Hindawi Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Volume 2019, Article ID 2609532, 11 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2609532

Research Article Medicinal Traded in Informal Herbal Medicine Markets of the Limpopo Province, South Africa

Marula Triumph Rasethe,1 Sebua Silas Semenya ,2 and Alfred Maroyi 3

1 Limpopo Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism, Private Bag X9484, Polokwane 0700, South Africa 2Technology Transfer Ofce, Research Administration and Development Department, University of Limpopo, Private Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South Africa 3Medicinal Plants and Economic Development (MPED) Research Centre, Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa

Correspondence should be addressed to Alfred Maroyi; [email protected]

Received 2 February 2019; Accepted 9 April 2019; Published 16 April 2019

Academic Editor: Adolfo Andrade-Cetto

Copyright © 2019 Marula Triumph Rasethe et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Trading of herbal medicines generates economic opportunities for vulnerable groups living in periurban, rural, and marginalized areas. Tis study was aimed at identifying medicinal traded in the Limpopo province in South Africa, including traded plant parts, conservation statutes of the species, and harvesting methods used to collect the species. Semistructured questionnaire supplemented by feld observation was used to collect data from owners of 35 informal herbal medicine markets in the Limpopo province. A total of 150 medicinal plant products representing at least 79 plant species belonging to 45 botanical families, mainly the Fabaceae (11.4%), Asteraceae (7.6%),and Hyacinthaceae (6.3%), were traded in the study area. Roots (50.0%), (19.0%), and bark (16.0%) were the most frequently sold plant parts. Some of the traded species which include Alepidea amatymbica, Bowiea volubilis, Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Clivia caulescens, Dioscorea sylvatica, Elaeodendron transvaalense, Encephalartos woodii, pallidifora subsp. pole-evansii, Merwilla plumbea, Mondia whitei, Prunus africana, Siphonochilus aethiopicus, Synaptolepis oliveriana, and Warburgia salutaris are of conservation concern and listed on the South African Red Data List. Findings of this study call for efective law enforcement to curb illegal removal of wild plants especially those species that are at the verge of extinction.

