1 Contesting stereotypes and norms in African-American popular culture Representations of race, (homo)sexuality and fluidity within Baldwin’s Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone (1968), Barry Jenkins’ Moonlight (2016) and Frank Ocean’s “Pyramids” and “Nikes”.

MA Thesis in Literary Studies: Literature, Culture and Society Graduate School for Humanities Universiteit van Amsterdam

By: Stella van Meersbergen 10355987 Supervisor: dr. H.H. (Hanneke) Stuit Second reader: dr. S. (Suze) van der Poll June, 2018 2

Table of contents

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….. 3 - 9 2. Fluidity of Identity in James Baldwin’s Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone (1968)…………………………………………………………………………………….10-20 2.1. The general consensus……………………………………………………………10-13 2.2. Meeting the norm: Leo and Barbara……………………………………………..13-14 2.3. Double oppression: Sexuality and race………………………………………….14-16 2.4. Heteronormative desire: Leo and Madeleine……………………………………16 2.5. Contesting the norm: Leo and Christopher…………………………………….. 17-18 2.6. Fluidity as a defense and power mechanism……………………………………18-19 3. Appropriation and mimicry within Moonlight (2016)……………………………..21-32 3.1. Imposed identity…………………………………………………………………….23-26 3.2. Changing identity……………………………………………………………………26-27 3.3. Black and Blue: Mimicking identity………………………………………………..27-31 4. Contesting the genre: Fluidity in Frank Ocean’s lyrics and videos…………….33-45 4.1. Affirming stereotypes in “Pyramids”……………..………………………………..35-38 4.2. Contesting stereotypes in “Nikes”……………..………………………………….38-40 5. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..42-45 Bibliography 3 Introduction

In the last five years, African-American literature has been more visible than before, and these narratives are being portrayed in different media. This might be a response to the political issues regarding racial injustice and inequality in the USA which are being high- lighted through news outlets as well as popular culture. Critical African-American writers such as Ta-Nehisi Coates are gaining popularity. Coates even has been compared to Ja- mes Baldwin, whose legacy is central to the African-American literary canon. Even though they discuss various similar racial problems within society in their essays, Baldwin has been known for his fiction which touches upon other subjects as well. In his fiction he often focusses on homosexual or bisexual relationships between biracial characters. As a gay African-American writer he had to endure discrimination within his community as well. One of his least popular novels, Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone (1968) included gay, bisexual and interracial relationships. Nowadays, novels such as Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone are hard to find within recent African-American literature. Prominent writers such as Ta-Nehisi Coates focus more on racial inequalities and social injustices in essays, columns or autobiographies instead of writing fiction. Instead of literature, there have been a lot of other ways in which African-American narratives are being portrayed in the last few years. For example, at the beginning of 2018, Black Panther (2018) was released in cinemas. This film, which is the highest gros- sing film by an African-American director, gained a lot of popularity, especially within the African-American community. Major factors such as racism and sexism are being tackled in this film, but there is one factor which still is not included, homosexuality. A film which does include homosexuality within an African-American narrative is Oscar winner Moon- light (2016). In 2017, Moonlight won an Academy Award for Best Picture. Moonlight focu- ses on a homosexual man who struggles with his identity within society and within his Afri- can-American subculture. The script is based on situations the director Barry Jenkins and screenwriter Tarrell Alvin McCraney experienced themselves. This film included an all- black cast and was rewarded with an Academy Award. However, it does not reach the po- pularity of a film such as Black Panther, even though a lot of elements are comparable. It is interesting that the makers of Moonlight use film as a medium to talk about homosexua- lity within African-American culture. Just as happened fifty years ago with Baldwin’s novel on the same subject, which turned out to be one of his least popular ones, Moonlight did not achieve the popular success a film as Black Panther lay claim to. This could be a result of the recent political issues regarding racial injustice in the USA. Films such as Black 4 Panther show powerful and heroic black characters in contrast to Moonlight, which focus- ses on a more complex and vulnerable character. African-American music artists are becoming more popular as well and they often address political and racial arguments within their lyrics. Rapper Kendrick Lamar received the 2018 Pulitzer Prize for his album Damn. He is the first rapper to receive this prize. More recently, hiphop artist Childish Gambino released a new song and accompanying vi- deo “This is America” on May 4, 2018, with highly potent lyrics and imagery addressing multiple political topics. Many important topics are being discussed within hip-hop music and due to its popularity there is a large audience. We can draw a parallel between litera- ture, film and music. In all three genres political and racial issues are being discussed and highly popular, but issues around LGBT issues are often not included. Within the hip-hop and R&B scene there is an exception. Rapper and singer Frank Ocean has openly talked about having feelings for both men and women, and addresses this topic in certain songs as well. Many have praised him for doing this within a subculture which often still shows homophobia. Still, the topic is not completely accepted within this subculture either. Frank Ocean is a major artist but other popular artists within the hip-hop and R&B scene still in- clude homophobia in their lyrics. It would be important to analyze how in different ways, the same subject is being processed through different forms of media. Analyzing this, it would be significant to re- search how homosexuality is portrayed within African-American popular culture and how it affects the concept of masculinity within African-American literature and culture. Also, it is interesting to see in what way this concept has changed since Baldwin’s work and why it is being processed in different forms of media now. This thesis focusses on three objects within three different forms of media. The first research object will be James Baldwin’s novel Tell Me How Long The Train’s Been Gone (1968) which I will focus on in chapter two. The second research object I will focus on is the film Moonlight (2016), directed by Barry Jenkins which will be discussed in chapter three. Lastly, in chapter four I will focus on the music and videoclips by hip-hop and R&B artist Frank Ocean. These are three well-known objects. Baldwin can be seen as canoni- cal, Moonlight will be remembered because of its Academy Award and Frank Ocean is one of the most popular artists at the moment. These three works all critically address racism, violence and social injustice. A factor that is included most prominently is sexuality and es- pecially homosexuality within the African-American community. By examining three diffe- rent forms of media all focussing on homosexuality within African-American culture and by authors and artists who are African-American and homosexual or bisexual themselves I 5 hope I can shed some light on the way these artists compete with the stereotypes that exist within African-American culture and how they use fluid identities to affirm and contest these stereotypes. To place these works into a broader framework I will focus on a few different theo- ries as discussed above. First and foremost I will look at gender performativity as explai- ned in works by Judith Butler. Besides this, I am going to include the concept of mimicry as introduced by Homi Bhabha in his “Of Mimicry and Man”. Besides these bigger concepts I will focus on articles which shed some light on the current debates surrounding these re- search objects and homosexuality and masculinity within the African-American community to create a broader framework. By applying Butler’s and Bhabha’s theory onto these three case studies as well as taking into account the general discourse on homosexuality within the African-American community I would like to show that through different forms of media, different strategies are being used to deal with the double oppression people of color who do not meet the heteronormative standards endure. In this thesis I argue that through different forms of media, African-American authors and artists compete with the stereotypical concept of masculinity within African-American literature and culture as well as use their fluid identity as a survival strategy against stereo- typing by their community. I suggest that appropriate way to research this is by looking at popular culture since it often reflects what is happening in specific societies, such as the African-American society. Besides this, popular culture is also performative and can trigger reflection and change. As discussed above, the theory I use to substantiate my argument will primarily be Judith Butler’s performativity as discussed in her book Bodies that Matter (1993) and her article “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenome- nology and Feminist Theory” (1988). Besides Butler I am going to focus on Homi Bhabha’s “Of Mimicry and Man” (1984). I apply their theory onto three different case studies. I will introduce these theories briefly before applying them to my research objects. Judith Butler focusses on different aspects regarding gender theory in her works. One of the aspects she focusses on is gender performativity. In her book Gender Trouble (1990) she states that throughout the course of a life, one repeats performances of gender that conform to the gender norm of society. Thus, gender is always a doing. (25) An indivi- dual thus switches between performances and acts and in this way taking on other identi- ties conformed to societal norms and constructions. However, Butler argues that the performativity of gender is not an unconstrained voluntary act. Sexuality cannot be made or unmade and the subject cannot form his or her sexuality as he or she pleases. (Bodies that Matter 94) She argues that there is a tenden- 6 cy to think that sexuality is constructed or determined and states that this is not the case. In her article “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory” (1988) Butler states: “As a public action and performative act, gen- der is not a radical choice or project that reflects merely individual choice, but neither is it imposed or inscribed upon the individual, as some post-structuralist displacements of the subject would contend.” (525) Even though gender or identity is not completely a choice, it is not something that is completely imposed on the individual by society either. While one cannot escape the fact that some identity is imposed it is still possible, within the cons- traints set by society, to choose one’s own identity. Butler states: “In the first instance, performativity must be understood not as a sin- gular or deliberate “act”, but, rather, as the reiterative and citational practice by which dis- course often produces the effects that it names.” (Bodies that Matter 2) With this, Butler wants to argue that performativity is not just a one-off phenomenon but that it is repetitive. She argues that performativity is not always a singular act but always a repetition of a norm or a set of norms. It takes repetition to take on an identity. It is not a singular act but has to be repeated in order to work. In her article “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomeno- logy and Feminist Theory” she states: Gender reality is performative which means, quite simply, that it is real only to the extent that it is performed. It seems fair to say that certain kinds of acts are usually interpreted as expressive or a gender core identity, and that these acts either conform to an expected gender identity or contest that expectation in some way. (527-528)

