Selected Papers of William L. White www.williamwhitepapers.com Collected papers, interviews, video presentations, photos, and archival documents on the history of addiction treatment and recovery in America.

Citation: Before LSD was acid. Posted at www.williamwhitepapers.com

Before LSD was Acid William L. White Emeritus Senior Research Consultant Chestnut Health Systems [email protected]

NOTE: The original 1,000+ page manuscript for Slaying the Dragon: The History of Addiction Treatment and Recovery in America had to be cut by more than half before its first publication in 1998. This is an edited excerpt that was deleted from the original manuscript.

Like many drugs described in this text, LSD Rockefeller Institute of New York (Restak, and other stayed in the 1994; Hofmann, 1983). background for a long time before they In 1938, two chemists at Sandoz would break into cultural visibility as mind- Laboratories in , (Dr. altering drugs. In this chapter we will explore and Dr. Arthur Stoll) created the history of LSD before it became well a series of ergot compounds in an effort to known. synthesize a pain remedy for migraine headaches. Working with lysergic acid The Discovery of LSD isolated from the ergot, Hofmann added a diethylamine molecule. This 25th compound The story of LSD begins with ergot, a in the series was d-lysergic acid parasitic fungus that grows on rye and other diethylamide tartrate, or "LSD 25." grains. Since the 16th century, ergot Research on LSD 25 and its chemical compounds had been used in small doses to cousins was set aside in 1938 because there relieve pain, to stop bleeding, and to start appeared to be no use for the substances. uterine contractions. Periodic outbreaks of Five years later, on April 16, 1943, Dr. ergot poisoning, accompanied by Hofmann again synthesized LSD 25 and hallucinations and extreme disorientation, accidentally ingested a tiny amount of the had been reported in the general population drug, probably absorbed into his skin. The since the 14th century. These outbreaks drug’s stunning effects forced him to leave usually followed the consumption of ergot- work early. As Hoffman himself would contaminated bread. In the early 1930s, the describe the experience in the Archives of common ingredient of the many ergot Neurology, “Fantastic visions of alkaloids was identified as lysergic acid by extraordinary vividness accompanied by a W.A. Jacobs and L.C. Craig of the kaleidoscopic-like play of intense coloration continually swirled around my head.” williamwhitepapers.com 1 A few days later, Hofmann decided to from Sandoz and began the first controlled confirm the drug’s effects by swallowing a human experiments with the drug. Stoll was small quantity of the drug. His plan was to also the first psychiatrist who studied the start with an extremely small dose, then take effects of LSD through self-experimentation more of the drug in small increments until he (Hofmann, 1970) had the anticipated effect. Knowing nothing In a conference presentation at the of the potency of LSD-25, he began with Boston Psychopathic Hospital in 1949, what he thought would be the lowest Viennese physician Dr. Otto Kauders possible active dose, .25 milligrams (250 informed his audience of a remarkable new micrograms--five times LSD's active dose). drug—LSD--that produced a "model Within 40 minutes, he began to experience a psychosis" and held potential for the radical change in consciousness. The first understanding and treatment of words written about the first clinical trial of schizophrenia. Dr. Max Rinkel of Boston LSD were recorded at 5 p.m. on April 19, Psychopathic Hospital immediately 1943: "slight dizziness, unrest, difficulty in contacted Sandoz Laboratories to obtain the concentration, visual disturbances, marked quantities of LSD necessary to begin desire to laugh..." (Ray & Ksir, 1990, p. 15). research in this direction. Rinkel conducted Hoffmann’s chosen dose is understandable his first experimental tests of LSD with fellow in light of the fact that, by weight, LSD was psychiatrist Dr. Robert Hyde, who has the thousands of times more powerful than all distinction of being the first American to other known psychoactive drugs. Nothing in experience LSD. his training would have prepared him for a In 1949, the branch office of Sandoz substance so strong that swallowing Laboratories distributed LSD to more than 1/1,000th of a gram would produce such a 90 researchers to experiment with the drug profound effect. in the treatment of psychiatric illness and During the hours that followed, alcoholism. Between 1949 and the mid- Hofmann experienced the worst (terrors, 1960s, many researchers and fears of insanity) and best ("sense of well- psychotherapists used LSD in the treatment being and renewed life") of what the LSD of alcoholism, childhood autism, impotence experience would later present to millions. and frigidity, neuroses, character disorders, Hofmann had discovered, not just a new anticipatory grief (of those facing death), and drug, but a