NAT. NAT. HIST. BUL L. SIAM Soc. 41: 75-92 ， 1993

PROCEDURES IN THAI ETHNOMYCOLOGY

Roger N. Hilton* and Pannee Dhitaphichit**

CONTENTS

Page Page

守，守戸、 Introduction Introduction Jζ The The Nature of Fungi Fり勺 Mycological Mycological Literature 守fF 勾f。。。。凸ツ口ツ勺 Early Early R釘 ords Collecting Collecting 勺F Romanization Romanization of Local Languages 守''巧 Fungi Fungi as Food /0000000000 Fungi Fungi as Food 島10difiers 4q4 Poisonous Poisonous Fungi 勾 Medicinal Medicinal Fungi 3ζJζJ Hallucinogenic Hallucinogenic Fungi Fungus Fungus Structural Material Club Club heads. Fungal felt. Rhizomorph skirts. Miscellaneous Miscellaneous 0δ0606ζUζU00 References References Appendix Appendix

INTRODUCTION

In In assessing biological resources of rural communities anthropologists have paid due attention attention to plants and to animals. The sCIences of ethnobotany and ethnozoology are well- established. established. However ， the third kingdom of living things ， the Fungi ， has been neglected. This This is partly because its prominent members are more evanescent than plants and animals. But a contributing factor is the unfamiliarity of these organisms ， so that untrained field investigators investigators have no idea how to set about collecting and naming them. This paper is designed designed to give some of the uses to which fungi are known to be put ， to explain how to collect collect them ，and to draw attention to publications that may be used.

Formerly * Formerly Botany Department ，University of Westem Australia. Present address: 62 Viewway ，Nedlands ， W.A. W.A. 6009 ，Australia.

判 Department of Applied Biology ， King Mongku t' s Institute of Technology ，Ladkrabang ，Bangkok 10520

75 75 76 ROOER N. HILTON AND PANNEE DHITAPHICHIT

It It could provide a background for looking into the references to fungi in the literature of of Southeast Asia. An example of the sort of information wanted is given by ROLFE & ROLFE (1 925) ， for the Northem Hemisphere ， and by MORRIS (1984) and PIEARCE (1 98 1) for for Africa. Inspiration Inspiration comes from the work of Ms Anong Chandrasikul (CHANDRASIKUL ，1977) ， which which treats Thai larger fungi in systematic order. We intended to make this work better known to those who do not read Th ai ， and to extend it by emphasizing fungal use and by drawing drawing on information available from neighbouring countries. This This paper is not an attempt at a review of the fungal taxonomic literature for τ'h ailand any any more than it is a review of anthropological writings on fung i. It is addressed to mycologists mycologists who may be helped by leaming something of the state of knowledge of fungi among the Th ai population ， and to 加山ropologists who may be in a position to collect information information on fungal use but do not know how to set about it.

THE NATURE OF FUNGI

The fungus has been described as the multinucleate protoplasmic inhabitant of a network network of chitinous or cellulose tubes ， which it secretes ，加 d in which it moves (G 阻 GORY ， 1952: 1952: p. 5). Although this catches the essence of the fungus beautifully ，it is not a definition; definition; it does not exclude certain filamentous algae and bacteria ， for example ，and at times times or in certain species the inhabitant may be reduced to a single nucleus and occupy a cell rather than a tube. A fungus is a eukaryotic organism; it does not have the non- discrete discrete nucleus of bacteria. As it is devoid of chlorophyll ， and the plastids in which chlorophyll chlorophyll may fo ロn ，it is separate from plants ，including algae. Typically it lives within a chitinous wall ，usually tubular. In the water moulds and their relatives the w a1 1s have cellulose. cellulose. Th e tubes may branch and fuse to form a large fruit body. Reproduction is by spores spores produced in such a fruit body or by structures bome on the tubes. The result is something something plant-like in that it stays in one place ，animal-like in its chitinous walls and lack of of ability to photosynthesize. Thai Thai people have always recognised that a mushroom ，"het ヘ is different from a plant ， "peut". "peut". Moulds ，"raa" ， are traditionally regarded as different from both. Nevertheless ， published published accounts in Thai have always classified fungi with plants. In this paper "mushroom" refers to any of the Larger Fungi" ， whether edible or not ， as per MILLER (1979). (1979). Amongst Malay-speaking Thai Muslims in South Th ailand there appears to be clear recognition recognition of a fungus as something different from a plant. The naming of the plant Rafflesia Rafflesia hasseltii as a fungus ，cendawan matahari ， gives support to this view as it is parasitic parasitic and devoid of leaves. One may have mouldy leather shoes referred to as "bercendawan" "bercendawan" and Mouldy Rot of the t叩 ping panel of the hevea rubber tree as "cendawan lapuk" ，Ceratocystis fimbriata. The agent of Pink Disease ， Corticium salmonicolor ， as "cendawan "cendawan angin" is the only other fungus disease of hevea ， for which a name has not been coined coined (HILTON ， 1959). Th e idea of fungi as filamentous organisms normally hidden withi i1 the substratum has impo 此如 t implications for the larger fungi in particular. They have to fruit to reveal PROCEDURES lN THAl ETHNOMYCOLOGY 77

themselves. themselves. Mycologically and ecologic 叫ly this can distort the true picture of fungal distribution. distribution. Ethnomycologically it is less important ， as concern is with the fruit itself ， not with with the mycelium of the fungus. It has been suggested (MASEFIELD ， 1940) that there are problems problems in collecting larger fungi in the tropics especially because of their reluctance to frui t. Masefield went so far as to suggest that they are rare. This provoked a rejoinder by CORNER (1 940: p. 357) ，who pointed out that they are abundant but seasonal (CORNER ， 1935). 1935). Larger Fungi are more readily studied in the monsoon parts of Southeast Asia ， where where seasons are strong and predictable ， than in the equatorial parts ， with their subtle and unpredictable unpredictable seasons. The equatorial lowlands can be very disappoinring for a collector. There There is more scope in the mountainous regions ， with their local variations of weather pattern ， and CORNER (1 964) was very successful in collecting fungi on Mount Kinabalu ， Sabah. Sabah.

