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Selected Papers of William L. White Selected Papers of William L. White www.williamwhitepapers.com Collected papers, interviews, video presentations, photos, and archival documents on the history of addiction treatment and recovery in America. Citation: Before LSD was acid. Posted at www.williamwhitepapers.com Before LSD was Acid William L. White Emeritus Senior Research Consultant Chestnut Health Systems [email protected] NOTE: The original 1,000+ page manuscript for Slaying the Dragon: The History of Addiction Treatment and Recovery in America had to be cut by more than half before its first publication in 1998. This is an edited excerpt that was deleted from the original manuscript. Like many drugs described in this text, LSD Rockefeller Institute of New York (Restak, and other hallucinogens stayed in the 1994; Hofmann, 1983). background for a long time before they In 1938, two chemists at Sandoz would break into cultural visibility as mind- Laboratories in Basel, Switzerland (Dr. altering drugs. In this chapter we will explore Albert Hofmann and Dr. Arthur Stoll) created the history of LSD before it became well a series of ergot compounds in an effort to known. synthesize a pain remedy for migraine headaches. Working with lysergic acid The Discovery of LSD isolated from the ergot, Hofmann added a diethylamine molecule. This 25th compound The story of LSD begins with ergot, a in the series was d-lysergic acid parasitic fungus that grows on rye and other diethylamide tartrate, or "LSD 25." grains. Since the 16th century, ergot Research on LSD 25 and its chemical compounds had been used in small doses to cousins was set aside in 1938 because there relieve pain, to stop bleeding, and to start appeared to be no use for the substances. uterine contractions. Periodic outbreaks of Five years later, on April 16, 1943, Dr. ergot poisoning, accompanied by Hofmann again synthesized LSD 25 and hallucinations and extreme disorientation, accidentally ingested a tiny amount of the had been reported in the general population drug, probably absorbed into his skin. The since the 14th century. These outbreaks drug’s stunning effects forced him to leave usually followed the consumption of ergot- work early. As Hoffman himself would contaminated bread. In the early 1930s, the describe the experience in the Archives of common ingredient of the many ergot Neurology, “Fantastic visions of alkaloids was identified as lysergic acid by extraordinary vividness accompanied by a W.A. Jacobs and L.C. Craig of the kaleidoscopic-like play of intense coloration continually swirled around my head.” williamwhitepapers.com 1 A few days later, Hofmann decided to from Sandoz and began the first controlled confirm the drug’s effects by swallowing a human experiments with the drug. Stoll was small quantity of the drug. His plan was to also the first psychiatrist who studied the start with an extremely small dose, then take effects of LSD through self-experimentation more of the drug in small increments until he (Hofmann, 1970) had the anticipated effect. Knowing nothing In a conference presentation at the of the potency of LSD-25, he began with Boston Psychopathic Hospital in 1949, what he thought would be the lowest Viennese physician Dr. Otto Kauders possible active dose, .25 milligrams (250 informed his audience of a remarkable new micrograms--five times LSD's active dose). drug—LSD--that produced a "model Within 40 minutes, he began to experience a psychosis" and held potential for the radical change in consciousness. The first understanding and treatment of words written about the first clinical trial of schizophrenia. Dr. Max Rinkel of Boston LSD were recorded at 5 p.m. on April 19, Psychopathic Hospital immediately 1943: "slight dizziness, unrest, difficulty in contacted Sandoz Laboratories to obtain the concentration, visual disturbances, marked quantities of LSD necessary to begin desire to laugh..." (Ray & Ksir, 1990, p. 15). research in this direction. Rinkel conducted Hoffmann’s chosen dose is understandable his first experimental tests of LSD with fellow in light of the fact that, by weight, LSD was psychiatrist Dr. Robert Hyde, who has the thousands of times more powerful than all distinction of being the first American to other known psychoactive drugs. Nothing in experience LSD. his training would have prepared him for a In 1949, the branch office of Sandoz substance so strong that swallowing Laboratories distributed LSD to more than 1/1,000th of a gram would produce such a 90 researchers to experiment with the drug profound effect. in the treatment of psychiatric illness and During the hours that followed, alcoholism. Between 1949 and the mid- Hofmann experienced the worst (terrors, 1960s, many researchers and fears of insanity) and best ("sense of well- psychotherapists used LSD in the treatment being and renewed life") of what the LSD of alcoholism, childhood autism, impotence experience would later present to millions. and frigidity, neuroses, character disorders, Hofmann had discovered, not just a new anticipatory grief (of those