1. Introduction incomes. Meke et al. [18] argued that 90% of herbal traders in southern and central Malawi derived more than 50% of their Research by Olsen [2] and Djordjevic [3] estimated that households’ income from selling medicinal plants. Similarly, 70%to80%ofthepeopleindevelopingcountriesuseraw over 61 000 kilograms of nonpowdered medicines valued medicinalplantstomeettheirprimaryhealthcareneeds. US$344,882 are traded in informal herbal medicine markets Tis high percentage is attributed to several factors including ofTanzaniaperyear[19].InMorocco,annualrevenues limited accessibility, availability, and afordability of modern generated from export of medicinal plants were US$55.9 medicines [4, 5]. Generally, the number of African plant million in 2015 [20] and US$174, 227,384 in Egypt [21]. species with therapeutic uses is estimated to be close to AccordingtovanAndeletal.[15],approximately951tonnes 6000 [6]. Terefore, it is not surprising that trading of of crude herbal medicines with an estimated total value of medicinal plant species through informal herbal medicine US$7.8 million was traded in Ghana’s herbal markets in 2010. markets in Africa has signifcant socioeconomic importance Findings from all these aforesaid studies show that trading in various countries, as this enable millions of people to in medicinal plants play an important socioeconomic role in generate incomes [7–17]. Quiroz et al. [16] argued that herbal several Africans countries. medicines generate economic opportunities for vulnerable Similarly, trading in medicinal plants also serves as a groups living in periurban, rural, and marginalized areas valuable source of income for several households in diferent especially women and farmers facing decreasing agricultural provinces of South Africa. Mander et al. [13] argued that 2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine the trade in herbal medicines in South Africa is estimated conducted from January 2016 to March 2018. Data was to generate an income value at about R2.9 billion per year, gathered using a semistructured interview, which was sup- representing about 5.6% of the National Health budget. For plemented by market observations and feld visits to deter- example, in KwaZulu, Natal province, between 20000 and mine harvesting methods and habitats of the traded plant 30000 people, mainly woman make a living from trading species. Te latter activity was conducted together with over 4000 tonnes of medicinal plant materials valued at R60 the participants. Other documented information included million per year [9]. Dold and Cocks [10] found that a total sociodemographic profles of the participants, plant parts of 166 medicinal plant species estimated to be 525 tonnes used, sources of traded plants, and conservation statutes of andvaluedaboutR27millionaretradedintheEasternCape thedocumentedspecies. province annually. In the Limpopo province, research by Botha et al. [22] showed that 70 plant species were traded 2.2. Plant Specimen Collection and Data Analysis. Dold and in Sibasa and Tohoyandou in Vhembe district, Giyani, and Cocks[10]arguedthattheuseofvernacularnamesto Malamulele in Mopani district. Moeng [23] found that each identify taxa traded in informal herbal medicine markets is medicinal plant trader in the Limpopo province generated unreliable as they vary considerably from place to place and more than R5000 per month. Tere are concerns that the even between traders within the same market. Terefore, to trade in traditional medicines threatens the wild populations positively identify the plant material traded in the sampled of the utilized species as a result of harvesting pressure [8, 9, herbal medicine markets, we requested traders to accompany 13, 17, 24]. us to the feld. In this regard, the traders initially identifed the Te trade in herbal medicines in South Africa is on a plants using their vernacular names and during feld trips the scale that is a cause for concern among researchers, conser- voucher specimens of these species were collected and their vation organizations, and traditional healers as the harvesting identities authenticated at the University of Limpopo’s Larry- methods employed are unsustainable [9, 13, 17, 23, 25–31]. Te Leach Herbarium. Botanical names and the plant families of harvesting methods employed by medicinal plant gatherers the documented species were confrmed using the ‘Te Plant involve uprooting of whole plants, collection of roots, bulbs, List’ created by the Missouri Botanical Gardens and the Royal removal of the bark, and cutting of stems and leaves. Tese Botanic Gardens, Kew (http://www.theplantlist.org/). harvesting methods are aimed at collecting large quantities Information gathered from the interview schedules and of medicinal plants including those that are of conservation feld observations was collated and analyzed using Microsof concern and in some cases illegally collecting plant materials Excel 2000 and the Statistical Package for the Social Science in protected areas and critically endangered ecosystems. (SPSS) version 16.0 programme. Descriptive statistics such as Consequently, the population numbers of these targeted percentages frequencies were used. Te conservation statutes medicinal plants are declining rapidly and some of them of traded medicinal plant species were categorized following are now on the verge of extinction leaving their therapeutic the IUCN Red List Criteria Version 3.1 (2001). Species potential unfulflled. Te current study was, therefore, aimed can be classifed into one of the three categories of threat, at documenting medicinal plants traded in the Limpopo that is, Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), or province, including traded plant parts, conservation statutes Vulnerable (VU), or they are placed into Near Treatened of the species, and harvesting methods used to collect the (NT), Data Defcient (DD), Extinct (EX), or Extinct in the species. Tis information will provide the insight into com- Wild (EW). If a species does not meet any of these criteria, it mercial trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province, is classifed as Least Concern (LC). A species classifed as LC information on targeted species, the economic value, and can additionally be fagged as being of conservation concern possible ecological impacts of the species. either as Rare, Critically Rare, or Declining [32, 33]. 2. Research Methods 3. Results and Discussion 2.1. Study Area and Markets Survey. Te present study was conducted in all fve districts (Capricorn, Mopani, 3.1. Sociodemographic Profles of Participants. Te majority Sekhukhune, Waterberg and Vhembe) of the Limpopo (n=33, 94.2%) of medicinal plants traders interviewed in Province of South Africa (Figure 1). In each district, seven this study were men, and females constituted 5.7% (n=2). informal herbal medicine shops were sampled, resulting in Te predominance of men in trading herbal medicines is 35 shops visited in the study area. Te shop owners who common in Malawi [18], South Africa [22], and Tanzania were directly involved in marketing medicinal plants in these [19]. However, Mander et al. [13] found that the majority shops were interviewed. Te participants were informed of medicinal plant traders in the Gauteng, Mpumalanga abouttheaimandobjectivesofthestudybeforebeing and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa were women. requested to sign the consent form. Te researchers adhered Ndawonde et al. [34] found that 77% of the 63 plant traders to the ethical guidelines outlined by the International Soci- interviewed in KwaZulu-Natal province were women. Results ety of Ethnobiology (http://www.ethnobiology.net/what-we- of the current study revealed that the male participants do/core-programs/ise-ethics-program/code-of-ethics/). Te were the custodians of the species traded in the province ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained and the associated indigenous knowledge, innovations, and from the Limpopo Department of Economic Development, practices. Tese fndings corroborate the observation made Environment, and Tourism (LEDET) and the survey was by Cunningham [7] that the commercially sold medicinal Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

