Proceedings of the ISFM 2004 Meeting: Insider Movements Movements: The Surprising Role of Women’s Networks by Rebecca Lewis

Introduction have become increasingly convinced that a key to winning the Muslim world to Christ will be through strategically reaching Muslim women. IAs I’ve studied how God has used women in societies quite similar to the Muslim world, I’ve observed three characteristics of such societies: 1. the seclusion of women, especially from men; 2. an oppressive, hierarchical social structure that minimizes female leadership; and 3. persecution of believers and opposition to by the government. One might expect that it would be counter-productive in such settings for large numbers of women to come to faith first, independently of the men. However, my studies so far suggest otherwise. If anything, God seems to use women to help create movements to Christ in precisely such societies. Still, working through women, as a specific strategy, has been largely overlooked in Muslim outreach. I hope this paper will encourage further discussion of this possibility. To the Male First? When my husband and I first went to Morocco at the beginning of the 1980’s, the literature on Muslim evangelism was clear: Seek to win male heads of house- Rebecca Lewis grew up in holds. While that works well when it can be accomplished, I began to notice some Guatemala. After receiving a BS in patterns during our seven years in North Africa. First, many who were being won History from the California Institute of Technology in 1977, she and her to Christ were not male heads of households at all, but unmarried young men. husband Tim helped found Frontiers Quite frequently, these men would revert to Islam when they got married. A few and led a team of 40 adults to reach key men did continue in their faith, and went on to become leaders among the Berbers of North Africa. few believers in the country. Curiously, these men often had believing mothers During their field years she also helped develop a home-schooling program who had been won to Christ by women missionaries years earlier.  for field workers calledSonlight Later, as I studied the rise of the early church in the first few centuries, I Curriculum. She is currently working on a one-year integrated college noticed the same thing. Several key men, such as Constantine and Augustine, program called INSIGHT (INtensive had believing, praying mothers who had tried to guide them into the faith. Study of Integrated Global History I became intrigued by the often unseen role of women in the spread of the and Theology). See www.uscwm.org/ insight for more details. gospel and the establishment of the church. International Journal of Frontier Missions 21:4 Winter 2004•145 146 Underground Church Movements: The Surprising Role of Women’s Networks Rebecca Lewis 147 In this preliminary study, I will first ne of the ways early believing women look at how women impacted the rapid spread of Christianity in the spread the church was through marrying Greco-Roman world. Next, I will show how women’s movements have non-Christian men. thrived under similarly trying cir- Oreflecting the great attraction of the well. In his epistle to the Romans cumstances (especially in Korea and gospel message for women. Ancient (chapter 16), Paul greets 33 individu- ), contributing to spectacular historical sources “simply swarm” als by name, of whom 15 are women. church growth. Finally, I will discuss with stories of women becoming Considering that Paul had never why I believe similar patterns could believers. Among the upper classes visited these believers, his knowledge lead to movements to Christ in the especially, women were much more of what so many of these women were Muslim world. likely than men to follow Christ. doing is noteworthy. Women and Luke 8:1-3 reflects this. Mary In this study, I am not as concerned the Rise of Christianity Magdalene, Joanna, Susanna, and with the “official status” of women In his book The Rise of Christianity: many other upper-class women not in the church as I am with the roles How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus only supported Jesus and the twelve they played its rapid expansion. Movement Became the Dominant out of their own personal resources, Again we turn to Scripture first. In Religious Force in the Western World in but they also traveled with them. In the New Testament we find women a Few Centuries, sociologist Rodney Acts 17:4, 12, a number of “prominent ministering in important and varied Stark sheds light on the role of women women” are among the new believers ways. For example, women extended in the early spread of the Church. In in Thessalonica and Berea. Historians hospitality by opening their homes. the Greco-Roman world of Christ’s Henry Chadwick and Peter Brown Luke 10:38 tells us that Mary day and for the first two centuries, have both noted that Christianity and Martha hosted Jesus and his men greatly outnumbered women. seemed to penetrate the upper classes disciples in their home. In Acts Citing population statistics done by through wives and concubines. These 12 (the story of Peter’s miraculous J.C. Russell, Stark shows that there “prominent women” first became release from prison), many people were 40% more men than women in believers, then influenced their hus- have gathered to pray in the home Italy, Asia Minor (Turkey) and North bands and sons. of a woman—Mary, the mother of Africa. This imbalance reflects regu- John Mark. Later, in Acts 16, Lydia lar recourse to the legal and culturally Why did more women become believers than men?  persuades Paul and his traveling acceptable practice of female infanti- companions to stay in her home. The status and treatment of cide. In letter written in the first year In addition to hospitality, women women was substantially better in BC, a husband gives his pregnant wife led prayer meetings (a women’s the Christian community than in these ominous instructions: “If it is a group met with Lydia); prophesied society at large. Christian teach- boy, keep it; if a girl, discard it.” (Phillip the evangelist had four ing prohibited infanticide, forbade daughters with prophetic gifts); and Women in Greco-Roman culture incest, and condemned bisexual- did evangelism (the woman at the enjoyed low status. They were ity, homosexuality and divorce. well). Scripture also lists women as considered property, and virtuous Moreover, girls were married at a apostles (Junias) and as traveling women were kept secluded from men higher age. According to one study, missionaries (Priscilla). other than their husbands. In part 48% were over 18 years of age. And