facing death), and drug, but a totally new type of drug, whose prolonged grief. They found that, with chemical structure and psychoactive effects careful patient selection and adequate had never before been seen. preparation and supervision, they could Having confirmed the extreme keep the risk of adverse reactions at a potency and hallucinogenic effects of LSD, minimum (Grinspoon & Bakalar, 1986). Hofmann could see no practical use for this Early reports of LSD's effectiveness drug and could not imagine that such a drug as a tool in psychiatric treatment included would ever be used widely as an intoxicant. claims that the drug 1) loosened repressed The first scientific application of Hofmann’s contents of feeling and experience, 2) gave discovery came in the form of a new people an opportunity to actually re- hypothesis: severe mental disorders experience past events that were important thought to be induced by psychic trauma to them, and 3) lowered resistance to might actually be biological abnormalities-- psychotherapy (Hofmann, 1983). While distortions of thought and perception early success rates fired optimism about the produced by the body’s own neurochemistry future of this new drug in the field of gone haywire. After all, LSD’s existence had psychiatry, later controlled studies showed shown that extremely small amounts of less dramatic results. Eventually, due to the hallucinogens could create dramatic growing controversy related to LSD’s distortions in mental status. In 1947, the widespread use and its potential adverse psychiatrist Dr. Werner Stoll (Dr. Arthur effects--and to new legal controls on the Stoll's son) obtained a supply of the drug williamwhitepapers.com 2 drug--LSD was no longer generally available and continued that Office’s experimental for use in psychotherapy. work with psychoactive drugs. CIA interest The discovery of LSD galvanized in drug research was intensified by the interest in a whole category of psychoactive growing suspicion that the North Koreans drugs that at various times have been called and Communist Bloc countries in Europe phantasticants, psychelytics, psychogens, were already using some type of drug to help psychotomimetics, and schizogens. brainwash prisoners into giving public Humphrey Osmond's preferred term, confessions. The CIA was alarmed at reports "psychedelics," prevailed in the 1960s but of zombie-like prisoners with glazed eyes, was gradually replaced in professional confessing in open court to crimes of treason circles by the term "hallucinogens" that they had not committed. The CIA's drug (Schultes, 1972, p. 4). A group that was experiments intensified in a climate of particularly interested in the potential of paranoia fueled by the Soviet control of these drugs was the American intelligence Eastern Europe, the rise of Communist community. That interest that led to one of China, the outbreak of the Korean War, and the most bizarre chapters in the history of a Wisconsin senator who screamed about American’s relationship with psychoactive communist infiltration of the United States drugs. government. It was in this emerging climate of LSD and the CIA paranoia that the CIA created the Scientific Intelligence Unit in 1949, to investigate The use of drugs as psychochemical possible methods of mind control. A primary weapons has a long history. For example, focus of this research was the potential of the use of drugs to poison one’s enemies drugs like LSD to brainwash or disable dates back to the ancient Greeks, Egyptians, military and civilian populations. When this and Phoenicians. In more recent history, unit's approach was perceived to be too while Albert Hofmann was discovering LSD, theoretical, its work was transferred to the Nazi doctors at Dachau were conducting CIA's Office of Technical Services, and the experiments with mescaline by secretly resources of that Office were expanded. administering the drug to concentration The CIA’s experiments with camp prisoners. The goal of the German hallucinogenic drugs continued for many experiments was to find a drug that could years. Details of these activities slowly "eliminate the will." came to public light, through self-disclosure The American intelligence by survivors of the experiments and through community’s interest in the possible military formal investigations such as the 1975 uses of psychoactive drugs dates back to the Rockefeller Commission inquiry into CIA same period, beginning with the work of the activities. The CIA's mind-control research Office of Strategic Services, commonly was conducted by third-party organizations referred to as the OSS. During the Second that ranged from the Society for the World War, the OSS was involved in Investigation of Human Ecology to 50 research designed to find a "truth drug" that prestigious academic and medical could be used in the interrogation of political institutions. So in retrospect, it can be said prisoners and suspected spies. The OSS that the primary source of grants funding researchers experimented with barbiturates, LSD research in the 1950s was the CIA.
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