N TOWNS VISITED FOR MUTHI SURVEY W E

S

Prepared by Nelwamondo Pfariso LEDET Biodiversity Management 0 37.5 75 150 225 300 [email protected] Kilometers

LIMP_Towns LIMP_Districts NAME DC_NAME Capricorn Burgersfort Polokwane Mopani Senwabarwana Sekhukhune Tzaneen Vhembe Waterberg

Figure 1: Map of the study area indicating surveyed informal herbal medicine shops and districts.

plants are an important feature of the cultural, medicinal, earned monthly incomes of between R3000 and R4000.00. economical, and ecological component of every city in the Te rest of the participants earned monthly incomes of less world. than R3000 (n = 5, 14.2%) or more than R5 000 (n = 3, Close to three quarters of the participants (n = 24, 68.5%) 8.5%). Te fndings of this study emphasize the contribution werebetween31and40yearsand20%(n=7)werebetween21 of herbal medicines trade towards participants’ livelihood and 30 years while 11.4% (n = 4) were between 41 and 50 years. needs, source of primary health care products, and cultural Terefore, increasing trade in the medicinal plants is expected heritage corroborating research by Mander et al. [13] who in the Limpopo province in the future as the majority of the argued that trade in herbal medicines in South Africa is a participants were within the very active age group. More than large and growing industry which is important to the national halfoftheparticipants(n=22,62.8%)wereeducatedupto economy. secondary education, while 22.8% (n = 8) and 14.2% (n = 5) had attained tertiary and primary education, respectively. 3.2. Diversity of Traded Medicinal Plants. Atotalof150 Te importance of medicinal plants and the need to trade medicinal plant products representing at least 79 plant species them in the Limpopo province were ubiquitously perceived, were recorded in the surveyed informal herbal medicine with all participants claiming to generate adequate proft to shops in the Limpopo province (Table 1). A total of 79 species meet their basic livelihood needs and being optimistic about belonging to 45 botanical families, mainly the Fabaceae (n = 9 the future of the medicinal plants trade in the province. spp., 11.4%), Asteraceae (n = 6 spp., 7.6%),Hyacinthaceae (n = More than three quarters of the participants (n = 27, 77.1%) 5 spp., 6.3%), Amaryllidaceae (n = 4 spp., 5.1%), Celastraceae, 4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5.7 5.7 5.7 2.9 8.6 8.6 11.4 11.4 (%) 14.3 25.7 25.7 25.7 25.7 54.3 22.9 22.9 22.9 22.9 22.9 28.6 100.0 100.0 Frequency problem tuberculosis Eye disorder Police evasion Medicinal uses Body cleansing Win court cases Home protection poison/kill people Waist pain in men Tuberculosis and fu Headache and sinusitis Chlamydia and malaria Chlamydia and measles Hypertension and malaria people living with albinism Kidney and womb problem Flu, cough and stomach ache production in pregnant woman thef, fu and colds and diabetes disorders, sores and tuberculosis Asthma, call ancestors, cough and Cancer, diabetes mellitus and kidney Cause memory loss and increase milk arthritis, skin disorder and tuberculosis Human immunodefciency virus (HIV), Toothdecayandbadbreath,laxativeand To attract customers and protection from Attract customers and skin protection for Asthma, blood disorders, impotency, skin Bulb Hypertension and blood cancer 25.7 Bulb Bark Bark Bark Bark plant Roots Roots Roots Roots Roots Roots Roots Roots Roots Roots Roots Tuber Leaves Body cleansing and HIV symptoms 22.9 Leaves Part used Roots and whole LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC Whole plant LC LC LC LC LC LC EN Roots and fruits Stamina and diabetes EN NT DDT status Conservation Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Habit Shrub Shrub Shrub Shrub