sign in sign up
<<
Home , Panaeolus, Psilocybe, Psilocybe mexicana, Roger Heim

Hallucinogenic in : An Overview1

GASTÓN GUZMÁN

Instituto de Ecología, 91000, Xalapa, Veracruz, P.O. Box 63, Mexico; e-mail: gaston.guzman@inecol. edu.mx

Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview. , with 53 known hallucino- genic species in Mexico, is the most important and diverse group of sacred mushrooms used by Mexican indigenous cultures. Psilocybe caerulescens, known by the present-day Nahuatl Indians as teotlaquilnanácatl, is hypothesized to be the ceremonially-used teonanácatl cited by Sahagún in the 16th century, the true identity of which has remained obscure for centuries. Correcting a widely disseminated error derived from early published information on Mexican hallucinogenic mushrooms, emphasis is placed on the fact that species have never been used traditionally in Mexico. Reports of the use of species of , Clavaria, , Cordyceps, Dictyophora, Elaphomyces, Gomphus, Lycoperdon, ,andStropharia as sacred or narcotic mushrooms are discussed. A brief history of the discovery of hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico is presented, as well as notes on their , distribution, and traditional use in Mexico.

Hongos Alucinógenos en México: Historia, Taxonomia, Distribución Geográfica y Uso Tradicional. Psilocybe, con 53 especies alucinógenas conocidas en México, es el grupo más importante y más diverso de hongos sagrados usados por las culturas indígenas mexicanas. Se propone aquí que Psilocybe caerulescens, nombrado por los nahuatls de hoy día teotlaquilna- nácatl, es el hongo ceremonial teonanácatl citado por Sahagún en el siglo XVI, cuya identidad verdadera permanece oscura desde hace siglos. A fin de corregir un error muy diseminado derivado de los primeros datos publicados sobre los hongos alucinógenos mexicanos, se hará hincapié en el hecho de que las especies Paneolus nunca han sido usadas tradicionalmente en México. Se discutirán aquí informes sobre el uso de especies de Amanita, Clavaria, Conocybe, Cordyceps, Dictyophora, Elaphomyces, Gomphus, Lycoperdon, Psathyrella y Stropharia como hongos sagrados o narcóticos, y se presentará también una breve historia del descubrimiento de hongos alucinógenos en México, como también algunos datos sobre su taxonomía, su distribución, y su uso tradicional en México. Key Words: Ethnomycology, sacred mushrooms, Psilocybe, distribution, shamanism, .

Introduction (Wasson 1957;HeimandWasson1958), halluci- Hallucinogenic mushrooms, known variably as nogenic mushrooms have received a great deal of entheogenic, magic, medicinal, neurotropic, psyche- scientific and medical as well as popular attention. delic, psychoactive, sacred, saint, or visionary mush- The explosion in recreational use of these mush- rooms, were used by different indigenous groups in rooms during the 1960s, and the resulting crack- Mexico prior to the Spanish Conquest (see Fig. 1), down by law enforcement agencies, has produced but were unknown to science until the 20th negative consequences and legal difficulties for century. Since the 1950s, when their ceremonial researchersaswellasfortraditionalusersofthe use by indigenous peoples was rediscovered mushrooms (Guzmán 2003), yet ceremonial use persists among certain peoples in Mexico. The present paper traces some of the historical confusion surrounding the identities of these mushrooms and comments on their taxonomy, distribution, and 1Published online 23 October 2008. traditional use in Mexico.

