenged by the Khattiyas, as their power increased as rulers of society, taking the vanguard in the fight against this Brāhmanic attitude. The Buddha’s main argument against caste was that no man could be superior or inferior in society merely by reason of his birth. He clearly pointed out that the position of man in society depended on his conduct. This meant that it was a person’s attitude and behaviour (kamma) which made a man superior or inferior.77 The Buddha’s approach was thus based on knowledge and ethics. 78 The outward behaviour of a person who is morally superior, is a result of his inward knowledge and it is that kind of person that the Buddha described as being endowed with true knowledge and practice (vijjācaraṇa) and it is he who is the best both among men and gods.79 It is, mover, pointed out by Buddha that any prejudice of caste is an obstacle in the way of salvation. It is clearly

77 Na jaccā vasalo hoti, na jaccā hoti brāhmano, kammanā vasalo hoti, kammanā hoti brāhmaṇo. Vasala Sutta, Sutta-nipāta. 136. 78 Vijjācaraṇasampanno so seṭṭho devamānuse. Dīgha Nikāya. I. 99; Majjhima Nikāya. II. 148-154. 79 Dīgha Nikāya (hereafter D). I. 99.

regarded as a bondage. Buddha addressing Ambattha says: “Whatsoever, Ambattha, is bound by caste-prejudice… is far removed from the way of the highest salvation. By casting aside the bound of caste-prejudice, Ambattha, the highest salvation is realised.” 80 This theory is directly related to mundane liberation. Another example of mundane liberation, can be seen in Dīgha Nikāya. It is the rejection of rituals of animal sacrifices as practised during the time of the Buddha, in Indian society.81 Rituals are a societal convention and can be perceived as chains to liberation.82 Yet another Sutta, dealing with mundane liberation known to Buddhism is the doctrine of Vinaya. The Buddha set the rule for anyone joining his Order, to obtain prior permission from those concerned, whether it be parents, masters, creditors, or from the King’s service, thus setting them free from their worldly responsibilities.83 Women were another group of people who suffered under the male dominated by Brāhman society. It was believed that women are both morally and intellectually low and they cannot reach high intellectual or moral standards attained by men. Therefore they were confined very much to domestic activity. According to a Brahman saying women never deserve to be independent; as children they must be kept under parents, as young-women must be kept under husband, as old-women

80 Ibid., I. 99-100. 81 Na kho ahaṃ brāhmaṇa sabbaṃ yaññaṃ vaṇṇemi na panāhaṃ brāhmaṇa sabbaṃ yaññaṃ na vaṇṇemi. A. II. 42. 82 Kūṭadanta Sutta, D. 5. 83 Mahāvagga, I. 41-61.

they must be kept under their sons. Brahmans very specifically say that in order for women to be born in heaven, they do not need any specific religious rite or ritual other than treating their husband well. Due to the influence of this belief, women under Brahman society were very much kept away from the moral and intellectual domain. The Buddha again does not think that there is a difference between men and women in so far as their intellectual ability is concerned. Indian society believes that a woman’s wisdom is only two inches long (davangula- paññāya).84 When someone asked a nun (bhikkhunī) “How can women attain high spiritual states usually attained by men?” The nun replied: “Itthibhāvo no kiṁ kayira cittamhi susamāhite ñānamhi vattamanamhi samma dhammam vipasato.85 What harm can our womanhood do when our minds are well concentrated and when we have wisdom to see things as they really are.” This statement exemplifies the Buddhist attitude towards women. Therīgāthā is a good example for the kind of spiritual attainment women realize within Buddhism. In India, there is no ritual or ceremonial need for a son and the birth of a daughter need not be a cause for grief. It is well known that the Buddha consoled king Pasenadi who came to him grieving that his queen, Mallikā, had given birth

84 Bhagavadgītā. IX. 32. See also Altekar, A. S., The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization (Delhi: South Asia Books, 2nd edition 2005), p. 204 f. 85 Saṃyutta Nikāya (hereafter S). I. 129. See also Therīgāthā.

to a daughter. “A female offspring, O king, may prove even nobler than a male…” a revolutionary statement for his time.86 In the examples above, the Buddha had proposed two means of liberation: mundane liberation (lokiya-vimutti) and supra-mundane liberation (lokuttara-vimutti) with an emphasis on the latter. Now if we are to look at Schopenhauer’s definition of liberation, he rightly pointed out, “liberation or freedom can be understood as (1) physical freedom, (2) intellectual freedom, and (3) moral freedom. Schopenhauer sets intellectual freedom aside, to be dealt with subsequently. He only concentrates on physical freedom and moral freedom. Physical freedom is described by Schopenhauer as the absence of material obstacles. In Schopenhauer’s words: “[…] in this physical meaning of the concept of freedom, animals and men are called free when their actions are not hindered by any physical or material obstacles- such as fetters, or prison, or paralysis- but proceed in accordance with their will” 87 This concept, physical freedom, is well-understood and philosophically unproblematic. It is important to note, for the purpose of our discussion on this subject that Schopenhauer, although he has often spoken of intellectual freedom, yet does not clearly describe what it means .As far as we understand, it is quite similar to

86S. I. 86. Itthihi pi ekācciyā seyyā. See I. B. Horner., Women under Primitive Buddhism, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 2007). 87 Schopenhauer, Arthur., Essay on the Freedom of the Will, Konstantin Kolenda., trans. (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 2005), p. 4.

moral freedom. So for our presentation we will be unable to aptly account for his description of intellectual freedom. Schopenhauer however, does offer an account of Moral freedom. With regard to moral freedom, “restraint” is not a physical obstacle, but is being caused by “mere motives such as threats, promises, dangers, and the like” 88 Schopenhauer’s conception of moral freedom is hard to grasp. So in order to figure out what he is getting at we have adapted, from a variety of his discussions, an illustrative example to demonstrate his conception of what moral freedom is. Let us take, for example, a Jewellery store clerk who is a good law-abiding citizen who becomes the victim of a threat by a violent crook. Let us suppose that this crook were to threaten to harm the Jewellery store clerk and her family if she did not arrange to bring him a large amount of valuable jewels from the store’s vault. The Jewellery store clerk, because of her fear of harm to herself and her family under the crook’s threat, “steals” the jewels from the vault. This example not only illustrates what Schopenhauer means by moral freedom, but it also points directly at one of the core issues of free will. Schopenhauer would suggest that our Jewellery store clerk was not having her freedom to act as she was being hindered by an obstacle. He suggests that “a motive [such as a threat] can never act in the same way as a physical obstacle”89and that “while a motive can never be irresistible in

88 Ibid., p. 5. 89 Ibid., p. 5.

itself and has no absolute power [it] can always be offset by a stronger counter motive, provided that such a counter motive is present and that the particular man can be determined by it.”90 There was no immediate physical obstacle hindering her and the Jewellery store clerk was free to do as she willed. If she willed to steal, then she could steal. If she was more strongly motivated to uphold the law she could have willed to call the police and done so. There is no question of the clerk’s freedom to act because she was not being physically opposed. The clerk was free to follow whichever motive she willed more. Moral freedom addresses whether or not the clerk was free to evaluate the personal motives that constitute her will in determining her action. Was she free to will what she willed? In this case we have to ask if she was free to determine for herself which motivation to follow. The question is about whether or not we are free to will which motivation to act upon. Schopenhauer describes how one’s will to live could be outweighed by other motives such as “sacrificing one’s life for another” and dying for ones “convictions.”91 So our clerk here had her motive not to be a thief offset by the stronger counter motive to preserve her life and the life of her family. Here is where free will is a problematic issue. Did the Jewellery store clerk really have any moral freedom? Given her character, past experiences, and the situation in which she found herself, would it be possible for her to be more strongly motivated to call the police than to give in to the crook?

90 Ibid., p. 5. 91 Ibid., p. 5.

Perhaps she is not morally free. To act differently than she did might require her to have been a different person, or have required some aspect of the situation to be different. So, now we have seen how Schopenhauer described two different kinds of freedom. In this discussion of the two freedoms he has indicated that the conception of freedom shifts from being in respect to ability of action, as is the case regarding physical freedom, to the conception of freedom in relation to willing as in the case of moral freedom. He asks if the will itself is free. Schopenhauer suggests that in order to talk about the freedom of willing one needs to modify the concept of freedom from its original empirical meaning to a more abstract interpretation of the concept. An abstract conception of freedom would then not refer to being free of hindrance but rather being free of necessity. Understanding this distinction between being free of obstacles and being free of necessity is important in the context of what he goes on to present. When talking about freedom of willing he suggests that the will cannot be dependant on any ground, that is, “it is in no respect necessary.”92 He then considers: – Free will is not determined by any grounds. Everything that determines another (e.g. will) must be a ground. Therefore, free will is a groundless ground, and the act of willing “proceed [s] absolutely and quite originally from the will itself,” that is, it is free of necessity.93

92 Ibid., p. 7. 93 Ibid., p. 8.

This discussion leads Schopenhauer to use the term “liberum arbitrium indifferentiae”94 which means quite crudely the inexplicable ability to generate an act of will without grounds for the action. He says that the action of generating action out of nothing is the “only clearly defined, firm, and positive concept of that which is called freedom of the will.” He goes on to say that there is a “peculiar feature” of free will, it is that human beings, who have the ability to generate action out of nothing, make it possible “under given external conditions which are thoroughly determined in every particular” for “two diametrically opposed actions [to be] equally possible.”95 It is with that idea that Schopenhauer leads us to his discussion of consciousness. Before he can clearly define consciousness he has to illustrate that there are two types. There is the consciousness of one’s own self that is in contrast to the consciousness of other things. Simply, Schopenhauer is indicating self-consciousness is whatever is left over after we have removed the consciousness of other things, things known through cognition, things that are understood and/or known by reason. We realize our self-consciousness when we subtract cognition because all that remains is an awareness of our own “emotions and passions.” Emotions and passions such as “desiring, striving, wishing, demanding, longing, hoping, rejoicing […]”96 etc. are all aspects of the will. He suggests (in

94 Ibid., p. 9. 95 Ibid., p. 9. 96 Ibid., p. 11.

the following quotation) that these aspects of the will, our emotions and passions, which are part of our self- consciousness, are always closely connected to objects in the external world. These emotions and passions either refer to our desire for objects in the world, or to our wish to steer clear of them. “Consequently, we have arrived at the borderline of self-consciousness as soon as we touched the external world, where the self-consciousness touches the realm of the consciousness of other things. But the objects apprehended in the world are the material and the occasion for all those moments and acts of will […] it revolves around them, and is at least motivated by them.” 97 Schopenhauer goes on to suggest that to deny this would mean cutting one’s self off from the external world and falling into the deep dark recesses of self-consciousness.98 So now Schopenhauer invites us to consider the NECESSITY of things in the world in determining volition through self-consciousness. Self-consciousness is occupied with willing. The passions and emotions that constitute self- consciousness necessarily involve objects in the external world. Could willing be free if necessity is involved? Thus, can we say that self-consciousness is enough to prove freedom of the will (as he so clearly defines it)? Schopenhauer says NO. Summarizing what we have stated, we have looked at the lives of these two philosophers, the Buddha, and

97 Ibid., p. 12. 98 Ibid., p. 12.

Schopenhauer; and examined their concepts of liberation. The theory of liberation remains a subject of interest for discussion in the East and the West and across ages, as proved by the Buddha’s teachings and the philosophical works of Schopenhauer. In this case, we can see that the conception of mundane liberation or physical freedom given by the Buddha and Schopenhauer are similar in nature, though there are differences between the definitions of supra-mundane liberation and moral freedom.

Schopenhauer and Buddhist Studies

An examination of the influence of Buddhism on Schopenhauer’s philosophy is simple: it appears that there was none. Schopenhauer completed the writing of his most important work, The World as Will and Representation in 1819. This book essentially represented the whole of Schopenhauer’s philosophy and his later writings only serve to elaborate on the ideas he introduced in the original work. As we have seen, the first European translations of Buddhist had not yet appeared when Schopenhauer wrote The World as Will and Representation and he had no knowledge of Pāli or . Schopenhauer simply did not have access to any materials on Buddhism at the time he was formulating his metaphysical system.99

99 Christopher Janaway., Self & World in Schopenhauer’s Philosophy; Guy Richard Welbon, The Buddhist Nirvāṇa & Its Western Interpreters (U.S.A: University of Chicago Press, 1968), pp. 159-60.