calvum L. Schott DC. Pers. Lam. DC. Herb LC Tuber Tuberculosis and asthma 54.3 Oliv. Dinter Burtt (L.) Spreng. Sond. A. Meeuse Hilliard Eckl. & Zeyh. Herb EN (L.f.) Herb. (Codd) Kupicha R.A. Dyer (Bernh.) Engl (Ker Gawl.) Herb. var. citrina (G.Bertol.) Chiov. (Hook.f.) Skeels (L.) D. Don subsp. (Tunb.) Eckl. & Zeyh (Engl) Engl var. stuhlmannii (Engl) Hilliard L. var. subglabra (Oliv) DeWolf Shrub LC Roots Protection from lightning and nose bleed 2.9 Scientifc name Table 1: List of plants recorded in informal herbal medicine markets in the Limpopo province, South Africa. Callilepsis laureola Dicoma anomala Callilepis salicifolia Asparagus aethiopicus Senecio gregatus Dianthus basuticus Senecio serratuloides Capparis tomentosa Clivia miniata Annona senegalensis Clivia caulescens Talinum crispatulum Boophone disticha Stylochaeton natalensis Mondia whitei Sclerochiton ilicifolius Protorhus longifolia Alepidea amatymbica Zantedeschia aethiopica Warburgia salutaris Talinum cafrum Acokanthera rotundata Ammocharis coranica Helichrysum cymosum Capparis sepiaria Lannea schweinfurthii Family Acanthaceae Amaryllidaceae Amaryllidaceae Amaryllidaceae Amaryllidaceae Anacampserotaceae Anacampserotaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Annonaceae Apiaceae Apocynaceae Apocynaceae Araceae Araceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Brassicaceae Canellaceae Capparaceae Caryophyllacea Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5 5.7 5.7 2.9 17.1 11.4 (%) 14.3 14.3 54.3 22.9 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Frequency babies Diabetes skin rash symptoms Medicinal uses womb problem infections (STI) Lackofappetite oppress opponents body pains and STI Cause memory loss symptoms and purgative Used to cause harm/death Cancer, chest pains and STI Energy booster and stamina Foot disorder and body pains 54.3 impotency and increase appetite Blood disorders, diarrhoea, HIV quench thirst and oral infections promote vomiting of impure milk in Cleanse body, treat bad luck and HIV Tuberculosis and sexually transmitted Assist people to stop drinking alcohol, Hypertension, diabetes, blood clotting, Body cleansing, skin rash in babies and Diabetes, hypertension, body cleansing, Cancer,cough,malaria,tuberculosisand Foot disorder, body pains, malaria and to Blood related ailments, periods pains and Bulb Body pains, hypertension and STI 100.0 Bulb Bark Tuberculosis and menstrual disorders 20.0 Bulb Bark Bulb Bulb Bark Mental illnesses, sores and malaria 11.4 Bark Bark Seeds Roots Roots Roots Roots Stomach ailments and diarrhoea 20.0 Roots Roots Menstrual pains and labour pains 17.1 Roots Skin disorders and tuberculosis 8.6 Roots Eyes disorders and mental illnesses 28.6 Tuber Leaves Part used LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC Whole plant LC LC LC LC Whole plant LC LC NT NT VU DDT status Conservation Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Habit Shrub Shrub Table 1: Continued. Axillare frutescens ´ er. var. (Bernh) De L. DC. Sond. Tree LC Bark Sond. Roth Eckl. Hutch. (Burch.) Skeels Shinz (L.) L'H sericea (Burtt) R H Archer Tree Jacq. (Mill.) Chitt ¨ (Turcz.) Loes. urke subsp. crispa Tree LC Roots Stomach ailments 22.9 Harv.exSim (Lindl.) Speta R.Br. ex G.Don (Willd.) A. Chev. (Hiern) De Winter Shrub LC Roots Body cleansing and laxative 2.9 (Shumach.) W. Wight Winter (Kunth) T Durand & Schinz Herb (Vahl) Forssk ex Endl Desf subsp (Lam.) A.Raynal subsp. Scientifc name (Tunb.) G elata frutescens ARichsubsp Scabiosa columbaria Dioscorea sylvatica Urginea sanguinea Commelina subulata Pterocarpus angolensis Erythrina lysistemon Monsonia angustifolia Peltophorum africanum Garcinia gerrardii Merwilla plumbea Eucomis autumnalis Combretum molle Pelargonium