Economic , 62(3), 2008, pp. 404–412 © 2008, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A. 2008] GUZMÁN: HALLUCINOGENIC MUSHROOMS OF MEXICO 405

Fig. 1. Distribution of sacred species of Psilocybe in Mexico and the indigenous peoples who use them. Each dot represents one locality, or several adjacent localities. The thick solid line delineates mountainous areas with a (1,500 m altitude or higher). Dotted lines indicate state borders within Mexico. Thin solid lines encircle current territories of mushroom-using indigenous groups: I: Matlazincs; II: Nahuatls (a: Nevado de Toluca; b: Popocatépetl volcano; c: Necaxa); III: Mazatecs; IV: Mixes; V: Zapotecs; VI: Chatins; VII: Purepechas (Michoacan); VIII: Nahuatls (Colima); IX: Totonacs (Veracruz). All groups indicated have been confirmed to use ceremonial mushrooms through the present except for the Colima Nahuatls (VIII).

The Rediscovery of Hallucinogenic the hallucinogenic peyote cactus of Mexico and from Mushrooms in Mexico the southwestern United States. References to sacred mushroom use in Mexico are The identity of teonanácatl as a mushroom was found in the very earliest written documents or ultimately confirmed by renowned ethnobotanist codices produced in the Spanish New World. The Richard Schultes (1939). Schultes acted on Franciscan Fray Bernardino de Sahagún (1569– information provided to him by the Austrian 1582) mentions mushrooms used in special cere- physician Blas Pablo Reko, who reported that monies by the Nahuatl Indians; he called these Mazatec Indians in the mountain town of mushrooms teonanácatl,meaning“flesh of the Huautla de Jiménez in northern Oaxaca used gods.” In the Magliabechiano Codex, Sahagún mushrooms in religious rites. Reko gathered presents a color drawing of a Nahuatl Indian eating specimens of the mushrooms, which he sent to a blue-staining mushroom, probably Psilocybe caer- anthropologist Roberto Weitlaner. The North ulescens (discussed later). The Spaniards, however, American anthropologist Jean Bassett Johnson, suppressed ceremonial mushroom usage, and all following Weitlaner’s lead, went to Huautla de mention of sacred mushrooms disappeared from the Jiménez in 1939 and became, as far as we know, literature, leading an American botanist (Saffor the first Western scientist to observe a nocturnal 1915)topositthatteonanácatl was not a mushroom sacred mushroom ceremony, although he did not at all but Lophophora williamsii (Lemaire) Coulter, ingest the mushrooms himself (Schultes 1940; 406 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62