totally new type of drug, whose prolonged grief. They found that, with chemical structure and psychoactive effects careful patient selection and adequate had never before been seen. preparation and supervision, they could Having confirmed the extreme keep the risk of adverse reactions at a potency and hallucinogenic effects of LSD, minimum (Grinspoon & Bakalar, 1986). Hofmann could see no practical use for this Early reports of LSD's effectiveness drug and could not imagine that such a drug as a tool in psychiatric treatment included would ever be used widely as an intoxicant. claims that the drug 1) loosened repressed The first scientific application of Hofmann’s contents of feeling and experience, 2) gave discovery came in the form of a new people an opportunity to actually re- hypothesis: severe mental disorders experience past events that were important thought to be induced by psychic trauma to them, and 3) lowered resistance to might actually be biological abnormalities-- psychotherapy (Hofmann, 1983). While distortions of thought and perception early success rates fired optimism about the produced by the body’s own neurochemistry future of this new drug in the field of gone haywire. After all, LSD’s existence had psychiatry, later controlled studies showed shown that extremely small amounts of less dramatic results. Eventually, due to the hallucinogens could create dramatic growing controversy related to LSD’s distortions in mental status. In 1947, the widespread use and its potential adverse psychiatrist Dr. Werner Stoll (Dr. Arthur effects--and to new legal controls on the Stoll's son) obtained a supply of the drug williamwhitepapers.com 2 drug--LSD was no longer generally available and continued that Office’s experimental for use in psychotherapy. work with psychoactive drugs. CIA interest The discovery of LSD galvanized in drug research was intensified by the interest in a whole category of psychoactive growing suspicion that the North Koreans drugs that at various times have been called and Communist Bloc countries in Europe phantasticants, psychelytics, psychogens, were already using some type of drug to help psychotomimetics, and schizogens. brainwash prisoners into giving public Humphrey Osmond's preferred term, confessions. The CIA was alarmed at reports "psychedelics," prevailed in the 1960s but of zombie-like prisoners with glazed eyes, was gradually replaced in professional confessing in open court to crimes of treason circles by the term "hallucinogens" that they had not committed. The CIA's drug (Schultes, 1972, p. 4). A group that was experiments intensified in a climate of particularly interested in the potential of paranoia fueled by the Soviet control of these drugs was the American intelligence Eastern Europe, the rise of Communist community. That interest that led to one of China, the outbreak of the Korean War, and the most bizarre chapters in the history of a Wisconsin senator who screamed about American’s relationship with psychoactive communist infiltration of the United States drugs. government. It was in this emerging climate of LSD and the CIA paranoia that the CIA created the Scientific Intelligence Unit in 1949, to investigate The use of drugs as psychochemical possible methods of mind control. A primary weapons has a long history. For example, focus of this research was the potential of the use of drugs to poison one’s enemies drugs like LSD to brainwash or disable dates back to the ancient Greeks, Egyptians, military and civilian populations. When this and Phoenicians. In more recent history, unit's approach was perceived to be too while Albert Hofmann was discovering LSD, theoretical, its work was transferred to the Nazi doctors at Dachau were conducting CIA's Office of Technical Services, and the experiments with mescaline by secretly resources of that Office were expanded. administering the drug to concentration The CIA’s experiments with camp prisoners. The goal of the German hallucinogenic drugs continued for many experiments was to find a drug that could years. Details of these activities slowly "eliminate the will." came to public light, through self-disclosure The American intelligence by survivors of the experiments and through community’s interest in the possible military formal investigations such as the 1975 uses of psychoactive drugs dates back to the Rockefeller Commission inquiry into CIA same period, beginning with the work of the activities. The CIA's mind-control research Office of Strategic Services, commonly was conducted by third-party organizations referred to as the OSS. During the Second that ranged from the Society for the World War, the OSS was involved in Investigation of Human Ecology to 50 research designed to find a "truth drug" that prestigious academic and medical could be used in the interrogation of political institutions. So in retrospect, it can be said prisoners and suspected spies. The OSS that the primary source of grants funding researchers experimented with barbiturates, LSD research in the 