capitatum Catha edulis Pleurostylia capensis Mundulea sericea Diospyros galpinii Albizia adianthifolia Euclea crispa Elephantorrhiza elephantina Elaeodendron transvaalense Dioscorea dregeana Diospyros lycioides Enicostema axillare Vigna frutescens Family Celastraceae Celastraceae Celastraceae Clusiaceae Combretaceae Commelinaceae Dioscoreaceae Dioscoreaceae Dipsacaceae Ebenaceae Ebenaceae Ebenaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Gentianaceae Geraniaceae Geraniaceae Hyacinthaceae Hyacinthaceae Hyacinthaceae Hyacinthaceae 6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5.7 2.9 17.1 17.1 57.1 57.1 11.4 11.4 11.4 (%) 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 34.3 62.9 28.6 100.0 100.0 Frequency HIV wounds Good luck impotency quench thirst and infertility Medicinal uses Body cleansing and tuberculosis Stomach disorders respiratory infections Blood cancer and STI Protection against harm fu, sores and tuberculosis protection from evil spirits complaints and tuberculosis Sores and stomach disorders Eye disorders and body pains 20.0 HIV symptoms and good luck Colds, cough, fu, HIV, stomach Cancer, diabetes, energy booster, to people, strengthen a household, Stamina, infertility, impotency and reproductive problems and malaria Cough, STI, sores, tuberculosis and Arthritis, diabetes, hypertension and Asthma, colds, cough, body pains, fu, Cough, fu, improve men's fertility and Body pains, hypertension, malaria, STI Blood disorders, diabetes, hypertension Asthma,colds,cough,fxbadsituations, Reverse bad luck, protect household and Attract a woman/man, cause harm/death hypertension, tuberculosis, infertility and Bulb Bulb Bulb Bath a baby to promote weight gain 14.3 Bulb Bulb Bulb Blood disorder, cancer and good luck 54.3 Bark Bark Bark Roots Roots Roots Roots Roots Diarrhoea and stomach ailments 8.6 Roots Roots Roots Asthma, colds, cough and tuberculosis 14.3 Roots Roots Cancer, cough and tuberculosis 17.1 Roots Roots Facilitate birth, cough and tuberculosis 8.6 Roots Roots Cancer, wounds and womb problem 8.6 Tuber Part used LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC LC CR CR NT NT VU VU EW status Conservation Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Herb Herb Herb Herb Habit Shrub Shrub Shrub Table 1: Continued. ´ e-Lall Herb (N E Br) Oliv. mucronata Fresen. Tree LC Roots Baill. cafra Gilg L. (Mill) P S Green Tree (L.) Mez Sander Hochst. pole-evansii Meisn. Sparrm. (Tunb.) Druce Herb DDT Roots Eyes disorders and body pains 17.1 Engl Tree LC Bulb (Tunb.) Harv. (Schweinf.) B.L.Burtt Herb Burtt Davy (Miq.) Miq. Hochst. & Steud. Harv. ex Hook.f. Sond var. Vahl subsp. Emetic (Hook.f.) Kalkman Fisch, C A Mey & Av Willd. subsp. Burch. ex Ker Gawl. (Lam) Wild & R B Drummund Herb Baker subsp Scientifc name Kirkia wilmsii africana Lsubsp. Adansonia digitata Ficus ingens Reyneke ex J C Manning Lasiosiphon cafer Adenia spinosa Ekebergia capensis Synaptolepis oliveriana Encephalartos woodii Dombeya rotundifolia Ximenia cafra Pyrenacantha grandifora Rapanea melanophloeos Bowiea volubilis Brackenridgea zanguebarica Osyris lanceolata Prunus africana Hypoxis obtusa Trichilia emetica Securidaca longepedunculata Zanthoxylum capense Psammotropha marginata Ziziphus mucronata Siphonochilus aethiopicus Olea europaea Hypoxis hemerocallidea Rhoicissus tomentosa Eucomis pallidifora Family Hyacinthaceae Hypoxidaceae Hypoxidaceae Icacinaceae Kirkiaceae Liliaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae Meliaceae Meliaceae Molluginaceae Moraceae Myrsinaceae Olacaceae Oleaceae Passiforaceae Polygalaceae Rhamnaceae Rosaceae Rutaceae Rutaceae Santalaceae Tymelaeacea Tymelaeaceae Vitaceae Zamiaceae Zingiberaceae Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7