However, other Indian texts were available to Schopenhauer, and, along with the writings of Plato and Kant, these did have a significant influence upon him. In 1813 Friedrich Maier introduced Schopenhauer to Indian philosophy. Maier instructed Schopenhauer to read Antquetil du Perron’s Latin translation of fifteen Hindu Upanishads. Maier himself translated the Bhagavadgītā and the Gītagovinda into German from the English translations by Jones and Wilkins 100 According to some scholar, Schopenhauer first becomes acquainted with Buddhist texts (Forty-two Sections Sutra),101 not Hindu literatures. None of his contemporaries assigned quite as much importance to Indian philosophy as Schopenhauer did, however. Schopenhauer said that, “We find the direct presentation in the Vedas, the fruit of the highest human knowledge and wisdom, the kernel of which has finally come to us in the Upanishads as the greatest gift to the nineteenth century.” Schopenhauer was the first European philosopher to

100 Guy Richard Welbon., The Buddhist Nirvāṇa & Its Western Interpreters, pp. 159-60. He also wrote that the New Testament had probable Indian origins and that Jesus had been taught Egyptian wisdom that had been learned from India (as in Philostratus). Batchelor, Stephen., The Awakening of the West: The Encounter of Buddhism with Western Culture (Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press, 1995), pp. 256-57. 101 The Sutra of Forty-two Sections is the earliest surviving Buddhist sutra translated into Chinese. It was translated by two ordained Yuezhi monks, Kasyapa-Matanga and Dharmaraksha (also called Gobharana), in 67 C.E. Because of its early date, it is regarded as “the First Sutra” or first formula, and is accorded a very significant status. But may be it is only a Chinese Buddhist text, disguised as Indian and souped-up by Zen masters. De Guignes translated this sutra from Chinese into French. It was the first ever published translation of a Buddhist sutra into a Western language.

integrate Indian thought into his own work, and thought that Indian wisdom would completely reshape Western thought.102 Once accessible Buddhist translations and commentaries did begin to appear, Schopenhauer studied them enthusiastically. Even more than the Upanishads, Buddhism captured his attention and interest. He increasingly became a connoisseur of all things Indian, and even kept a gilded statue of the Buddha in his home.103 Schopenhauer also became something of an expert on Buddhism, and encouraged all of his readers to study it as well. A footnote in On the Will in Nature lists a variety of sources on Buddhism that he had read and which he thought would prove useful to his audience. Among the works on which he commented were Upham’s Doctrine of Buddhism and The Mahavasni, Raja Ratnacari et Rajavali, I. J.Schmidt’s On Mahāyāna and Prachna-Paramita and History of the Eastern Mongols, Spence’s Manual of Buddhism and Eastern Monachism, Colebrooke’s History of Indian Philosophy, Taylor’s Prabodna Chandro Daya, Turner’s Journey to the Center of Teshu Lama, Turnour’s The Mahavasna, Bouchinger’s La vie ascétique chez les Indous et les Bouddhistes, Burnouf’s Introduction à l'histoire du Bouddhisme, Koeppen’s Die Religion des Buddha, and the unfinished Tibetan studies of Csoma de Kõrös. Schopenhauer even identifies works on Buddhism that he thinks are inaccurate and warns his readers away from them. Obviously

102 Schopenhauer, Arthur., The World as Will and Representation (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1958), vol. 1. p. 355. 103 Dorthea Dauer., Schopenhauer as a Transmitter of Buddhist Ideas (Berne Switzer-land, Herbert Lang, 1969), p. 6; William., The Western Contribution to Buddhism (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1973), p. 87.

Schopenhauer had read extensively on the subject of Buddhism.104 The works that Schopenhauer had read all basically represent the earliest works of European Buddhist scholars. Schopenhauer died in 1860, too early to benefit from the Pāli renaissance of the 1870s, and he made no indication in any of his references that he was familiar with Müller’s Pāli studies of the 1860s.

Heart of Buddhism

The Khadira Sutta105 is a statement on the necessity of properly understanding the four noble truths as a prerequisite for spiritual liberation. The Buddha applies two sets of simple plant similes to illustrate this vital truth. The first set of similes illustrate that it is impossible to be spiritually liberated without having fully realized the four noble truths: it is like trying to building a bag or basket from the tiny leaves of the Indian long-leaf pine, or of the emblic myrobalan, or of the acacia. The second set of plant similes makes use of large and durable leaves: those of the lotus (paduma), the kino (palāsa) and the maluva (māluvā) plants.106

104 Schopenhauer, Arthur., On the Will in Nature. E. F. J. Payne, trans. (U.S.A: Berg Publishers, Inc., 1992), p. 130; Schopenhauer, Arthur., The World as Will and Representation, vol. 2. p. 169. 105 S. 5. 438 ff. 106 Siṁsapā Sutta, S. 56: 31-40. According to Mrs. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, 568 similes are used in the Pāḷi Tipiṭaka. For further, read “Similes in the Nikāyas,” Journal of Pāli Text Society 1906/7, pp. 52-151 & Hellmuth Hecker, Foreword., Similes of the Buddha (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2009).

The Four Noble Truths are mentioned in the first sermon of the Buddha. Reference to this first sermon is found twice in the Pāli Canon, one is in Vinaya Piṭaka 107 and one in the Sutta Piṭaka.108 These versions are close, but not precisely identical because the account in the Vinaya Piṭaka is more extensive than that found in the Saṁyutta Nikāya. 109 The sermon is called “Turning the Wheel of Dhamma (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta)” 110 because the dhamma- wheel is set in motion when the Buddha first preaches the truth that he realized under the Bodhi-tree. The stage is set in the Deer Park at Isipatana, the date is on the night of full moon day of Āsāḷha (June-July) and the audience consists of five former companions of the Buddha: Koṇḍañña, Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mahānāma and . Briefly summarized, the Buddha tells them that there are two extremes

107 Vinaya (hereafter Vin). I. 8-13. 108 S. V. 420-423. In 1938, N Aiyaswami Sastri examined 11 texts considered to be versions of the Buddha’s first discourse. But NJ Smith pointed out 17 versions. See appendix B for Sankrit version. 109 The Saṃukta Āgama version only explains the Four Noble Truths and has no mention of some of the other major doctrines found in the Pāḷi version. In Āgama version, the Four Noble Truths are mentions in three sections, of the discourse. There is also mention of the Four Noble Truths leading to Enlightenment. 110 There are several translations of this Sutta, include: 1) “Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Dhamma” (Bhikkhu Bodhi, 2000); 2) “Setting in Motion the Wheel of Truth” (Piyadassi Thero, 1999); 3) “Setting Rolling the Wheel of Truth” (Ñānamoli Thero, 1993); 4) “Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion” (Bhikkhu Thanissaro, 1993); 5) “Turning the Wheel of Dhamma” (Dhamma, 1997); 6) “ The Buddha’s First Discourse” (David J. Kalupahana, 2008) and 7) “The Discourse on the Setting in Motion of the Wheel (of Version) of the Basic Pattern: the Four True Realities for the Spiritually Ennobled Ones” (Peter Harvey, 2009).

to be avoided, devotion to sensual pleasures (kāmesukhallikānuyoga) and devotion to mortification of the body (attakilamathānuyoga). Between these two poles lies the middle way (majjhimā paṭipadā), which consists of the Noble Eightfold Path: proper view, proper aim, proper speech, proper action, proper living, proper effort, proper mindfulness, and proper concentration. The Suttas explain that this middle path produces vision and knowledge, causes calm, special knowledge, enlightenment and Nibbāna. The sermon continues with the Buddha teaching the nature of suffering (dukkha), the arising of suffering (samudaya), the cessation of suffering (nirodha), and the practice leading to the cessation of suffering (magga).111 In brief, the Four Noble Truths consist of the truth of morality (sīla), meditation (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā). Once venerable Sāriputta spokes to a gathering of the monks: “Friends, just as the footprints of all legged animals are encompassed by the footprint of the elephant, and the elephant's footprint is reckoned the foremost among them in terms of size; in the same way, all skillful qualities are gathered under the four noble truths. Under which four? Under the noble truth of stress, under the noble truth of the origination of stress, under the noble truth of the cessation of stress, and under the noble truth of the path of practice leading to the cessation of stress.” 112 This shows that the Four Noble Truths is the heart of Buddha’s teaching.113

111 K. R. Norman., “The Four Noble Truths,” in Collected Papers Pāḷi Text Society, London: 1991. 2. pp. 210-223. 112 Majjhima Nikāya (hereafter M). I. 184-5. 113 We have learned that all Buddhist Schools agree on the Four Noble Truth, Noble Eightfold Path, Dependent Origination, Three Characteristics

The Central Theme of Schopenhauer’s Philosophy

Now we are turning to Schopenhauer’s point of view on dukkha. In Schopenhauer’s preface to the first edition of his major work The World as Will and Representation (1819) Arthur Schopenhauer presented his prospective readers with three, apparently pretentious requirements:114 1. The book should be read twice; 2. The introduction to this book, written five years before this work, should be read before the book itself; 3. A thorough acquaintance with Kant’s principle writing is also expected. Schopenhauer’s great work, The World as Will and Representation (German: Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung), is divided into four books, with a long appendix on Kant’s philosophy in volume I. Each of the four books sets out a distinct movement of thought. The first presents the world as representation, or as it is for our experience. The second book adds that this same world (and we ourselves within it) must be

and Bodhipakkhiyādhammā (Chandima Wijebandara., Development of Buddhist Thought, Dehiwala: Buddhist Cultural Centre, 2010, p. 2.; J. Bronkhorst., “Dhamma and Abhidhamma,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 48, 2 1985: 305); David J. Kalupahana., Mūlamadhyamakakārikā of Nāgārjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, reprint 2004), pp. 5-6, 10. 114 Schopenhauer, Arthur., The World as Will and Representation (hereafter WWR), vol. I. XIII-XV (New York: Dover Publications, 3rd edition 1969) translated by E. F. J. Payne.; R. B. Haldance, and J. Kemp translated this book as The World as Will and Idea (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Limited, 1883). In this study, I use E. F. J. Payne’s translation.

viewed under another aspect, as will. We called the appearance/ thing in itself distinction the backbone of Schopenhauer’s philosophy: now “the world as representation” is what falls on the “appearance” side of this line, while “the world as will” is the thing in itself. But then in book three aesthetic contemplation, cultivation of sympathy, and practice of asceticism emerges as a cessation of willing in the individual, which transforms the world of objects into a timeless reality of ideas, and finally book four intensifies Schopenhauer’s pessimistic view of the ordinary life of desire and action, and advocates an abolition of the will with oneself as the path to what is ethically good, and ultimately to a kind of resigned mystical salvation.

The four noble truths of Buddhism and some of the key themes in Schopenhauer's philosophy

The main teaching of Buddhism is about suffering (dukkha) and its cessation (nirodha).115 Buddhism considers dukkha to be a fundamental characteristic of the world and the man living in it.116 It considers human desire (taṇhā) as a salient cause of this dukkha,117 that this dukkha could be ceased by human effort118 and that there is a path, called the Noble Eightfold Path, leading to cessation.119

115 M. I. 431; S. III. 119. 116 S. V. 421 ff. 117 S. II. 84. 118 Dhammapada (hereafter Dhp). verse. 276. Tumhehi kiccamatappam akkhataro tathagata patipanna pamokkhanti jhayino marabandhana. 119 D. II. 311-313; M. III. 71-78.

Schopenhauer, also, had seen life as suffering.120 He presents a new concept which he designates as will as the cause of this suffering. 121 The world, according to Schopenhauer, is a representation of this will. He holds that for one who is aware of suffering in the worldly existence there is hope of liberation. He teaches the path of liberation as consisting of these factors:122 (a) aesthetic contemplation (b) cultivation of sympathy and (c) practice of asceticism Though there is an apparent similarity between some of these postulates presented by the Buddha and Schopenhauer, the two stances adopted in perceiving these postulates and the manner in which they are articulated show significant differences. In Buddhism dukkha is explained as a kind of intense psychological anguish resulting from the distorted vision leading to subjective perception of reality based on one’s likes and dislikes. According to this explanation it is not only suffering caused by the unfulfillment of life’s wants, for there can be intense experience of dukkha even for one whose all needs as well as wants are fulfilled. As Schopenhauer understands suffering is due to the unfulfillment of life’s wants

120 WWR. Vol. I. 3. 121 WWR. Vol. I. § 18. 122 Naw Kham La Dhammasami, Another Way of Looking At Things (A Comparative Study of Schopenhauer & Buddha Perspectives on Human Libration) [Maharagama, Sri Lanka: Ruhuwan Paharuwa, 2011], pp. 115- 128.

even after striving to achieve them.123 He, then, holds that the basis of all suffering is mainly physical pleasure as well as pain. Schopenhauer’s conception of will is unique to his philosophy. For him will is not merely a psychological impulse, a conscious and an active response in the human individual, but more or less force, an energy which reside in the individual. He considered it as a thing-in-itself, beyond time and hence, a concept verging more on the metaphysical side. It is this will that works to present itself against all others, thus causing conflict, evil and suffering. It shows some similarity to taṇhā (desire) in Buddhism. Taṇhā, however, is a psychological force, analyzable, controllable, refutable and also eradicable. Taṇhā is in man, generated by man and hence, quenchable by man himself. 124 Schopenhauer seems to consider will as an inexorable power or a drive which is blind, ungovernable and destructive. The Buddha clearly asserts man’s ability to successfully strive to overcome the cause of suffering of which he himself is the creator. Strangely, Schopenhauer does neither assert this ability nor clearly articulate about man’s such ability. The Buddha presents a will structured path consisting of perfection of virtue, concentration and wisdom, that leads to cessation of suffering.125 This cessation of suffering is effected by bringing about total inner revolution in one’s morality and

123 Schopenhauer, A, Wisdom of Life, trans. T. Bailey Saunders. (New York: Cosimo Classics, 2007), p. 24. 124 A. I. 168-9. 125 Cūlavedalla Sutta, M. I. 299 f.

spirituality. With the dawn of wisdom (paññā) vision gets straightened. Then he begins to see not through his likes, but in a detached manner, without subjectively adding value to one’s objects of perception. Schopenhauer’s way to liberation is neither so well structured nor systematically articulated. He presents three ways of escaping from suffering. One is through leading a life of aesthetic contemplation which, he says, will appease the violence-field, disturbed consciousness and bring about tranquility. He explains that this is possible through aesthetic contemplation that helps to dissolve oneself in the aesthetic object itself, then eradicating one’s individuality that leads to self striving. Music, art, and other form of fine arts could be utilized for this purpose.126 Buddhism though it encourages righteous enjoyment of aesthetic beauty in a detached manner, does not prescribe the use of such enjoyment as a means to liberation. The other method proposed to be adopted as an aid to liberation from suffering is the cultivation of sympathy.127 This has some parallel with the cultivation of the Four Sublime Abodes (brahma-vihāra) in Buddhism. But this practice is not an essential factor of the path, though cultivation of sympathy and compassion are highly lauded practices in Buddhism. The third and perhaps, the most effective way of escape from suffering is the practice of asceticism.128 As proposed by

126 Naw Kham La Dhammasami, Another Way of Looking At Things (A Comparative Study of Schopenhauer & Buddha Perspectives on Human Libration), pp. 137-147. 127 Ibid., pp. 126-9. 128 Ibid., pp. 129-133.