As I will demonstrate in my chapters, most characters from my three objects of study are conforming or contesting expectations from society and their community. As Butler argues in the quote above, many acts are often seen as the conforming or contesting of a certain expected gender identity. In order to take on an identity one must repeat a certain act. As will become clear from my analysis of the research objects, the characters often switch between acts. They conform and contest expectations and stereotypes at the same time and this will show the way in which their identities are fluid. In this way, one can link the concept of gender performativity to the chosen re- search objects. The creators of these objects all present their own identity to the public and you could see this as a form of performativity. They might repeat the same performan- ce all the time or switch between acts. The identity and characters within their own work also fluctuate throughout. They all contain fluid identities. The same goes for the artists. A writer such as James Baldwin can have a different identity as an author and as a person. 7 Same goes for filmmakers such as Barry Jenkins. Frank Ocean can perform a different identity with every musical piece or stage performance. I will analyze specific texts and works by these makers in order to discuss issues of homosexuality and race. By doing this I will create insight on the ways in which these objects add to our knowledge about gender performativity. The second theme I focus on is mimicry as described in Homi Bhabha’s article “Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse”. Bhabha introduces this theory in relation to (post)colonialism. He states that mimicry is one of the most effective strate- gies of colonial power and knowledge. (126). Mimicry repeats and appropriates “the other” by visualizing power while at the same time in-appropriates by posing a threat to discipli- nary powers. Bhabha describes this phenomenon as “almost the same but not quite”. When mimicry takes places, certain aspects of the other are being mimicked but they are never entirely copied. Bhabha states that mimicry repeats, rather than represents. (128). It will become clear that this theory is not only applicable on postcolonial discourses but highly appropriate to gender and race theory as well. In chapter 3 I will elaborate on Bhab- ha’s concept of mimicry while applying it to my research object Moonlight. Having discussed some major theories, I would like to focus some more on gender and sexuality in combination with race to provide a broader scope on this subject. In the Anthology Black Queer Studies (2005) several authors shine their light on gender and race, especially focussing on African-American culture. Cathy J. Cohen argues that queer people of color are often being rejected within their own communities besides being op- pressed in overall society. On top of this, she states that many people of color identify the term “queer” as a term that is rooted in class, race and gender privilege. (38) The term is introduced by mostly white thinkers and authors and does not have roots within the black community. Cohen states that if we look at the past, heterosexuality, which is seen as the over- all norm, has not always been accessible for people of color. The nation identified sexual restraint, marriage and stability with civilization itself. These beliefs reinforced the racial beliefs about African-Americans. Slaves were often not capable of marrying legally and their sexual lives were not seen as restrained. White supremacists used this to justify the violence and exploitation of black bodies. So, African-Americans who were heterosexual still experienced suppression and found themselves lacking privilege and power. (40) Co- hen suggests that linking identity and behavior solely to power is not as linear and clear as some queer theorists want to argue, especially for people of color. (43) She has some trouble with using the word queer in the context of people of color as well. 8 In this same book, Roderick A. Ferguson touches on the subject of the exclusion African-American homosexuals experience. He says that individuals who do not experien- ce racial, class and gender oppression and are seen as “virtually normal” apart from their homosexuality are more likely to receive complete equality and liberation through for example legal marriage. For people of color and economically disadvantaged individuals who are homosexual this is much harder and they need a much bigger social change to improve their lives and escape oppression. (58) According to Ferguson this could be seen as a reason of the disavowal of black queers in representations within the African-Ameri- can community, history or studies. (65) The fact that being a person of color is already seen as a disadvantage often leads to communities not accepting another so called disad- vantage such as homosexuality. Ferguson refers to James Baldwin and his viewpoints on Black queerness multiple times. He interprets that there is a standard image of the black man as a protector and defender of his family and his race. In order to be the representati- ve race man, one must be heterosexual and male. (69) This notion is being discussed in many other texts regarding homosexuality and masculinity within African-American culture. To elaborate on this more, Marlon B. Ross states that People of color often expe- rience oppression, being homosexual does not help. Still, Ross points out the fact that race is always being referred to first. A black homosexual has to deal with his racialized body before dealing with his gendered or homo-sexualized body. Ross states that it is im- possible to say that the attitude against homosexuals is not visible within African-American communities and discourses as well. They have been influenced by the dominant attitudes against homosexuality. (146) Taking these perspectives into account, it becomes clear that many authors focus on the fact that homosexuality or queerness combined with being a person of color can be seen as a double struggle. People of color usually experience discrimination and oppres- sion already because of their appearance, and being homosexual is still seen as some- thing different and not completely accepted either. It will be valuable to see in what way the three research objects contain representations of black queer men and how they compete with these stereotypical notions. As someone who is not part of the studied subculture, I can only give an objective outsider’s perspective. Nonetheless I believe that by looking at the three case studies -Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone, Moonlight and Frank Ocean- and gaining insight in the overall discussion surrounding the topic might lead to a wider understanding of this to- pic and awareness. Popular culture often reflects what is happening in specific societies 9 and in combination with academic and newspaper articles these three objects can give some important insights in this matter.

10 2: Fluidity of identity in James Baldwin’s Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone (1968)

The first work I would like to analyze is James Baldwin’s Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone. This novel was published in 1968 and is considered to be one of Baldwin’s least popular novels. The story focuses on Leo Proudhammer, a black bisexual actor who, after fainting on stage, reminisces about his relationships in the present and past and his relationship with his family as a young boy. The novel does not have a typical structure but consists of flashbacks and thoughts from the main character Leo. The novel is written in a non-chronological order. Besides this, the ending is not a traditional closed ending. What is striking about this novel and especially the character Leo Proudhammer is the fact that he has relationships and affairs with multiple characters from various genders and with va- rious cultural backgrounds. Besides sexuality and relationships, Baldwin focuses on politi- cal and societal issues in this novel as well. He tries to incorporate institutional racism within the plot. To offer some general insights on James Baldwin and this novel I will first look at some secondary material to gather knowledge on the way they have been analyzed befo- re. After that I will look closely at the different relationships the main character Leo Proud- hammer maintains and analyze these relationships by using Judith Butler’s theory on per- formativity, as explained in the introduction. By doing so I would like to argue that the ste- reotypes and identities that are being imposed on James Baldwin’s characters are not as fixed as they seem. Through the different relationships Leo Proudhammer has in the novel I would like to point out the fluidity of identity and sexuality and the way in which performa- tivity plays a part within gender and race theory.

2.1. The general consensus There are many authors who have written about James Baldwin and his own affiliation with sexuality and homosexuality in particular and many authors identify Baldwin with his characters. By looking at some of these authors I would like to sketch the zeitgeist in which this novel appeared as well as the general consensus on Baldwin and his influence as a writer. For example, Andrew Shin and Barbara Judson write about Baldwin in their “Bene- ath the Black Aesthetic: James Baldwin’s Primer of American Masculinity.” (1998). Accor- ding to the authors, it has become a commonplace to suggest the similarities in the histo- ries of the black and feminist movements of the 1960s and 1970s (247). Even though both parties experienced oppression and discrimination, they also fought against each other. 11 The authors argue that black nationalism cultivated sexism and feminism sometimes per- petuated racism (248). This is where Baldwin comes in. The authors state that Baldwin’s voice is ahead of its time by addressing both racial as well as gender related issues: “He attempts to create a gay ethic before this was common practice within literature or culture.” (281). Not everybody agreed with Baldwin’s identity as a black gay public figure. Writer, contemporary and political activist Eldridge Cleaver, for example, characterizes Baldwin’s homosexuality as a death-wish. He argues that Baldwin has rejected his blackness. He saw Baldwin’s homosexuality as a betrayal, because “Baldwin presented a public image of the black man as castrated, the black man as a woman. Cleaver saw no brave new world in Baldwin’s vision, only the resurrected old world in which black men were lynched, their manhood desecrated”. (Shin and Judson 255-256). Cleaver was not the only one who cri- ticized Baldwin for being gay: “many other fellow blacks vilified him for not being black en- ough, with which they meant, not being masculine enough.” (258) Douglas Field addresses Baldwin’s sexuality as well in ‘Looking for Jimmy Baldwin: Sex, Privacy and Black Nationalist Fervor’. He argues that Baldwin is often seen as the most visible gay African-American since the Harlem Renaissance (457). Still, upon closer examination he finds that Baldwin’s work reveals contradictions and uncertainties. (457). According to Field, Baldwin repudiated the terms gay, homosexual and bisexual and was suspicious of the gay movement. (458). He finds it surprising that Baldwin does not focus on homosexuality in his essays, even though he does write about it continuously in his works of fiction (459). This could of course be a consequence of the 1960s, when Baldwin came under increasing attack by a generation of radical African-American writers. They criticized his fiction for not being politically engaged enough. (460) Field argues that not just African-Americans attacked his homosexuality, but that magazines such as Time commented on it as well. In an article from 1963 devoted to the writer he is described as “a nervous, slight, almost fragile figure, filled with frets and fears. He is effeminate in manner.” (461) By describing Baldwin as fragile labeling him as effemi- nate, it is suggested that Americans do not see him as threatening but as lovable, because of his lack of masculinity. (461). Field addresses a point Cheryl Clarke made about radical movements, she states: “in order to participate in a movement you had to be black, male, and crucially heterosexual and young. Baldwin was none of this as a middle-aged homos- exual.” (462) The Black Power Movement became synonymous with the pursuit of man- hood. Masculinity was a big deal for African-Americans fighting social justice. In his article 12 Field argues that black men had to internalize dominant images of masculinity in order to contest the powerlessness or racism. (465). Many critics argue that Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone can be seen as an autobiographical novel by Baldwin. The narrator, Leo Proudhammer, is a bisexual actor who grew up in Harlem. Some of his friends are affiliated with several Civil Rights Move- ments and he does join sometimes as well. This is similar to Baldwin’s own experience. He grew up in Harlem and was openly homosexual. Some of his friends were part of Civil Rights Movements and he did join occasionally. According to Douglas Field, Tell me How Long the Train’s Been Gone can be seen as an important work because Leo Proudham- mer, the narrator, seems intertwined with Baldwin himself. Just like Baldwin, the narrator can be seen as split between his artistic life and his political obligations. (Field 470). This could indeed be important if we would view this novel as an autobiographical novel. However, I would like to view the characters in this novel separately from James Baldwin himself. Even though the similarities between Baldwin and the main character are visible and it can offer some insights or background knowledge, it is not relevant in the context of my argument. Towards the end of the novel, Leo struggles with the different identities people pro- jected on him. He says: “Some people considered me a faggot, for some I was a hero, for some I was a whore, for some I was a devious cocks-man, for some I was an Uncle Tom.” (Baldwin 382) This quote could be seen as an example of the multiple identities and multiple types of discrimination black homosexuals face. As argued above, James Baldwin himself was often repudiated for the way he presented himself sexually or politically, just like his character Leo Proudhammer. A reason for Leo’s fluid character could be the fact that he did not want to face discrimination for being homosexual on top of being black. Leo Proudhammer says people call him a faggot, which obviously is a swearword for being gay. The fact that he refers to Uncle Tom could suggest a negative way in which black pe- ople are portrayed, since Uncle Tom is a negative stereotype as well. Besides being dis- criminated for being homosexual, the character is used to being stereotyped as a black man as well. As will become clear from the following analysis, however, one’s sexuality or identity is not as fixed as it seems. Baldwin’s character Leo Proudhammer has multiple re- lationships and affairs with characters from different sexualities and genders. He acts diffe- rently around certain people as well. According to Judith Butler in Bodies that Matter (1993), one of the most important aspects of gender theory is performativity. This is not a singular act but relies on its repeti- tive nature (Butler 2). There is always a social construct or set of norms that plays an im- 13 portant role within the performativity and the repetition of an act (Butler 13). This does not mean, however, that you should stick to one identity or performance. People often switch between acts (13). This is what happens with the character Leo Proudhammer. In the fol- lowing analysis, I will use Butler’s theory on performativity and show the fluidity of identity in Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone which proves that the stereotypes imposed on people and their identities are often not as fixed as they seem.