MYCOLOGICAL LITERATURE

Every Every investigator of larger fungi must be aware of the classical work of Rolf Singer. Although Although Singer himself did not work in Southeast Asia he had extensive experience in the the tropics of the New World. The second edition of his book (SINGER ， 1965) gives recognition recognition to two pioneers of his method ， one of whom ， N.T. Patouillard ，visited South- east east Asia and described a number of species (189ι1928) (CORNER ， 1935). The method stresses stresses the microscopic structure of the fungus ，however large the fruit body may be. This is is important to the nonspecialist investigator as it means technical descriptions can be replaced replaced by ，colour photographs and other characters can be worked out later by specialists on carefully dried materia l. If workers in the region want to use a specialist text ， they could could well use that on the Agaric Flora of Sri Lanka by D.N. Pegler (PEGLER ， 1986). Although Although Sri Lanka is outside Southeast Asia it has many of the same fungi. For the other great great group of larger fungi ， the Aphyllophorales ， one has to go farther west across the Indian Indian Ocean and use the Preliminary Polypore Flora of East Africa by RYVARDEN & JOHANSEN (1980). lt lt may seem su 叩rising that there are not more popular books on larger fungi of the tropics. tropics. One such ， Zoberi's Tropical Macrofungi (1 972) ， written in West Africa ， is somewhat unsatisfactory (REID ， 1973). The object of the exercise is not to be able to identify species on the spot ， but to have some idea of what the fungus is at the ge {l eric level in order to guide one in seeking further information. information. Also ， in seeking to identifitp genus ， one will learn to recognise the fungus in in q刷 ion 則 hat one does not d叩liωein~叩tion unnecessarily. The bo 仙 yO 附 N K. K. MILLER (1 979) has fine co10ur photograph¥ in natural su 汀 oundings that are backed up by a text exp1aining the basis of classification I'n to families and genera. lt is written for North North America but many of the fungi described may be found in the tropics and southern hemisphere ， even down to species leve l. MILLER'S book may be supp1emented by PHILLIPS (1 981) ， which has a larger number of studio colour 'p hotographs of superb quality ， taken of of European forms. They show what the investigator should attempt to emu1ate in record- ing ing fungi under study. PHILLIPS' book is a supplemerit to the technical descriptions by MOSER (1978). 78 ROGER N. HILTON AND PANNEE DHITAPHICHIT

EARLY RECORDS

Some of the earliest records of larger fungi from Th ailand come from the Danish Botanical Botanical Expedition to Th ailand in 1900 ，reported on by ROSTRUP & MASSEE (1902). Th e expedition expedition concentrated on the island of Koh Ch 加 g. The polypore types from this expe- dition dition are reviewed by RYVARDEN (1976). Information Information from the neighbouring countries of Laos and Cambodia is useful for Thailand ，particularly because of the cultural connections. Vietnam is culturally more distinct distinct but geographically similar. BURKILL (1 935: p. 61) quotes DEMANGE (1919) as writing writing on edible fungi of Tonkin (approximately the old North Vietnam). Th e distin- guished guished French specialist on Hymenomycetes ， N.T. Patouillard ， wrote a number of papers on Tonkin fungi (1890 ー1928) ，recently brought together in microfiche.

COLLECTING

Information Information

An excellent example of an ethnomycological investigation is that of SA 百 IER (1978) ， among the Iban people of Sarawak. But a number of the fungi may have to remain unidentified ， showing the need for background information of the sort the present paper hopes hopes to provide. CHIN (1 98 1) has identified some of the edible and poisonous species. In In Thailand ， wild edible fungi are eaten and sold in fresh markets throughout the country ， especially especially in the countryside where humid vegetation is abundan t. Most of the fungi remain remain unidentified and even those identified should be confirmed for accuracy.

Specimens

Detailed Detailed instructions for collecting plants are available ， for example by V AN Sl 芭ENIS- KRUSEMAN (1 950) ， and HOWES (1 974) ， but although the methods are well worth studying ， fungi 釘 e not even mentioned. As with plants ， one has the choice of wet or dry methods. Th e preservative recommended for fungi is Fungal Fix ， with the following formula: ethanol (70%) 94 ml ，formalin (full strength) 6m l. E .J .H. Comer used this solution in building up his his collections of tropical fung i. Drying Drying must be done sufficiently slowly so as not to cook ， and sufficiently fast to prevent prevent action of insects or bacteria. Dried material is very vulnerable to insect attack and must be packed with naphthalene and/or paradichlorobenzene. Colour Colour photography is an invaluable adjunct to either drying or pickling as both methods methods are destructive of colour and shape. 百 le illustrations in PHILLIPS (1 981) show what what should be aimed for in terms of lay-out and quality. However ， colour prints involve considerable considerable expense if they are to render colours accurately and it is better to use colour slides. slides. A piece of card to scale ， say 5 cm x1 cm ， should be included in the picture with a number and date to match with the specimen. At least some of the specimens photo- graphed graphed must be preserved as vouchers. PROCEDURES IN THAI ETHNOMYCOLOGY 79

ROMANIZA TION OF LOCAL LANGUAGES

百le n創 nes applied locally to the material collected will nonnally be written down in Roman scrip t. This p問 sents little problem in most Southeast Asian coun 凶es ，where officially officially accepted romanizations are almost universal. Thailand is an exception ，despite the the Roy 札 INSTITU 百(1 968) ，加 da local infonnant would have to write in Thai ， or Thai versions versions of triballanguages to give a worthwhile record. However ，there are romanizations of of Th ai used for teaching /l eaming purposes ， such that of 白e A. U. A. LANGUAGE CENTRE (1967) ，which are widely used. It copes with the problems of tones ，and some facility would be needed in it for workers in Thailand ，unless they were su 任iciently specialzed to be working with the Thai written language. Th e A.U.A. system is used for transliterating the the Th ai names in this paper.