Schopenhauer his practice amounts to almost the practice of self-mortification, which the Buddha avoided as one of the extremes. As prescribed by Schopenhauer the practice of asceticism is a sort of gradual withdrawal from the world and all worldly things. As explained by Schopenhauer this could even mean to turn desire against desire itself. This means to get rid of desire including even desire to live.

Table 1. Four Noble Truths of Buddhism and Some of the Key Themes in Schopenhauer’s Philosophy

The Four Noble Truths Schopenhauer Adds

1. Life is full with The World is mere dissatisfaction Representation

(I) The cause of 2. Dissatisfaction is rooted dissatisfaction is willing in desire (II) The world as Will

3. There is hope There is miniscule hope

Hope lies in: (I) Aesthetic contemplation 4. Hope is in the Noble (II) Cultivation of sympathy Eightfold Path (III) The practice of asceticism

Differences and Misconceptions

Despite such close correspondence between the thought of Schopenhauer and the Buddha, there are some distinct differences. The first difference between them is simply a matter of style. The Buddha was a practical teacher129 and he consistently avoided any sort of metaphysical discussion.130 His main goal was to end the suffering of sentient beings, and not to split philosophical hairs.131 He was always reluctant to describe concretely absolute truth or Nibbāna, except to affirm that those concepts were equivalent. Schopenhauer, on the other hand was a metaphysician of the highest order. Stephen Batchelor deplores that “although some of his contemporaries thought of him as a Buddhist, he preferred listening to music than sitting in meditation”.132 As a philosopher, Schopenhauer averred, his job was to describe and analyze compassion— there was no compunction to actually practice it. Yet for all of his bombast, there is much that makes Schopenhauer a sympathetic character. There is, for instance, his concern for the suffering of animals. “The greatest benefit conferred by the railways,” he writes, “is that they spare millions of draught- horses their miserable existences.” 133 Friedrich Nietzsche

129 A. II. 24; Iitvuttaka. 122. Yathāvādī tathākārī, yathākārī tathāvādī. 130 M. I. 426-432. 131 M. I. 140, S. III. 119. Dukkhanc‘ eva pannapemi dukkhassa ca nirodam. 132 Batchelor, Stephen., The Awakening of the West: The Encounter of Buddhism and Western Culture (Berkeley: Barallax Press, 1994), p. 259. 133 Schopenhauer, Arthur., Essays and Aphorisms, R. J. Hollingdale, trans. (New York: Penguin Books, 1971), p. 171.

mentioned in his essay (Schopenhauer as Educator-1874),134 “He (Schopenhauer) often chose falsely in his desire to find real trust and compassion in men, only to return with a heavy heart to his faithful dog again. He was absolutely alone, with no single friend of his own kind to comfort him…”135 A notorious misogynist, Schopenhauer once pushed a woman down a flight of stairs. Grudgingly, he paid her regular restitution for her injuries until her death, when he recorded in his journal, “The old woman dies, the burden is lifted (Obit anus, abit onus)”.136 This story shows that Schopenhauer does not practice what he preaches. That is why, in his Ueber den Willen in der Nature, he expressed, “To preach morality is easy, to found it difficult.—”137 Schopenhauer was a pure philosopher whose aim was not salvation, but rather a description of the world as he thought it to be. He often made normative statements about the nature of objective reality, and The World as Will and Representation was essentially an attempt to describe the metaphysical world.138 The means of ending suffering are also different in the two schools of thought. The Buddha described the path to Nibbāna in an extremely straightforward manner. The Fourth Noble Truth says that the way to attain Nibbāna is to follow

134 Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, Keith Ansell-Pearson & Duncan Large, eds., The Nietzsche Reader (USA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2006), pp. 142 ff. 135 Nietzshe, Friedrich., The Philosophy of Nietzsche, Geoffrey Clive, ed. (New York: Signet Classics, 1965), p. 38. 136 As quoted in Modern Philosophy: From Descartes to Schopenhauer and Hartmann (1877) by Francis Bowen, p. 392. 137 Schopehnhauer, Arthur., Ueber den Willen in der Nature, p.128 138 Dorthea Dauer., Shopenhauer as a Transmitter of Buddhist Ideas (Berne: Herbert Lang & Co. Ltd, 1969), pp. 35-7; Rahula Walpola., What the Buddha Taught (New York: Grove Weildenfeld, 1974), pp. 14-5.

the Eightfold Path, which includes the studious practice of the moral prescriptions (sīla), concentration (samādhi) and meditation (paññā). Salvation in Buddhism is a matter of enlightenment, and knowledge is the key to the end of desire. While such enlightenment is extraordinarily difficult to achieve, and can even conceivably take multiple human lifetimes, the Buddha and many of his predecessors and successors stand as testimonies to the possibility of its attainment.139 Schopenhauer had an understanding of the Will, which had two separate parts. The Will to Life and Human Will. The Will to Life, was the over all striving that every animal did on a daily basis, the striving for the will to live. Schopenhauer believed that the nature of life was suffering and that this suffering was manifested in the will to live. However, this will, in humans, was also manifested by Human Will, or striving for that life, such as studying, reading, etc. This human will also leads to suffering and strife, for as soon as humans would reach one goal, another set of problems or suffering would appear. In fact, Schopenhauer believed that if humans recognized how much suffering there is in life and in the world they would want to kill themselves. However, if you look at all that suffering and decide to live anyway then you have conquered the will and you will no longer truly suffer. In quite a Buddhist theme, you have become liberated and redeemed from life.

139 Abelson, Peter., “Schopenhauer and Buddhism” Philosophy East and West 43 (April 1993): 270-1; Rahula., pp. 34-5.

There is no such well-defined path in the philosophy of Schopenhauer. He was quite willing to describe the self-denial of the will, but he was at the same time vague about the mechanism for its achievement. While he certainly advocated such worthy aims as compassion and the acquisition of knowledge, Schopenhauer never said that they necessarily led to denial of the will. Similarly, he recommended the mortification of the will and the suppression of desires by individual humans, but he did not claim that these measures alone could extinguish the will. Despite this difference, however, the theories of salvation in Buddhism and Schopenhauer’s writings are still relatively close. In order to destroy all suffering, Buddha and Schopenhauer do not asked help from God or Gods. A Buddhist who is fully convinced of the doctrine of kamma does not pray to another to be saved but confidently relies on himself for his purification because it teaches individual responsibility. Schopenhauer follows the same line: “Whoever regards himself as having become out of nothing must also think that he will again become nothing; for an eternity has passed before he was, and then a second eternity had begun, through which he will never cease to be, is a monstrous thought. If birth is the absolute beginning, then death must be his absolute end; and the assumption that man is made out of nothing leads necessarily to the assumption that death is his absolute end.”140

140 Quoted from Nārada Thera., Buddhism in a Nutshell (Dehiwala: Buddhist Cultural Centre, 2009), p. 46.

Schopenhauer also disagrees with Buddhism most notably on the condition of the human self. He does agree that what humans commonly recognize as their self is impermanent. He also asserts that the will is a common bond between everyone and abolishes duality between self and object. Still, Schopenhauer does continually refer to the intellect as the antipode to the will. The intellect ultimately perishes when the body dies, while the will continues on. While the body lives, however, this intellect represents a unified entity with positive existence which can oppose the will. This conception of the intellect is at odds with the Buddhist self, which has no existence at all except as a continuously changing collection of fragments. In Schopenhauer’s philosophy the self is fleeting, but in Buddhism, it is completely illusory.141 With regard to poem or music, one time the Buddha had praise to the Pañcasikha who sang a song in good rhythm. 142 When Vaṅgīsa recited the verses he had composed, the Buddha asked him to compose and recite some more.143 Music is common to all cultures of the world, in ancient and modern times. Music therapy has a long history, dating back to ancient Greece. Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle, all talk about the prophylactic and cathartic powers of music. Even the Bible mentions the use of music in treating illness, where David plays to Saul. The Buddha also did not deny the enjoying of

141 WWR. vol. 2, 214. 142 D. II. 265-7. 143 S. I. 193.

music but when one come to observing precepts; it becomes an enemy to enlightenment. 144 Aesthetic is not universal, but at least some people in every culture seem to be motivated by the need for beauty and aesthetically pleasing experiences. The aesthetic experiences of nature, according to the Pāli Canon, contain frequent descriptions of natural environments as sources of tranquility and enlightenment. The Buddha himself attained enlightenment sitting under a Bodhi-tree and passed into extinction lying down between twin Sāla-trees. The Buddha once remarked: “Whatever is beautiful in the world does not represent your will. Such beautiful things remain. But a wise one restrains his willing in that context.”145 The Buddha’s advice is to get detached from the apparent beauty of the external world that pleases the physical eyes, and to cultivate non-attachment to them which would result in man himself realizing the beauty supreme within his own mind. This is the moral or spiritual and inward beauty. That is why, the Buddha said: “If some is jealous, selfish, they are

144 S. 4. 306-308. Regarding art, once Tālapuṭa asks the Buddha if it is true that performers who delight large audiences are reborn among the laughing gods. The Buddha tells Tālapuṭa that those who arouse sensuality in others will be reborn in hell. It is important to note here that the guilty party consists of those whose motivation is rooted in greed, hatred or delusion, the performers themselves, and those who subscribe to such an idea. Implicitly, it means that this excludes those laity (it should be stressed here, only the laity, not the monastic) who perform shows or on stage with a mind of charity, loving-kindness and wisdom. Novices and monastics are bound by the rules that prohibit giving such performances, and even watching them. 145S. I. 22. Na te kāmā yāni citrāni loka, saṅkapparāgo purissa kāmo, tiṭṭhanti citrāni tatha-eva loke, ath-etha dhīrā vinayanti chandam.

unattractive despite their good features. But the person who is purged of such things and is free from hatred, it is he how is really beautiful.146 Also the Theragāthā and Therīgāthā, both parts of the Pāli Canon, consist of poems describing the path to enlightenment taken by various Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunīs of the Buddha’s original Saṅgha. The poems frequently describe the Buddha’s disciples finding tranquility and enlightenment in the forest. Verse (gāthā) 13, for instance, is attributed to the Bhikkhu Vanavaccha, whose name literally means “woodland monk”: The color of blue-dark clouds, Glistening, Cooled with the waters Of clear-flowing stream Covered with ladybugs: Those rocky crags Refresh me.147 As we have noted above, even the Buddha himself enjoyed the aesthetic beauty of nature. These aesthetic experiences of nature do not help one to end suffering as Schopenhauer mentioned earlier. Loving-kindness (mettā) is one of the main teachings of the Buddha. The Buddha said that mettā is a medicine for fear, poison and also leads one to the Brāhman world (Brāhma

146 Dhp. gāthās. 262-3. 147 Theragāthā. I. 13. (See, for instance, gāthās. 18, 22, 41, 49, 50, 524-526, 537-546, 991-998, and 1132-1137).

loka) after death. 148 It cannot help one directly to enlightenment as Schopenhauer’s philosophy of sympathy, both spoke on similar condition. Concerning the concept of asceticism, the Buddha, also, was well conversant with the contemporary ideals of asceticism. Having himself gone further with austerity than the most fanatical of ascetics, he had found penances and self mortification quite unsatisfactory. He declared himself as an enemy of asceticism and pronounced bodily austerities and self-tortures to be not only futile but positively harmful. The self-mortification was an actual hindrance. It turned men’s mind away from more essential matters. 149 The Buddha, therefore, condemned asceticism, morbid ascetic practices, fanatical excesses and its exaggerations of most ugly types. In lieu of asceticism he preached the simple life of studied and purposeful temperance in all bodily matters, with the body as the mind’s obedient servant. He rejected both the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification and preached the middle path by which the wayfarer avoids the two extremes. The Buddha preached a moral path which avoided the two extremes of the pursuit of sensual pleasures on the one hand and severe ascetic discipline culminating in the annihilation of the body on the other. He announced the discovery of this new path in the following words in his First

148 D.I. 250-252; M. II. 195, 207. For general knowledge, I recommend the reader to read Richard F. Gombrich’s article on Brahmavihāra: mettā as a means to Nibbāna. [Richar F. Gombrich, “Brahmavihāra: metta as a means to Nibbāna,” International Seminar on Can We Know What the Buddha Meant? Organized by Mahamakut Buddhist University. Bangkok, 2007]. 149 M. I. 78, 80, 246.

Sermon, which is the basis of all subsequent teachings: “There are two extremes, Oh Bhikkhus, which he who has given up the world ought to avoid. What are these two extremes? A life given to pleasure, devoted to pleasures and lusts; this is degrading, sensual, vulgar, ignoble and profitless. And a life given to mortification; this is painful, ignoble and profitless. By avoiding these two extremes, Oh Bhikkhus, the Tathāgata has gained the knowledge of the Middle Path which leads to insight, which leads to wisdom which conduces to calm, to knowledge, to Sambodhi (enlightenment), to Nibbāna.”150 The Buddha guaranteed that we could stop suffering by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path in the correct way. The Buddha’s method of ending suffering is beyond the limits of the philosophy of Schopenhauer. Although Schopenhauer knew a great deal about Buddhism, there are a few instances where he appears to misunderstand its most crucial doctrine: Nibbāna. In The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer comments on the denial of the will: “We must not even evade [nothingness] as the Indians do, by myths and meaningless words, such as reabsorption into the Brāhman, or the Nibbāna of the Buddhists. On the contrary, we freely acknowledge that what remains after the complete abolition of will is, for all who are still full of will, assuredly nothing. But also conversely, to those in whom the will has turned and

150 Majjhima Nikāya Aṭṭhakathā. I. 6-17.

denied itself, this very real world of ours with all its suns and galaxies, is – nothing.”151 Schopenhauer follows his criticism of Buddhism with a description of the denial of the will that sounds as though it could have come directly from a Buddhist Sutta. Even though he did not realize it, Schopenhauer was essentially speaking of Buddhist Nibbāna in the above passage, even as he dismissed it as “evasion”. Yet in other parts of The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer seems to have a better understanding of Nibbāna. In one footnote, he even provides a detailed discussion of the etymology of the word “Nibbāna,” and correctly identifies it as the extinction of desires and the cessation of suffering and conditionality. 152 So, it remains unclear to what extent Schopenhauer truly understood at least one major Buddhist concept.