Reko 1945; Wasson and Wasson 1957; Heim revealed by R. Gordon Wasson and his wife, and Wasson 1958; Singer 1958). Valentina Pavlovna. They first came to Mexico in Both Schultes and Reko went to Huautla in 1952 looking for clues to understanding the 1938 and brought two species of “sacred mush- mushroom stones of the ancient Maya. Following rooms,” but Schultes gathered in the field a in Schultes’s footsteps, they reached Huautla de third collection, all of them deposited in the Jiménez in 1953, accompanied by Weitlaner, and Farlow Herbarium at Harvard University. Only there met the Mazatec shaman, María Sabina. the third of the three packages was identified Two years later, Wasson returned, accompanied at that time, as Panaeolus campanulatus var. by the photographer Allan Richardson. At that sphinctrinus (Fr.) Bres., better known as P. time he participated in the sacred mushroom rite sphinctrinus (Fr.) Quél. Apparently underestimat- under María Sabina’s guidance, thus becoming the ing the complexity and diversity of sacred first scientist to consume sacred mushrooms in a mushroom usage in Mexico, Schultes (1939) ritual context (Wasson 1957; Wasson et al. 1974). assumed P. sphinctrinus collected in the Mazatec Wasson subsequently persuaded the French area of Oaxaca to be the teonanácatl of the mycologist to accompany him to Nahuatls (Davis 1996; Guzmán 1959). Huautla de Jiménez in 1956, where they con- In the 1940s, mycologist Rolf Singer studied sumed sacred mushrooms with María Sabina Schultes’s collections at Harvard University. He (Heim and Wasson 1958). Heim (1956) was confirmed the identification of the first package as the first to identify several species of Psilocybe as Panaeolus sphinctrinus, while identifying the other the principal sacred mushrooms of Mexico. Heim two packages as and supplied the Swiss chemist with sp. Singer (1949) published two little notes, one cultured from specimens gath- under Panaeolus and the other under Psilocybe,in ered in Huautla de Jiménez, and Hofman’s team which he referred to them as narcotic mushrooms (whose isolated the LSD-like ) used by Mexican Indians. Though Singer (1975) subsequently isolated the indol they called psilocy- later removed Panaeolus from the list of sacred bin (Hofmann et al. 1958). mushrooms used in Mexico based on information After working with Schultes’s initial herbarium supplied by Guzmán (1959), the continued collections a decade prior (Singer 1949), Singer citation of Singer’s(1949) note has led to the arrived in Mexico in 1957 to study the halluci- persistent misconception that species of Panaeolus nogenic mushrooms, with Gastón Guzmán as his are among the sacred mushrooms of Mexico. assistant (Singer 1958). Singer also collaborated Though hallucinogenic species of Panaeolus do with mycologist Alexander Smith to produce the occur in Mexico, e.g., P. subbalteatus Berk. and first monograph on the hallucinogenic Psilocybe Broome and