Ebenaceae, and Gentianaceae (n = 3 spp., 3.8% each) were ex Hook.f., Callilepsis laureola DC., Clivia caulescens R.A. positively identifed and, therefore, further analyses were Dyer, Dioscorea sylvatica Eckl., Dioscorea dregeana (Kunth) based on these species. Te rest of the medicinal plant prod- TDurandandSchinz,Brackenridgea zanguebarica Oliv., ucts were excluded in the current study because they were Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen., Zanthoxylum capense not positively identifed due to lack of diagnostic features (Tunb.) Harv., Alepidea amatymbica Eckl. and Zeyh., such as leaves and fruiting material such as fowers and Drimia elata Jacq., Enicostema axillare (Lam) A Raynal subsp. fruits. Previous studies showed that plant species belonging axillare, Eucomis autumnalis (Mill) Chitt., Hypoxis hemero- to Fabaceae (13.0%), Apocynaceae (5.7%), Phyllanthaceae callidea Fisch, C A Mey and Ave-Lall,´ Monsonia angustifolia (4.9%), and Rubiaceae (4.1%) were the most traded species in Sond., Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf) B L Burtt, and Malawi [18], while Fabaceae (7.4%), Asteraceae (6.7%), and Warburgia salutaris (G Bertol) Chiov (Tables 1 and 2). More Euphorbiaceae (5.5%) were the most traded taxa in South than half of the participants indicated that the following Africa [27] while Asteraceae and Fabaceae (10.6% each), species were in high demand but not readily available in the Euphorbiaceae (8.5%) and Cucurbitaceae (6.4%) were the wild or rare or their populations declining (Table 2): Bowiea most traded taxa in Botswana [14]. Plant families Apocy- volubilis, Clivia caulescens, Dioscorea sylvatica,Dioscorea naceae, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, dregeana, Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Alepidea amatymbica, Phyllanthaceae, and Rubiaceae have the highest number of Eucomis autumnalis, Siphonochilus aethiopicus, and Warbur- traded species as herbal medicines probably because these gia salutaris.WiththeexceptionofDioscorea dregeana and are large families characterized by several species, at least 989 Eucomis autumnalis thesespeciesarelistedontheSouth species each (http://www.theplantlist.org/). African Red Data List as threatened plant species (Table 1), Analysis of traded plant species showed that herbs and with Brackenridgea zanguebarica and Siphonochilus aethiopi- trees (n = 34, 43% each) and shrubs (n = 11, 13.9%) were the cus listed as Critically Endangered, Alepidea amatymbica and most traded growth forms. Previous research in the Limpopo Warburgia salutaris listed as Endangered, and Bowiea volu- province carried out by Botha et al. [22] showed that trees, bilis and Dioscorea sylvatica listed as Vulnerable while Clivia shrubs, herbs, climbers, and geophytes were the most traded caulescens is listed as Near Treatened [40]. Six other plant growth forms in the province. More than half of the traded species that are traded in the study area but not categorized as species (n = 67, 84.8%) were prescribed for more than one high in demand by the participants which are of conservation ailmentandjust15.1%(n=12)weresoldasherbalmedicine concerninSouthAfricaandlistedontheSouthAfricanRed for a single ailment (Table 1). Previous studies conducted in Data List include the following (Table 1): Encephalartos woodii the Limpopo [23, 35], Kwa-Zulu Natal [34], and the Northern Sander which is listed as Extinct in the Wild; Mondia whitei Cape [36] provinces in South Africa also found that informal (Hook.f.)SkeelsislistedasEndangered;Prunus africana herbal medicine traders mainly sold species with multiple (Hook.f.) Kalkman is listed as Vulnerable while Elaeodendron medicinal applications. Te medicinal applications of the transvaalense (Burtt) R H Archer, Merwilla plumbea (Lindl.) traded species were classifed into 15 major medical categories Speta, Eucomis pallidifora Baker subsp. pole-evansii (N E following the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard [1] Br) Reyneke ex J C Manning, and Synaptolepis oliveriana with some changes proposed by Mac´ıa et al. [37] and Gruca et Gilg are listed as Near Treatened [40]. Interviews with al. [38]. Tese categories included respiratory disorders, ritual participants revealed that Alepidea amatymbica, Bowiea volu- and magical uses, blood and cardiovascular system disorders, bilis, Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Clivia caulescens, Dioscorea reproductive system and sexual health disorders, cancer, sylvatica, Dioscorea dregeana, Eucomis autumnalis, Sclero- chiton ilicifolius, Siphonochilus aethiopicus, and Warburgia diabetes, sexually transmitted infections (STI), body pains, salutaris which were regarded as popular and harvested from gastrointestinal system disorders, human immunodefciency thewildwerebecominglocallyextinctandthesespecies virus (HIV) opportunistic infections, fever and malaria, der- fetched high prices (Table 2). All these 14 species that are matological problems, injuries, sores and wounds, pregnancy, traded in the Limpopo province but listed on the South birth and puerperium, and cleansing of the body (Figure 2). African Red Data List are in general overcollected as herbal Te species