FUNGI AS FOOD

In In Th ailand there is an old saying about foods comparable with the English 唱 sh ，fowl ， and and good red he 汀 ing". It is "pork ，mushroom ，duck ，chicken". Th is indicates 白紙百lai people people are traditional eaters of mushrooms.

Activities Activities such as the publication of the Mushroom Newsletter for the Tropics (IN ・ 百 RNATIONAL MUSHROOM SOCIETY FOR 加 E TROPICS ， 1978) will in time confuse the issue as as to what were traditional food fungi.

Agaricales Agaricales

Agaricus Agaricus is a famous genus of mushrooms. In older ， but not very old ，works ， such 部 BURKILL'S Dictionary (1935) ， the genus appears under Psalliota. Worldwide ， the genus includes includes the best known of edible fungi ， above all the common field mushroom A. campestris L.: L.: Fr. ，佃 d its cultivated fonn A. bisporus (J. Lange) Pilat v低 albida. It is not ，however ， commonly 問 cognised as edible in Southeast Asia (PEREGRINE & AHMAD ， 1973). Agaricus arvensis arvensis Fr. and Agaricus silvicola (Vitt.) Sacc. have also been recorded for Th ailand (CHANDRASIKUL ， 1977). Amanita is a genus more famous for its poisonous species ，species that a陀 all the mo 問 dangerous dangerous because of their resemblance to esteemed edibles of Europe like Caesar's Mushroom (A. caesarea) ， the Blusher (A. rubescens) ， and the Grisette (A. vaginata). The genus genus typically has a white spore print ， cup or frill at 白eb 出 e，and a ring round the stem. Older Older books put species without the ring in the genus Amanitopsis. CHANDRASIKUL ET AL. (1986) (1986) list three species of Amanita as important edible mushrooms in 官lailand: Amanita vaginata vaginata (Bull. Fr. ex Fr.) Vitt. ， A. calyptrodel ・ma Atkinson & Ballen ，and A. princeps Comer & Bas. Boletus Boletus is an important genus of pored mushrooms. The boletes 釘 'e agarics ， not polypores. 百ley 釘 'e mostly large and fleshy ，potentially good as food ，especially as few species species are harmfu l. Many species ωm blue on cutting ， but this is not an indication of edibility. edibility. In Peninsular Malaysia at least ，boletes are rarely encountered in the lowlands. CORNER (1964) emphasises that their fruiting is a feature of upland forests. Th e original 80 R∞ER N. HILTON AND PANNEE DHITAPHICHIT

genus genus has had 也 number of genera segregated from it ， for example Tylopilus ，Boletellus ， Gyroporus etc. according to which authority is accepted. CORNER (1972) provides the key work for the region and beyond. Boletus phaeocephalus Pa t. & Baker is the species cited by CORNER (1 972: p. 129) as most likely to explain the records of Boletus edulis for the region. region. CHANDRASIKUL (1 977: p. 50) discussed a common 官 lai bolete under the name B. edulis edulis but ，provisionally ，one must assume 白紙 it will prove to be B. phaeocephalus.

Consistent Consistent with this is that she comments that 白e spor ，巴 s are 15 x 5μless elliptical than reported reported for B. edulis from Europe ， and the taste not particularly pleasing. COpl 初 us is the ink-cap genus ，easily recognised by its whitish 仕uit-bodies dissolving (not (not decomposing) to a black ink on maturity. BURKILL (1935: p. 654) quotes that in Java any any coprinus ， big or little ，is likely to be eaten. CHANDRASIKUL (1 977) cited two edible wild wild species: C. atramentarius (Bull よFr. and C.fimetarius Fr. = C. cinereus (Schff.: Fr.) S.F. S.F. Gray. Clitocybe Clitocybe is a genus of agarics characterised by a funnel-shaped cap with a central sぬlk ， and a white spore prin t. Some 釘 'e over-all white in colour and can be confused with species species of Lentinus or Pleurotus. Specific recognition is important as some ，e.g. the world- wide Clitocybe dealbata (Sow. ex Fr.) Kummer ， are very poisonous. Clitocybe iゆmdibuliformis (Schaeff.) Que 1. is described by CHANDRASIKUL (1 977: p. 12). It is in MILLER (1 979) as C. gibba ，edible. One of us (P.D.) has bought it in a Kh on Kaen marke t. La ctarius is an easily recognised genus because of the milky latex contained in all p制 s，and a brittle flesh with decurrent gills. One of us (RNH) was involved in a search for for species of this genus in Peninsular Malaysia during 195 0--6 0 because of research interest interest in the biochemistry of rubber biosynthesis. None were found. CHANDRASIKUL (1 977: p. 6ι71) records several for Th ailand: Lactarius flavidulus Imai ， L. hygrophoroides Berk. Berk. & Br. ， L. p伊era ωs (Fr.) S.F. Gray ， and L. volemus Fr. Of these ， L. volemus has been found found at 1300 m a ふ1. at Phuhinrongkla National Park ，and L. flavidulus and L. p伊eratus were purchased in a Khon Kaen market (P.D.) Th e genus Le ntin ωis given modem monographic 田 atment by PEOLER (1 983). Lentinus edodes edodes (Berk.) Singer is the shii-take ， widely cultivated all over Asia and North America. It It is recorded for Th ailand by CHANDRASIKUL (1 977: p. 20) and found by one of us (P.D.) at at Khaokhaw and by CORNER (1964) on Mt Kinabalu ， Sabah. Correctly ，it should be called called Lentinula edodes (Berk.) (PEOLER. 1983). For Lentinus polychrous Le v. ，PEOLER