2.2. Meeting the norm: Leo and Barbara I would like to start by pointing out the fluidity in Leo’s character by analyzing the relations- hip Leo shares with the character Barbara. It becomes clear from the start of the novel that Barbara and Leo are partners. They have been together for a long time and love each other a lot. Their relationship could be seen as a traditional stable relationship between a man and a woman. They started as friends until it shifted into a romantic relationship over time. After their first sexual encounter, they discuss Leo’s sexuality: “I laughed. ‘Well, the- re’s a whole lot I don’t know about myself.’ I watched her. ‘Do you know I’m bisexual?’’ (Baldwin 235). The fact that Leo shares such intimate details about his sexuali- ty with Barbara is a sign of trust between the two. Barbara answers:

She looked at me. ‘Why would it bother me, Leo? I’m not in your body. I can’t live your life. I only want to share your life.’ She sat up, and pulled the robe around her. ‘Anyway - what difference would it make if I did mind? It wouldn't change anything. It would just make you not trust me - I’m glad you know you’re bisexual. Many men don’t. (Baldwin 235)

I would like to point out this passage because of the way Barbara talks about Leo’s bis- exuality. She accepts the fact that Leo likes both men and women and comments on it in a very understanding manner. She even points out that she is glad that Leo accepts his bis- exuality because most men do not know that they are bisexual. What this passage could mean is the fact that people’s sexualities are not as fixed as society wants us to believe. The characters in Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone are often open about their sexuality and seem to accept their sexualities as well as the sexuality of their acquaintan- ces. It is interesting to notice that this accepting way of looking at different sexualities is not always visible in media and popular culture. According to Taylor Douglas in “Three Lean Cats in a Hall of Mirrors: James Baldwin, Norman Mailer, and Eldridge Cleaver on Race and Masculinity”, black masculinity is a hot topic within gender and cultural studies. 14 He argues that there is a high visibility of black masculinity in the media and popular cultu- re. This masculinity is often shown as sexual and potent (98). The relationship Leo has with Barbara is a heterosexual one but still does not mean it is completely meeting the norm. Leo is open about his bisexuality with Barbara and does not hide it when they are together. In the next paragraphs I would like to discuss some other relationships the character Leo has which do not seem as open or clear as his relationship with Barbara.

2.3. Double oppression: sexuality and race The second relationship I would like to focus on is the relationship Leo has with his friends. Leo Proudhammer is friends with a variety of people from different ethnicities and gender which leads to several situations in which Leo has to adapt to his surroundings. In Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone, sexuality is often intertwined with race. According to El Kornegay Jr. in the article “Baldwin on Top: Towards a Hetero-Anomalous Queer Calculus of Black Theology”, sexual discourse trumps racial discourse for Baldwin. He states that sexual discourse leads to love and racial discourse often leads to a form of homophobia (Kornegay Jr. 337). As stated above, in the novel the issues of sexuality and race are often presented side by side. The fact that the character Leo Proudhammer surrounds himself with both black and white characters is sometimes being frowned upon by white as well as black communities throughout the novel. At a certain point Leo shares a car with some of his friends, including Madeleine, a white actress, with whom he has a minor fling. In the following passage it becomes clear that the novel mixes issues on sexuality as well as race issues within one scene:

As the car rushed through the darkness, I felt myself being hurtled into some crucial confrontation; with Madeleine; or with Matthew; or with my past. We were approaching a bridge which spanned a narrow creek. On the other side of this bridge lived the dark people to whom I belonged. Matthew moved, and touched me, and I wondered what was in his mind. Then I wondered what was in my mind. I held on to Madeleine - but I was terribly aware of her color; for the first time, or so, at least, I wished to think.’ (Baldwin 162)

It becomes clear that in this scene, Leo is confused about a number of things. He realizes that he is in a car with people who do not share the same skin-color. He wishes to think he never really thought about this before, or at least he did not want to admit it. He mentions “the dark people to whom I belonged”, suggesting that he feels he does not belong with the white people he hangs out with. Besides this issue of race, Leo struggles with intimacy in this scene. Although he is close to Madeleine, the girl he is seeing, he notices Matthew’s 15 touch and wonders what is on his mind. You could say that in this scene it becomes evi- dent that issues of race and sexuality are intertwined in this novel. In a big part of the novel, Leo spends his time with his future partner Barbara and her boyfriend Jerry. The town consists of mostly white people and they often get stares when they walk outside on the streets. When this book was published, homosexuality was something that was not commonly accepted, regardless of which community. Leo often walks the streets with Jerry and likes to test the people in the town:

When Jerry and I walked through town together, for example, everyone assumed we were queer - there couldn’t be any other reason for our walking together; and so we sometimes walked with our arms around each other. If Jerry had not been so big and I had not been so bold, we would have paid- more often than we did - a bloody price for this. (Baldwin 118)

The fact that Jerry is a white character and Leo a black character must have been part of the disdain of the people in town. He mentions the fact that Jerry was big, and he was bold, which often was the reason for not being harassed. Besides being black, Leo is also identified as queer and he must face discrimination more often than Jerry, a white straight man. This could be the reason why Jerry is not hesitant to play along with Leo and walk with their arms around each other. He does not face discrimination on the same level. This is substantiated in an article by Peter Kerry Powers, where he discusses the prejudices and discrimination many black Americans experienced in the twentieth century. He states in his “The Treacherous body: Isolation, Confession and Community in James Baldwin” that like homosexuality, blackness has been construed in popular and political culture as the embodiment of desire and a threat to the social order. (795). In the early 20th century, popular culture justified Jim Crow segregation and violence against blacks by depicting black males as a dangerous sexual threat towards white women. Besides this, during the Cold War, both homosexuals and African-Americans were targeted by FBI ha- rassment and were seen as the embodiment of sabotage (Powers 795). Powers argues that Baldwin had to face censure inside and outside of his racial community because of his sexual preferences, and as a gay man who did not align with whites because of his racial identity. (798) Leo Proudhammer faces this kind of judgement as well in the novel as a black bisexual man, unlike his friend Jerry, who does not endure the racial discrimination and prejudice Leo faces. It becomes clear that Leo surrounds himself by people from diffe- rent backgrounds and encounters different situations while doing so. He is aware of the fact that society treats him differently as a black man which causes him to adapt to certain 16 situations. The other prominent interracial relationship Leo has is with Madeleine, a young actress, which I will analyze in the next section.

2.4. Heteronormative desire: Leo and Madeleine The third relationship I would like to focus on is the relationship with Madeleine, a white actress Leo has a short fling with. By analyzing this relationship I would like to point out the shallow and consumerist nature of some of his relationships. Leo and Madeleine’s relati- onship is short and mostly consists of a sexual relationship rather than a long-term relati- onship. After sleeping over at her house, he does not feel like it was the right thing to do. He feels sexual desire for Madeleine but does not feel love: “Then, as she entered the room, smiling, in a scarlet negligée, and before I had had time to pretend that I was still sleeping, I realized that I had a performance to give. I realized that I rather liked her, and that was certainly a relief, but mainly, I wanted to get that white flesh in my hands again. I simply wanted to fuck her: and this was not because I liked her.” (211) In this passage, Leo realizes that one of the reasons that he desires Madeleine is because of her appearance. The way he describes Madeleine in this scene is very objective and seems to have very little to do with love. He mentions the fact that she is white as well, which clearly could be seen as a factor why he thinks she is desirable. The fact that this character is named Madeleine could be a coincidence but it could also be a reference to Marcel Proust’s À la recherche du temps perdu (1907 - 1922). In this seven-part novel series, Proust describes a moment in which he dips a madeleine cake in his tea and tastes it, which brings back a flighty memory from his past. When he tries to experience this again with the second and third sip “The potion has lost its magic” (Proust 60). In a similar way, the relationship Leo has with Madeleine is flighty as well. He spends the night with her and desires her mostly for her appearance. He does not even pursue her for a second time because he does not have feelings for her and maybe knows the magic of the moment is lost, just like Proust while tasting the cake a second time. Also both interactions are about consumption, something that does not last after- wards. This relationship is the only relationship in the novel where there is an explicit men- tion of a sexual encounter, leading me to believe it is a more physical relationship. When Leo is surrounded by some of his other partners he definitely comes across as more affec- tionate, for example with his lover Christopher. 17 2.5. Contesting the norm: Leo and Christopher Fourthly, I would like to focus on Leo’s relationship with Christopher. From the beginning of the novel on, Leo thinks back on his relationship with “Black Christopher”. This character is mentioned many times throughout the novel. It becomes evident through different passa- ges that Leo has romantic feelings for Christopher, but contrary to his relationship with women in the novel, there is no explicit mention of sexual interaction. One of the first mo- ments it becomes clear that Leo and Christopher were romantically involved is when Leo reminisces about Christopher: “I wanted to go back to sleep, but he was beginning to intri- gue me, to wake me up. It was his smile. It made his face like a light. And his voice was rough, like a country boys voice, and he was big, and his manner was rough. But his smile was very shy and gentle” (Baldwin 263). In this passage Leo describes Christopher. If you compare this passage to the one in which he thinks about Madeleine, they can be seen as completely different. When thinking about Madeleine he was mostly focussing on his sexual desire for her. While describing Christopher in this scene, Leo uses appreciative and loving words to describe him. The difference between these two characters could be that Leo knows what he likes about Christopher and appreciates him, whereas with regard to Madeleine he does not know why he was with her exactly. It might seem like he had to justify the fact why he was with Madeleine, and with Christopher it seems natural. There’s another moment in which Christopher speaks to Leo: “Come here, Big Daddy. Looks like you just can’t do right. I ain’t going to let you out of my sight no more. The minute you out of my sight, you got to go and fall flat on your face in front of umpteen million people. Shame on you!” He grabbed me and hugged me and kissed me. ‘I’m glad to see you baby, I missed you’.” (370). This scene struck me because the way Christopher talks to Leo is caring and loving. Using expressions such as ‘big daddy’ and ‘baby’, and the way he cares for his health shows how much these characters care for each other. Even though by this point in the novel Leo is still involved in a relationship with Barbara, it is clear that he and Christopher share a special connection as well and they are not afraid to show affection. Throughout the novel it becomes clear that Leo desires women as well as men. Even though there are no scenes in which he actually has sexual relationships with men, the affection between them is being described. There are multiple scenes in which he has sexual relationships with women but they are not all based on love. Sexual interaction with women seem to be dominating in the novel. This could be a consequence of the time. The novel has been published in 1968, a time in which homosexual relationships might not have been easily discussed. By focussing on the sexual relationships with women in this 18 novel the character lives up to the society’s ideal of that time. This scene clearly shows the way in which Leo’s identity is fluid and changes according to the situations he is in.