1950s was the CIA. mescaline, scopolamine, and the drug they Some of the more noteworthy, comical, believed had the greatest potential in this bizarre, grotesque, and tragic episodes in area marijuana. Their experimental this history include the following. methods included spiking the drinks and In 1950 Dr. Richard Wendt, Chairman cigarettes of soldiers who were being of the Psychology Department at the interrogated as suspected communists. University of Rochester, received a $300,00 After the war, the Central Intelligence contract to study the potential use of mind- Agency (CIA) took over the role of the OSS control drugs. This was part of Project williamwhitepapers.com 3 CHATTER, whose goal was to find a drug contract with the CIA. Concerned that that could weaken or eliminate free will. someone might find out that these kinds of Wendt participated in numerous experiments were being conducted on U.S. experiments, mostly unsuccessful, in which citizens, the CIA retained a Canadian he dosed himself, student volunteers, and psychiatrist, Dr. Ewen Cameron, to conduct human subjects provided by the CIA. His many of these experiments on his research focused on combinations of unsuspecting patients. In 1990, the CIA Seconal (a barbiturate), Dexedrine (an agreed to pay $750,000, to be split among amphetamine) and THC (the primary eight of Cameron’s patients who had been psychoactive ingredient in marijuana). subjected to mind control experiments Wendt’s project was typical of the CIA involving LSD and electroshock. projects that sought out prominent The CIA and the Navy contracted with psychiatrists and psychologists to assist in Dr. Harris Isbell of the federal narcotics the Agency’s exploration of behavior-control hospital in Lexington, Kentucky for another techniques. In what seemed to be a page study, in which a group of addict volunteers, out of Brave New World or Animal Farm, one mostly African Americans, were given ever- contracted psychologist bragged that, with increasing doses of LSD for 72 days straight. the support of CIA funding, he would be able Addicts cooperated with such experiments in to discover and share with the agency "how return for being paid in a drug of their a man can be made to think, feel, and choice—usually heroin. The drug rewards behave according to the wishes of other were kept in a "bank," from which the addicts men" (Marks, 1979, p. 147). could request withdrawals at any time. This Beginning in 1952, the CIA sent occurred in the primary federal institution set operatives on the road in search of up to treat drug addiction. LSD experiments psychoactive plants that might be used in the were also conducted on federal prisoners in manufacture of psychochemical weapons. Georgia and New Jersey (Marks, 1979; Lee The Bureau of Narcotics, all the while and Shlain, 1985). When Albert Hofmann fighting a war on drugs on the civilian front, and Roger Heim isolated the active regularly supplied U.S. intelligence agents ingredient in the Mexican hallucinogenic with heroin, marijuana, and other drugs for plant, teonanactl ("God's Flesh") and their experiments. In 1953, the CIA sent two christened it , the CIA again used men with a black bag filled with $240,000 in doctors in the federal prisons to test the drug cash to Switzerland to purchase the Sandoz on inmates. In the first tests, psilocybin was Laboratory’s entire supply of LSD. They injected into nine inmates at the federally were prepared to purchase what they had operated treatment center in Lexington, estimated to be the entire supply of Sandoz’s Kentucky. The inmates’ responses to the LSD inventory. Because it was difficult to drug, mostly unpleasant and some filled with grow the ergot needed to synthesize the terror, were duly reported to the CIA. drug, Sandoz had nowhere near this desired Members of the CIA's Office of quantity of LSD. However, the company Technical Services regularly used LSD, and agreed to sell the CIA 100 grams of LSD per they grew cavalier in their experiments with week, which they did until 1954, when the Eli the drug. They spiked one another’s food Lilly company discovered a method of and drinks and went on extended binges of synthesizing LSD without ergot. LSD use in their CIA offices and in CIA safe The CIA also funded experiments that houses. There were comic scenes (two staff tested the possibility of combining prolonged members, convinced that they were Fred drug-induced sleep, LSD and electroshock Astaire and Ginger Rogers, danced on a treatments to "depattern" behavior, extract conference table throughout an afternoon) secrets, and cause amnesia. Many such and near tragedies (a staff member running experiments were conducted on to plunge himself into the Potomac River had unsuspecting psychiatric patients who were to be rescued by other CIA staff). being treated by private psychiatrists under williamwhitepapers.com 4 In November of 1953, CIA staff invited 1,500 soldiers had participated in the Army's members of the Army's Chemical Corps for LSD experiments. PCP was