traded in the Limpopo province are used as herbal medicines and extracted at unsustainable rate throughout medicine against several diseases categorized by Stats SA [39] their distributional ranges [40]. as the top killer diseases in South Africa in 2016 which include About three quarters of the participants (n = 26, 74.2%) tuberculosis, heart diseases, HIV diseases, infuenza, diabetes did not have plant collecting permits as required by law in mellitus, and other viral diseases. Over the years, there have South Africa [41]. Only a quarter of the participants (n = been numerous studies that have validated the traditional 9, 25.7%) were in possession of a general plant collecting uses of some of the traded medicinal plants against the top permit allowing them to collect any medicinal plants in killer diseases. the wild, without stating the quotas of materials to be harvested, use of sustainable harvesting techniques, and 3.3. Highly Traded Species. Te most frequently traded plant restrictions on the collection of threatened and protected species, recorded in 28.6% of the informal herbal medicine plants. According to Retief et al. [42] a Treatened or shops, included the following (in ascending order of impor- Protected Species (TOPS) permit in terms of the National tance): Osyris lanceolata Hochst. and Steud., Pleurostylia Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEM:BA) of capensis (Turcz.) Loes., Sclerochiton ilicifolius A. Meeuse, 2004 is required to collect and possess the following species Hypoxis obtusa Burch. ex Ker Gawl., Bowiea volubilis Harv. which were traded by the participants and listed on the South 8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine ∗ 8.50 (0.65) 15.00 (1.15) 27.50 (2.12) 27.50 (2.12) 27.50 (2.12) 27.50 (2.12) 27.50 (2.12) 27.50 (2.12) 22.50 (1.73) 22.50 (1.73) 22.50 (1.73) 22.50 (1.73) 12.50 (0.96) 12.50 (0.96) 12.50 (0.96) 12.50 (0.96) 12.50 (0.96) 12.50 (0.96) 12.50 (0.96) 30.00 (2.30) Rare (n = 2, 5.7%) Rare (n = 3, 8.6%) Rare (n = 3, 8.6%) Rare (n = 6, 17.1%) Rare (n = 9, 25.7%) Rare (n = 8, 22.9%) Rare (n = 11, 31.4%) Rare (n = 14, 40.0%) Availability in the wild Price range ZAR (USD)/kg Declining (n = 1, 2.9%) Declining (n = 2, 5.7%) Declining (n = 3, 8.6%) Declining (n = 4, 11.4%) Declining (n = 5, 14.3%) Declining (n = 7, 20.0%) Abundant (n = 7, 20.0%) Abundant (n = 18, 51.4%) Abundant (n = 19, 54.3%) Declining (n = 29, 82.9%) Declining (n = 22, 62.9%) Abundant (n = 33, 94.3%) Abundant (n = 30, 85.7%) Not available (n = 1, 2.9%) Notavailable(n=32,91.4%) Not available (n = 22, 62.9%) Not availableE (n = 8, 22.9%) Demand Low (n = 1, 2.9%) Low (n = 2, 5.7%) High (n = 1, 2.9%) Low (n = 4, 11.4%) Abundant (n = 1, 2.9%) Low (n = 18, 51.4%) High (n = 7, 20.0%) Not available (n = 18, 51.4%) High (n = 9, 25.7%) Declining (n = 16, 45.7%) High (n = 9, 25.7%) Abundant (n = 9, 25.7%) High (n = 11, 31.4%) Declining (n = 17, 48.6%) Low (n = 15, 42.9%) Abundant (n= 15, 42.9%) High (n = 20, 57.1%) High (n = 19, 54.3%) High (n = 16, 45.7%) High (n = 10, 28.6%)High (n = 10, 28.6%) Abundant (n = 10, 28.6%) High (n = 22, 62.9%) Abundant (n = 22, 62.9%) High (n = 35, 100.0%) High (n = 35, 100.0%) High (n = 35, 100.0%) High (n = 35, 100.0%) High (n = 35, 100.0%) High (n = 35, 100.0%)High (n = 35, 100.0%) Abundant (n = 35, 100.0%) Moderate (n = 1, 2.9%) Moderate (n = 3, 8.6%) Moderate (n = 3, 8.6%) Not available (n = 5, 14.3%) Moderate (n = 6, 17.1%) Moderate (n = 6, 17.1%) Rare (n = 2, 5.7%) Moderate (n = 13, 37.1%) Abundant (n = 2, 5.7%) Table 2: Te most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo province. Yes (n = 1, 2.9%) Yes (n = 6, 17.1%) Yes (n = 5, 14.3%) Yes (n = 7, 20.0%) Yes (n = 7, 20.0%) Yes (n = 9, 25.7%) Yes (n = 9, 25.7%) Yes (n = 8, 22.9%) Yes (n = 11, 31.4%) Yes (n = 11, 31.4%) Yes (n = 17, 48.6%) Yes (n = 19, 54.3%) Yes (n = 31, 88.6%) Yes (n = 15, 42.9%) Yes (n = 15, 42.9%) Yes (n = 15, 42.9%) Yes (n = 21, 60.0%) Yes (n = 29, 82.9%) Yes (n = 30, 85.7%) Yes (n = 22, 62.9%) Yes (n = 35, 100.0%) High (n = 35, 100.0%) Abundant (n = 35, 100.0%) 15.00 (1.15) Out of stock (n = 2, 5.7%) Out of stock (n = 2, 5.7%) Out of stock (n = 2, 5.7%) Out of stock (n = 3, 8.6%) Outofstock(n=6,17.1%) Out of stock (n = 4, 11.4%) Out of stock (n = 4, 11.4%) Out of stock (n = 5, 14.3%) Out of stock (n = 9, 25.7%) Out of stock (n = 13, 37.1%) Out of stock (n = 13, 37.1%) Out of stock (n = 13, 37.1%) Out of stock (n = 11, 31.4%) Out of stock (n = 11, 31.4%) Out of stock (n = 20, 57.1%) Out of stock (n = 16, 45.7%) Out of stock (n = 10, 26.6%) Out of stock (n = 14, 40.0%) Out of stock (n = 14, 40.0%) Availability in herbal medicine shops during survey Species name Alepidea amatymbica Enicostema axillare Eucomis autumnalis Hypoxis hemerocallidea Monsonia angustifolia Drimia elata Siphonochilus aethiopicus Warburgia salutaris Zanthoxylum capense Securidaca longepedunculata Brackenridgea zanguebarica Callilepsis laureola Bowiea volubilis Dioscorea dregeana Dioscorea sylvatica Clivia caulescens Croton gratissimus Hypoxis obtusa Osyris lanceolata Pleurostylia capensis Sclerochiton ilicifolius ∗ An average exchange rate for 2018 of USD1 = ZAR13.00 was used. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