Conclusion

From the above study regarding the philosophies of Buddha and Schopenhauer it is seen that there are marked similarities between them. Theses similarities generally lead me to conclude that Schopenhauer, has been influenced by Buddhism. However, a close examination of the context in which Schopenhauer worked shows that there has been no such direct influence when he compiled his magnum opus, The World as Will and Representation. This was compiled in 1819

151 WWR. vol. 2. 411-2. 152 Ibid., vol. 2. 509, 608; Begjamin A Elman., “Nietzseche and Buddhism,” The Journal of the History of Ideas 44 (October / December1983): 682.

by which time influence of Buddhist thought was neither directly nor seriously felt in the Western World. Schopenhauer’s philosophy in its formative stage has been undoubtedly influenced by the Indian philosophical, not particularly Buddhist teachings pertaining to these areas and his most important work, The World as Will and Representation clearly shows this. Subsequently, when Buddhist studies developed and found its way to Europe, Schopenhauer also found access to it. He was especially enamored with Buddhist thought as clearly seen from his later writing in which he praises Buddhism as a religion of pre-eminence. Though he held Buddhist thought in very high esteem, his perception and understanding of it was through the general Indian, specially Upanishadic, philosophical perspective. This explains the reason for both certain similarities and differences between Buddhism and Schopenhauer’s philosophy. Our studies find that a practicing method given by Schopenhauer is can be found in Buddhism. But those methods are not leading one directly to final libration, which is Nibbāna. The possible conclusion based on the facts uncovered through this research is that these similarities that are found in the two philosophies i.e. the Buddha and Schopenhauer are mostly apparent ones, whereas the differences are far more real.

Works on Buddhism

All biblical references are to the Pāḷi Text Society unless otherwise stated (Pāḷi and Translation)

Primary Sources Aṅguttara Nikāya, ed. R. Morris and E. Hardy, 5 Vols., Oxford: Pāli Text Society, 1885-1900. Trans. F. L. Woodward and E. M. Hare, The Book of the Gradual Sayings, 5 Vols., London: PTS. 1932-36. Atthasālinī, by , ed. E. Muller, Oxford: PTS, 1897. Dhammapada, ed. S. Sumanganla Thera, Oxford: PTS, 1914. Dhammasaṅgani, ed. E. Muller, Oxford: PTS,1885. Trans. A. F. Rhys Davids Caroline, Buddhist Psychological Ethics, London: PTS, 1900. Dīgha Nikāya, ed. T. W. Rhys Davids and J. E. Carpenter, 3 Vols., Oxford: PTS, 1890-1911. Trans. T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, SBB., Vols. 2, 3, and 4, London: O. U. P, 1899-1921. Itivuttaka, ed. E. Windisch, London: PTS, 1889. Khuddakapāṭha, ed. H. Smith, Oxford: PTS, 1915. Majjhima Nikāya, ed. V. Trenkner and R. Chalmers, 3 Vols., Oxford: PTS, 1948-51. Trans. I. B. Horner, Middle Length Sayings, 3 Vols., London: PTS, 1954-9. Trans. R. Chalmers, Further Dialogues of the Buddha, 2 Vols., London: PTS, 1888. Trans. K. E. Neumann, Die Reden Gotamo Buddho’s aus der mittleren Sammlung Majjhimanikāyo, Bande I und II, Leipzig, 1896-1900. Papañcasūdanī, Comy. To Majjhima Nikāya, ed. J. H. Woods, D. Kosambi and I. B. Horner, 5 Vols., Oxford: PTS, 1922-38. Paṭisambhidāmagga, ed. A. C. Taylor, Oxford: PTS, 2 Vols., 1905- 7. Saṃyutta Nikāya, ed. L. Feer, 6 Vols., Oxford: PTS, 1884-1904. Trans. C. A. F. Rhys Davids and F. L. Woodward, The Book of the Kindred Sayings, 5 Vols., Oxford: PTS, 1917-30.

Saṃyutta Nikāya (The Connected Discourses of the Buddha), trans. Bhikkhu Bodhi. Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2000. Suttanipāta, ed. D. Anderson and H. Smith, Oxford: PTS, 1948. Trans. V. Fausboll, SBE., Vol. 10, Part 2, Oxford, 1881. Thera-Therīgāthā, ed. H. Oldenberg and R. Pischel, London: PTS, 1883. Trans. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Psalms of the Early Buddhists, 2 Vols., London: PTS, 1903-13. Vibhaṅga, ed. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Oxford: PTS, 1904. Vinaya Piṭaka, ed. H. Oldenberg, Vol. 1, Oxford: PTS, 1879-83. Trans. T. W. Rhys David and H. Oldernberg, SBE., Vols. 13, 17, 20, Oxford: PTS, 1881-5.

Non-Canonical Works

Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, trans. S. Z. Aung and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Compendium of Philosophy, Oxford: PTS, 1910. Milindapañha, ed. V. Trenkner, Oxford: PTS, 1928. (Note: It is included in Myanmarese edition of the Tipiṭaka as a book of the Khuddaka Nikāya, however, it does not appear in the Thai and Sri Lankan versions). Visuddhimagga, ed. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, M. C. Foley, M. Hunt and M. Smith, Oxford: PTS, 2 Vols., 1911-13.

Works on Schopenhauerism

Works by Schopenhauer (Translations in English) Schopenhauer, A. The Word as Will and Idea. Trans. R. B. Haldane, M. A. & J. Kemp, M. A, Vols. 1, 2, 3., London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Limited, 1883. Schopenhauer, A. The World as Will and Representation. Trans. E. F. J. Payne, 3rd edition, in two volumes: vols. 1-2, New York: Dover Publications, 1969. Schopenhauer, A. The Works of Schopenhauer. abridged and edited by Will Durant. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing, 1928.

Schopenhauer, A. On the Will in Nature. Trans. E. F. J. Payne, New York: Berg Publication, 1992. Schopenhauer, A. On Freedom of the Human Will. Trans. Konstantin Kolenda, New York: BobbsMerrill, 1960. Schopenhauer, A. On the Basis of Morality. Trans. E. F. J. Payne, New York: BobbsMerrill, 1965. Schopenhauer, A. The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics. (joint Trans. Texts Publication of the 1839 and 1840 essays in book Form,1840). N.p. Schopenhauer, A. On the Fourfold Root of the Sufficient Reason. (second edition, Revised1847). N.p. Schopenhauer, A. Parerga and Paralipomen. 2 vols, Trans. E. F. J. Payne, London: Clarendon Press, 1974. Schopenhauer, A. The Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. Trans. E. F. J. Payne (Open Court, La Salle, Illinois, 1974). N.p. Schopenhauer, A. Counsels and Maxims. T. Bailey Saunders, trans. Cosimo Classics, (1897) 2007. Schopenhauer, A. The Wisdom of Life. T. Bailey Saunders, trans. Echo Library, 2006. Schopenhauer, A. On Human Nature. London: General Books LLC, 2010. Schopenhauer, A. Essays and Aphorisms. R. J. Hollingdale, trans. London: Penguin Classics, 1973.

A Story in Promoting Meditation in Central Java: Opportunity and Challenge

Kustiani, Ph.D153

Introduction

Meditation is a core teaching of Buddhism. This practice will pave the way in strengthening the moral foundation (sīla) and sharpen the wisdom (paññā). These three practices i.e. sīla, samādhi and pañña are the main pillars of Buddhist teaching. It should be noted that practicing sīla by being a good and a kind person is not enough. Sīla should be accompanied by the practice of samādhi so that, these two will bring wisdom (paññā) and finally will end up the samsaric life. The Sutta clearly records how sīla will lead to samādhi and finally will end at the destruction of defilement of the mind.154 The evidence that moral practice will lead to the unshaken concentration is not only found in this nikāya but

153This is a simple paper based on life experience as Buddhist Volunteer in propagating Buddhism in Central Java. The writer became a Buddhist volunteer because it is her duty after finishing her Ph.D degree from Kelaniya University, Sri Lanka. 154Idha, visākhe, ariyasāvakoattanosīlānianussaratiakhaṇḍāniacchiddā - niasabalāniakammāsānibhu- jissāniviññuppasatthāniaparāmaṭṭhānisa- mādhisaṃvattanikāni. Tassasīlaṃanussaratocittaṃpasīdati, pāmojja- ṃuppajjati, ye cittassaupakkilesātepahīyanti, seyyathāpi, visākhe, upakkiliṭṭhassaādāsassa- upakkamenapariyodapanāhoti. A. I, 209.

also can be seen in the other nikāyas where it is the stated that sīla is conducive to concentration (samādhisaṃvattanika).155 Based on the above elaboration, it can be clearly seen that samādhi or concentration is an important aspect that should be cultivated by Buddhists. However, the meditation practice for Buddhist people in Central Java is not practiced optimally. This fact can be seen at every chanting in almost all of the temples in Central Java, when they just do meditation for 5 or 10 minutes only. Not only that, it is very rare to find a temple that has a routine schedule to practice meditation. Do Buddhist people in Central Java really understand the benefit of doing meditation? Due to the lack of information about the urgency and the benefit of doing meditation, almost all Buddhists in central Java are doing meditation as a complementary activity in the temple. They feel that chanting is not complete without doing 5 minutes meditation and almost of them are doing mettabhavana meditation. The so called vipassanabhavana is regarded as something that is out of worldly life and it is still too early for them to do this kind of meditation.

The Importance of Meditation Training for Social Welfare and for Spiritual Development

In Central Java, the delivery of Dhamma sermons on the topic of the benefit of cultivating mind for many aspects is

155 bhikkhuyānitānisīlāniakhaṇḍāniacchiddāniasabalāniakammāsānibhujiss āniviññuppasatthāniaparāmaṭṭhānisamādhisaṃvattanikānitathārūpesusīl esusīlasāmaññagatoviharatisabrahmacārīhiāvicevaraho ca. M. I. 322, D. II. 79.

not really well explored by Buddhist leaders. Hence, the Satisampajaññā Sutta, which is rich in meaning in relation to meditation in social and spiritual life, is not well known by the people.

Meditation and Social Welfare

Based on this Sutta, the benefit of practicing meditation and social welfare is well explained. It is indicated in the sentence satisampajaññe, bhikkhave, asatisatisampajaññavi- pannassahatupanisaṃhotihirottappaṃ. 156 This Pali passage gives the meaning that through establishment sati (mindfulness) through meditation, one can get conscientiousness (hiri) and fear of blame (ottapa). Of course these two quality i.e. hiri and ottapa cannot be gained instantly and these can be possessed through gradual practice. The most important aspect from the teaching on the establishment of sati and hiri ottapa is that, meditation will benefit social welfare. Just imagine if in this world, all people were possessing hiri and ottapa, how nice this world would be, as a place to live together among human beings. Neither would there be need for any police nor any prison to control the crime as everybody would control themselves. Corruption would never exist in governmental life, and killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and drinking liquor would not happen in society if everybody as members of society possessed hiri and ottapa.

156Satisampajañña Sutta, A. IV. 336.

Meditation and Spiritual Development

After explaining the benefits of meditation for social welfare, there is a teaching about the benefits of meditation for spiritual development, mentioned in the SatisampajaññāSutta. Sammāsamādhimhiasatisammāsamādhisampannassah atupanisaṃhotiyathābhūtañāṇadassanaṃ.Yathābhūtañ āṇadassaneasatiyathābhūtañāṇadassanavipannassahat upanisohotinibbidāvirāgo, nibbidāvirāgeasatinibbidāvirāgavipannassahatupanisa ṃhotivimuttiñāṇadassanaṃ.157 The above quotation can be translated as follows: When right concentration is present, true knowledge and vision are the efficient causes of possession of right concentration.When true knowledge and vision are present, aversion and dispassion are the efficient causes of possession of true knowledge and vision. Hence, it can be understood how meditation training is the way to gain liberation. In other words, it can be concluded that there is no liberation without meditation.

Meditation and Eradication Process of Roots of Akusala

The brief discussion below is an effort to enrich the knowledge on how the process of eradication of the root of akusala is carried out in meditation process. In connection with this topic, it should be remembered again that in the teachings of the Buddha the mind is the forerunner for everything. The Buddha said that when a corrupted mind

157Satisampajañña Sutta, A. IV. 336.

becomes the basis for one’s speech and deeds, suffering will follow (manasācepaduṭṭhena, bhāsativākarotivā; tatonaṃdukkhamanveti).158 Likewise, when a good mind is the basis for one’s speech and action, the doer will always be surrounded by happiness, just like the shadow will never leave the object (manasācepasannena, bhāsativākarotivā; tatonaṃsukhamanveti, chāyāvaanapāyinī).159 All defilements spring from ignorance (avijjā) which distorts all the thought processes and finally creates the immoral actions. It is due to avijja that the mental formation (saṅkhāra) comes into being. This mental formation then, affects the arising of consciousness. Once the consciousness is accompanied by the demeritorious saṅkhāra (apuññabhisaṅkhāra), it will create demeritorious actions. In Buddhist ethical teachings, getting rid of the demeritorious mind (pāpa and akusala) is the first and foremost task before stepping further to the development of meritorious (puññā) and wholesome actions (kusala). However, wholesome actions in the mundane level are not enough to confront the defilements. Hence, the mind should be developed further through meditation up to the realization of mahaggatacitta (jhānic states) as the basic state to develop insight through vipassana process and then attaining lokuttaracitta (supramundane states) up to the perfect purification of mind in the arahantship level. In day today life, the starting point of all ethical endeavours in eradicating the root of akusala is by being

158 Dhp. 1. 159 Dhp. 2.

aware of every contact that takes place through sense doors. Being aware means that every object that is experienced through sense doors is taken with wise attention (yonisomanasikāra). This yonisomanasikāra will work in creating good actions at the impulsion stages (javana) of a thought moment. The function of yonisomanasikāra is also to avoid evil feelings because these feelings can lead to various kinds of wrong perceptions (yaṃvedetitaṃsañjānati). When wrong perceptions take place, one will fall into thinking again and again (vitaka) and finally be entrapped in mental proliferations (papañca) which make the endless saṃsāric journey. Eradicating defilements and gaining ethical perfection lead towards the attainment of Nibbāna. The realization of Nibbāna as the final aim of the ethical perfection brings benefits to the individual as well as to society because the attainment of Nibbāna means cutting off all defilements which are the roots of unethical actions. Thus, doing good actions becomes the nature of enlightened ones. With such a consequence, it is wrong to say that Buddhist ethical teaching and Buddhist meditation is a social and not applicable for the betterment of society. An enlightened one will still be endowed with sīla (sīlavā) as a spontaneous nature of behaviour, but an enlightened one will not be obsessed by sīla (na ca sīlamayo),160 identifying sīla as I, mine, or myself.