P. cyanescens Berk. and Broome species (Singer and Smith 1958). Guzmán, who (= cyanescens [Berk. and Bromme] had also established collaborations with Schultes, Sacc.), no species of Panaeolus appears to have Wasson, and Heim, began working on Psilocybe been used in any way by indigenous peoples in at this time (see Guzmán 1959, 1960). During Mexico; indeed, they are typically considered his studies in the Farlow Herbarium at Harvard poisonous (Guzmán 1959). How, then, was University, Guzmán found that the second Schultes’s and Reko’s collection of Panaeolus first package of mushrooms bought by Schultes and mistaken for one of the sacred Mazatec mush- identified by Singer as Deconica sp. was actually rooms? Apparently one package—the one identi- Psilocybe caerulescens, an important sacred mush- fied as Panaeolus—was personally collected by room among the Mazatecs (see Table 1). Schultes, while the other two packages were sold Heim and Wasson (1958)alsoreportedthe to Schultes by a Mazatec Indian (Davis 1996). It ceremonial usage of Cordyceps capitata (Holms.:Fr.) is possible, then, that Schultes mistook the dung- Link and C. ophioglossoides (Fr.) Link as well as inhabiting Panaeolus sphinctrinus in the field for Elaphomyces spp. by the Nahuatl. These reports one of the sacred mushrooms, for instance, have been confirmed, as described below. Hofmann Psilocybe mexicana, which it closely resembles in was unable to detect any hallucinogenic compounds appearance. in C. capitata (see Heim and Wasson 1958), but The true identity of Mazatec sacred mush- since the specimens he assayed were dry and stale, rooms and the nature of their use was finally further investigation is warranted. 2008]

TABLE 1. THE PRINCIPAL HALLUCINOGENIC SPECIES OF PSILOCYBE IN MEXICO AND THE INDIGENOUS GROUPS THAT USE THEM. UMN ALCNGNCMSROSO MEXICO OF MUSHROOMS HALLUCINOGENIC GUZMÁN:

Species Indigenous Group

Chatins Matlazincs Mazatecs Mixes Nahuatls Purepechs Totonacs Zapotecs P. aztecorum R. Heim emend. Guzmán X P. barrerae Cifuentes and Guzmán emend. Guzmán X P. caerulescens Murrill var. caerulescens XXX? XX P. caerulescens var. mazatecorum R. Heim = P. caerulescens var. nigripes R. Heim = P. caerulescens var. albida R. Heim P. caerulescens var. ombrophila (R. Heim) Guzmán XX P. caerulescens var. mazatecorum f. ombrophila R. Heim = P. mixaeensis R. Heim P. candidipes Singer and A.H. Smith X P. cordispora R. Heim XX X P. cubensis (Earle) Singer = Stropharia cubensis Earle X X X X X P. fagicola R. Heim emend. Guzmán = P. wassoniorum ?? Guzmán and Pollock P. hoogshagenii R. Heim var. hoogshagenii XX P. mexicana R. Heim X X X X X P. muliercula Singer and A.H. Smith = P. wassonii R. Heim X X P. sanctorum Guzmán X P. subcubensis Guzmán X X X X X P. yungensis Singer and A.H. Smith = P. acutissima R. Heim X P. zapotecorum R. Heim emend. Guzmán = P. zapotecorum f. elongata R. Heim X X X X 407 408 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62