(1 983: p. 75) gives several records for Th ailand and neighbouring coun 肘es. 印刷DRAsn 凱 d (1 977: p. 21) records it for Th ailand as L. praerigidus Berk. ， and HEIM (1 977: p. 136) 陀 cords it it under the name L. kuruanus Currey 酪 being sold on skewers in the Chiang Mai marke t. Recently Recently it has been successfUllY cultivated by science students at Khon Kaen. Lentinus sajor-caju sajor-caju (Fr.) Fr. is notable for its Latinised Malay specific epithet ，meaning the "veg- etable etable from wood". Th is w 出 a name recorded by Rumpfius as used in Ambon Island (Moluccas) (Moluccas) in 1750. It was widely used by Malays in Selangor in the 1950's. It was introduced introduced into Australia for cultivation by Dr. Yip Cho ， Department of Microbiology ， Sydney University (ANON ， 1981). PEOLER (1983: p. 82) gives three records from 百lai- land. land. BURKILL (1935: p. 1329) records Lentinus squarrosulus Mon t. under the name L. subnudus subnudus Berk. as being ea 句 n in Perak and Singapo 隠. is It recorded for Th ailand (PEOLER ， 1983: 1983: p. 70). Lentinus strigosus (Schw.) Fr. is in CHANDRASIKUL (1 977: p. 20) as Panus rudis rudis Fr. ，a name widely used for it in Europe according to PEOLER (1983: p. 128) ，who PROCEDURES IN THAI ETHNOMYCOLOGY 81

also also gives one record for Thailand. Lepiota Lepiota (and Macrolepiota) is the genus of the Parasol Mushrooms ，several species of which may be expected to appear in the market as food including forms similar to L. (M.) procera procera and L. (M.) rhacodes. Pleurotus Pleurotus djamor (Fr.) Boedijn is a good edible (PEGLER ， 1986: p. 43). Many species of of Pleurotus are commercially cultivated in Th ailand ， for example P. ostreatus (Fr.) Que l.， P. P. cornucopiae (Pers.) Rolland (CHANDRASIKUL ， 1977) and several other species are commercially commercially produced by Arunyik Mushroom Centre ， the well-known mushroom farm in Tha i1 and. Russula Russula is a genus like Lactarius but without the milk. Russulas are often brilliantly coloured. coloured. Russula lepida Fr. has been well characterised by HEIM (1962: p. 143) and is a popular Thai edible mushroom. One of us (P.D.) has bought in Khon Kaen market a species species similar to Russula delica Fr. Several other species of Russula mentioned in CHANDRASIKUL (1 977) are commonly sold in markets in the North-Eas t. Termitomyces Termitomyces is a genus erected by the eminent French mycologist ，Roger Heim ， for pale-pink-spored pale-pink-spored flat-capped agarics arising from termite nests. They are invariably good to to ea t. See HEIM (1 977) ，BELS & PATARAGETVIT (1 982) ，and PIEARCE (1987). Termi- tomyces tomyces fuliginosus Heim is depicted in CHANDRASIKUL (1977: p. 40) ，who also n釘 nes T. schimperi schimperi (Pa t.) Heim and T. microcarpus (Berk.) Heim. The latter species ，and T. clypeatus Heim ， have been collected at Khon Kaen and Khaokhaw respectively. One of us (RNH) observed observed that T. schimperi was much prized by Tamillabourers on Selangor rubber estates. Where termite nests had been destroyed during clear felling of jungle the fungus fructifications fructifications would emerge amongst the young rubber and would be detected by their scen t. BURKILL (1 935: p. 638) deals with what is doubtless a Termitomyces under Col かai 止 -a genus of similar shape but with white spores citing the Malay name: cendawan busu t. Tricholoma Tricholoma is the genus to which the blewits ， edible fungi of Europe ， belong. There

訂 e also poisonous species of Tricholoma known. As there are many species ，it is im- portant portant to be able to recognise the genus should it tum up in an ethnographic situation. One species ， Tricholoma crassum (Berk.) Sacc. ，= T. pachymeres (Berk. & Br.) Sacc. ，is pantropical pantropical in distribution (PEGLER 1986: p. 91). CHAIWONGKEIT (1 982) mentions that it is is second only to Termitomyces in tastiness ，and it has recently been commercially culti- vated. vated. Volvariella Volvariella is a genus defined by SINGER (1 975) from the old Volvaria. It produces spores spores in a pink mass but not 加 gular under the microscope ，from a fru It body that has a prominent prominent cup or volva at the base of the stem. Volvariella volvacea Fr. is the Padi Straw Mushroom ， the most commonly cultivated of Southeast Asian mushrooms. BURKILL (1935: p. p. 2251) cites it as consumed in Java and the Philippines ， but lacked evidence for it in the Malay Peninsula. However ，Baker (1934) describes its cultivation in Seberang Perai (formerly (formerly Province Wellesley) and Penang ，and SANDS (1 935) describes it in Kedah. In- donesian donesian methods are described by SUKARA (1 981).

Polyporales Polyporales (better ， Aphyllophorales)

Polyporus Polyporus Fr. is dealt with under Medicinal Fungi ， as the normally hard fructifications 82 R∞ER N. HILTON AND PANNEE DHITAPHICHIT are are unsuitable for food. Nevertheless some species of the genus PoLyporus ， sensu strictu ， as as soft enough to be considered as food. FavoLus FavoLus is an ill-defined genus of Po1. yporales characterised by the soft fruit body and large large pore dimensions. FavoLus alveoLaris (D.C. ex Fr.) Que l. is cited for Th ailand by CHANDRASIKUL (1977: p. 88) as of doubtful edibility. BURKILL (1 935: p. 997) states that FavoLus FavoLus spathuLatus Bresadola ，a very common fungus of Indonesia ，∞ curs 仕'eely in Singapore Singapore and may well be common in Malaya. It is eaten in Java according to V AN OVEREEM (1 927: p. 68). RYVARDEN &.JOHANSEN (1 980: p. 495) warn of 血e ease of confusion confusion of this species with Po か'P orus grammocephaLus Berk. Th e F. brasiliensis Fr. ， common in the M a1 ay Peninsula ， is probably identic a1 with the F. aLveoLaris and F. spathuLatus spathuLatus cited above from neighbouring countries.