Story in Promoting Meditation in Central Java

160 Idha, thapati, bhikkhusīlavāhoti no ca sīlamayo, tañcacetovi- muttiṃpaññāvimuttiṃyathābhūtaṃpajānāti; yatthassatekusalāsīlāapari- sesānirujjhanti. M. II. 26.

There is opportunity to promote meditation among Buddhist people in Central Java. This big opportunity is because “some” people are actually having courage in practicing meditation. But, it is challenged with the difficulty to find a good meditation teacher from the Sangha members or from the laity in Central Java. The members of Sangha is very limited and they already have a tight schedule conducting many Buddhist activities. Laity who masters meditation is very rare and if there is any, he or she is busy with his/her own job and daily activities. However, the effort in promoting meditation in Central Java cannot be cut off. This effort should be continued more intensively by all elements of the Buddhist community, because only by doing meditation can the teaching of the Buddha continue to flourish and be well nurtured in the land of Central Java. One of the efforts is the Atthasila Upasaka Upasika Training which was held during one day and one night in June last year. The main goal of this programme was to give a“shock therapy” to the people that meditation together with atthasila is the jewel of Buddhist teaching which has been forgotten. It was followed by 700 people. The concept of this programme is a bit of copying and pasting of the practice of atthasila and meditation called “poyaday” in Sri Lanka. All the people who joined this programme were conditioned to wear white clothes, observing atthasila and sleeping in the temple. It was very different from the habitual colourful clothes of Buddhist people in Central Java when they go to the temple.

After the Atthasila Upasaka Upasika programme that had been held in Mendut temple, many districts in Central Java are now holding the same kind of activities. However, they hold this activity with support and guidance. From 2014 until now there are 4 districts (Jepara, Semarang, Kebumen and Pati) which have held the Atthasila and meditation programme. However, now because they are not encouraged again to do it, they do not hold such activity. It shows that doing meditation is not because of the need, but is just merely for the sake of making an activity or a programme. Moreover, as Buddhist villagers in Central Java usually have cows and they must collect grass for them daily, it becomes the reason for them not to go for meditation retreats. This happens because “many” Buddhist people do not really understand the benefits of meditation and only “some” understand its benefits. Due to this fact, when a meditation programme is set up, usually a committee is needed, and announcement and promotion of the programme done through many kinds social media. Another story comes from the idea of developing Buddhist leaders who understand meditation. In so doing, 10 people were sent to the meditation center in Malang, East Java. By sending these 10 people to the meditation center, it was hoped that they will become pioneers in promoting meditation in their own areas. As the result, some of them really became pioneers while others went home before the end of the retreat.

Conclusion

Meditation is something that is regarded as something out of this worldly life in central Java. The benefits of

meditation for social and spiritual welfare needs to be emphasized in every occasion when delivering sermons. Hopefully, meditation will flourish in Central Java.

POPULARIZING MEDITATION PRACTICE BY USING SIMPLE TECHNIQUES

Ven. Sasana Bodhi, Sutikyanto, S.Ag., M. Hum

Introduction

When we see the Buddhist laity community spread all over the country, it makes us realize that they too deserve the experience of the sweetness and beauty of the Buddha’s teachings . Monastics live their way of life in order to attain the highest achievement of practicing Buddha Dhamma, which is liberation (nibbana). But, how about the laity who sees this liberation as too far for them to reach, as compared to the sangha members who live as monastics? Therefore, it needs wisdom to deal with this matter, without changing the essence of the teaching. It should be compared to what the Buddha told his first sixty students as Dhamma teachers, “preach Dhamma for the happiness of all beings”; and we should therefore remember that is a dynamic thing living in each person’s life. It is a gradual practice, based on each person’s ability, so that he or she can have a better understanding of the truth of dharma which leads to enlightenment. In the end, it will result in liberation itself. The Buddha suggested this gradual method to the people for them to learn, practice, and live their lives in the right path so that they can finally achieve liberation. However, it cannot be done easily since Buddhist laity tends to think that Buddha Dhamma is deep, high, and difficult indeed. The challenge for Dhamma teachers in this present life

is how they will be able to extract the essence of the Buddha’s teachings so that it can be absorbed by most people. Moreover, it requires an ideal inner condition to face the present life so that people will not be lost dealing with the uncertainty of change. To achieve a better inner condition requires one to be persistent in the practice of meditation. However, once again, the laity thinks that meditation can only be done by monastics who have nothing to do nor have any problem. In fact, nowdays meditation classes are available in many places and open to all circles, including to non-Buddhists, but there are still only few enthusiasts and the classes only run at certain periods. Some of them think that meditation is sacred and deals with magic. This wrong view must be corrected so that people will know meditation better and be interested in practising it. By doing so, they will feel its benefits and use. In my opinion, the aforementioned is something very urgent nowadays, especially in Buddhist communities which I visited for counseling and dharma service. People need to get better information about meditation so that they can have right understanding, so that meditation can become a real part of their daily life. This problem may sound very simple and trivial, but it needs to be dealt with seriously and sincerely. If we ignore it, it can turn into something quite the opposite. Simple and trivial things can change into more serious and complicated ones. Therefore, meditation practice with simple explanations and techniques becomes important in Buddhist laity’s life. We do not need to confuse them by theoretical concepts and formal regulations.

Buddhist population

This meditation practice with simple techniques is for the Buddhist laity in general since the Buddha’s meditation teaching is universal. Moreover, the number of laity is more than the Buddhist monastics. As an example, according to statistical data for Central Java province, in 2005, there were approximately 650 thousand people as buddhist laity whereas, those who became monks and did dharma teaching were less than 25 people. However, those 650 thousand people will influence the image of Buddhism, and therefore, we should pay more attention to give them proper counselling and dhamma service. The Buddhist values portrayed in people’s life, in whatever jobs they are, will raise the value of Dhamma teachers in their surroundings.

Purpose

The purpose of introducing meditation practice with simple techniques, should not only be part of a personal practice but there should also be academic research to find relevant methods so that the truth of dhamma will always continue to live in society and people can achieve a peaceful and serene life. The study of Buddha dhamma should not only be about truth claims that are sometimes used for legitimate interests. It should go back to the great spirit of the universality of the Buddha’s teachings so that we can believe in something that is good and correct. It is supposed to be something good and correct, for the self and for others, today and in the future. The dharma wheel, which was rolled by the Buddhas, is for

creating a serene and peaceful life, though sometimes there are cries and sadness. The Buddha’s teachings always makes us realize the essence of life, so that our inner self is full of peace though we have to face life’s ups and downs.

Objectives of Meditation

Meditation or whatever the term used for dealing with inner development, has been practiced by humans since the pre- Buddhist era. But, after the Buddha’s enlightenment, that period saw the development of systematical and structured meditation teachings. However, students with their own characters and individual tendencies and differences, required their own varied practice experiences. Therefore, the wise Buddha who understood the various characters chose different practice methods, according to each student’s condition. This might have developed later into various meditation methods and techniques, designed by Acaryas or Masters after the demise of the Buddha. Meditation is very popular all over the world and many psychiatrists/psychologists use it as therapy to overcome stress and depression. There is even a cancer specialist who wrote an article in the media about the efficacy of meditation in controlling cancer. There are many stories which can be told about the usefulness of meditation. The practitioners, who have meditation experiences, can feel its benefits even though they cannot explain them verbally. However, it is different with normal laity. Some of them cannot feel the benefit, although there may be a few

others who do, but the percentage is very little. Lay people have to deal with many wrong views when starting to practice meditation. For example, some say that meditation is a sacred thing and meditation can only be done in silent and remote places, such as on mountain tops, in caves, and in other sacred places. Others are afraid to learn meditation because they are afraid of their souls being taken away. Some parents also ban their children from learning meditation because they are afraid the latter may become monks or nuns. There are also some people who want to learn meditation in order to get divine powers, magical power, etc. These are all misundertandings that should be corrected.

Changing a Wrong View

Changing a wrong view that has become public belief is not an easy thing to do. It needs patience and persistence to open this dark veil. The use of local cultural wisdom can be a familiar approach. We can learn the language, custom, and habits and start to bring the essence of meditation through people’s language so that they can understand it well. When people get a new lesson and it is transferred through the language that they understand, they can easily get the meaning so that they can decide whether it is good or bad, useful or not. It is possible that people can understand and accept certain concepts and become interested because they understand what is being talked about. When they do not understand, they can just have negative thinking. It also happens when introducing meditation. People have to face wrong views and uncalled for fears because they

do not get sufficient explanation that can lead to right understanding. Meditation is a very important and valuable method which is technically divided into two: samatha- and vipassana-bhavana. Simply said, samatha- bhavana means inner development by practicing mind concentration. Vipassana-bhavana is inner development by practicing mindfulness or attention leading to insight. Both mind concentration and awareness practice are not only directed to spiritual life, but they are also needed in all activities. If beginner practitioners apply a focused-mind, they can concentrate on doing their jobs, minimize mistakes and risks, finish their targeted tasks in time, and get better results. Therefore, introduction to simple techniques is needed in order to understand the essence of meditation teaching and its application in daily life, especially for lay people. There are two ancient Buddhist scriptures: the Satipatthana Sutta and the Bahiya Sutta which are used as references to exercise practical awareness both through concentration and full attention. Bahiya Sutta simply explains that mental development can be trained practically like the Buddha advised to Bahiya, “Then, Bahiya, this is how you should train yourself: In the seen, there is only the seen, in the heard, there is only the heard, in the sensed, there is only the sensed, in the cognized, there is only the cognized. Thus you should see that indeed there is no thing here. This, Bahiya, is how you should train yourself.” It indicates that when there is awareness in every moment of life, that moment can be the way to meditation. Even, the simple activity of the body, when there is complete attention, becomes an important meditation

method as depicted in the explanations of the Satipatthana Sutta. In such a context, meditation becomes a very practical and flexible spiritual activty. It is not an activity that limits and presses, but it is an activity that sets free. Trained consciousness and concentration shape conscious habits which will grow stronger. When the energy of habits has become more powerful, meditation will become a light, free, and fun activity.

Useful Simple Practice

As social problems get more complicated, it is important for individuals to have their mind enlightened even if they can only manage the beginning stage. This is to help them to be aware of the problems, to understand the causes, to know how to solve the problems and to figure out the right way of problem solving as implied in the Buddha’s main teaching in the Four Noble Truths (Cattari Ariya Saccani). This can serve as a problem solving method that inhibits the arising of other problems. One usually avoids problems without realizing that avoiding problems is a problem in itself. Actually, such persons will always be problematic. Whether or monastic, no man is free of problems. We have to work and have many activities to handle everyday. Those who are too enthusiastic finish them in hurry, which sometimes creates another work rather than finishing one. Those who are lazy tend to procrastinate and are lulled by temporary comfort. They will run out of time without finishing anything. It is similar to writing: pushing the pen too hard will tear the paper

while not pushing it enough will produce no writing. In order to write according to what we feel we need to hold the pen right and pen it carefully. That is the implementation of the Buddha’s middle way. Despite having little time due to work and other business, a person should be able to train his or her awareness through meditation. Without worrying whether s/he should develop her/his mind or attention first, s/he needs to condition his/her body and mind to relax. The person should follow what comes up next, whether it is easier to pay attention to the in or out of the breath or to concentrate that he/she is breathing. S/he should let those activities continue without pressure, fear, doubt and ambition, and allow the relaxation to last the desired span of time. When one is able to make time to do such a practice, one should be aware that one needs to concentrate and be aware in doing one’s activities. Then each activity becomes also part of the meditation. There will be some difficulties at first but one will get used to them when practicing seriously. In addition, the person will be able to develop other positive traits such as patience, meticulousness and alertness. Discipline is a must but adhering to formalistic rules sometimes bring new attachment that will result in new obstacles. With a simple practice, one can be trained to decide which problem should be handled first, based on priority scale, and then focus on the problem, bringing full attention and awareness to handle it. It is possible that a more urgent problem can come in and demand attention. When it happens, one should prioritize on the more urgent and then return to the

initial priority. Such an attitude does not imply too much flexibility, being undisciplined or being against other rules, but wisdom to decide on something challenging that may affect both meditation practice and success in handling the problem at hand. The wisdom of decision making by setting priorities helps one to save both time and energy. In addition, one will achieve better results rather than feel burdened by problems and affairs which have to dealt with from the moment one wakes up to sleep time. Such an attitude will only make one feel heavy and waste so much energy that it will cause more suffering. When one realises the benefit of controlling and directing one’s mind, one will be motivated to adapt to rules that one should adhere to without effort. Hence the nature of Buddha will grow in any condition without waiting for the next Samma Sambuddha.