Aside from Cordyceps and Elaphomyces, and the P. weldenii Guzmán, P. singeri Guzmán, hypothesized ancient usage of and P. veraecrucis Guzmán and Pérez-Ortiz, as (L.:Fr.) Pers. ex Hook. (see Lowy 1974; Schultes well as the cosmopolitan dung-inhabiting pasture and Hofmann 1979; Mapes et al 1981), Psilocybe species, P. cubensis and P. subcubensis. The third is the only of sacred mushroom definitely group, encompassing the great majority of hallu- used in Mexico. However, a number of other cinogenic species in Mexico, is found in the “narcotic” mushrooms have been dubiously or intermediate zones where a moist, subtropical erroneously reported from Mexico (Schultes climate and hilly terrain give rise to mesophytic 1939, 1940, 1976;Reko1945;Heimand cloud at elevations of 1,000–1,600 m. Wasson 1958; Schultes and Hofmann 1979). Psilocybe yungensis,theP. fagicola-group, and P. These include species of Conocybe, Clavariadel- candidipes are common forest species in this phus (as Clavaria), Dictyophora, Gomphus (as zone, while P. mexicana and P. cubensis are found Nevrophyllum), Lycoperdon, Panaeolus (as already in meadows, and P. zapotecorum, P. subzapoteco- described), and Psathyrella. The causes of confu- rum Guzmán, P. caerulescens, and P. hoogshagenii sion differ in each case. With Lycoperdon, for are found in ravines with muddy eroded , instance, the error can be traced to a single often without vegetation (Guzmán 1978, 1983, inebriated informant (Ott et al. 1975), while 1990). Clavariadelphus and Gomphus were falsely implicated because they shared with Cordyceps Sacred Mushroom Usage in Modern the vernacular name hongo amarillo (“yellow Mexico mushroom”). Several indigenous groups have been confirmed to practice the ceremonial use of sacred mush- The Hallucinogenic Psilocybes rooms in Mexico: the Nahuatls in the states of of Mexico Mexico, Morelos, and Puebla; the Matlazincs in Guzmán (1983) showed that hallucinogenic the state of Mexico; the Totonacs in the state of species of Psilocybe occur on all continents. Veracruz; and the Mazatecs, Mixes, Zapotecs, and However, only in Mexico and perhaps in New Chatins in the state of Oaxaca. Guinea (see Heim et al. 1967) are they confirmed To the western of the volcano Popocatépetl (state to be traditionally consumed as visionary or of Mexico), Nahuatls ritually consume Psilocybe “sacred” mushrooms. There is also some evidence aztecorum, which grows in alpine meadows mixed to suggest ceremonial use of Psilocybe in Colombia with pines. Their name for it, apipitzin (or niño de and Africa (Samorini 2001;Guzmánetal.2004). las aguas in Spanish), means “rain water child” A recent review of all the known taxa of Psilocybe (Heim and Wasson 1958;Guzmán1978). On the (Guzmán 2005) included around 250 species, 150 southern slope of the same volcano (but in the of which are hallucinogenic. Of these, 53 halluci- state of Morelos), in the subtropical cloud forest nogenic species have been identified in Mexico around Tetela del Volcán, the Nahuatl consider (Guzmán 2005), though less than a third of these P. barrerae to be sacred (Elizur Montiel-Arcos and are known to be used ceremonially (see Table 1). Víctor Mora, personal communication). As a rule, hallucinogenic Psilocybe species can The Nahuatl from the townships of Tenango be distinguished from non-hallucinogenic psilo- del Valle and San Pedro Tlanixco (both in the cybes by their tendency (in almost all cases) to Nevado de Toluca region, state of Mexico) use oxidize blue, and by their farinaceous odor and Psilocybe muliercula, which they call siwatsitsintli taste. The hallucinogenic Mexican species can be or mujercitas (“little women”), often in tandem divided into three broad groups corresponding to with Cordyceps capitata or C. ophioglossoides, different geographical-ecological zones (Fig. 1). known as hombrecitos (“little men”). In their The first group is found in mountainous areas sacred mushroom ceremonies, some people eat with a temperate climate, typically in meadows or only mujercitas, and others eat only hombrecitos open, grassy pine . Psilocybe aztecorum, P. (apparently, no one eats both, and the sex of the muliercula,andP. sanctorum are prominent mushroom eater does not determine the “sex” of members of this group. The second group is found the mushrooms they eat). One or more specimens in tropical lowlands, and includes little-known of Elaphomyces (the truffle-like, hypogeous mush- forest species such as P. uxpanapensis Guzmán, room from which the Cordyceps