also included in a working weekend and gave one of their late-1950's experiments on soldiers at unsuspecting colleagues, Dr. Frank Olson, a Edgewood Arsenal (Lee and Shlain, 1985, p. glass of Cointreau spiked with LSD. Olson 188) became agitated, paranoid, and eventually Most of these projects were designed psychotic under the drug's influence. In an and conducted by psychologists, effort to hide what had occurred, Olsen was psychiatrists, and physicians who were on taken to a CIA contract physician who had staff or under contract with the CIA. Only no training in psychiatry. The physician later would the medical ethics, or lack of recommended hospitalization, but before ethics, of these activities be questioned. they could get to a Maryland facility that had When they were questioned about such CIA-contracted psychiatrists, Dr. Olson practices after the fact, physicians fell back jumped through the window of a New York on patriotism as a defense, saying simply hotel room to his death. that they did it for their country. The circumstances surrounding In their inquiries into CIA drug Olson's death were withheld from his family experiments, investigators have tried to for 22 years. They finally learned the truth discover whether the CIA actually went when they read a Washington Post article on beyond the experimental stage. According the Rockefeller hearings into CIA activities. to information released to John Marks in his In 1976, 23 years after Dr. Olson plunged to study of the CIA's drug experiments, LSD his death, the U.S. Congress passed a bill and other psychoactive drugs were actually awarding the Olson family $750,000 for his used on 33 people, either to discredit them loss. by making them seem insane or to draw One of the more exotic of the CIA secret information from them. CIA projects, dubbed Operation Midnight Climax, documents refer to the use of "BZ", an involved setting up unsuspecting exceptionally powerful that can businessmen with CIA-contracted bring on debilitating hallucinations, prostitutes who surreptitiously slipped the disorientation, and mania for several days businessmen varying doses of LSD. All of during the Vietnam War (Lee and Shlain, these experiments were videotaped--purely 1985). for scientific purposes, one presumes. It When LSD use became popular was also in this setting that the CIA tested among young people in the United States in whether or not LSD sprayed in the air of any the 1960s, its spread was often blamed on a gathering would send its participants on a group of intellectuals in the universities who collective trip. A group of businessmen involved graduate students in LSD unknowingly defeated one such test by experiments, who in turn introduced opening the windows, inspiring the agents to undergraduates to the drug, who in turn run around frantically re-spraying to "freshen brought it to the high school population. To up the air" and "take care of those roaches." some extent this trickle-down theory was However, concerns raised in a 1963 accurate, but the hidden story of the Inspector General’s investigation into psychedelic drug phenomenon of the 1960s activities such as Operation Midnight Climax was the CIA's role in encouraging LSD were political rather than ethical ones. The research and financially rewarding the investigators were concerned about possible intellectuals later blamed for launching a public reactions if the word got out that the drug epidemic. The true scope of the CIA's CIA was dosing unsuspecting U.S. citizens drug research will probably never be known: with dangerous drugs. The CIA destroyed all records of this In the late 1950s, US Army units at research in 1972 (Colby, 1978). Most of Fort Bragg, North Carolina were given LSD what we do know was revealed in the 1975 and monitored as they tried to perform field report of the Rockefeller Commission on the exercises. By the mid-1960s, more than CIA and in a report on the U.S. Army williamwhitepapers.com 5 experiments released in 1976 (Taylor & balanced at the end (Stevens, 1987, p. 7). In Johnson, 1976) spite of this meager response, Ellis predicted that "mescal" would one day achieve great Setting the Stage for Psychedelics popularity. (Ellis, 1897). Years later, after he had read Lewin's The use of hallucinogens didn’t begin Phantastica, the noted English writer Aldous with the mid-century experiments by the Huxley began to speculate about the medical and military establishments, nor was desirability of searching out an ideal earlier use of hallucinogens restricted to intoxicant. He contacted the psychiatrist Native America. At the turn of the century, Humphrey Osmond in 1953, after reading two reports on mescaline intoxication were one of Osmond's articles on LSD. During authored by Weir Mitchell, a prominent their first visit, Huxley expressed his desire psychiatrist and writer, and Havelock Ellis, to experience one of the hallucinogens, and an English psychologist who had authored on May 4, 1953, Osmond gave Huxley some many volumes on the psychology of