Conclusion

This simple writing might not be of much worth, but I wanted to bring you to your subconscious mind for you to understand that the universality of Dhamma is not exclusively for the holy community or for spirituality. May the sweetness and beauty of Dhamma flow to the roots, so that the turning of the Dhamma wheel continues to be lively and nourish each Buddhist seed sown in this earth.

Buddhism As a System Of Psychotherapy

Wasantha Priyadarshana, Ph.D

Prelude

In many places of the , the Buddha is particularly known by two identical terms, namely ‘bhisakko’ and ‘sallakatho’161. These terms bear the meaning of unsurpassable (anuttaro) doctor and surgeon respectively. As far as Tikicchaka 162 and Vamana 163 Suttas are concerned, it is obvious why the Buddha is named by these terms. The main concern of Ayurveda is the physical well-being of mankind164. Ayurveda had probably been developed in ancient times according to the Atharvaveda and orally transmitted. It is only around the Buddha’s time, when these were put in writing, that all the Philosophical Schools started paying attention to psychological problems rather than physical issues 165 . Nevertheless, according to the Brahamajāla Sutta166, the 62 ideologies which emerged at the period of the Buddha had been unable to recognize the pathology of human

161 Iti. 100. 162 A. III. 219. 163 A. III. 219, 220. 164 F.B. III. 477, 479. 165 www.hindupedia.com/en/Atharvaveda 166 D. I. 1, 46.

psychological problems and to prescribe treatments for those problems through relevant approaches. Therefore, in the entire context of Buddhist philosophy, the main concern is centered on psychological issues and various relevant treatment approaches. In the first discourse, the Dhammacakkapavatana Sutta167, various human predicaments and the way to get rid of them are explained. From the outset the Buddha has been named as bhisakko (doctor) and sallkatto (surgeon), not because he was a physician, but with regard to his role in eliminating various psychological problems. Thus, the two terms coined by the Buddhist tradition has coined these two terms to prove the role played by the Buddha not as physician but as a Psychiatrist.

Humanism and Personality Development A resultant entity of both psychological (nāma) and corporeal (rūpu) elements is human being. Early Buddhist teachings such as Mind and Matter 168 (nāma-rūpa), Aggregates 169 (khandha), Elements 170 (dhāthu), Faculty 171 (āyatana) Conditioned genesis 172 (paṭiccasamuppāda), Nutriment173 (āhāra) further explain the interdependency of mind and body complex. Of the six, the first four teachings analytically describe human being as a resultant component of both physical and psychological elements. On the other hand,

167 S. V. 421. 168 B.D. 125. 126. 169 Ibid., 99.104. 170 Ibid., 57, 58. 171 Ibid., 33, 34. 172 Ibid., 157, 168. 173 Ibid., 7.

it is further emphasized that human being is not a creation of a invisible power, but results from the inter dependency of their physical and psychological complex. In order to prove this reality, the teaching of conditioned genesis synthetically explains how the individual comes into being as a result of manifold causes which is formatted together into a physical and psychological phenomenon. The above mentioned Early Buddhist teachings, refusing the dogmatic views of dualism, - eternity (sāssata) and annihilation (uccheda), the theory of creation (issaranimmāna) have tried to show the true nature of human beings with their abilities and potentialities. In the process of achieving the ultimate bliss, realization of the internal world within this fathom- long body is a must. According to Early Buddhism, the realization of this conceptual world is to be attained through a transformation of behavioral and cognitive process. As it is expounded in Early Buddhism, every human being is born in this world with an inherent ability of achieving this ultimate bliss (nibbāna) 174 . Consequently, the Buddhist approach is to direct the individuals towards the ultimate bliss known as nibbāna, which is achieved through the transformation of behavioral and cognitive transformation. The Buddhist analysis of cetovimutti175 (liberation of mind) and paññāvimutti 176 (liberation through wisdom) describes how this transformation occurs.

174 For an account of psychological analysis of Nibbana, see , p.218 175 D.II. 265, 71, 104, 273, M.I.35, 494, S.IV.360, A. IV.357. 176 S. III. 45, A.IV. 423.

Psychopathology As discussed above, human being means a psycho- physical complex. With regard to this exposition, unwelcome illnesses which come into being cannot be divided either as mental or physical. But giving the priority to the intensity of causes that lead to illness, Buddhist discourses have categorized them into physical or mental aspects. In the context of Buddhist analysis of Psychopathology, the following factors are very significant: 1. Influence of the Noxious trio (Psychological approach)177 2. Influence of the Four Elements (Physiological approach)178 3. Influence of Previous kamma (Ethical approach)179 4. Influence of ghosts, gods and planetary objects (cultural and parapsychological approach)180 The negative emotions which destroy the luminosity of mind have been elaborated in the Buddhist canon with various synonyms, namely Samyojana 181 (fetters), Āsava 182

177 Vism. XXII.798, 806. 178 Ibid., III. 102, 104. 179 Ibid., III. 104,104. 180 The birth of Indian Psychology and its development in Buddhism, p. 397. 181 Ten fetters are Sakkayaditthi( personality – belief), Vicikicca (Skeptical doubt), Silabbata paramasa (Clinging to mere rules and rituals), - raga(Sensuous craving),Vyapada (Ill-will), Rupa-raga (Craving for fine – material existence), Arupa-raga(Craving for immaterial existence), Mana (conceit) Uddhacca(restlessness), Avijja (Ignorance).

(intoxicants), Ogha183 (floods), Gantha184 (knots) ,Upādana185 (clinging), Nivārana186 (hindrances) and Anusaya187 (latent dispositions). Though various synonyms are employed here in order to render the meanings of various functions of causes leading to mental disorders and proclamation behaviors, these negative emotions are categorized under the term ‘kilesa’188 (defilements). The term kilesa stands for the noxious trio (lobha. dosa, and moha). As mentioned in the Buddhist cannon, when these defilements appear in one’s mind, the destruction of the individual will gradually begins. A paradigm is adopted here to explain the negative aspect of the noxious trio, which like the bamboo reed and the banana plant are

182 Four kinds of intoxicants or cankers are; the intoxicant of 1) Sensual desire, 2) Attachment to existence, 3) Wrong views, 4) Ignorance. 183 Four floods are: the flood of 1) Sensual desire, 2) Attachment to existence, 3) Wrong views, 4) Ignorance. 184 Four kinds of knots are: the knots of 1) Covetousness, 2) ill- will or hatred, 3) rites and ceremonies, 4) the theory that the soul exists. 185 Four clinging are: the clinging to 1) Sensual desire, 2) Wrong views, 3) rites and ceremonies, 4) the theory that the soul exists. 186 Six hindrances are: the hindrance of 1) Sensual desire, 2) ill- will, 3) Sloth and torpor, ill-will, restlessness and worry , 5) Doubt, 6) Ignorance 187 Seven latent proclivities are ; 1) Sensuous greed, 2) grudge 3) Speculative opinion, 4) Skeptical doubt, 5) conceit, 6) Craving for continued existence, 7) Ignorance. 188 Equivalent English term for kilesa is defilement. It is so called because, they defile the lustrous mind by these adventitious defilements ( Pabhassaramidam cittam tam ca agantukehi upakkilesehi upakkilittaham . A.I.10) Defilements are mind – defiling, unwholesome qualities (Vis. xxII. 49.65.). There are ten defilements namely, 1) Lobha (Raga, greed), 2) Dosa (hatred), 3) Moha ( delusion) 4) Mana (conceit) 5) Ditthi ( Speculative view) 6) Vicikicca (skeptical doubt) Thina ( mental sloth and torpor), Uddhacca (restlessness), 9) Ahirika (Shamelessness), Anotappa ( Unconscientiousness)

destroyed by their own fruits189. As a result of being induced by these three blemishes, maladaptive behaviors and miscellaneous psychological problems may occur in human life. As it is shown in the Buddhist cannon, further “enraptured with desire (lobha), enraged with hate (dosa), blinded by delusion (moha), overwhelmed by mind, the ensnared man aims at his own ruin, at the ruin of both, and he experiences mental pain and grief. And he follows evil ways indeed. He really knows neither his own welfare, nor the welfare of others, nor the welfare of both. These things make him/her blind and ignorant, him/her knowledge and do not lead him/ her to peace.190” Even though the teaching of the noxious trio is elaborated in the context of as a negative phenomena, it is in the arena of Buddhist psychology that the teaching of the noxious trio is discussed positively. For instance, the canonical expositions describe a monk who has reached a certain level of development and can attain the first jhāna, but he cannot realize the destruction of the influxes. However, by his desire for the doctrine, by his delight in the doctrine, he bursts the five fetters binding him to this world and is reborn in a spiritual world191. Not only desire (lobha) but dosa (hatred), moha (delusion) and bhaya (fear) have also been enumerated as motives that lead human beings to moral acts. The terms like bhaya (fear), ahirika (shame) and anottappa (dread) are closely interconnected and are introduced as motives for protecting humans from

189 S. I. 3. 190 PED. 542. 191 Ten’eva dhammaragena taya dhammunnatiya pancannam orambhagiyam Samyojananam parikkhaya opapatiko, A. V. 342.

unwholesome acts. According to the Pattakamma Sutta, desire is enumerated as the motive that leads human beings to acquire their needs and wants related to this world and after.192

Heavenly Existence Longevity Fame Primary and Secondary Needs

Manifold functions of lobha (desire) are elaborated in the Buddhist canon with miscellaneous synonyms-Kāmaccahanda (impulse), Rāga (excitements), Nandi (enjoyment), Tanhā (thirst), sneha (love), Parilāha (consuming passion), maccha (swoon) are some of them193. But these synonyms have been categorized under two facets namely kāmatanhā (sensuous gratification) 194 and Bhavatanhā (self-preservation). 195 The intrinsic characteristic of human being is to abandon all kinds of sufferings and to acquire happiness196, as long as they can in

192 A. II. 61. 69. 193 Thich Minh Thanh,Bh, The mind in Early Buddhism, p.145. 194 De Silva Padmasiri, An Introduction to Buddhist psychology, pp. 36, 37. 195 Ibid., 36, 37. 196 Sukhakamani Byhutani, Dhp. 131.

this life time and be reborn in a heaven full of happiness after this life197. Desire is discussed under two kinds of facets in detail. The true nature of this world is based on impermanence (anicca)198. When all wishes, needs, and wants unexpectedly vanish, the reaction comes into being as hatred (dosa). In the Buddhist psychological analysis, the function of dosa is discussed as Vibhavatanhā (craving for annihilation).199 An individual who is overwhelmed by Vibhavatanhā behaves abnormally, and his/her verbal and physical functions are probably problematic. And this type of individual cannot understand his/ her welfare and welfare of others. The first aspect of dosacharita (hatred character) can be recognized as self-destructive behavior. 200 The Aṅguttara Nikāya further shows various self-destructive attempts made by dosa- charita (hatred character): For craze they stab themselves with daggers. In desperation, they swallow poison, perish hanged by rope or throw themselves over a precipice.201 Not only their self-destructive attempts but the entire social destruction is also planned by them due to their

197 A. II. 61, 69. 198 The first defilement of the three universal characteristics is impermanence of (anicca). The other two characteristics, unsatisfactoryness (dukkha) and egolessness (anatta) are derived from this first characteristic, impermanency “impermanency of things is the rising, passing and changing of things, or arisen. The meaning is that these things never persist in the same way. But that they are vanishing and dissolving from movement to movement”(VIS, VII, 3.) 199 De Silva Padmasiri, An Introduction to Buddhist psychology, pp. 36, 37. 200 Priyadarshana W, Global recovery, The Buddhist perspective U.N.D.V conference, Thailand, 710, 711. 201 A. IV. 61, 62.

uncontrolled hatred motive.202 And on the other hand, the individual who is not overwhelmed by hatred is noble to understand the things of world as they are. The deluded situation has been graphically explained as moha. The term moha (delusion) is synonymous to Avijjā, the primary root cause of all mental distortions. In the Saṃyuttanikāya, there is a central context which throws light on the analysis of moha (delusion). It is the delusion tricking beings by making life appear to them as permanent, happy, substantial and beautiful and preventing them from seeing that everything in reality is impermanent, liable to suffering, void of I-ness and mine, and basically impure.203 The teaching of the noxious trio plays an important role in understanding unhealthy characters with reference to this analysis of trio as desire character (rāgacharita), hatred character (dosa-charita), deluded character (Moha-charita) 204and speculative character (Vitakka – carita). The Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification) gives some physiological reasons which are conducive to the formation of unhealthy characters. As it is discussed herein, four elements known as earth (paṭhavi), water (āpo), fire (tejo) wind (vāyo)205 and three humors known as phlegm, wind and bile

202 Killing, Stealing, unlawful sexual intercourse, lying, tale –bearing, harsh language, frivolous talk, covetousness, ill – will and wrong views, B.D, p.123. 203 S. III. 3, 4. 204 Vism. III.79, 81. 205 Visuddhimagga Tr.by Bhikkhu Nanamoli, Taipei R.O.C, 1956, xi 380, 384 What is characterized by hardness ‘(thattalokakhana) is the earth or soil Element by cohesion (abandana) or fluidity, the water element . heating (paripacana ) the fire heat element strengthening” or supporting

are caused to form the physical body. A very lengthy discussion is made here in order to show how imbalance of these four elements and three humors is the origination of unhealthy characters such as desire, hatred and delusion and their various problematic behaviors and mental distortions206. In the Buddhist canonical expositions also, the various functions of three humors are discussed. Kammic influence as a crucial ingredient of psychopathology has also been elaborated in the Visuddhimagga. The ethical function of kamma and its interaction with psychological phenomena has been graphically explained in the Buddhist canonical and commentarial expositions207 by means of analysis of viññāna (here it means the -consciousness), saṃkhara (formation), cetanā (volition) and manasikāra (Mental

“(Vitthambhana) the wind or motion Elements. All four are present in every material object though in vaying degrees of strength. If, for instance. this earth element predominates the material object is culled ‘solid’ etc. 206 Ibid., II. 79, 81. It is said in the Visuddhimagga “then a person is of deluded temperament because two elements are prominent, that is to say the earth element and fire element . He is of heating temperament because the other two elements are prominent. But he is of greedy temperament because all four are equal as regards the humors. One of greedy temperament has phlegm in excess and one of deluded temperament has phlegm in excess and one of greedy temperament has wind in excess. So they have their humors they say.” 207 Ibid., III. 104,105. Visuddhimagga says “Apparently one of greedy temperament has formally has plenty of desirable tasks and gratifying works to do , or has reappeared here after dying in a heaven . And one of hating temperament has formerly has plenty of stabbing and torturing and brutal works to do or has reappeared after dying. And one of talents temperaments has formerly drunk a lot of intoxicants and neglected hearing and questioning or has reappeared here of for dying in the animal existence.

advertence) 208. Various problematic and mental distortions have been shown here to be a result of the influence of previous kamma. On the other hand, the Milindapañha discusses the cultural and para-psychological background as causes leading to problematic behaviors and mental distortions209.