grows) typically 2008] GUZMÁN: HALLUCINOGENIC MUSHROOMS OF MEXICO 409 occupy center stage during the ritual, usually on known as gigantism; both are commonly-noted the altar or on a sleeping mat on the ground. At effects of hallucinogenic Psilocybe consumption (e.g., the end of the ceremony everyone partakes of el Guzmán 1990). gran mundo (“the great world”), as Elaphomyces is Still another indigenous group that may have called. used hallucinogenic mushrooms are the Pure- Also in the Nevado de Toluca region, but to pechas in the state of Michoacan, where Guzmán the west of the Nahuatls, are the Matlazincs. (1983) reported Psilocybe caerulescens. The Tzotzil Their sacred mushrooms are Psilocybe muliercula Maya of Chiapas may also have been users in the and P. sanctorum (Guzmán and López-González distant past, but there are no indications of use 1970), which they call santitos (“little saints”). today or in recent times (Laughlin 1975). Further to the east, the Nahuatls of Necaxa (state of Puebla) use Psilocybe caerulescens and P. The Sacred Mushroom Ceremony mexicana as sacred mushrooms (Guzmán 1960). When Reko (1945), Schultes (1939, 1940), They call these mushrooms teotlaquilnanácatl, Wasson and Wasson (1957), and Guzmán (1959, meaning “sacred mushroom that paints or 1960) conducted their research, they noted how describes.” As the blue-staining mushroom the sacred mushroom ceremonies had been depicted in Sahagún’s Magliabechiano Codex strongly influenced by five centuries of contact bears a strong resemblance to P. caerulescens, and with Catholicism. Now, after five decades of the contemporary Nahuatl word bears a striking contact with recreational drug users and tourists, resemblance to the enigmatic name teonanácatl the mushroom ceremonies have been further originally reported by Sahagún in the 16th changed. Sacred mushrooms are now widely century, this author hypothesizes that they are commercialized, and even the ceremonies them- one and the same. selves have become a kind of tourist attraction. Still further to the east, the Totonacs (state of Despite regional cultural and language differ- Veracruz) used P. caerulescens as well as P. ences, as well as different species of mushrooms cordispora extensively in the past, though the used, the sacred mushroom ceremonies show tradition is now mostly extinct (Stresser-Péan and some common elements throughout Mexico. Heim 1960). Guzmán et al. (2005) also found The ceremony is always held at night, apparently hallucinogenic mushrooms of the P. fagicola- in order to reduce distractions and intensify the group growing commonly in the Totonac region. mental concentration of the mushroom takers. Finally, in the state of Oaxaca, sacred mush- The ceremony is always held under the guidance room usage is well documented for the Mazatecs of a shaman or an older experienced person, of Huautla de Jimenez, the Mixes of Mazatlan, either woman or man, and is usually held in the the Zapotecs of San Agustin Loxicha, and the guide’s home in front of a Catholic altar. Chatins of Yaitepec. The well-known species P. Typically the mushrooms are placed in a caerulescens, P. mexicana, P. cubensis,andP. gourd, or jicara (Crescentia cujete L.), and zapotecorum, as well as several others (see Table 1), incensed with copal resin (mostly from Protium are used in this region. spp.). The ceremonies show a mixture of native In addition to the confirmed reports listed and Catholic elements; prayers may be in Spanish above, there is vestigial evidence of sacred and/or indigenous tongues. The mushrooms are mushroom usage elsewhere in Mexico. Pieces of typically counted out in “male-female” pairs, pottery found in the eastern foothills of Nevado though only one species of mushroom is used de Colima (state of Colima) suggest that the for a given ceremony (except in the Nevado de Capacha and maybe the Nahuatls used sacred Toluca region, where, as noted above, Cordyceps mushrooms. One piece (see Schultes and Hofmann and Elaphomyces are used in conjunction with 1979) shows four Indians with amazed eyes Psilocybe). Participants are traditionally offered up surrounding a very tall mushroom that closely to six pairs of mushrooms, though with the resembles P. zapoteco. Another piece (Doniz et al. advent of psychedelic tourism, outsiders may be 2001) shows a woman with large eyes holding a initially offered only one or two, and are required tall mushroom in her right hand. In both cases, the to pay more if they want a higher dose. It is large eyes may depict