sex. mescaline crystals dissolved in a glass of Later writings of Aldous Huxley also stirred water. Huxley wrote about this experience in significant interest in the hallucinogens. positive terms, but at one point in the experience Huxley had an inkling of things to Mitchell, Ellis, and Huxley come when he experienced a fleeting feeling of paranoia. Describing his perceptions Mitchell's report of his own during this brief moment, he observed: experiences with peyote in 1896 ended with the following prophetic statement: If you started the wrong way, everything that happened would be proof of the conspiracy I predict a perilous reign of this mescal habit against you. It would all be self-validating. when this agent becomes obtainable. The You couldn't draw a breath without knowing temptation to call again the enchanting it was part of the plot (Quoted in Stevens, magic will be too much for some persons to 1987, p. 203). resist after they have set foot in this land of fairy colors. (Mitchell, 1896, p.1625) Aldous Huxley's 1954 book, The Doors of Perception, and its 1956 follow up, Ellis, the better known of these and , described his experiences with authors, described in one popular mescaline and predicted a time when (Contemporary Review) and one scientific hallucinogens would be used widely to (Lancet) journal his discovery of a "new stimulate religious experience. Huxley's artificial ." After vivid descriptions of book was panned by long-term researchers his hallucinatory experiences under the of peyote. Weston La Barre called The influence of three peyote buttons, Ellis Doors of Perception an "absurd little book" concluded his article by stating that peyote and was angered by Huxley's incorrect had been "an unforgettable delight" and an reference to peyote as "mescal" (La Barre, "educational experience" (Ellis, 1898, p. 1974, p. 228.) In spite of criticism from the 141). However, there was little professional experts, Huxley's reports did stimulate some or public response to Ellis's reported drug experimentation with hallucinogens within experiences. Undaunted, Ellis tried to broader scientific and intellectual circles. spread peyote use among several of his Huxley presented his interest in the artistic friends by arguing that peyote could role of drugs in society in two contrasting enhance their artistic achievement. Among works. In Brave New World (1932), Huxley those who believed Ellis, the breakthroughs pictured a futuristic society in which social in creative discovery were limited to one stability was achieved through the biological whimsical report by William Butler Yeats, in and psychological programming of social which Yeats noted that he had seen dragons classes and through the elimination of all breathing lines of steam with white balls excess emotion by means of a universally williamwhitepapers.com 6 prescribed happiness-generating narcotic successful. There, Wasson found a guide called soma. Through their chemical who showed him where to find the divine vacations from reality, citizens of this new mushroom. Then the guide took him to world were given daily tranquility and Maria Sabina, a curandera (healer) from episodes of ecstasy. The novel underscored Huautla de Jimenez, who showed him how the potential use of psychoactive drugs as the drug was used. Wasson participated, an agent of social control in an authoritarian along with 20 Indians, in the mushroom- society. Thirty years later, in The Island eating ritual. Wasson, who would eventually (1962), Huxley portrayed the utopian society identify more than 20 species of of Pala. On that island, hallucinogens hallucinogenic mushrooms, wrote of his ( medicine) were used to ritualize the adventurous search for "the flesh of the transition between childhood and gods" and its hallucinogenic effects in a 17- adolescence, adults used hallucinogens to page spread that appeared in the July, 1957 become liberated from their own egos, and issue of Life magazine. the dying used hallucinogens to ease the Wasson often spoke of the magic transition from one of consciousness mushroom with deep respect and awe. In to the next. describing the mushroom, his language was After Huxley’s publicized experiments more poetic than scientific: with mescaline came a number of discoveries and technical reports on Many emotions are shared by men with the hallucinogens. In 1954, Richard Schultes animal kingdom, but the awe and reverence published an account of the use of of God are peculiar to men. When we bear hallucinogenic snuffs in the Amazon. In in mind the beatific sense of awe and 1956 Steven Szara, a Czech chemist, ecstasy and caritas engendered by the synthesized DMT--a powerful, short-acting divine mushrooms, one is emboldened to the hallucinogen. Both technical and popular point of asking whether they may not have reports were published focusing on the use planted in primitive man the very idea of God of LSD as an aid to psychotherapy. A 1959 (Wasson, 1957). Look magazine article on the "new Cary Grant" attributed Grant’s