2.6. Fluidity as a defense and power mechanism Lastly, I would like to focus on the relationship Leo has with the police to point out the way in which Leo uses his fluid identity as a power mechanism as well as a defense strategy. Even though Leo Proudhammer admits he is bisexual to his close friends, within his own community there is a need to appear heterosexual, this becomes evident in a scene, whe- re his older brother Caleb is often on the streets and dealing in shady business, and as a young boy Leo comes along. When they encounter the police, the following comment is being made by Arthur, one of Caleb’s friends: “We walked the length of the block in silen- ce, crossed another avenue, Arthur holding tightly to my hand, and passed two white cops, who looked at us sharply. Arthur muttered under his breath, ‘you white cocksuckers. I wish all of you were dead’”. (Baldwin 49). While this is not a direct example of homophobic be- havior, Arthur uses cocksuckers as an offensive name for the two white cops. Using this as an insult is a sign that homosexuality was not considered normal and was not accepted at the time. Later on, Leo is being arrested by white cops because he is being affectionate with Barbara on the streets. Barbara is a white woman and interracial relationships were still not completely accepted. Until 1967, interracial relationships were illegal in many states. After being arrested, he is held at the police station and he imagines what he wants to say to the police:

And I didn’t give a shit. All you can do is beat my ass. I knew they were too dumb and too scared to know whether I was bluffing or not. So, fuck you, miserable white mother-fuckers. Fuck you. I stared at the detective who was asking the questions, and I charged my eyes to say, Baby, if my prick was a broomstick, I’d sure make your tonsils know that you had an ass-hole. Believe me. Oh, yes. Now, come on, you faggot, and beat my ass. (Baldwin 220)

The fact that he uses language such as ‘faggot’ to insult the police is interesting, since he himself identifies as a bisexual man. This swearword is often used towards gays but also used as an insult pointed at straight men. Also, this quote shows the sexualized violent na- ture of Leo as well. You could see this as a violent type of seduction. He is sexually chal- lenging the policeman and at the same time trying to intimidate him. The violent nature could be seen as fitting into the masculine stereotype, although the sexual aspect of the violence does indicate the power Leo imagines he has over the policeman, since he also 19 mentions the fact that the police are afraid of him. This might also come from the fact that he is presenting himself as violent and intimidating, and therefore masculine. You could interpret the way he acts around these policemen as a way to defend himself. He is using both his masculinity and his sexuality to defend himself. As a black male he has a disad- vantage in this situation and uses his sexuality as a weapon to turn the odds. In this scene he clearly uses multiple identities and causes the policemen to fear him and as a result they leave him alone.

After analyzing this novel, we could conclude a few things about the characters. As beca- me evident, many critics and scholars criticized Baldwin for not living up to standards. Whereas some people argued he was not acting black enough and did not participate in civil rights movements enough other critics wished he would live up more to society’s standards of a gay man and represent them more elaborately. While using Judith Butler’s notion of performativity you could argue that individuals do not have a fixed identity, their “act” changes and relies on its repetitive nature. James Baldwin as an author might act differently in the media than he would have done in his personal life. Many critics view Baldwin’s characters as autobiographical and try to hold his sexual or racial identity against him as well as use his identity to analyze his fiction. This is not as simple as it seems. As shown in the analysis of this novel, one’s identity is not as fixed as it may seem and changes in different situations and is influenced by other people as well. Baldwin’s characters in Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone are fluid and influ- enced by their environment. The main character Leo Proudhammer is openly bisexual and has got relationships with several characters throughout the novel. These characters differ in sexuality, gender and ethnicity. Leo’s character is fluid and changes within different situ- ations. In some situations he tries to live up to society’s standards and social constructs and acts accordingly, for example in his partnership with Barbara and his affair with Made- leine. In another situation, when he is with Christopher, he seems to act more freely. Third- ly, there are situations in which multiple identities congregate in Leo, which makes him hard to pin down and causes some confusion in the other characters, as became visible in his interaction with the policemen. It is safe to say that Leo’s identity can be seen as fluid and can change depending on the situation. The fact that people behave this way has to do with society’s norms and expectations. Switching between ‘performances’ can be a defense mechanism to avoid discrimination as well as a helpful tool to adapt to certain situations as can be seen in the 20 scene with the policeman, in which Leo uses his sexuality to gain power over the situation. Besides this, fluidity of identity can be seen as a natural act, Leo’s identities switch swiftly as he interacts with different characters. This change is often influenced by his feelings towards these characters as becomes clear in the analysis of his serious relationships with Barbara and Christopher, compared to the fling he has with Madeleine. It becomes clear through the analysis of these different relationships in Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone that identity is fluid and not as fixed as it seems. This theory could be applied on different objects as well. In the following chapter I would like to focus on the film Moonlight (2016), and show the way in which this fluidity of identity is portrayed fifty years later in a different medium. 21 3: Appropriation and mimicry in Moonlight (2016)

“At some point, you gotta decide for yourself who you’re going to be.”

After looking at the way in which Baldwin’s character Leo Proudhammer uses his identity and sexuality in different situations it is time to look at another character in a different me- dium, Chiron Harris. The second object I would like to focus on is Moonlight (2016), a film directed by Barry Jenkins. The film is based on Tarell Alvin McCraney’s semi auto-biograp- hical play In Moonlight Black Boys Look Blue. The film won an Oscar for Best Picture in 2017 and is the first film with an all-black cast and the first LGBT film to win this prize. The film takes place in one of the roughest neighborhoods in Miami, Florida and focusses on the three stages in the life of the main character Chiron Harris. Throughout these stages we see the main character struggling with his identity, sexuality and with physical abuse. The film is often being praised for its all black-cast and the way it deals with homosexuali- ty. According to Brandon Harris in his interview with director Barry Jenkins the film is no- thing like the coming-of-age stories he has seen before: “I don’t think it’s a stretch to say that there isn’t a coming-of-age story in the annals of American cinema that’s quite like this one, that involves the specter of homosexuality in a way that’s so tender and so heart- breaking, that suggests the ways in which black men are often taught to harden themsel- ves, both within our communities in order to protect ourselves, but also, to protect oursel- ves from outside, from the forces that seek to oppress us”. (Harris 48). Harris mentions the fact that black men are often thought to be tough and harden themselves as a means of survival. Throughout the film it becomes clear that the main character is expected to be tough as well. He is often being called out for being too soft or behaving like a woman. Moonlight deals with an African-American homosexual character who is trying to figure out his identity while growing up in a challenging environment. He struggles not only with his sexuality but also race and his abusive environment. These fac- tors all contribute to the way the main character sees himself and turns out when he is ol- der. The film is divided in three parts which are three stages of Chiron’s life, we see him as a child, a teenager and eventually as an adult. Moonlight can be classified as a coming- of-age film, or in literary terms a bildungsroman. This term stems from 1819 and was intro- duced in Germany. According to Thomas Pfau in The Encyclopedia of Romantic Literature a bildungsroman “is a novel in which the chief character, after a number of false starts or wrong choices, is led to follow the right path and to develop into a mature and well-balan- 22 ced man”. (Pfau). Besides this, the bildungsroman usually works with a few of the same elements such as a young protagonist from a lower-class background and the protago- nist’s ongoing struggle to form a coherent relationship between the world and his- or herself. If we look at Moonlight, these elements are all included in the film. The main character Chiron is from a lower-class background and he struggles with himself and to fit in with his surroundings. Whether or not he eventually turns into a well-balanced man can be argued in multiple ways. The film does work with a typical three-act-structure which highlights Chiron’s development even more. In the first part, we see Chiron, who gets called Little, struggling as a young and shy boy in Florida. His father is gone, his mother is addicted to drugs and neglects him and he gets bullied by kids from school. He meets drug dealer Juan, who becomes a father figure to Chiron. Juan’s girlfriend Teresa gives him the motherly love he misses at home. In the second part, Chiron has become a teenager and goes by his name, Chiron. He still gets bullied by the kids in school and it is clear they bully him because of his homosexuality. His mom has become a worse drug addict and Chiron does not get any love at home. After Juan died, he spends a lot of his time at Teresa’s house. He does not have any friends apart from Kevin with whom he develops a romantic relationship. The next day, one of the bullies challenges Kevin to beat Chiron. Kevin is afraid to get bullied himself so he beats Chiron up. The following day, Chiron returns to school and slams the bully with a chair. At the end of this part we see him getting arrested by the police. Part three focusses on Chi- ron as an adult, when he goes by the name Black. He has moved to Atlanta and has star- ted a drug dealing business. His appearance has changed a lot and he seems powered and intimidating. He gets a call from Kevin, who invites him to his restaurant. Chiron deci- des to go and meets Kevin at his restaurant. They talk and it is clear that there is still some unfinished business between the two. At the end of the night they return to Kevin’s house where Chiron admits he has never been with anyone since Kevin. The film ends when the two men embrace. As mentioned earlier, Moonlight is divided into three parts which are named as fol- lows: i. Little, ii. Chiron, iii. Black. These three parts stand for three parts of Chiron’s life. While he grows up and goes through different stages of his life his appearance and beha- vior change as well. Once again I would like to use Judith Butler’s performativity to point out the fluidity of identity. I would also like to focus on her analysis of subversion and ap- propriation in her chapter “Gender is Burning” from Bodies that Matter. Throughout the film, Chiron changes his appearance and by doing so, I would argue, his identity as well. Since he takes on other people’s appearances as well, I will apply Homi Bhabha’s concept 23 of mimicry, discussed in his “Of Mimicry and Man” (1984), to the character Chiron. Apply- ing these concepts to Moonlight, I am going to use the three parts as shown in the film plus the theories mentioned above to point out that one’s identity is fluid and often a reite- ration, a repeated act, and is influenced by one’s surroundings and societal norms.