dilated pupils, while the tall widely believed that excessive doses (more than mushrooms may illustrate the perceptual alteration 12 mushrooms) can produce mental disorders, 410 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62 and that different species of Psilocybe should not Nuestra Señora del Sagrado Corazon de Jesús (“Our be mixed. The mushrooms are eaten on an empty Lady of the Sacred Heart of Jesus”), and removed stomach, and alcohol and medicines are avoided the mushroom from the central place of worship before and during the ceremony, and other to a corner alcove where they placed it in a metal restrictions (for example, avoiding travel in the box with a cross. Nevertheless, the Nahuatls days following the ceremony) may be observed continue to worship the mushroom, praying in (Guzmán 2003). front of the metal box before proceeding to the main altar. Conclusion Acknowledgments Despite a great deal of confusion in the literature, it is now clear that the sacred mush- This author expresses his thanks to his col- rooms of Mexico belong almost exclusively to the leagues Etelvina Gándara, Virginia Ramírez-Cruz, genus Psilocybe. Although several hallucinogenic and Florencia Ramírez-Guillén (all of them in species of Psilocybe occur in the lowlands of Instituto de Ecología at Xalapa), Laura Guzmán- Mexico, traditional ceremonial usage survives Dávalos (Universidad de Guadalajara), Elizur today only at higher elevations (1,500 m and Montiel-Arcos and Victor Mora (Universidad de above; see Fig. 1). This is likely due to the Morelos), and James Q. Jacobs (Arizona) for their persecution of mushroom worship by the Cath- help in the laboratory and with other information. olic Church during the Spanish Colonial period, In the past, professors Richard E. Schultes, Rolf so that the ceremony persisted only among Singer, Roger Heim, and R. Gordon Wasson groups that remained in or retreated to remote provided much important information and bib- mountainous areas. liographic material. Teofilo Herrera (University of A modern anecdote about the “Mushroom Mexico) assisted in making initial contacts with Church” of the Nahuatls near Chignahuapan in Singer and Heim. Manuel Hernández (Instituto the state of Puebla (Guzmán et al. 1975)isonly de Ecología at Xalapa) helped with computer tangentially related to sacred mushroom use, but tasks. David Arora and Glenn H. Shepard, Jr. nevertheless illustrates the tenacity of indigenous assisted in the final revision of the manuscript. mushroom worship and the continuing efforts of the Church to suppress it. The “Mushroom Church” was built to honor a Literature Cited specimen of the shelf mushroom Ganoderma Davis W. 1996. One River. Touchstone, New lobatum (Schwein.) G.F. Atk. that shows an York. image of Christ traced on its pale, pore-bearing Doniz, R., Ma. de los A. Olay, and J. C. Reyes. undersurface. The mushroom was found in the 2001. Museo Universitario Alejandro Rangel forest by a Nahuatl native more than 200 years Hidalgo. Pages 16–31 in Los Tesoros de ago, an event considered to be a miracle by local Colima. Arqueología Mexicana, ed. especial 9. people. Guzmán et al. (1975) speculate that this Guzmán G. 1959. Sinopsis de los Conocimientos supposed “miracle” may have been fabricated by Sobre los Hongos Alucinógenos Mexicanos. some creative 18th-century priest as a way of Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México enticing the Nahuatl away from their secretive 24:14–34. worship and consumption of hallucinogenic ———. 1960. Nueva Localidad de Importancia mushrooms, and redirecting their mushroom Etnomicológica de los Hongos Neurotrópicos reverence toward Christ. For two centuries, the Mexicanos. Ciencia, México, 20:85–88. holy mushroom was guarded and revered private- ———. 1978. Variation, Distribution, Ethno- ly in local households. Finally, in the 1940s, a mycological Data and Relationships of Psilo- special church was built to honor the miraculous cybe aztecorum, a Mexican . The mushroom was displayed in a Mushroom. Mycologia 70:385–396. crystal box at the main altar and the church was ———. 1983. The Genus Psilocybe. Beihefte named Nuestro Señor del Honguito (“Our Lord of Nova Hedwigia 74, Cramer, Vaduz. the Little Mushroom”). Recently, however, the ———.1990.WassonandtheDevelopmentof Catholic authorities, ever vigilant for pagan in Mexico. In TH. J. Riedlinger, ed., revivals, changed the name of the church to The Sacred Mushroom Seeker: Essays for 2008] GUZMÁN: HALLUCINOGENIC MUSHROOMS OF MEXICO 411