Cleansing the body Pregnancy, birth and puerperium Injuries, sores and wounds Dermatological Fever and malaria HIV opportunistic infections Gastro-intestinal disorders Body pains Sexually transmitted diseases (STI) Diabetes mellitus Cancer Reproductive system and sexual health Blood and cardiovascular system disorders Ritual and magical uses Respiratory disorders 0 5 10 15 20 25 Number of species

Figure 2: Medicinal categories of traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo province following the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard [1].

Seeds Leaves Tuber 1% 4% 5% Whole plant 5%

Bark 16% Roots 50%

Bulb 19%

Roots Tuber Bulb Seeds Bark Leaves Whole plant

Figure 3: Medicinal plant parts traded in the Limpopo province.

African Red Data List: Alepidea amatymbica, Bowiea volu- studycallforefectivelawenforcementtocurbillegalremoval bilis, Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Clivia caulescens, Dioscorea of wild plants especially those species that are at the verge of sylvatica, Elaeodendron transvaalense, Encephalartos woodii, extinction. Eucomis pallidifora subsp. pole-evansii, Merwilla plumbea, Interviews with participants revealed that common key Mondia whitei, Prunus africana, Siphonochilus aethiopicus, factors that were considered in determining the price of the Synaptolepis oliveriana, and Warburgia salutaris. None of the traded species included demand and availability of the species participants had a TOPS permit, therefore, these species were and also whether the plant material being sold is raw material being illegally harvested by the participants. Findings of this or partially processed (Table 2). Prices of traded species 10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine ranged from ZAR8.50 (USD0.65) to ZAR30.00 (USD2.30) Acknowledgments (Table 2). Plant species which were sold for more than ZAR26.00 (USD2.00) included the following (in ascending Te authors would like to thank herbal medicine traders for order of importance): Brackenridgea zanguebarica,Dioscorea sharing their knowledge. Tis study was fnancially supported dregeana, Dioscorea sylvatica, Eucomis autumnalis, Warbur- by the Limpopo Department of Economic Development, gia salutaris, Zanthoxylum capense,andAlepidea amatymbica Environment and Tourism (LEDET), National Research (Table2).PricesrecordedintheLimpopoprovincewere Foundation (NRF), South Africa and Govan Mbeki Research lowerthanpricesrecordedbyDoldandCocks[10]inthe and Development Centre (GMRDC), and University of Fort Eastern Cape province for Alepidea amatymbica, Bowiea Hare. volubilis,andDioscorea sylvatica with prices ranging from ZAR14.90 (USD1.90) to ZAR82.40 (USD10.30). Mander et References al. [13] argued that there is increasing harvesting pressure on traditional supply areas leading to a growing shortage [1] C. E. M. 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