3.1. Imposed identity By analyzing the first part of the film I would like to point out the internal and external influ- ences Juan has had on Chiron and the way in which Chiron’s later identity is formed by his surroundings. In the first scene of the film, we get introduced to Juan, a drug-dealing, tough looking man. He pulls up in his car while discussing business with some other men and clearly shows signs of being in charge. We get the idea that Juan is a typical example of a tough criminal. The second moment we encounter Juan this image changes drasti- cally. Juan discovers a young boy, the main character Chiron, in a crack house. Chiron just escaped his bullies and is trying to hide from them. Juan convinces him to come to his house and makes sure he is safe. At Juan’s house, Chiron meets Teresa, his girlfriend. They feed him and upon asking his name he answers: “My name is Chiron, people call me little.” (00:09.32) Here, it already becomes clear that Chiron has multiple names and per- haps multiple identities, depending on the situation he is in. Teresa and Juan try to get Chiron to talk and ask him questions about his family. When Juan asks Chiron: “What about your daddy?” (00:09:50), Chiron keeps quiet, insi- nuating he has no idea where his father is. According to Menaka Kannan in “Watching Moonlight in the Twilight of Obama.”, many people have praised the film for its progressive treatment of race and sexuality. She does not fully agree since the film does make use of the familiar stereotypes that often surround black communities such as drug trade, violen- ce among black boys and the absence of a father (289-290). The absence of Chiron’s fa- ther indeed is confirming a stereotype often surrounding African-American communities. However, in the film it does play an important role for Chiron’s development. Juan beco- mes a very important character in the film, even though he is only around for the first part. Throughout the film we can see the influence Juan has had on Chiron. Because Chiron’s father is not around much, Juan decides to take on the role of a father figure in his life. Chiron’s mother is a drug addict and often leaves him by himself. At one point, Juan takes Chiron to the sea and learns him how to swim. Afterwards they have a talk in which Juan explains that he actually is an immigrant from Cuba. He tells Chiron: “Let me tell you something, man. There are black people everywhere. Remember that, OK? No place you can go in the world ain’t got no black people. We was the first on this 24 planet. I been here a long time. I’m from Cuba. Lot of black folks in Cuba but you wouldn’t know that from being here, though.” (00:19:32) At this point he tries to make Chiron accept his identity as a black male. Kannan discusses the way in which Moonlight deals with diffe- rent identities, she states: “Moonlight openly and unabashedly embraces its diverse array of blacknesses.” (290). Besides being a film focussing on different sexualities the film fo- cusses on the differences in race as well. Another example of the way the film focusses on black identity is a story Juan tells Chiron to help him understand that you can choose who you can be yourself. When Juan was a little boy he had an encounter with an old lady, which he quotes: “She say, ‘Look at you’ and I say ‘Look at you!’ Then she smiled and she say, ‘Running around catching up all this light. In moonlight’ she say, ‘black boys look blue. You blue,’ she say. ‘That’s what I’m gonna call you: Blue’.” (00:20:30) After hearing this Chiron wonders if Juan indeed is Blue and Juan tells him he is not just Blue. He tries to tell Chiron that he has to decide for himself who he is going to be. By doing this, he tries to make Chiron understand that peo- ple will try and force identities on you but in the end it is your own choice. In her chapter ‘Gender is Burning: Questions of Appropriation and Subversion’ Butler says the following:

The force of repetition in language may be the paradoxical condition by which a agency-not linked to a fiction of the ego as a master of circumstances- is derived from the impossibility of choice. (Butler 124)

Here, Butler argues that the power the repetition of language holds is based on the absen- ce of choice. Identities are often imposed on subjects. If someone is called a name this name becomes part of one’s identity through repetition. Later on, she states:

Identifying with a gender under contemporary regimes of power involves with a set of norms that are and are not realizable, and whose power and status precede the identifications by which they are insistently approximated. This “being a man” and “being a woman” are internally unstable affairs. They are always beset by ambivalence precisely because there is a cost in every identification, the loss of some other set of identifications, the forcible approximation of a norm one never chooses, a norm that chooses us, but which we occupy, reverse, presignify to the extent that the norm fails to determine us completely. (Butler 127)

In this passage, Butler states that identifying with a gender comes with a set of societal norms. By identifying with something you lose other identifications. She states that the norm chooses us but we are able to alter these norms and prevent the norms from deter- mining us completely. Coming back to the scene between Juan and Chiron described abo- ve, I think Butler’s theory is highly applicable. Society or people will impose identities on 25 you by for example naming a person. But, in the end, the power to alter or change this identity lies with the person itself. Chiron is used to go by the name ‘Little’ because people call him Little. Later on in the film we will see Chiron changing his name a number of times and taking control over his own identity. Butler argues that your identity can not be deter- mined by others completely but nonetheless it is hard to evade as well. The fact that Juan tells Chiron that he has to decide for himself who he is going to be instead of letting others decide it for him can be seen as somewhat straightforward if we take into account Butler’s argument. Chiron also gets sexual identities imposed on him by his close surroundings. At one point, Chiron and his mother get into a fight. We see his mother screaming something at Chiron which upsets him and leads him to Juan and Teresa. After he cools down, they have an emotional encounter when Chiron asks Juan what the word faggot means:

Chiron: “What’s a faggot?”

Juan: “A faggot is, uh, a word used to make gay people feel bad.”

Chiron: “Am I a faggot?”

Juan: “No, no. You can be gay, but you don’t got to let nobody call you no faggot.”

Chiron: “How do I know?”

Juan: “You just do, I think . . . . Hey, you don’t got to know right now, alright? Not yet.” (00:33:30)

Once again, Juan is comforting Chiron and telling him he has to make up his own mind about his identity. Because we see Chiron’s mother shouting something towards him right before the scene between Juan and Chiron takes place we can assume his mom called him a faggot. This is the first moment in the film that Chiron openly talks about his sexuali- ty and his struggles with it. This is an important point for Chiron’s development. He feels accepted by Juan and Teresa, whereas his mom is showing homophobic tendencies. Whi- le in a fight with Juan, Chiron’s Mom Paula tells him her son is different: “Don’t you see the way he walks?” (00:29:10) referring to the stereotypical view of homosexuals as not port- raying themselves “manly” enough. The word ‘faggot’ is imposed on Chiron by his mother. A last scene within the narrative of ‘little’ I would like to discuss is the childhood friendship with Kevin. After being bullied during a game, Kevin tells Chiron: “Show these niggas that you aint soft.” (00:15:20) They playfully fight each other and you can see the 26 brotherly bond these two boys share. The fact that Kevin tells Chiron to be less soft brings me back to the argument of Harris who mentioned the pressure black men feel to harden themselves and not come across as too soft. This moment with Kevin will be important la- ter on in Chiron’s life as well. Throughout the first part ‘i. little’, it becomes clear that Chiron is a shy, troubled young boy. He does not receive love at home and finds affection else- where. He relies heavily on the identities other people impose on him and tries to survive within his challenging environment. In Juan he finds a father figure who tries to guide him and learn to accept himself and in Kevin he finds a friend who accepts him for who he is.

3.2. Changing identity In the second part of the film, named ‘ii. Chiron’, we see a teenage Chiron. He walks down the street looking extremely shy and self-conscious with his shoulders bent and his head hanging low. While at school he is being bullied once again,. One of his classmates makes fun of him and says: “That woman forgot to change her tampon” (00:36:28) insinuating Chiron comes across as female and making fun of him. Later on, he encounters Kevin who brags about having sex with a woman. Chiron tries to be interested in the story and talks along and agrees to keep it a secret. He does not want to come across as not interested in women and puts on a heterosexual demeanor. The next day he encounters his bullies again and they threaten to hurt him: “I aint with that gay shit but if you fuck with me I’ll crack your ass.” (00:47:26) This scene is reminiscent of the scene I described in the pre- vious chapter in which Leo Proudhammer, Baldwin’s character in Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone tries to intimidate a police officer by using his sexuality. The bully does the same in this scene, even though he tries to come across as an extremely manly hete- rosexual, he threatens Chiron with sexualized violence. The next scene I would like to discuss is the first scene in which Chiron physically accepts his sexuality and has his first homosexual encounter. He is bonding with his friend Kevin on the beach, who calls him Black. Chiron wonders why he always calls him ‘Black’ and Kevin explains that it is his nickname for Chiron. Chiron asks him: “What kinda dude goes around giving other dudes nicknames?” (00:50:28) According to Kennan, this scene confirms Chiron’s need to be named and directed by other people. I do not agree with this completely. Chiron adapts to situations and the people he encounters but this does not mean he does not feel confident enough to name himself. He brushed of his nickname Litt- le once he got older and now just goes by his name, Chiron. After sharing their thoughts and feelings the two boys talk about crying. They seem to be very open with each other and do not hold back their feelings. At a certain point, Kevin kisses Chiron and they enga- 27 ge in sexual contact after. It is being shown in a delicate manner and it is clear that the two boys have feelings for each other. Later on when he is an adult, Chiron will admit that this was his first sexual encounter with a man and that he has not touched anybody since. You could say this is a defining moment for his identity. In this scene he seems most himself and in touch with his sexuality, whereas in other scenes and with other people surrounding him he seems uncomfortable and nervous, trying to hide away his personality. The next day at school, the bullies challenge Kevin to beat Chiron. He accepts the challenge because he does not want to be a target himself. Kevin beats Chiron and wat- ches afterwards while the bullies finish the beating. Afterwards Chiron is talking to officials from his school who tell him he should act like a man and admit who beat him. He stays quiet and decides to take revenge the next day. He washes his face in ice water and his face has got a blank stare. The following day, he throws a chair at one of the bullies which results in Chiron being arrested by the police. This moment will define the rest of his adult life and a major change in the way he portrays himself.

3.3. Black and Blue: Mimicking identity For the analysis of the third part of the film, iii. Black, I would like to focus on the way Chi- ron mimics other identities and the way in which his identity has changed over time and argue that his identity is indeed fluid and influenced by his environment. I am going to use Homi Bhabha’s concept of mimicry to support my argument as well as Butler’s theories on performativity. I will apply both theories and try to link them together as well to substantiate my argument. In the third part, Chiron is an adult living in Atlanta, who goes by the name Black. He looks tough and muscled, wears a grill on his teeth and lots of golden jewelry. He strongly reminds the viewer of Juan, the father figure who passed away years ago. In the screenshots below, I will point out the resemblance between Juan and Chiron as an adult. Juan is introduced while he arrives in his car, looking tough, and meeting up with some drug dealers who work for him. If you look closely you can see a golden crown on his dashboard. Years later, after Juan has died and Chiron is an adult we see him arriving in his car, looking tough. He wears a golden grill on his teeth and heading towards a group of drug dealers who he manages. His whole appearance reminds one of the opening scene in which we get introduced to Juan. Another important detail in this scene is the golden crown we saw on Juan’s dashboard. It is present on Chiron’s dashboard as well, and it is 28 filmed quite prominently. This leads me to believe that the emphasis is put on this crown to show the presence of Juan in Chiron’s adult life.