R. Gordon Wasson. Historical, Ethno-and Lowy,B.1974.Amanita muscaria and the Economic Botany Series 4. Discorides, Portland. Thunderboldt Leyend in and ———. 2003. Traditional Uses and Abuses of Mexico. Mycologia 66:188–190. Hallucinogenic Fungi: Problems and Solu- Mapes, C., G. Guzmán, and J. Caballero. 1981. tions. International Journal of Medicinal Etnomicología Purépecha. El Conocimiento y Mushrooms 5:57–59. uso de los Hongos en la Cuenca de Pátzcuaro, ———. 2005. Species Diversity of the Genus Michoacán. Dirección de Culturas Populares and Psilocybe in the World Mycobiota, with Special Sociedad Mexicana de Micología, Mexico City. Attention to Hallucinogenic Properties. Inter- Ott, J., G. Guzmán, J. Roman, and J. L. Díaz. national Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 1975. Nuevos Datos Sobre los Supuestos 7:305–331. Licoperdáceos Psicotrópicos y dos Casos de ——— and A. López-González, 1970. Nuevo Intoxicación Provocados por Hongos del Hábitat y Datos Etnomicológicos de Psilocybe Género Scleroderma en Mexico. Bol. Soc. muliercula. Boletín de la Sociedad Mexicana de Mex. Mic. 9:67–76. Micología 4:44–48. Reko, B. P. 1945. Mitobotánica Zapoteca. ———, J. Q. Jacobs, F. Ramírez-Guillén, D. Private ed., Tacubaya, D.F. Murrieta, and E. Gándara. 2005. The Taxon- Saffor, W. E. 1915. An Aztec Narcotic. Journal of omy of Psilocybe fagicola–Complex. Journal of Heredity 6:291–311. Microbiology (Korea) 43:158–165. Sahagún, Fray B. de. 1569–1582. Historia de las ———, F. Ramírez-Guillén, and M. Torres. Cosas de la Nueva España. Mexico City (with 2004. The Hallucinogenic Species of Psilocybe several reprints both in Spanish and English, in Colombia, Their Indian Use, New Records, besides two Indian bilingually codexes, in and New Species. International Journal of Nahuatl and Spanish, directed by Sahagún, Medicinal Mushrooms 6:83–93. also reprinted). ———, R. G. Wasson, and T. Herrera, 1975. Samorini, G. 2001. Fungi Allucinogeni. Studi Una Iglesia Dedicada al Culto de un Hongo, Etnomicologici. Telesterion, Duzza, Italy. “Nuestro Señor del Honguito,” en Chigna- Schultes, R. E. 1939. Plantae Mexicanae II. The huapán, Puebla. Boletín de la Sociedad Mex- Identification of Teonanácatl, a Narcotic icana de Micología 9:137–147. Basidiomycete of the Aztecs. Botanical Muse- Heim, R. 1956. Les Champignons Divinatoires um Leaflets, Harvard University 7:37–56. Utilizes dans les Rites des Indies Mazatèques, ———. 1940. Teonanácatl: The Narcotic Mush- Recuellis du Cours de Leur Premier Vovage an room of the Aztecs. American Anthropologist Mexique in 1953, par Mme Valentina 42:429–443. Pavlovna Wasser et M.R. Gordon Wasson. ———. 1976. Hallucinogenic Plants. Golden Comptes Rendus des Séances de l’Academie Press, New York. des Sciences 242:965–968. ——— and A. Hofmann. 1979. Plants of the ———, R. Cailleux, R. G. Wasson, and P. Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use. Thévenard. 1967. Nouvelles Investigations sur McGraw-Hill Books, New York. les Champignons Hallucinogènes. Archives du Singer, R. 1949. The (Mushrooms) in Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, 7e Série, IX, Modern Taxonomy. Lilloa 22:5–832. . ———. 1958. Mycological Investigations on ——— and R. G. Wasson. 1958. Les Cham- Teonanácatl, the Mexican Mushroom I. pignons Hallucinogèns du Mexique. Ed. Mycologia 50:239–261. Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. ———. 1975. The Agaricales in Modern Taxonmy. Hofmann, A., R. Heim, A. Brack, and H. Kobel. Third ed. Cramer, Vaduz. 1958. , ein Psychotroper Wirkcstoff ——— and A. H. Smith. 1958. Mycological aus dem Mexikanishchen Rauchpilz Psilocybe Investigations on Teonanácatl, the Mexican mexicana Heim. Experientia 14:107–109. Mushrooms II. A Taxonomic Monograph of Laughlin, R. M. 1975. The Great Tzotzil Psilocybe, Section Caerulescentes.Mycologia Dictionary of San Lorenzo Zinacatán. Smith- 50:262–303. sonian Contributions to Anthropology Series, Stresser-Péan, G. and R. Heim. 1960. Sur les #19. , D.C. Divinatoires des Totonaques. Comptes 412 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62

Rendus des Séances de l’ Academie des room Velada. Ethnomicological Studies 3. Sciences 250:1115–1160. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York (four Wasson, R. G. 1957. Seeking the Magic Mush- cassettes). room. Life, May 13, New York. Wasson, V. P. and R. G. Wasson. 1957. Mush- ———, G. Cowan, F. Cowan, and W. Rhodes. rooms, Russia and History. Pantheon Books, 1974. María Sabina and Her Mazatec Mush- New York.