newfound The article spurred great interest in happiness to his encounter with LSD in hallucinogens and inspired a strange psychotherapy. All of these events marked assortment of Americans to head to Mexico an increased professional and popular in search of curanderos who could help them interest in the hallucinogens. But in terms of find "magic mushrooms." their impact on the culture of the 1960s, In 1958 Albert Hofmann, the doctor these events pale next to Gordon Wasson’s who had discovered of LSD, identified the 1957 discovery of the "sacred Mushroom" in active ingredient in the mushroom samples Oaxaca, Mexico. that Wasson had given him. Hofmann named the active ingredient psilocybin and The Mushroom Man chemically reproduced it. One more hallucinogen had been synthesized. Two Gordon Wasson was a New York years later, Hofmann identified certain banker who became a lover of mushrooms species of morning glory seeds as the under the influence of his Russian wife, hallucinogen that the Aztecs had referred to Valentina. In his 30 years of tracking down as ololouhqui. Word of this discovery countless varieties of mushrooms, Wasson triggered a run on the "Heavenly Blue," encountered tales of a rare Mexican "Pearly Gates," and "Wedding Bells" mushroom that natives called "God's flesh." varieties of morning glory seeds (Hoffer & This mushroom was said to have spiritual Osmond, 1967). Manufacturers responded effects. While Wasson’s early expeditions in by treating the seeds with a noxious search of this mushroom ended in failure, a chemical. 1955 expedition to Oaxaca proved williamwhitepapers.com 7 Something was kindling within the edition available from McGraw-Hill Book American culture that was just waiting for the Co.). right spark to ignite it. That spark came from the most unlikely person. One of the people Huxley, A. (1932). Brave new world. NY: intrigued by Wasson’s Life Magazine Harper & Row. account of the sacred mushrooms was a young West Point graduate, psychologist, Huxley, A. (1962). Island. NY: Harper & and Harvard Professor by the name of Row. . Vacationing in Mexico in 1960, Leary took psilocybin and had a Huxley, A. (1977). Moksha: Writings on profound religious experience. The psychedelics and the visionary experience, psychedelic revolution had begun. Horowitz, M. & Palmer, C. (Eds). Los Angeles: Tarcher. References LaBarre, W. (1974). The peyote cult (fourth Colby, W. (1978). Honorable men: My life in edition). NY: Schocken Books. the CIA. NY: Simon and Schuster. Lee, M. & Shlain, B. (1985). Acid dreams: Ellis, H. (1897). A note on the phenomena The CIA, LSD, and the sixties rebellion. NY: of mescal intoxication, Lancet, 1: 1540. Grove Press, Inc.

Ellis, H. (1898). Mescal: a new artificial Marks, J. (1979). The Search for the paradise, Contemporary Rev., 73: 130-141. "Manchurian Candidate": The CIA and mind control. NY: Times Books. Grinspoon, L. & Bakalar, J. Can drugs be used to enhance the psychotherapeutic Marks, J. (1986). Drugs in the : In process? American Journal of Search of chemical intelligence--mushrooms Psychotherapy, 40 (July, 1986), 393. to counterculture. In Culture and politics of drugs, Peter P. and W. Matveychuk (eds.). Hoffer, A. (1967). A program for the Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing treatment of alcoholism: LSD, malaria and Company. nicotinic acid. In Abramson, H. Ed., The use of LSD in psychotherapy and alcoholism. Mitchell, W. (1896). The effects of NY: Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. anhalonium lewinii (the Mescal Button). British Medical Journal, II, 1625. Hoffer, A. & Osmond, H. (1967). The hallucinogens. NY: Academic Press. Ray, O. & Ksir, C. (1990). Drugs, society, and human behavior. St. Louis: Times Hoffer, A. & Osmond, H. (1968). New hope Mirror/Mosby. for alcoholics. New Hyde Park, NY: University Books. Restak, R. (1994). Receptors. NY: Bantam Books. Hoffmann, A. (1970). The discovery of LSD and subsequent investigations on naturally Schultes, R. (1972). An overview of occurring hallucinogens In: Ayd, F. Ed. hallucinogens in the western hemisphere. in Discoveries in Biological psychiatry. Furst, P. Flesh of the gods: The ritual use of Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, pp. hallucinogens. NY: Praeger. 91-106.. Schultes, R. (1963) Botanical sources of Hofmann, A. (1983). LSD: My problem New World narcotics, Psychedelic Review, child. Los Angeles: Tarcher. (Also a 1980 2, 161.

williamwhitepapers.com 8 Schultes, R. (1969). Hallucinogens of plant Wasson, G. (1963) The hallucinogenic fungi origin, Science, 163, January 17. of Mexico. Psychedelic Review, 1, 27-42.

Taylor, J. & Johnson, W. (1976). Use of Wasson, R.G. (1971). Soma: Divine Volunteers in Chemical Agent Research, mushroom of immortality. NY: Harcourt Inspector General Report No DAIGIN 21-75, Brace Jovanovich. Washington, D.C. March 10, U.S. Department of Army.

Wasson, R. & Wasson, V. (1957) Mushrooms, Russian and history. New York: Pantheon Books.

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