Problematic behaviors and Mental Disorders

The terms puthujjana and Ariyasāvaka are employed in Early Buddhism to differentiate unhealthy characters from healthy characters. A Puthujjana or ordinary man is described as a worldling who behave as a mentally-ill patient. (Ummattakā210 viyahi puthujjana). The Puthujjana or ordinary individual led by noxious trio is subject to suffering devoid of reality and inherently impure. As it is shown by the Dutiya Lokadhamma Sutta211, the mind of ordinary man is agitated by the vicissitudes of the world. The unsteady, fluttery nature of the mind of this ordinary man is further elaborated in the Cittavagga of the Dhammapada, 212 where the mind is compared to a fish that is thrown out of water. The Pañcaiṭṭhadhamma Sutta 213 reveals the true nature of this

208 For a detailed discussion of the psychological basis of kamma ,see, Asian concepts and practice of mental culture as An Approach to Global Recovery through mental well- being , saare culture 13,25. 209 The Birth of Indian psychology and its Developments in Buddhism, p.397. 210 PED. s.v, Ummattaka 211 A. IV. 158. 212 Dhp. 34. 213 A. III. 45.

ordinary man and explains how he/she tries to accomplish his/her wants and needs through praying. The nature of the distorted mind of the ordinary man is well-explained in the Saṃyuttanikaya in terms of the simile of water. The mind obsessed with the yearning for sense pleasures is like a bowl of colored water which does not give a correct reflection of the face which looks into it. Truth or the unbiased state of a thing will not be correctly reflected in a mind thus dominated by craving for sense pleasures. The mind that is given to anger is like a bowl of boiling water which too fails to produce a true reflection214. The mind which is overwhelmed by laziness does not get on to activity and it is compared to water that is covered with moss and weeds. The mind that is agitated by excitement and worry is like wind tossed turbulent water which fails to record a true reflection. The mind that is habituated to doubt is like muddy water placed in darkness: it too fails to give a correct reflection. This uncultivated mind is always centered on the concepts as I, my, mine, myself and for me. The Roga Sutta215 gives a comprehensive exposition of mental patients. It says that except for an Arahant (saint), all other individuals are deranged. According to this exposition, all Ariyasāvaka or Noble individuals, except for the Arahant (saint) who entered on the three stages of purification, known as Sotāpanna (Stream-enterer), Sakadagāmi (Once-returner),

214 Mental culture in Buddhism, p.2. 215 Monks, There are to be seen, beings who can admit freedom from bodily illness for one year ... who can admit freedom from bodily illness for even a hundred years But monks, those beings are hurt to find in the world who can admit freedom from mental illness even for one moment, save only those in whom the asavas are destroyed.

Anāgāmi (Non-returner) are possessed by the ten fetters (saṃyojana). The Noble Person who is free from Sakkāya diṭṭhi (Personality-belief), Vicikicchā (skeptical doubt) and sīlabbata-parāmāsa (clinging to mere rules and rituals) is known as Sotāpanna or Stream-enterer, but he still possesses other seven fetters. He who, besides having eliminated these three fetters, has overcome the fourth and fifth in their grosser form is called Sakadagāmai (Once-returner); the Sakadagāmi has not entirely overcome Kamarāga (Sensuous craving) and Vyapāda (ill-will). The Noble person, Anāgami or Non- returner (to this sensuous world) has eliminated the first five fetters but this Non- returner still possesses the last five fetters, namely ill-will (Vyāpāda), craving for fine – material existence (Rūpa-rāga), craving for immaterial existence (Arūpa – rāga), conceit (Māna) restlessness (Uddhacca) and ignorance (Avijjā). Therefore, it is abundantly clear that, not only all worldlings are deranged, but the Noble persons, except for the Arahant (Saint), to certain levels, also possess subtle mental distortions which tie them to this sensuous world, and to the five material and immaterial worlds. 216 Authors such as Tilokasundari kariyawasam217 and Dr. Harischandra218 have discussed the psychiatric value in the Buddhist analysis of problematic disorders and mental distortions elaborated in Jātaka stories. According to expositions of these two authors, it is very clear that the problematic and mental disorders in Jātaka stories are very

216 The mind in Early Buddhism, pp.105,106. 217 Buddhism and psychology, pp. 266, 285. 218 Psychiatric aspects of Jataka stories, pp. 65,66.

close to modern classifications. Dr. Harischandra in his masterpiece has compared them with modern analysis. For instance, eight categories of Ummāda mentioned in the Darīmukha Jātaka are attributed to the modern analysis of the following: I. Kāma – Ummāda (Sexual dysfunction) II. Krodha – Ummāda ( mania) III. Darshana – Ummāda ( hallucination) IV. Moha – Ummāda ( mental retardation) V. Yaksha – Ummāda ( possession disorder) VI. Pitts – Ummāda ( melancholia) VII. Sura – Ummāda (depression) The problem occurs when attributing modern recognition and classification on the Buddhist analysis of mental disorders and problematic behaviors, because the original Buddhist authenticity of meaning becomes hidden. For instance, as discussed above, every worldling is recognized in the Buddhist context as a mental patient. On the other hand, noble individuals like the Anagāmi, who has developed his/ her mentality to the highest level also possesses some very subtle mental distortions219. Therefore, it should be understood that the Buddhist analysis of every mental illness and problematic disorders is centered on the analysis of supreme bliss (Nibbāna). The word Nibbāna is the nominal form of the verb Nibbāyati. The term Nibbāyati is given as meaning ‘to extinguish; to blow out’ as in the blowing out a lamp. Nibbāna is so called because it blows out the fires of greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha), rāgaggi, dosaggi and

219 The mind in Early Buddhism, pp.105,106.

mohaggi220. As it is discussed in the Buddhist Canon, when these fires are blown out, peace is attained, and one becomes completely cooled, sitibhūta 221 . Until one realizes this summum bonum (Nibbāna) 222 , he/ she possesses various mental distortions and problematic disorders. This Buddhist analysis entirely differs from modern analysis of mental disorders. Having understood the Buddhist analysis of mental disorders and problematic disorders well, Ven. Rerukane Chandawimala in his master piece, Keles Ekdaspansiya , enumerates 1510 kinds of mental disorders and problematic behaviors altogether, as reflected in Early Buddhism. It should be understood that all kinds of mental disorders and problematic behaviors have been recognized with their characteristics in the unintelligent man or ordinary man known as Puthujjana 223 . But in the Visuddhimagga, Ven. Buddhagosha explains various mental disorders and problematic behaviors according to the Buddhist theory of character analysis. As discussed in the Visuddhimagga, out of six characters, the faithful and intelligent characters are considered as healthy, whereas the other four characters possess various mental disorders. All these mental disorders originate from many reasons as discussed above. The Buddhist theory of Anicca maintains that all formations are impermanent (Sabbe Sankhāra aniccā) Therefore, mental disorders and problematic behaviors cannot be given

220 S. IV. 19. 221 Sn. 542, 642. 222 Global Recovery, The Buddhist Perspective, pp. 712. 223 Suttanipata, ed, D, P.T.S.

permanent titles as are given in the west, such as psychosis or neurosis. According to the Visuddhimagga classification, there is the possibility to recognize various mental or behavioral problems by looking at the intensity of the factors from the above mentioned four unhealthy characters.

Problematic Behaviors and Psychiatric Disorders According to Character Analysis as mentioned in the Visuddhimagga

I. Unhealthy Characteristics Possessed by the Desire Character 1. Hallucinatory habits (māgā) 2. Fraudulent taxies( sātheya) 3. Pride in all actions 4. Delight in sinful actions ( pāpicchatā) 5. Unlimited desires ( mahicchatā) 6. Unsatisfactoriness ( asantutthitā) 7. Deep rooted defilement in every action ( singa) 8. Vacillation in duties ( Cāpalya) 9. Not tearing any sinful actions ( anottappa) 10. Shamefulness in any sinful actions ( ahirika) 11. Infatuated mood in any functions( mado) 12. Unconscious mind ( pamādo)

II. Unhealthy Characteristics possessed by Deluded Character (moha) 1. Sloth and torpor in physical and mental performances ( thinamiddha) 2. Restlessness ( uddhacca)

3. Scrupulousness 4. Uneasiness after doing actions 5. Skeptical doubts ( vicikicchā) 6. Dogmatism

III. Unhealthy Characteristics possessed by hatred Character (dosa) 1. Provocative in day to day life patterns 2. Imbalance in controlling hatred (upanāha) 3. Covering others good qualities (makkha) 4. Comparing one’s good 5. Intolerance of other wealth and progress ( issa) 6. Hiding his wealth from the society

IV. Unhealthy Characteristics possessed by the Speculative Character ( vitakka) 1. Excessive talkativeness 2. Fondness for soceity 3. Dislike for wholesome practices 4. Unsettled in all his doings 5. By night he broods over what to do next day 6. By day he carries out last night plans 7. Aimless rushing about224

Treatment Theories

As discussed above, mental disorders and problematic behaviors come into being due to various causes. Those causes

224 A. IV. 158.

can be categorized under four approaches and in the treatment process, all the causes are dealt with. Three kinds of major strategies to control them are suggested. They are as follows: 1. Tadanga – pahāna :- temporary treatment 2. Vikkhambhana –Pahāna :- periodical treatment 3. Samuccheda – Pahāna :- everlasting treatment 225

Along with the Noble Eightfold Path, Sīla is advocated here as Temperaments Kammaṭṭhānas 1. Desire (rāga) Ten unpleasant objects ( asubhās) and mindfulness with regard to the body 2. Hatred (dosa) Four sublime abodes ( brahmavihāras) and four vaṇṇakasinās 3. Deluded Mindfulness on in and out breathing four (moha) vaṇṇakasinās 4. Faithful Six kinds of Recollection (), Recollection (saddhā) of the Buddha, doctrine, his noble disciples, morality, liberality, heavenly beings. 5. Intelligent Recollection of death (maranānussati) (Buddhi) Recollection of the peace of Nibbāna. Analysis of the four elements ( catudhātuvavatthāna) 6. Speculative Mindfulness on in and out breathing (vitakka) ( ānāpānasati)

a strategy in order to change problematic behaviors into acceptable verbal and Physical functions in the society. Under this sīla (morality), behavioral modification is aimed. But this behavioral modification is not a permanent treatment.

225 Harischandra,1998, pp. 65, 66.

Therefore, second approach is advocated as samādhi (concentration). In this approach, human emotional functions leading to problematic behaviors and mental disorders are controlled. The theory used here is samatha meditation (Tranquility or serenity) forty kammaṭṭhānas (meditative subjects) are coined in order to control emotional function of the six characters as the following. The eternal treatment for every kind of human predicaments is suggested in the third step here as vipassana (insight) meditation. In Indian Buddhist cultural background, Ayurvedic medicine recognizes human mental disorders as the imbalance of three humors. Hence, in this category Ayurveda medical therapy and their relevant psychotherapeutic tools are used. This therapeutic approach can be recognized as the physiological approach toward mental disorders. In the Buddhist cultural background, some mental problems occur due to demonic attacks, departed beings attacks, planetary attacks and attacks from heavenly beings. Therefore, treatment tools can be designed using psychotherapeutic elements that exist in Buddhist philosophy and Buddhist culture. Psychotherapeutic elements exist in Buddhist culture. For instance, Sri Lankan Buddhist psychotherapy based on these Buddhist philosophical and cultural elements can be summed – up as follows:

Psychopatho Mental Therapist Treatments logy disorder & abnormal behavior

Air (vāta), Unmade Vedamahatha • Medical bile(pita) Vikāra (Ayurvedic therapy Phlegm doctor) • Psychoth (sema, erapy kappa)

Demonic Yakshā Yakedura Yak thovil attack vesā (devil dance) (Demonic disorder)

Ghost Pretha dosa Kattadiya Pretha tattuwa Goblin, Telmatirima Departed Dehikapanna attack

Planetary Navagraha Astrologer Navagrahayantr Attack dosa a

God Attack dosa Kapuva Puja

Desire Cetasikaroga Buddhist Ø Behavio (lobha) monk ral Hatred modific (dosa) ation Delusion Ø Emotion (moha) al Modific ation Ø Cogniti ve modific ation

Abbreviations A: Aṅguttara Nikāya B.D: Buddhist Dictionary D: Dīgha Nikāya Dhp: Dhammapada Iti: Itivuttaka M: Majjhima Nikāya PED: Pali English Dictionary S: Saṃyutta Nikāya Sn : Suttanipāta Vism: Visuddhimagga Vol: Volume

Bibliography Primary Source Aṅguttara Nikāya. ed, Rev,Richard Morris ,Vol, IV, P.T.S, 1978. Aṅguttara Nikāya. ed, Rev,Richard Morris ,Vol,II, P.T.S, 1976. Aṅguttara Nikāya. ed,E ,Hardy ,Vol,III, P.T.S, 1976. Dhammapada,Tr, Narada,Sri Lanka,2000. DighaNikaya, ed, T.W, Rhys Davids, and J.Estlin Carpenter, vol, I P.T.S, 1975. DīghaNikāya, ed, T.W, Rhys Davids, and J.Estlin Carpenter, vol, I , P.T.S, 1982. Saṃyutta Nikāya , Vol, II,Ed, M , Leon Feer, P.T.S, 1973. Saṃyutta Nikāya, Vol, II,Ed, M , Leon Feer, P.T.S, 1975. Saṃyutta Nikāya, Vol, IV,Ed, M , Leon Feer, P.T.S, 1975. Saṃyutta Nikāya, Vol, V,Ed, M , Leon Feer, P.T.S, 1976. Sutta - Nipāta ,ed,Dines Anderson and Helmer Smith, P.T.S 1965. Udāna verses of uplift and Itivuttaka ; As it was said, tr .F.L wood word , London , Oxford University press. 1948. Visuddhimagga: The path of purification, Tr, Bhikkhu Ñānamoli, Taipe, Taiwan R.O.C 1956.