SchizophyLLum SchizophyLLum is the 11 split-gill 11 ，a most distinctive genus with few species. SchizophyLLum SchizophyLLum commune Fr. is a world-wide fungus ， eaten in many countries including Th ailand despite its toughness and small size. Burkill quotes Chinese and Javanese as eating eating it ， and its M a1 ay narne as kulat sisir in Singapore ，cendawan terkuk 町 in P油叩g. On e of us (RNH) noted it as named cendawan kikir in Selangor and e蹴 n by M a1 ays. In the the 1950s ，when sodium arsenite was used to kill old rubber trees ， warning notices had to be be displayed to prevent M a1 ays from collecting the abundant fruits of 出is fungus from the dead dead trunks ， as the fungus absorbs arsenic compounds.

FUNGI AS FOOD MODIFIERS

百le fermented bean foods in Th ailand are all from soya bean (+moulds) ，all of them of of Chinese style: 1. 1. soya sauce. 2. 2. thow hu ye e- red ，sa1 ted soft bean cakes. 3. 3. thow jeaw-salted bean pa 蜘， dark brown or black. In In Indonesia (1 也DGER ，1978) ， they have tempeh soy bean (plus Rhizopus oligosporus) ， but but this is not so popular in Th ailand.

s POISONOUS FUNGI

Suspicions Suspicions conceming fungi 剖 a source of food because of the poisonous nature of some species are widespread in the region ， even to the ex 旬nt that wholesome species may be be avoided. Medically ，eight groups of poisoness forms are recognised (MILLER ， 1979: p. 1). 21). Amanita Amanita is the genus that people immediately associate with illness or death 合om eating eating the fungus. In their study on Malayan Amanita species ，CORNER & BAS (1 962) adopted adopted the idea of feeding specimens to monkeys. But they did not link this with any poisoning poisoning of human beings ， nor did they record whether any species gave discomfort to the the monkeys. Apes might have been more indicative ， as being closer to man than monkeys. Rabbits Rabbits can eat certain poisonous amanitas without being harmed (RAMSBOTIOM ， 1953: p.43). p.43). PROCEDURES IN THAI ETHNOMYCOLOOY 83

Amanita elata (Massee) CORNER & BAS is often very abundant in Singapore ，accord- ing ing to CORNER & BAS (1 962). Amanita frostiana Peck is a North American species de- scribed scribed in MILLER (1979: p. 36) and related to A.flavoconica Atk.; it is described by HEIM (1 962: p. 149) from Thailand. Amanita pudibonda Heim. i~ a new species described by HEIM (1 962) from Thailand. All the preceding are of suspect edibility. Amanita verna (Fr.) (Fr.) Que l. is known to be deadly and in 1982 several people died after eating it in Roi Et Et Province ， about 100 km from Khon Kaen (CHANDRASIKUL ET. A L.， 1986). Agaricus Agaricus has been dealt with above as the pre-eminent edible genus ， even though not recognised recognised as such over much of Southeast Asia. But any Agaricus which gives a yellow colouration colouration on cutting should be avoided as being a Yellow Stainer ，potentially poisonous (though (though not deadly) to some people. Galerina Galerina is a genus of small agarics containing several poisonous and no known edible edible species. PEGLER (1986: p. 441) draws attention to the importance of Galerina sulciceps sulciceps (Berk.) Boedijn. as a known Southeast Asian deadly fungus. BOEDIJN (1 938) 白rst described described it ， but as a Phaeomarasmius. Th e Le piotaceae are predominantly edible species ， except for smaller members ，all of which should be regarded as potentially poisonous. Macrolepiota dolichaula (Berk. & Br.) Sacc. Sacc. is recorded as a poisonous fungus in Queensland. It is a common species throughout Southeast Southeast Asia ，Australasia ， and East Africa (PEGLER ， 1986: p. 320 ，and recorded at Phuhinrongkla Phuhinrongkla (P.D.)). Chlorophyllum has all the characters of the well-known genus of mostly mostly edible agarics ，Lepiota. but is has a pale-green spore powder. Chlorophyllum molybdites molybdites (Meyer: Fr.) Massee is a common garden fungus in Kuala Lumpur ，where it grows from mould or lawn mowings heaped around the coconut husks so often placed on Vanda orchid beds. It is very common in Th ailand and has been collected by one of us (P.D.) (P.D.) in the Ladkrabang district of Bangkok ，Ayutthaya ，and Khon Kaen.

MEDICINAL FUNGI

Fungi ，like plants ，may accumulate substances which are physiologically active in the human body. A substance poisonous in high concentration may be medicinally useful at a lower concentration. The greatest concentration of alkaloids in any living entity is to be found found in a fungus: the Ergot of Rye ，Claviceps purpurea. BURKILL (1 935) does not list any species species of Claviceps for Malaysia ， nor have we encountered a record for Thailand. Over and above the phaπnacologically based medicinal us 邸 of fungi ， there are magi- cal cal uses. Th e pharmacology will gradually become more and more amenable to laboratory assessment ， but study of the magical element will remain the province of the anthropolo- gis t. Dictyophora Dictyophora was formerly used for the genus of stinkhoms that has a net-like skirt below the cap ，now put in Phallus. Dictyophora indusiata (Pers.) Fisch. has been used for gout gout and epilepsy. In Indonesia 出is fungus is used for recalcitrant blood abscesses (BURKILL ， 1935: 1935: p. 805). Burkill also reports that it is used by thieves in Thailand to stupefy their victims. victims. In China the stalk and veil are eaten ，incorporated into special dishes. Ganoderma is a genus of polypore fungi with brown thick-walled spores and a hard fruit fruit body that in several species has the appearance of having been lacquered. It is the 84 ROGER N. HILTON AND PANNEE DHITAPHICHIT