Figure 1: Juan, Moonlight (2016) (00:00:42)

Figure 2: Chiron, Moonlight (2016) (01:07:07) 29

Figure 3: Crown, Moonlight (2016) (01:07:10)

It is important to point out the extent to which Chiron mimics Juan. I would like to use Homi Bhabha’s theory of mimicry to support my claim that Chiron copies or borrows from Juan’s identity. Bhabha says that mimicry means almost the same but not quite (126) by which he means that in order to be effective, mimicry should be open to keep on producing its diffe- rence. Mimicry does not mean to fully take over an identity but taking over some parts. Ac- cording to Bhabha mimicry appropriates the other while visualizing power. (126). Chiron takes over some of Juan’s characteristics. He mimics his appearance and he even follows him on the same career path. Chiron takes over some of Juan’s characteristics which gi- ves him power within his community. As a drug dealer he has to come off as powerful and by mimicking Juan he does. Still, he keeps parts of his own identity and does not copy Juan completely, as will be made clear in the next paragraphs. Secondly, we could say that his new nickname, Black, is derived from Juan’s as well since he went by the nickname Blue. The fact that Juan was named Blue and Chiron goes by Black could be a reference to the saying ‘black and blue’, which means being in physical or emotional pain. Chiron struggles with abuse, bullying and sadness throughout the film. By mimicking Juan he literally becomes Black and Blue. I also want to argue that the other dimension of this nickname does lie in Chiron’s sexuality. Kevin, his childhood friend and first romantic partner gave him this nickname, causing me to believe he has not let go of his sexual identity. 30 When Chiron is surrounded by his friends he talks about women and heterosexual sex. He tries to come across as heterosexual to them. Bhaba argues: “Under cover of ca- mouflage, mimicry, like the fetish, is a part-object that radically revalues the normative knowledges of the priority of race, writing, history.” (131) Chiron mimics the way in which his heterosexual friends talk about women. You could say he is using a certain ‘camoufla- ge’ as mentioned by Bhabha to blend in. Bhabha focusses mainly on the mimicry within colonial and postcolonial situations where the colonizer and colonized mimic each other. He mentions that through mimicry the social norms about the priority of race are being re- valued. You could say that within gender mimicry is also visible. The norm would be the priority of heterosexuality and through mimicry this is being revalued. To elaborate on this more I would like to go back to Butler. She mentions in her chapter ‘Gender is Burning’ that it is wrong to think that heterosexual love is at the origin of lesbianism, homosexual love and drag. (128) She also states that it is wrong to believe that every gendered imitation comes from heterosexuality. She argues that heterosexuality itself has to repeat its own idealizations. (125). By mimicking his friends and environment, Chiron is repeating heterosexuality as well. Considering these two theories by Bhabha and Butler I would like to argue that through the mimicking Chiron is not copying heterosexuali- ty to hide his own sexuality but he is using it as a camouflage. He strategically mimics the heterosexual norm and uses it as a tool to preserve his power. Besides this, Chiron adapts to the identity of his surroundings naturally since identities are fluid and change all the time, dependent on one’s environment and encounters. An example of this change is visible when Chiron gets a call from Kevin. He instant- ly becomes nervous and self conscious. Kevin invites Chiron over for dinner at his restau- rant and Chiron decides to go. Outside of the restaurant we see the tough ‘Black’ turning into a shy and insecure Chiron. He resembles himself as a teenager while he fixes his hair and clothes before he walks into the restaurant. Once they meet it is clear that the two men still care for each other. Chiron seems uncomfortable. The moment he takes off his grill during dinner he relaxes. In a way he takes off a part of Black’s identity and turns into Chiron again. Kevin plays a romantic song and Chiron seems to enjoy the attention a lot. They return to Kevin’s house and Chiron comes across as uncomfortable and fragile. The whole tough facade looks more like a costume, the mimicking of Juan does not last while he is around Kevin. Kevin asks Chiron who he is, he wonders what happened: “Aint seen you in a minute and it is not what I expected.” (01:42:03) Chiron answers that he is just who he is. Kevin does not believe his answer and Chiron admits that he was never himself. In the end, Chiron admits that Kevin was the only man who ever touched him and 31 that he has not touched anybody since. It seems he has come to terms with his sexuality and his identity and the camouflage disappears. The two men embrace and the film ends. This is where we come back to the concept of the bildungsroman. In the end the protagonist endured all challenges and is formed into a well-balanced man. The film’s en- ding suggests that Chiron can be himself when he is with Kevin and his facade falls down. He does not have to hide from the world anymore and can finally accept himself in the world. Even though Harris mentioned the fact that this is not a typical coming-of-age film, many elements are there. In a way this film does have a Hollywood ending, Chiron feels accepted and his internal struggle is over. Besides this, the film equates identity and sexu- ality which seems a tad one-sided considering the way in which identity and sexuality can definitely be seen as separate. You could say this is a happy ending for both of the charac- ters and in a way he has fulfilled the ‘American Dream’ as an individual who comes out on top by himself. Moonlight indeed is different than other coming-of-age films we see in Hol- lywood because of its unordinary character and setting, but still many elements of this ty- pical American narrative style are visible.

I think it is safe to conclude here that in the end, Chiron is finally accepting who he is and has reached the end of his struggle into adulthood. During this third part we see him acting tough and mirroring and mimicking his mentor Juan’s behavior. As we already noticed in most of the film, Chiron often adapts to the image other people project on him. He takes on the identities of other people or the identities other people tell him to be. He even takes on the nicknames other people give him and act accordingly In the first part he is called Little and he seems little as well. He is shy and tries to be invisible. When he is a teenager he gets bullied for being gay. He struggles with his identity and adapts to several situations. As an adult he mimics Juan’s identity by following in his footsteps and becoming a drug dealer. He even wears the same kind of clothes and mirrors his behavior. He takes on the nickname Kevin gave him, Black, mirroring the nickname of Juan, Blue; this dimension of the nickname is visible in his appearance, tough and masculine. The other dimension of this nickname lies in his sexuality, the connection with his first lover, Kevin. In the end Chi- ron is with Kevin, the first person he showed his true identity to. He feels comfortable and the tough facade falls down. By analyzing the film through these three parts we can con- clude that Chiron’s identity is formed by his environment, experiences and the people he met. He is heavily influenced by Juan and Kevin and takes over, mimics, parts of their identities. By doing this, the character of Chiron suggests that people have many identities who can be imposed by others as well. Once again it becomes clear that identity is fluid 32 and can change in different situations and according to societal norms. On another note it is safe to say that it is obvious that, although Moonlight does offer an unique view on a coming-of-age story, many elements of the typical ‘American dream’ or way of storytelling are integrated into the narrative. This might be a way of introducing the story into society without overturning or transgressing all of society’s norms. Just like Chiron who uses ca- mouflage to survive in his community, the film in itself seems to do the same. Elaborating on this further, I would like to use Butler and Bhabha’s theories to ana- lyze another case study as well. In the next chapter I will look at hip-hop artist Frank Ocean’s lyrics and videos, exploring yet another genre and showing the way in which per- formativity and mimicry can be applied and how Frank Ocean’s work deviates from the norm in hip-hop. 33 4: Contesting the genre: Fluidity in Frank Ocean’s lyrics and videos

After looking at a novel and a film I would like to discuss another genre, music, specifically hiphop and R&B. In the previous chapters I have shown the way in which the characters in both Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone and Moonlight have fluid identities and how the latter are influenced by their environments and often used in a strategic way. In Moon- light the concept of mimicry became visible as well and could be applied to certain situati- ons the character Chiron encountered. In this chapter I would like to focus on music and music videos by hip-hop and R&B-artist Frank Ocean and highlight the way in which the fluidity of identity, performativity and mimicry are visible within the lyrics and videos and which way these are used as a defense or power mechanism. The majority of hiphop and R&B artists in the USA are African-American and the image of these artists is often quite masculine. Homosexuality is not represented widely within this community and often seems not accepted either. In 2005, popular hiphop artist Kanye West addressed the homophobia in the hiphop scene in an interview with MTV. He states: “All my friends were like really thugged out. I was trying to find that constant mas- culine role model right there, to the point I would really discriminate. I was condescending towards gays.” (00:00:55) He continues: “Everybody in hiphop discriminates against gay people. To me that’s one of the standards of hiphop, you fag, you gay.” (00:02:11). He even compares it to the discrimination black people face and calls for action. An artist who is challenging this genre and its image is rapper, singer and songwriter Frank Ocean. In this chapter I would like to focus on the material produced by this artist and his way of con- testing the hip-hop and R&B scene. Artist Frank Ocean has been making music since 2007 and is seen as a major artist within the hiphop and R&B scene. In 2012 he published a post on Tumblr talking about his first love, a man, which caused a lot of response and a media frenzy online. Ocean’s post might have been a reaction to some critique he and his crew, Odd Future, had received on some of their homophobic lyrics. Frank Ocean stated that this Tumblr-post was meant to be included as a leaflet in his album channel ORANGE (2012) as an explanation for some of his lyrics- which often are about men. He decided to release the post on the internet around the same time his album channel ORANGE was released. After the release of Frank Ocean’s Tumblr post in 2012, Tim Jonze writes in The Guardian that it is really important that Frank Ocean is writing and talking about another man. He states: “The worlds of rap and R&B which he frequents are not known for their tolerance of homosexuality (…) Pop and dance music have seen plenty of artists stepping 34 out of the closet but in the macho-oriented world of rap and R&B it’s unheard of for a star to come out.” (Jonze). According to Matthew Oware in ‘Brotherly Love: Homosociality and Black Masculinity in Gangsta Rap Music’ hiphop indeed reflects a stereotype of black masculinity. (22). He states: “The notion of a strong black male - irreverent, angry, defiant and many times violent - is pervasive in gangsta rap music” (22). He states that the cor- nerstones of gangsta rap often include masculinity, homophobia and misogyny (22). This was proven again recently. In January 2018, rapper Offset of the rap group Mi- gos was under fire for a homophobic line in their song “Boss Life”. He raps: “I do not vibe with queers.” Offset himself stated he did not mean to offend anybody by this line. Another member of Migos, Quevo, was also under attack for a homophobic line last year. He de- nied being homophobic by saying: “I got a record with Frank Ocean, that closes my case.” (Kaplan). It is clear that homophobia is still very visible within rap music and R&B. Even though artists claim they do not mean it in a hurtful or offensive matter, homophobic slurs are still being used in many hit songs. Besides this, even if artists do not explicitly in- clude homophobia within their music, hyper masculinity is highly visible. For example po- pular rapper Drake sings in his song “Lord Knows” from 2011: “Know that I don’t make music for niggas who don’t get pussy”. Drake insinuates his music is just for men who have sexual relationships with women. It sounds as if people who do not succeed in doing this are not worthy of his music, or are not man enough. A few years after Ocean’s Tumblr post was published, in 2015, Alex Frank from Fa- der wrote why Frank Ocean’s Tumblr post is still important. He also commented on the fluid identity Frank Ocean seems to have: “In truth, Ocean has never officially come out. As he said in the open letter, he’s also had relationships with women. Later, he told GQ in a 2013 interview—the only one in which he has addressed his sexuality outright—that he’s not keen to be hemmed in by sexual preferences. His phrasing, which did not commit to the strict confines of gayness, was read by some as wishy-washy cowardice, but I like to think of it as a landmark moment for anyone who has a blurrier, more fluid vision of their own identity.” (Frank). In this article, Alex Frank comments on Frank Ocean’s identity as being fluid. He does not want to put a label on his own sexuality but keeps it in the middle. I would like to argue that Ocean does this in his music and videos as well. He does not address his sexuality or identity directly but his lyrics and visuals show a fluid and blur- ry image of his identity. Frank Ocean makes music about men and women. As Alex Frank states above, he has never officially come out as a gay, or even bisexual man. Still, the Tumblr post and many of his lyrics do suggest that Ocean has got relationships with both men and women. His songs include lyrics about both homosexual and heterosexual love. 35 He sings about both male and female lovers. Besides his lyrics, his music videos are con- trasting as well. In some of his music videos he portrays himself as masculine and tough, copying some images from other hiphop and R&B videos and affirming the stereotypes of hiphop artists. Meanwhile, in some other videos he is sprinkled with make-up and glitter. The cover of his single Chanel shows him wearing make-up and glitter as well. In this chapter I would like to discuss lyrics and music videos by Frank Ocean to show that identity is fluid and the way his music and videos are portrayed are heavily influ- enced by his environment and the music business. Frank Ocean can be seen as a cultural phenomenon and his music and videos show a fluid image which often crosses borders. As shown through some articles above, hiphop and R&B music is still heavily filled with homophobia and hyper-masculinity. The fact that Ocean’s music and videos contests this genre by on the one hand including lyrics about love for both men and women and on the other hand affirming the established stereotypes within hiphop and R&B could be seen as proof that Frank Ocean represents a fluid image. I will try to show this by once again using Butler’s performativity and Bhabha’s mimicry. I will analyze two songs and the ac- companying videos, “Pyramids”, from his 2012 album channel ORANGE and “Nikes”, from his 2016 album Blonde. I will include lyrics from some of his other songs to substantiate my argument. By pointing out the fluidity within these songs and videos I will show the ste- reotypes that are set within the hip-hop and R&B scene and in what way the music and videos by Frank Ocean repeat these stereotypes while contesting them at the same time and how these are used as a defense- and a power-mechanism.

