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Mushrooms and the Mind Mushrooms and the mind by Ralph Metzner original source: http://www.drugtext.org/The-Psychedelics/mushrooms-and-the-mind.html Was the Buddha's last, fatal supper a mushroom feast? Was soma, the mystery potion at Eleusis, a mushroom? Why are mushrooms linked to thunder, and to toads? Why does Hieronymus Bosch have a gigantic mushroom standing at Hell's entrance? Why have they been called "God's Flesh," and "Devil's Bread"? Men have used mushrooms to murder, to worship, to heal, to prophesy. Some fear and abominate all fungi as "dirty" and "dangerous." Others use discrimination-enjoy them as food and as mediators to divine vision. Two classes of mushrooms are of primary interest to the anthropologist and psychologist studying the ritual use of fungi. One, the fly agaric, Amanita muscaria, is the "drug of choice" among certain Siberian tribes. It is apparently hallucinogenic, though not psychedelic in the sense of inducing transcendent experiences, experiences of expanded consciousness. The other group, the Psilocybe mushrooms and related species of the Mexican mountains, are both hallucinogenic and psychedelic. They are the "God's Flesh" of the Aztecs. The Fly Amanita The fly agaric has a whitish stalk, swollen at the base, a lacerated collar about three quarters of the way up the stalk, and a gorgeously colored umbrella-like cap from three to eight inches wide. In North America the cap will be mostly whitish, yellowish, or orange-red, but in Europe or Asia bright red or purple. In all regions the cap is covered with many whitish, yellowish, or reddish warts1. Tribes using the fly agaric include the Kamchadals, Kerjaks, and Chukchees living on the Pacific coast, from Kamchatka to the northeastern tip of Siberia; the Yukaghirs, farther to the west; the Yenisei Ostjaks; and the Samoyed Ostjaks, in the valley of the upper Ob. These Siberian tribes have become famous for the practice of drinking the urine of mushroom-intoxicated persons, in order to get a prolongation of the effect. Oliver Goldsmith, in 1762, described a "mushroom party" thus: The poorer sort, who love mushrooms to distraction as well as the rich, but cannot afford it at first hand, post themselves on these occasions around the huts of the rich and watch - theladies and gentlemen as they come down to pass their liquor, and hold a wooden bowl to catch the delicious fluid, very little altered by filtration, being still strongly tinctured with the intoxicating quality. Of this they drink with the utmost satisfaction and thus they get as drunk and as jovial as their betters2. Whether the fly agaric is involved in the "berserkgang" of the Vikings is a debated point. Norman Taylor's book Narcotics: Nature's Dangerous Gifts, claims that "in proper amounts it promotes gaiety and exuberance among a morose people, while leading, in large doses, to berserk orgies."3 R. Gordon Wasson, however, has dissented from this view, pointing out that no plant was ever mentioned in the Viking accounts. In their monumental book Mushrooms, Russia and History (1957), the Wassons, Robert Gordon and Valentina, draw parallels between the beliefs of the Siberian tribes about the mushrooms and those of the Mexican mushroom-using peoples: With our Mexican experiences fresh in mind, we reread what Jochelson and Bogoras had written about the Korjaks and the Chukchees. We discovered startling parallels between the use of the fly amanita (Amanita muscaria) in Siberia and the divine mushrooms in Middle America. In Mexico the mushroom "speaks" to the eater; in Siberia "the spirits of the mushrooms" speak. Just as in Mexico, Jochelson says that among the Korjaks "the agaric would tell every man, even if he were not a shaman, what ailed him when he was sick, or explain a dream to him, or show him the soma rights re-served 1 since 15.05.2015 at http://www.en.psilosophy.info/ mushrooms and the mind www.en.psilosophy.info/oknvlyycbdikbbcqclaobdjr upper world or the underground world or foretell what would happen to him." Just as in Mexico on the following day those who have taken the mushrooms compare their experiences, so in Siberia, according to Jochelson, the Korjaks, "when the intoxication had passed, told whither the 'fly-agaric men' had taken them and what they had seen." In Bogoras we discover a link between the lightning bolt and the mushroom. According to a Chukchee myth, lightning is a One-Sided Man who drags his sister along by her foot. As she bumps along the floor of heaven, the noise of her bumping makes the thunder. Her urine is the rain, and she is possessed by the spirits of the fly amanita4. Much is made by Wasson of the connection between mushrooms and thunder; we will return to this later. Dr. Andrija Puharich, whose work has chiefly concerned itself with the experimental investigation of telepathic and related phenomena, has also done some studies of mushroom use among the Chatino Indians of Mexico, and claims that amanita is used by them. Wasson, whose knowledge of the Mexican mushrooms is probably unequaled, disputes