genus genus of the Li ng Chih fungus. Th e Southeast Asian g加 odennas 釘 e described by STEYAERT (1 972). In Java Ganoderma amboinense Patouillard (non Agaricus amboinensis Lamarck) is is dried and hung over doors to drive away evil influences. THREERAT (1 988) has in- vestigated vestigated Thai collections ， and records the well-known G. lucidum. It has been cultivated for for sometime in Japan and Korea and recently has been successfully cultivated in Th ailand. Microporus Microporus is a genus segregated from Polyporus by Beauverie. HEIM (1962: p. 131) calls calls Microporus rhizomorpha (Mon t.) Heim pantropical; it is a fonn co 町'esponding to 2 or or 3 taxonomic species. WIL Ll AMS-HuNT (1 957: p. 71) mentions the fungus skirts of women of the westem Negrito groups ，a precaution against the harmful e能 cts of "hot rain". rain". Polyporus Polyporus Fr. is a genus for non-putrescent pored fungi that has been whittled down in in species number by the erection of many segregate genera: Leucoporus ，Li gnosus ， Microporus ， Pycnoporus and many more ，according to the authority accepted. Polyporus cocos cocos Weber is a prized ingredient of Chinese medicine but it is imported into the region from from the Northem Hemisphere and is therefore of no ethnomycological concem. HE 削 (1 962) states that Polyporus sacer Fr. ，a Leucoporus ，is sometimes found in the shop windows of of phannacies ， in Bangkok for example. He collected it in the forest of Doi Sutep and devoted devoted an article to it in the Revue de Mycologie ， 1959. CHANDRASIKUL (1977: p. 82) deals deals with it in Th ailand. BURKILL (1 935) puts it under Polystictus. It is the prized susu rimau rimau of peninsular Malays ， the sclerotium of which is believed to be congealed tiger's milk. milk. One of us (RNH) bought several 仕om a hawker in Tanjong Malim in 1952. 百ley consisted consisted of orange caps on a stalk 10 cm long attached to similarly-coloured sclerotia. THOEN (1 982: p. 299) gives the Chinese name as How Gui Kou. RYVARDEN & JOHANSEN (1 980) put it under Lignosus. Favolus alveolaris (D. C. ex Fr ，) Quel is not only an edible but but is boiled up to serve as eye drops according to VAN OVEREEM (1 927). BURKILL (1 935: p. p. 1796) quotes a variety of medicinal uses for Pycnoporus sanguineus Murrill. No doubt these these relate to its brilliant cinnabar red colour and its ready availability ， for it is common and and prominent on dead wood. It is included for 百lailand by CHANDRASIKUL (1977: p. 92). Fomes (Phellinus) rimosus (Berk.) Cooke has been under study by the Pharmacology Department Department of Chulalongkom University ，it is used by villagers for relieving ear-pains and curing curing nettle-rash (CHANDRASIKUL ， 1977: p. 89). Xylaria Xylaria is a genus of Ascomycetes unusual for that class of the fungi in being wood- attacking. attacking. It is closely related to Daldinia. BURKILL (1935: p. 2273) states that Malays are are not known to use any Xylaria ， but that in Indonesia the fluid obtained from the interior of of one species (X. tabacina Berk.) is used as eye drops. For Xylaria obovata Berk. ，BURKILL (1935: (1935: p. 618) gives references to the Javanese pounding the fructification with coconut oil oil as a bum ointmen t. Xylaria polym01pha Grev. has been collected by students at Kh on Kaen and Ladkr 油 ang. Daldinia is an Ascomycete genus related to Xylaria. Daldinia concentrica concentrica Ces. & De No t.， together with Daldinia vernicosa Ces. & De No t.， are bun- shaped shaped growths on dead wood with the Malay name cendaw 佃 jemput-jemput from a fancied fancied resemblance to certain cakes if they be overcooked ， according to BURKILL (1 935: p. p. 756). Th is reminiscent of the old English name "King Alfred's Cakes". In English folk-medicine folk-medicine a pair of 仕uit bodies ， "cramp balls ヘin the pocket are said to ward off cr 創nps. Cited Southeast Asian uses are more specific: a paste for skin itch in the Moluccas and its ash for a common head sore in Temate. PROCEDURES IN THAI ETHNOMYCOLOGY 85

HALLUCINOGENIC FUNGI

One of 出e most interesting areas for ethnographic investigation is the use of drugs for mind-extending mind-extending pu 叩 oses. Unfortunately it is an area impinging on drug use or misuse and therefore therefore legally dangerous for both investigator and informan t. A study of the type that W ASSON & HEIM (1 957) undertook to elucidate the use of psilocybin-containing fungi amongst the Central American Indians would be impossible in present-day Southeast Asia. It It is note-worthy that Heim himself did work in the region ， in New Guinea. Copelandia Copelandia is a genus erected by Bresadola and contains but one species ，from warmer areas areas (BOEDUN ，1951). 百lis is Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. & Br.) Singer. As the "Magic Mushie" Mushie" of Bali ，it is the hallucinogenic mushroom supplied to tourists. It has been well- known in Australia for at least 60 years as the "Giggle Mushroom" of Queensland and it would seem that here we are dealing with a cross-cultural in f! uence. However ，SCHULTES & Ho 開 MAN (1 980: p. 67) recorded that it is used in "native festivals" in Bali. It is a common fungus in Java and Sumatra (BOEDUN ， 1951: p. 222). This ， or a Psilocybe ，must be be the "het kee khwaay" reported by the Thailand Daily News of 5 May 1988 as being indirectly indirectly responsible for the death by drowning of a Westem tourist on the island of Ko Samu i. As pioneer in the study of species of Psilocybe ，ROGER HEIM (1962: p. 155) reports on its non-indigenous use in Th ailand. He 甘eats it as a Stropharia. Heimiella Heimiella is a bplete genus erected by Boedijn. It is similar to Boletus but has winged and and reticulated spores (BOEDUN ， 1951: p. 217). H. angf 叫formis Heim is one of the mushrooms believed by Heim to be involved in the group "mushroom madness" of the Kuma people of New Guinea. H. retispora (Pa t. & Baker) Boedijn is closely related to the the above and also believed by Heim to be involved in "mushroom madness" (HEIM ， 1963; HEIM & WASSON ， 1965). The Kuma madness needs re-investigation by workers trained in in ethnography.