4.1. Affirming stereotypes in “Pyramids” First, I would like to look at the ways in which the established stereotypes surrounding hip- hop and R&B artists and music are affirmed in his song “Pyramids”. While affirming many of these stereotypes in this song and video, I would like to show the deviations as well. Some of Ocean’s videos and songs do live up to the ideals of this music genre and even mimic some other major artists. In his song “Pyramids” from the 2012 album channel ORANGE, Ocean sings about his love interest who is working at the Pyramids. It becomes clear through the lyrics that he is singing about a female stripper:

Got your girl working for me Hit the strip and my bills paid That keep my bills paid Hit the strip and my bills paid Keep a nigga bills paid She's working at the pyramid tonight (“Pyramids”) 36

In these lyrics it becomes clear that the girl he is singing about is working as a stripper or prostitute to keep both their bills paid, it could even be assumed that he is pimping her. In another line he sings: “Ride cowgirl, but your love ain't free no more, but your love ain't free no more.” He is insinuating a sexual act by the phrase ‘ride cowgirl’. He also realizes that her love is not free anymore, she gets paid to have sex or to strip. Singing about strip- pers, sexual acts and female love interests is a common thing in rap music. Frank Ocean does affirm the stereotype of being a rapper with a stripper as his sexual partner. In the video that comes with the song there are many other stereotypes being affirmed. In the opening shot, we see Frank Ocean sitting in a bar, being served liquor and drugs, which is followed by him taking a gun out of his suit and shooting the bar apart. He then goes out- side and gets on a motorcycle in the rain. These opening scenes are very violent and rough. Violence, alcohol and bars are often shown in hip-hop and R&B videos. Frank Ocean lives up to these stereotypes in this video. In the next scene we see Frank Ocean riding on his motorcycle on a desert road. This scene is similar to a scene in Puff Daddy’s music video “I’ll Be Missing You” (1997). Frank Ocean mimics this scene almost completely. You could say that Bhabha’s ‘almost the same but not quite’ can be applied to this scene as well. Frank Ocean mimics a scene from Puff Daddy’s music video but he does not copy it completely. In Puff Daddy’s video he crashes, Frank Ocean stays on his motorcycle. However, he does take over some im- portant elements of the video like wearing a black suit and driving in the dessert. If you compare shots from the videos they look nearly identical:

Figure 4: “I’ll Be Missing You” (1997) - Puff Daddy (00:00:05) 37

Figure 5: “Pyra- mids” (2012) - Frank Ocean (00:01:13)

Figure 6: “Pyra- mids” (2012) - Frank Ocean (00:01:56)

Figure 7: “I’ll Be Missing You” (1997) - Puff Daddy (00:00:04) 38 As becomes clear from the shots demonstrated above, these scenes look very alike, it is even filmed in a similar angle. Puff Daddy can be seen as an iconic household name within the hiphop scene. Ocean mimics a part of his music video, this might be his way of showing he belongs in the hiphop and R&B music industry, despite him not being the ste- reotypical artist. Further on in the video we see a lot of shots of strippers. Wide shots and closeups of breasts, bottoms and pole-dancing. Ocean stands in the middle of the club but does not seem to care that much and seems to be in an intoxicated or drugged state. This differs from the party scenes normally portrayed in hip-hop videos where everybody seems to be having fun. By doing this, an other aspect Frank Ocean shows in this song and music vi- deo is emotion. His love interest might be a stripper, but he does not seem to like the fact that it means sharing her with other men. In the music video he does not seem excited to be at the strip club either and he seems to be in a drugged or intoxicated state. The whole scene seems alienating and different compared to the parties normally shown in hip-hop videos where the artists and characters seem to enjoy themselves. While affirming stereo- types often shown in music videos such as strip clubs and the use of drugs or alcohol, this video shows a different side to it. By repeating some stereotypes and contesting others, fluidity of identity can be seen in this song and video. On the one hand, the song and video live up to the stereoty- pes of hip-hop artists by singing about a stripper and showing a violent and masculine side in the beginning of the music video, as well as copying an iconic hip-hop video by Puff Daddy. On the other hand, the lyrics clearly show feelings for this stripper and Ocean seems alienated during a party scene in a club. Even though the lyrics and video portray a seemingly stereotypical image of hip-hop and its artists, this song and its video contest the stereotypes already by focussing on an emotional side. On his second album, Ocean’s song and videos become even more contesting. In the next section I focus on the song “Nikes” with its accompanying video and point out some comparisons and differences with “Pyramids”.

4.2. Contesting stereotypes in “Nikes” “Nikes” is a song from Ocean’s 2016 album Blonde (2016). Between the release of “Py- ramids” and “Nikes” is a timespan of four years. The lyrics of “Nikes” do not correspond as fluently with the music video as ‘Pyramids’ and its music video did and the narrative of the video is a lot less clear. By analyzing this video and applying Butler’s notion of performati- vity I would like to point out the way in which the hip-hop stereotypes are being contested 39 in the song “Nikes” and its accompanying video and how they point out that emotions and identity are versatile. In the opening-scene of the music video we see flashes of Frank Ocean on a stage, wearing a glitter outfit and wearing glitter make-up, followed by single shots of different people from several backgrounds and genders. After this, we see Frank Ocean sitting up against a sports-car, clearly intoxicated with heavy eyeliner and makeup. We hear a voice saying: “I got two versions” and Ocean playbacks this line. (00:00:25) The video shows a person laying in a pile of money, it is not clear if this is a man or a woman and it does not seem to matter. There are a lot of bodies being shown in the video and they sometimes merge into each other visually. The tone has been set. I interpret the first scenes of the music video together with the line “I got two versions” as a way of saying there is not one identity or one side to a person. I would like to refer to Frank Ocean’s song ‘Chanel’, relea- sed as a single in 2016. In this song he sings: “I see both sides like Chanel”, referring to the fact he is attracted to both men and women. He sees both sides. It seems to me that these songs are meant to show the multiple sides a person can have, the multiple identi- ties. In this video, race, sexuality, politics and gender are all being addressed. I would like to show that this video contests the genre of hip-hop and R&B by mixing these ele- ments together. Within the video there is a lot of emphasis on bodies. We see bodies in all types of forms. There are some shots that show bottoms, sprinkled in glitter and shots of a muscled male working out. There is a lot of physical intimacy being shown as well. Amidst the shots of bodies, there is a shot of Frank Ocean holding a picture of Trayvon Martin, the 17-year old boy who got shot in 2012 by neighborhood watch George Zimmerman. Zim- merman was not charged at the time. This incident caused outrage and is associated with the Black Lives Matter movement. Ocean holds a framed picture of Trayvon Martin while the lyrics: “R.I.P. Trayvon, that nigga looks just like me” can be heard. (00:01:33) Besides addressing sexuality and gender within this song and video Frank Ocean thus also mana- ges to include some politics as well. The fact that the song includes the line that he looks just like Trayvon suggests that as a black man, it could have been him. In other words, as a black male you are not safe on the streets. A scene that seems particularly important is a scene in which we see Frank Ocean on a stage in what seems a theatre. He is wearing a white and gold glittery costume and wears a lot of make-up and glitter on his face. He is doing a type of modern dance. The fact that he is on a stage, wearing a costume and actually performing is interesting for this analysis because it literally shows a performance and it is different from what we normally 40 see in hip-hop videos. It does not show the stereotypical masculine representation of the hip-hop artist but the completely opposite. This contesting of the stereotype is happening often in this video, it shows a lot of different aspects that influence personal identity in the sense that it jumps from sexuality to gender to race and politics. In the beginning of the vi- deo the line “I got two versions” can be seen as a reference to the fact that his music has multiple versions who propagate different identities. To come back to Judith Butler, she has stated in her Bodies that Matter that people do not stick to one identity or performance, people often switch between acts. (13) This is precisely what is happening within this video and many of Frank Ocean’s other songs and videos. He is showcasing different identities and performances. In the scene where he is literally performing this becomes clear. Towards the end there are some shots of Frank Ocean riding a car, glitter still visible on his face and he can be seen crying. Again, there is an emotional side being shown in this video. This happens in some of his other songs as well. In his song “Thinkin bout you” from his album channel ORANGE there is a lyrics that goes: “My eyes don’t shed tears, but boy, they pour when I’m thinkin bout you.” Not only do these lyrics discuss emotions over a past lover, it could also mean that this lover is from the same sex. It becomes clear that emotions are not being suppressed in Ocean’s lyrics or music videos, in contrast to other hip-hop and R&B music where emotions often seem one-sided. With these songs and videos Ocean shows that emotions and the experience of reality are versatile. Besides the obvious showing of emotions, gender fluidity and bodies, the lyrics to this song do sometimes correlate with the stereotypical idea of hip-hop and R&B music. Within hip-hop and R&B there often is an explicit display of sex in song lyrics and videos. At one point in “Nikes” we hear the lyrics: “You got a roommate he’ll hear what we do. It’s only awkward if you’re fucking him too”. (00:04:44) The explicit reference to having sex is similar to the way in which sex was being addressed in “Pyramids”, in this song he does take over some of the stereotypical aspects of hip-hop besides showing a more fluid and versatile side. After analyzing these two videos it is easy to point out the differences between the two. “Pyramids” does seemingly live up to the stereotypes established within hip-hop mu- sic. Ocean even mimics a scene from Puff Daddy’s “I’ll Be Missing You”, a well-known song by a respected artist within the hip-hop industry. I want to argue that by mimicking this particular scene he places himself within the hip-hop scene. Other stereotypes he is affirming are violence, alcohol abuse, strippers and sexual explicitness. On the other hand, he is seen in a strip club but does not seem to enjoy it. He is clearly drugged or intoxicated and the scene seems alienating. This is also reflected in the lyrics which include lines 41 about his love interest being a stripper and his discomfort with this. In “Pyramids”, the ste- reotypes do seem to be affirmed, as well as contested in a certain way by the way in which emotion is shown. However, the contesting of these stereotypes becomes more clear in his video for “Nikes”. In “Nikes”, there is a lot of fluidity being shown throughout the video. We see a lot of bodies merging into each other, not clear which gender they are. There are shots of men wearing make-up, including Frank Ocean himself. This video seems to be contesting the stereotypes established within hip-hop and R&B completely while at the same time making statements about gender, sexuality and race. We see shots of Frank Ocean wearing make-up, performing, being emotional, making political statements and being high. The video clearly shows the versatility of reality and does not show a one-si- ded view of identity or emotions. Still, there are some aspects which can be linked to the stereotypes within hip-hop music, which are more visible in the lyrics than in the video, such as sexual explicitness. By comparing these two videos I think it is safe to say that there is a lot of fluidity and versatility included in both of them. One of the similarities is the way in which emotions are being shown in both videos and how they differ from typical hip- hop and R&B videos. By including fluidity in these videos and lyrics, the stereotypes that are being set within hip-hop and R&B music are being affirmed and contested at the same time. On one side, certain aspects live up to the ideal, on the other side, many aspects dispute the genre. Affirming certain stereotypes could be a way to survive within the hip- hop and R&B scene as well as fitting in. On the other hand, the contesting of stereotypes by showing the versatility and fluidity of identity in his songs and videos has led to cultural and financial success. By doing so, the use of fluidity and versatility in Ocean’s videos and songs could be seen as a power mechanism as well. 42 5. Conclusion