Secondary Sources Davids Mrs Rhys (1936) The birth of Indian psychology and its developments in Buddhism, London. De Silva Lily, Mental culture in Buddhism Karunaratna and Sons , Sri Lanka. De Silva Ppadma (1979) An introduction to Buddhist

psychology. Global Recovery; The Buddhist perspective, U.N.D.V Conference Volume (2010), Thailand. Harischandra , D.V.J. (1998), Psychiatric Aspect of Jataka Stories , Gall, Vijitayapa. Kalupahana D, J, (1987) The principles of Buddhist psychology U.K. Newyork press. Kariyawasam,T.(2003) Buddhism and psychology, Sri Lanka. Maurits G,T, kwee kenneth ,J. Gergen and Fusuka . ed (2006) Horizons in Buddhist Psychology, U.S.A Sarrc culture (2010), Vol. I, Saarc Culture centre, Colombo. Thich Minh Thanh ,Bh. (2001) The mind in Early Buddhism, Munshiram Manoharalal Publisher, New Delhi.

Buddhist Education: Morality, Concentration and Wisdom

Asst. Prof. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji

Introduction

We hear the words “trisikkhā – threefold sikkhā” and know that it consists of morality, concentration and wisdom, but we have never gone deeply into the true meaning of the word “sikkhā.” There was no other Buddha’s sermon beyond the threefold sikkhā, and therefore gives us a clue about what the destination of the Buddha’s teachings is.

The Meaning of Sikkhā

This word is derived from the root ‘sikkh’ in Pāli, identical with the Sanskrit word ‘śikā,’ both of which mean ‘to be able.’ Western scholars accept this meaning and understand that ‘individual ability” comes from the ‘process of training.’ So they have, according to the process, given the meaning of sikkhā as ‘training.’ It suggests that training is meaningful in Buddhism. Training covers mental training and physical training. The latter is easily available in the Buddha’s words; the former is confirmed by the word ‘sikkhita –hattha,’which is also according to the Buddha, not very often available, and literally means ‘one who is with trained hands’. The

word is used as an adjective of archer, who becomes a ‘Champion’ through the hand - training process.

Threefold Sikkhā And Its Meaning

If questioned about the Buddha’s reason for the training of his followers (divided into four groups of bhikkhus (male monks), bhikkhunis (female monks), upãsakas (male lay men) and upāsikās (female lay women)…) to become good worldly persons and noble persons, respectively, we can say that the Buddha did it for the peace of human society. The Buddha clearly proclaimed that he was born for prosperity and happiness of the world. (Duka: Puggalavagga) The word shows that he was born to do a ‘work’ and that was for the benefit of the world, ending in ‘happy coexistence.’ At this point, we have to ask the question : “what is a hindrance to the world’s happy coexistence ?” The initial answer should be focused on five human actions: killing , stealing, sexual misconduct, telling lies, and indulgence in intoxicants. All of those, in the sociologist’s eye, may be viewed as a problem commonly caused by the greed of people. It indicates that the world’s social development caused such a problem, and that such a society likes to underestimate suffering caused by human actions, but overestimates technology- based convenience. As for the Buddha, he sees the development as it is; it cannot cause any pure happiness,

it hides suffering in itself, leading to wrong actions such as violence and destruction to take out more advantages. Threefold Sikkhã And the Noble Eightfold Path : The Principle for Learning and Training Leading to ‘Enlightenment’ as the Final Goal

There are many questions on the interpretation and application of the threefold sikkhā in daily life, because the contents and essences of those are actually focused on the dharma practice for the renunciation of the world. Actually, the threefold sikkhā covers all walks of life, both worldly and religious wise; which need to be developed and to keep away from ‘defilements.’ The Buddha required his followers, both monks and lay people, to train themselves through the process of practicing the threefold sikkhā - sila - morality, samādhi – concentration, and paññā – wisdom until they can keep defilements under control and destroy those absolutely. As a result, they become free and win stable peace and bliss. This kind of free life is indeed needed by everyone. To have a clear picture , let us divide and analyse the threefold sikkhā into the eightfold path. It is necessary for beginners to have a good understanding of the eightfold path. As found in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, the first sermon, (Sanyutta: Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta)the Pāli words “ariyo atthangiko maggo” was used by the Buddha and translated into English asthe ‘Noble Eightfold Path.’ I like to translate it as ‘the path, with 8 factors, that keeps away from defilement,’ because it suggests that the

Buddha wanted to reveal that there exists only one way to liberation from suffering. It is comprised of 8 factors – sammāditthi - right view, sammāsankappa – right thought, sammāvācā-right speech, sammākammanta – right action, sammāājíva – right livelihood, sammãvãyãma – right effort, sammãsati- right mindfulness, and sammāsamādhi – right concentration. All of the 8 factors are grouped in three: sammāditthi - right view, and sammāsankappa – right thought are grouped into the wisdom training , sammāvācā-right speech, sammãkammanta – right action, sammāājíva – right livelihood, into the morality training, sammāvāyāma – right effort, sammāsati- right mindfulness, and sammāsamādhi – right, into the concentration training. According to the training process, let us start from inside - mental action called the ‘manokamma’ ; sammāditthi - right view is the first factor for creating and cultivating right wisdom that functions to destroy wrong view about life and life problem . It is conducive to sammāsankappa – right thought as the second factor. Creating and cultivating right thought result in right verbal action as the third, right action as the fourth, and right livelihood as the fifth, the three of which function to lessen sufferings related to wrong speech, wrong action and wrong livelihood. It furthers that apart from birth, old age and death, there are those daily sufferings attacking us and which are included in the noble truth of suffering. The so-called five factors are a starting means to keep practitioners away from some defilements and urge

them to proceed to the 3 remaining factors, consisting of sammāvāyāma-right effort, sammāsati- right mindfulness, and sammāsamādhi – right concentration. Of those, sammāsati - right mindfulness is a main principle for the training process for liberation from suffering, because it has to work hard on seeing suffering at each moment as it is. However, the success of sammāsati- right mindfulness and other factors is related to the support of sammāvāyāma - right effort, which work to keep the rest co-working and being in balance. With the support of sammāvāyāma - right effort, sammāsati- right mindfulness can continue its own functioning until the occurrence of sammāsamādhi – right concentration with ‘one-pointedness of mind’ as peek. By power of sammāsati- right mindfulness, the mind is strong, stable and full of rapture. Because the last 3 factors have such strength, the first 2 factors become stronger and more stable; by that, sammāditthi - right view can see suffering clearly and deeply, as it is, and sammāsankappa – right thought does not let ‘wrong thought’ have a chance to occur. Without wrong thought as originator, wrong speeches, wrong actions and wrong livelihood cease. At this point, sufferings known as problems or obstacles of life are thus gradually lessened until they are absolutely destroyed.

How are the Threefold Sikkhã and the Noble Eightfold Path Applicable to Modern Study ?

To clarify the above- mentioned questions, the answers have to come out of the brain storming. Let me express some basic thoughts as follows:

1. First Manage the Ideas on View

There are two kinds of different views, both of which may hinder the application of the threefold sikkhā or the eightfold path in the modern education system. The former views that both are just ethical or moral theories and the latter views that modern education is not for the end of sufferings. Therefore the former results in people ignoring and considering both as very much difficult to understand and to practice, and both may be viewed as barriers to winning gain and rank. The second opinion views these Buddhist theories as a barrier to really understanding human life and its problems.

2. What is A Proper View?

It is a question that needs an answer and the answer requires a proper view. In the beginning, let us view the threefold sikkhā or the eightfold path as the way to the cessation of suffering as well as the way to the winning of happiness. In the Buddhist view, the Buddha was the first person, who was successful in training himself through the threefold sikkhā or the eightfold path and won ‘Supreme Enlightenment,’ which makes the winner complete with the qualifications of knowing,

awakened and delighted. All of these are created by the process of self training. Later, viewing life as it is, that is, viewing that human life meets with suffering more than happiness; the Buddha gave the way to the cessation of suffering and the winning of sustainable happiness, through self-development.

3. Is it necessary to learn and understand the meaning and process of life as taught by the Buddha ?

According to the Buddha, life is divided into “rūpa and nāma.” The group (aggregate) of rūpa here means a human body that consists of 32 parts such as hair, body hair, nail, dent, skin and so on as well as bodily movements; the group of nāma here covers a group of feelings (vedanā), a group of perceptions (saññā), a group of mental formations (sankhārā), and a group of consciousnesses (viññāņa).

3.1. I think that the Buddha’s words “sankhittena pañca upādānakkhandhā dukkhā - collectively the five aggregates as the bases of suffering are sufferings” (Vinaya: Mahakhandhaka)

3.2. I think of the academic writing of Dr. Saroj Buasi, a late Thai educationist, who had presented an idea on education for life development based on the five- aggregates. I am not clear whether or not his idea has been continued by later educationists and how.

3.3. According to the Buddha, the Buddhist education is a gradual self development, which results finally in enlightenment, and which is described by the Buddha himself as: “...One who is confident approaches the teacher ; having approached, he sits near and mindfully listens, keeps in mind and considers his master’s teaching. Following his considering, any true teaching will endure investigation; to him who is satisfied with the investigation, consent occurs; to him who is full of consent, endeavor occurs and leads to reconsideration; having reconsidered, he is steady in more endeavor and with the steadiness he realizes the ultimate truth through the body of mental formations (mindfulness and wisdom) and finally penetrates into the truth with (deep) wisdom.” (M. 2: Kitagiri Sutra) The aforesaid Buddha’s words are applicable to a world –class education system and students, because the Buddha himself taught it with confidence. For our present day education system, our educationists have to think of how to make the system acceptable to students and how to make them feel confident about the system. Why? Because the power of confidence causes students to be positive and engage into actions such as approaching and sitting near teachers, which lead to teaching and learning; students are mindful to listen to the teachings and obtain desirable results while keeping in mind the teaching, they reflect on, analyze and digest its contents into true knowledge to be stored in the unconscious mind. We can

compare it to eating food, we have to chew it first for deliberate digestion and for nutrition. We have to be very mindful and confident in listening to the master’s teachings because it will lead to understanding and investigation. It means that the understanding based on confidence leads to the development of wisdom.

3.4. Creating moral discipline over the use of arts is needed. In the ,the Buddha said : ‘bāhusaccañca sippañca, vinayo ca susikkhito, subhāsitā ca yā vācā etammangalamuttamam’ . This can be translated as ‘Great learning skill, highly trained discipline, and a well-expressed speech are supreme auspices. (Khu.Dhp.) Many times, when asked why the Buddha said these words, I like to give the following answers: “In this sutta, the main point is focused on the settingof oneself on the right course. It is the starting principle to follow the teachings in this set and continue with the other teachings mentioned above; that is ; a man has to have great knowledge, art or skill in the use of knowledge, and discipline for use of knowledge in the right way. Speeches are an important way for transferring knowledge and the discipline helps keep our speech in the right path too. However to become disciplined, one has to have gradual training, starting from systematic and good thinking, speaking and doing. Here, the focus is on speech, where good speech covers speaking which should be true, useful and timely. Anyone who is considered as having good speech habitually, must be

well trained and continuously watch what he is saying with a strict discipline.

Conclusion

The Buddhist study for life development has to be focused on the learning of “life,” which is collectively called The “five aggregates,” as it is the store of defilements and virtues. Such a study helps one to realize and properly manage the five aggregates. In the beginning, human life is controlled by defilements and the defilements force the body to do as they order, especially to fulfill its wishes. By this way, defilements expand in line with the objects experienced through the sense-organs - eye, ear, nose, tongue and body. Consequently, virtues have to be cultivated in the mind, developed and accumulated so that gradually and continuously these become very powerful and can finally destroy the defilements totally. The world today is trapped in the word “Development,” because for most people it means the creation and occupation of big and beautiful buildings and the management of big businesses. Buddhism does not oppose such a development, but teaches us to see the defilements which arise with such ideas of development and expand according to the ensuing experiences. To control these, the threefold sikkhā and the noble eightfold path play a key role.

It is a shame that our modern education system does not yet pay attention to this kind of Buddhist education; therefore, we are far from solving the world’s problems.

Reference: 1. Vinaya Pitaka, Mahavagga Part 1. 2. Suttanta Pitaka, Khuddaka Nikaya, Dhammapada. 3. Suttanta Pitaka, Duka Nipata Anguttara Nikaya. 4. Suttanta Pitaka, Sanyutta Nikaya, Mahavaravagga.