FUNGUS STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

Fungi Fungi are completely devoid of the lignin and cellulose that make plants such a useful source source of structural materia l. Their s汀ucture is made up of fine chitinous threads woven together together as plectenchyma ， which can give them considerable strength. Altematively the fungal fungal threads may be in f! ated and packed together to form a tissue ，pseudoparenchyma ， superficially superficially like the parenchyma of plants when examined in section under the micro- scope. scope. Dried masses of 出is material ， as occur in the sclerotia of PO かporus cocos or Polyporus Polyporus mylittae (the "Blackfellows' Bread" of Aus 釘alia) are tough and heavy. One could could imagine them capable of inflicting a heavy blow if used as a missile or weapon and ， extraordinarily extraordinarily this is how Lentinus tuberregium has been used in New Guinea (PRICE ， BALDW 町&SIMPSON ， 1978). The soft woven masses of plectenchyma that constitute certain polypore fruit bodies could could be beaten out to create a fungus fel t.百lI s is known to be done in Rumania (THOEN ， 1982: 1982: p. 307) but no record of the s創 ne use for Southeast Asia is known as yet. Using Using the rhizomo 叩hs of certain fungi to make a skirt like the "grass" skirt of Poly- nesia nesia or the Plectocomia palm skirt of Bali (WH 汀 MORE ， 1973: fig. 88) has been well- documented for the aborigines of Peninsula Malaysia (BURKILL ， 1935: p. 1895; WILLIAMS- 86 86 R∞ ER N. HILTON AND PANNEE DHITAPHICHIT

HUNT ， 1952: p・71).

MISCELLANEOUS

A unique property in the context of certain fungi (eg. Phellinus igniarius ，Fomes !omentarius ，Piptoporus betulinus in Europe ，P. portentosus in Australia) is 血e ab iIi ty when dry dry and ignited to smoulder for hours and so retain the fire. Th is is the characteristic property property of amadou ，tinder ，touchwood ， or punk. Closely related species occur in the region region but this use for them has not been recorded.

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HEIM ， R. 1959. Le ucoporus sacer aB 加 19kok. Rev. Mycol. 24: 275. HEIM ， R. 1962. Contribution a la Flore mycologique de la 百 ailand. Rev. Mycol. 27: 123 ・160. HEIM ， R. 1963. Les Champignons Toxiques et Ha l/ ocinogenes. N. Boubee ，Paris. HEIM ， R. 1977. Termites et Ch ampignons. Le s Champignons termitophiles d'A 仕ique Noire et d'Asie meridionale. N. N. Bouljlee ，Paris. HEIM ， R. AND WASSON. R.G. 1965. 百le Mushroom ma 命less of the Kuma. Botanical Museum Leaflets. Harvard University University 21: 1-36. PROCEDURES PROCEDURES IN THAI ETHNOMYCOLOGY 87

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APPENDIX. Index of names of species of fungi referred to in this article.

Page Page alveolaris ， Favolus L~ ，，:n\l~\I 82 ，84 honeycomb fungus h色t ruang phu Ij 0000A amboinense ，Ganoderma 『 ζJnynU angruiformis ， Heimiella

『 arvensis ， Agaricus I00 atramentarius ， Coprinus L奇"U1 羽詰 n ink ink mushroom h色t nam m !i k betulinus ， Piptoporus 86 bisporus ， Agaricus var albid 匂 L奇術 n宮Z伊 79 bu 伐on mushroom hとt ki" a dum European European mushroom d 州事 a hとt far ar] brasiliensis ， Favolus (see F. alveolaris) 82 caesaria ，Amanita 79 calyptroderma ，Amanita L苦闘す ::L ¥lnLVl ft 包4 79 conspicuous conspicuous yellow mushroom hるtr 明 oak 1首aIJ

yellow yellow goose-egg mushroom L者向 1制吋'U LVl ft 包4 h色t khay haan 1語句 campestris ， Agaricus 79 cinereus ， Coprinus (see C. fimetarius) 80 cか'peatus ， Termitomyces L苦闘 t附 81 pedestal pedestal mushroom h色t khoan

termite termite mushroom 向t1 fl 'J n h色t pluak (same (same names for all species of Termitomyces except T. microcarpus) cocos ，PO か'P orus 84 ， 85 s-mDh@1u-bhnf uun usg gmha p-νom m uoob nneee-ccd's ofo putvdeb m 酬刷制民 82 LH nuv

jl 4 創 'npHU ・u 凶 rt閣 附 mmqφtnHL hu、 .hu-m e 民 民 PROCEDURES IN THAI ETHNOMYCOLOGY 89

concentrica ， Daldinia 84 cornucopiae ， Pleurotus 向山音色 81 abalone abalone mushroom hとt P通wM I:I

crassum ， Tricholoma L"J，l1?l例'l.J L阿吋官 1'l 81 white white turtle Ii ver mushroom hとt tap taw kh 益aw

palm blossom mushroom L脅肉4' u hとt jan

信明d rhinoceros rhinoceros foot mushroom 備制開unmb LHhu +tHHH -E--

hV4 .門MM 剛 自刊rlLnh自 cyanescens ， Copelandia ML民M- 85 LH、 つ e争目・・ za民 un免“免 vd buffalo buffalo dung mushroom M dealbata ， Clitocybe 80

delica ， Russula LlIl?lVlf.'l制官吋つ 81 white white marsh mushroom hとtI むm kh 話aw

skin-scurf skin-scurf mushroom L者向 Lfol f.'l h色t khlay

000000'I djamor ， Pleurotus

今 dolichaula ，Lepiota ， Macrolepiota 3nU gmuu 州出山出抑 edodes ，Lentinus ， Lentinula LH fragrant fragrant mushroom 0000'E edulis ， Boletus (see B. phaeocephalus)