After looking at three different case studies within three different types of media it can be concluded that they all include several representations of masculinity within African-Ameri- can culture and different representations of (homo)sexuality as well. In all three research objects there is use of different techniques to survive within society and to a certain extent live up to society’s norms while expressing (sexual) identity at the same time. First, I looked at James Baldwin’s novel Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone. This novel not only came out 50 years before the other two research objects, it is also the most traditional form of the three, literature. This does not mean that the plot and charac- ters of this novel are likewise traditional. Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone focus- ses on Leo Proudhammer, an artist, and his relationships. He has had many relationships with people from different genders and ethnicities. The book does not really have a typical structure either. It mostly consists of flashbacks and thoughts of Leo himself. The end is not the typical happy ending we are so familiar with. Besides the structure of the novel itself, the content is even more surprising. Throughout the novel it becomes clear that Leo’s identity is fluid. He adapts his identity to certain situations. I have used Judith Butler’s notion of performativity to argue that indivi- duals do not have a fixed identity, their “act” changes and relies on its repetitive nature. In this novel, Leo does repeat the same kind of “act” multiple times. In some situations he has to live up to norms and in other situations he can be himself and act accordingly. It is important to see how the fluidity of identity of this character is being exposed through his different relationships and interactions with people, proving that identities are fluid. Besides the relationships, the novel focusses on racism as well. As a black man who has relations- hips with men and women, Leo Proudhammer has to be extra careful. His fluid identity can function as a defense mechanism to evade stigmatization as well. Secondly, I analyzed the film Moonlight, directed by Barry Jenkins. This film was released almost fifty years after Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone but the similari- ties and problems the characters face have not changed that much. The film focusses on Chiron, a homosexual African-American man, through three stages of his life, as a child, a teenager and as an adult. At first sight this seems an atypical coming-of-age film but after analyzing it some typical aspects of Hollywood films do become visible. Moonlight exhibits some characteristics of the classic Bildungsroman. Throughout the film, Chiron encounters many hardships, often relating to his sexuality and his soft side which is being rejected by his environment and community, but as he grows up he overcomes this. As a child Chiron 43 meets Juan, who goes by the nickname Blue, a drug dealer who becomes a father figure and an important aspect of his future life. His friend Kevin plays an important part too. You can see Chiron struggling throughout his life. As a child he is named Little and he acts ac- cordingly as well. As a teenager he goes by Chiron again and gets bullied a lot for being gay and feminine. As an adult he goes by the name Black, a nickname Kevin gave him as a teenager. After analyzing the three parts I could apply Homi Bhabha’s concept of mimicry to the character and scenes. Especially in the third part, as an adult, we see Chiron mimic- king a lot of his surroundings. He takes over Juan’s appearance, job and even mimics his name. As a drug dealer in a challenging environment Chiron has to put on a ‘camouflage’ to fit in and prevent being harassed because of his (sexual) identity again. Still, he does not fully copy a certain image as Bhabha states: “almost the same but not quite”. Chiron stays in a certain way in touch with his own identity through his nickname Black. It does channel Juan’s nickname, but also refers to his friend and lover Kevin who gave him this nickname right before they had a romantic moment. In the end, Kevin and Chiron reconcile and Chiron seems to lift his facade and he is coming to terms with himself. Just like we saw with Leo Proudhammer in Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone, Chiron also changes his identity according to the situations he is in. He tries to live up to the ideal of his community but in the end it is hard to do so. He uses this fluidity as a defense mechanism as well. Even thought the two works are written and released half a century apart, a lot of elements the characters deal with are the same. Still, there are some differences. It becomes very clear that in Moonlight, Bhabha’s concept of mimicry is very important to the changing identity of Chiron. In many instances he mimics other people while he switches between identities. This was not as visible with Leo Proudhammer in Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone. Also, both works focus on relationships but in diffe- rent ways. In Moonlight Chiron suppresses his sexuality while in Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone Leo does not have a problem with his sexuality and talks about it open- ly as well as shows it. Thirdly and lastly I have looked at two songs and videos by hip-hop and R&B artist Frank Ocean. In comparison to the two previous works, Ocean’s might be the most uncon- ventional. Besides this, it might be the most extreme case study as well. As I have stated in chapter four, homophobia is very much visible within the hip-hop and R&B scene. Even though Frank Ocean did never explicitly come out as a bisexual man, it is implied in a Tumblr-post he wrote in 2012 and in many of his lyrics he expresses love for both men and women. By analyzing two of his song with corresponding music videos it became clear that 44 these songs and videos do share some similarities with the other two research subjects as well as some unique perspectives. In his song and video “Pyramids” from his 2012 album channel ORANGE it seems as if Ocean is affirming stereotypes in this song and video. The lyrics are about a female lover who is a stripper, the video shows violent behavior, al- cohol and drug abuse and the strip club itself. All elements one might expect in a hip-hop video. There even is a scene in which Ocean mimics a household name within the hip-hop scene, Puff Daddy. You could say that Ocean is affirming the masculine stereotypes of the hip-hop scene in this song. Still, it is not completely similar. There are some lyrics which include emotional lines about the lover, and we see Ocean looking sad while he stands in a strip-club. Even though almost all of the other elements from this video and song correla- te with the mainstream idea about hip-hop, some elements do not fit in. In this video seve- ral identities are being shown. The second song I analyzed, “Nikes”, from his 2016 album Blonde also comes with a video. This video is the complete opposite of “Pyramids”. Instead of the masculine and raw Ocean we saw in the first video, we see a drunk, possibly high and emotional Ocean with make-up smeared all over his face. The video and lyrics do not correspond as much either. Still, there is a lot going on. In this video, sexuality, race, politics and identity are all mixed together. Some of the lyrics do channel some hip-hop stereotypes but the video does not at all. By comparing these two videos it became clear that as an artist, one can confirm as well as contest stereotypes at the same time. Ocean is not the regular hip-hop artist but does use mimicry or camouflage as a defense mechanism against homophobia within the hip-hop community. Besides using it as a defense mechanism, the way he uses his fluid identity has led to financial and cultural success. Through the music it becomes clear that identities are fluid as well and change and adapt to situations. Comparing these videos to Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone and Moonlight there are many aspects that are similar but there are differences as well. There is a clear use of mimicry in Ocean’s video “Pyramids”, which reminds one of the mimicry used in Moonlight. Besides this, the structure and non-chronological video for Nikes somewhat reminds me of Baldwin’s novel. The way in which fluidity is shown in that video does seem similar to the structure and fluid relationships in Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone. Linking all three case studies together, it becomes clear that all characters and nar- ratives include a lot of fluidity. The identities change according to situations, environment, relationships and norms within certain communities and society. All these characters are black homo- or bisexual men and they all seem to use their fluid identities and camouflage as a defense mechanism to shelter from stereotyping within their own community and 45 overall society. Still, they do not seem to lose their identity completely. Fluidity, performati- vity and mimicry can be helpful tools to overcome everyday struggle and challenges. Even though these works are fifty years apart, the same problems occur within their narratives. The fact that these issues come to the fore in popular culture is important because it often reflects what is going on in societies and communities. Still, the fact that the narrative has not changed that much since Baldwin’s novel from 1968 is concerning. In sum it has be- come clear how these three works and their analysis contribute to a broader understan- ding of the issues faced by homosexual African-American men trying to live up to society’s ideals while contesting stereotypes at the same time.

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