this: For ten years we combed the various regions, and we have invariably found that it played no role in the life of the Indians, though of course it is of common occurrence in the woods. We had visited the Chatino country, where we were accompanied by Bill Upson of the Instituto Linguistico de Verano, who speaks Chatino. Later he likewise helped Puharich, but he informs us that no brujo in his presence testified to the use of a mushroom answering to the description of Amanita muscaria5. The three principal ingredients of Amanita muscaria apparently are muscarine, atropine, and bufotenine6. Muscarine is a cholinergic drug, which stimulates the parasympathetic system, causing sweating, salivation, pupil contraction, slowed cardiac rate, and increased peristalsis. These effects are counteracted by atropine, which was long used as an antidote to amanita poisoning until it was discovered that the mushroom itself also contained this. The effects of a particular ingestion of the mushroom would depend on the relative quantities of the two substances. Atropine alkaloids are found in many plants, including deadly nightshade, henbane, mandrake, thorn apple, and Jimsonweed. They are generally believed to have been involved in the European witches' cults, definitely to cause hallucinations, as well as either excitement or depression. On the basis of my own experiments with Ditran, a hallucinogenic drug similar in its action to atropine, I would suggest that the anti-cholinergic agents are definitely consciousness-altering, since they produce thought disorientation and visions, but I would doubt that they are psychedelic, or consciousness-expanding. They may be more truly psychotomimetic than LSD or psilocybin7. The third ingredient of the amanita mushrooms, bufotenine, probably is psychedelic, since chemically it is 5- hydroxydimethyltryptamine, i.e., closely related to both DMT and psilocin. Bufotenine is also found in the South American snuff Piptadenia peregrina and in the sweat gland of the toad Bufo marinus, which sheds new light on the witches' brews containing toads. However, the quantity of bufotenine in Amanita muscaria is very small, so the principal visual effects of the mushroom are probably due to its belladonna (atropine) alkaloids. This is confirmed by the stories of the Siberian tribesmen who, having imbibed the mushrooms, jump very high over small objects; visual size distortions are common with Ditran-type drugs, though rare with tryptamine psychedelics. Although to some people the drinking of muscarinic, atropinized urine may be a repulsive way to get high, as Norman Taylor points out, "Who are we to deny them this revolting pleasure? To these dull plodders of the arctic wastes, the fly agaric may well be their only peep into a world far removed from the frozen reality of their wretchedness. That such people found the fly agaric is merely another illustration of the worldwide hunt for something to break the impact of everyday life."8 The Sacred Psilocybes The story of the Psilocybe mushrooms, the teonanacatl, or "God's Flesh," of the Aztecs, is one of the most dramatic episodes in modern anthropology. When the Spaniards arrived in Mexico, their clerics immediately labeled the mushrooms (and the other hallucinogens in use-peyotl and olohuhqui) as products of the devil and soma rights re-served 2 since 15.05.2015 at http://www.en.psilosophy.info/ mushrooms and the mind www.en.psilosophy.info/oknvlyycbdikbbcqclaobdjr did their best to stamp out this "idolatry." Brother Toribio de Benavente, a Spanish monk better known as Motolinia, in a work on pagan rites and idolatries, described their "vice" as follows: They had another drunkenness which made them more cruel: which was of some small mushrooms ... and after a while they were seeing a thousand visions, especially of snakes, and as they went completely out of their minds, it seemed to them that their legs and bodies were full of worms which were eating them alive, and thus, half raving, they went out of the house, wishing that somebody would kill them, and with that bestial drunkenness and the trouble they felt, it would happen sometimes that they hanged themselves. And they were also against others much more cruel. They called these mushrooms teonanacatl, which means flesh of the God (the Demon they adored), and in that manner, with that bitter food, their cruel god held communion with them9. A Mexican historian writing in the 1870s, Orozco y Berra, stated that the mushrooms produced "a state of intoxication with frightening hallucinations." Friar Bernardino de Sahagun, a Franciscan monk who preserved texts written in the preconquest Nahuatl language, in writing of the mushrooms often referred to disconsolate, dissolute, disintegrating states of personality; the members of society using the mushrooms were "the deranged one," "the angry young man," "the noblewoman without shame," "the prostitute, the procurer, the enchanter." This language is the sixteenth-century equivalent of the modern psychiatric approach to hallucinogens.
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