司，ムぷ elata ，Amanita

司 fimbriata ，Ceratocystis fnEUnU

~ fime ωrius ， Coprinus Lii 肉出羽詰 n ink ink mushroom hとt nam mHk flavidulus ， Lactarius Lii 肉h 80 Chinese Chinese ginger mushroom het khaa 000000000000今、 flavoconica ，Amanita dζU fomentarius ，Fomes 勾、“， frostiana ，Amanita かliginosus ， Termitomyces IAU gibba ， Clitocybe (see C. iゆ ndibuliformis)

司・ grammocephalus ， Polyporus 4 90 90 ROOER N. HILTON AND PANNEE DHITAPHlcHIT

hygrophoroides ， Lactarius L奇州'11..1諸問諸制問 4 80 yellow-gold yellow-gold hog-deer mushroom h色t faan s'i i lii aI)出:>:>1) igniarius ，Phellinus 86 indusiata ，Dictyophora ，Pha l/ us L'III閉す吋..:I LL 'III 83 network network fungus hとtra 句 heε iゆ ndibuliformis ， Clitocybe L奇聞引4 80 stem stem of pampas grass mushroom hとt s制。 kurzianus ， Lentinus (see L. polychrous) 80 lepida ， Russula Li4IP1 U附 81 red red mushroom h色tdεε 。 Et UC M 酬む旬 17 GFahomUdhazgd 叩山戸 L奇肉羽 ftu: 有包 84 ・m山岳 nn het het tin j掛

品 PTA 山 免vapsu ns- HM eO H L奇附 riu 司 hとt mHn pii microcarpu 瓜 Termitomyces L者向l.l fl 'm¥ri 音色白 81 small small chicken termite mushroom hとt pluak kay n :5 :>y mo かbdites ，Chlorophy l/ um ， Lepiota 83

light light green-gilled shaggy 幽 cap L者向仇n 7'llPl fll11J L~m伽u mushroom hる t hiia krH at kh rIl b kh 'i aw :>占 n oonxO0000λ mylittae ，PO か'porus 『必斗司 obovata ， Xylaria oligosporus ， Rhizopus L'i ostreatus ， Pleurotus L苦闘1..1'1..:1叩 oyster oyster mushroom h色tn 句 rom oooonδt pachymeres ， Tricholoma (see T. crassum) 且 nunu phaeocephalus ， Boletus piperatus ， Lactarius L奇術音 4 ginger ginger mushroom hるt kh 'il) oooOnua polychrous ， Lentinus (see L. praerigidus) polymorpha ， Xylaria 『

毎日開-mhM 『 ny L M nn J princeps ，Amanita 凶、同 hu、e--- 1E ，Lh birds' birds' egg mushroom e ma-dF o praerigidus ， Lentinus L'IIIlPI fl 制 80 wind mushroom hとt 10m

grind grind mushroom Li4IP11J1PI h色t bot PROCEDURES IN THAI ETHNOMYCOLOGY 91

hard hard mushroom L者側 n'l:: 占吋 4 h色t krada aI)

brown log mushroom L奇附句u説明羽 hとt kho:m sli namtaan procera ，Lepiota ， Macrolepiota L'I:1l'l nす::t l'l..:J 81 mast mast mushroom h色t kradoa l) OOOOA6qhqJqJ pudibonda ，Amanita purpurea ， Claviceps retispora ， Heimiella L者例叫包例占 q horse horse lung mushroom h色t p6:>d maa rhacodes ，Macrolepiota ， Lepiota d 例i'l nn l'l 1加すZ 81 parosol parosol shaggy-cap mushroom hとt hiia kruat rom kI' a rimosus ，Fomes ， Phellinus L奇例 n1:: 自u 脅3-J1 U 84 Acacia Acacia siamensis fungus h色t kra 耐 n phimaan 00A rhizom01pha ， Microporus 守口

司 rubescens ，Amanita I0000ynUA rudis ，Panus (see Lentinus strigosus) sacer ，Polyporus ，Leucoporus ，Polystictus ，Li gnosus ~者向U机語句 『 tiger's tiger's milk fungus h色t nom s白 sajor-caju ， Lentinus L奇閉山4恥 80 fairy fairy mushroom hとt n制 IJ f; 白 salmonicolor ， Corticium 76

ιg 4 円刷剛一叫 崎町‘u'1m4d sanguineus ，Pycnoporus ， Trametes 84 LU、 L ・ ρe---且 mms1 民 n red-coloured red-coloured log fungus 』 リ 。。『'且口 schimperi ， Termitomyces silvicola ， Agaricus I0000007qLnunu spathulatus ， Favolus squarrosulus ， Lentinus ...... strigosus ， Lentinus L'1IIl'l~判 n hop-bush hop-bush mushroom h色t phek 000000nU subnudus ， Lentinus (see L. squarrosulus)

弓 sulciceps ，Galerina ，Phaeomarasmius 3a tabacina ， Xylaria 斗 92 ROOER N. HILTON AND PANNEE DHITAPHICHIT tuberregium ，Lentinus 85 vaginata ， Amanita (Bull. ex. Fr.) Vitt Lii 附 ::t .:J n'!l 1'l 79 conspicuous conspicuous white mushroom h色tr 向oak khaaw

white white goose-egg mushroom Lii lJl l'1i材吋 U '!I 1'l

h色t khay ha 創 1 kh 通aw verna ， Amanita L者向官 ::t .:J n骨u 82 conspicuous conspicuous stony mushroom h色tr lIlJ oak hin vernicoca ，Daldinia 84 volemus ，Lactarius L昔州守 u説明吋自制L明書官.:J'VI tl .:J 80 brownish brownish yellowgold hog-deer h色t faan sii oam mushroom t踊n :>:>m lii aJ]出:>:>1] 81 volvacea ，Volvariella L脅owh .:J straw straw mushroom h色t f:踊司

lotus lotus mushroom Lii lJl古 q h色t bua