because women were scarce, girls as Chadwick notes, marital fidel- Women win people to Christ were usually married before the onset ity—which was normally required through marrying non-Christians of puberty. Plutarch tells us that the only of wives—was expected of While not a “church planting strat- Romans “[gave] their girls in mar- husbands as well (a fact that did not egy” per se (nor a necessarily recom- riage when they were twelve years escape the attention of Galen, the mended practice), clearly one of the old or even younger.” Shockingly, famous Greek physician). ways early believing women spread these marriages were immediately The church also looked after the church was by marrying non- consummated. The famous biogra- Christian men. In I Pet 3:1-2, Peter pher deplored this practice, lament- widows. Indeed, a letter written in 251 to Bishop Fabius of Antioch by gives explicit instructions to Christian ing “the hatred and fear of girls women whose husbands are not forced contrary to nature.” Cornelius, bishop of Rome, reports that more than 1,500 widows and believers, and in I Cor 7:13-14, Paul Seclusion and poor treatment in soci- distressed persons were being cared declares that “an unbelieving husband ety do not seem to have kept Greco- for out of a church membership of is consecrated through his wife.” Roman women from becoming around 30,000. In the church, where women far believers. Indeed, the early Christian Not only were women a significant outnumbered men, many Christian church became significantly more women had to marry non-believers, female than the general population, majority in the early church, they filled important leadership roles as if they were to marry at all. Records International Journal of Frontier Missions 21:4 Winter 2004 146 Underground Church Movements: The Surprising Role of Women’s Networks Rebecca Lewis 147 abound of Christian women mar- Sons, because of their role in ances- things they did was to establish rying upper-class men who were tor worship, were greatly desired. schools for girls. They taught women not (yet) Christians. The results are Female children, by contrast, were and men to read, and translated the striking. Most historical sources not poorly treated. As one Korean Bible into Korean. All this brought only indicate that it was common for woman lamented: “There are two dramatic changes to the lives of unbelieving spouses eventually to be times of regret in a woman’s life: women, who now became involved converted, but reversion to paganism when she is born and when she is in evangelism and education outside was rare. married.” In Korean culture, hus- the home. bands were not supposed to show Historian Peter Brown calls Christian Korean women—excluded as they (or even have) affection for their women a “gateway” into unbelieving were from the all-important rituals wives. In fact, women often were families. These women, “the wives, of ancestor worship—were surprised never called by a name, but merely servants and nurses of unbelievers” and grateful when they were encour- referred to as “so-and-so’s daughter” (quoted in Stark, p. 114), kept the aged to attend Christian worship or “so-and-so’s wife.” As a result, gospel moving into new circles of gatherings. Initially, women met when women were baptized and non-believers through personal inter- in separate prayer and Bible study action and private witness. Notice groups. These groups fostered a that marriage to non-Christian men level of supportive fellowship previ- was only one avenue of influence; ser- ously unknown among women. The vants, nurses and others also contrib- [F]rom the women then began to teach their uted to the expansion of the kingdom. neighbors and evangelize them. As we’ve seen, Greco-Roman culture earliest days, the Later, when they started meet- generally oppressed women. Yet their ing with the men, a heavy curtain low status only increased their interest missionaries affirmed separated the sexes, so men and in the gospel; and it certainly did not women still could not see each other. keep them from effectively spreading Nevertheless, by participating in wor- it throughout society. But is the same the importance of ship together, women gained a sense true of other, similar settings? We of unity and community with men now turn to South Korea. converting women. never before possible. Case Study: Korea The “Bible Women” of Korea Over the last century, the South Early in the history of the nascent given names for the first time, many Korean church has experienced Korean church, when Christians of them would cry for joy. explosive growth. From a tiny minor- were a tiny minority, a significant ity in 1900, the church has surged to Early Missionaries Recognized the movement was launched. “The Bible over 30% of the population today, of Strategic Role of Women  Women of Korea” movement, as it whom 70% are women. This, despite Despite the narrowly circumscribed was called, systematized the training the fact that Korean culture shared role of women in Korean society, efforts of Korean women. What is many features characteristic of the from the earliest days we find that the a “Bible woman”? The Presbyterian Greco-Roman world, features that missionaries affirmed the importance bylaws of 1896 define her as “a also make it seem so difficult to reach of converting women. Christian woman employed in the the Muslim world today. distribution of Christian literature At the first meeting of the Council of and biblical instruction.” As Christianity was entering Korea Missions in 1893, they adopted poli- in the late 19th century, strong cies for their missionary work. One Women missionaries—Methodist of these was that “the conversion and Presbyterian alike—specifically Confucian values of hierarchy and of women and training of Christian obedience made life extremely dif- trained Korean women in their for- girls should be a special aim, since ties and fifties to be “Bible women,” ficult for women. In the first years of mothers exercise so important an marriage, for example, women were influence over future generations” preferring widows who could travel scarcely allowed even to speak to their (Women in the Korean Church, Mija as itinerant teachers. One such Bible husbands. Women (especially upper- Sa, 1995, pg. 6).  woman was Dorcas Kim Kang. class women) were strictly secluded Appointed in 1900 at age 52, Dorcas These early pioneers acknowledged was assigned a 195-mile circuit of and, from the age of seven, were kept not only the mother’s unique role in from associating with the opposite 17 churches. In a single year, she influencing the foundational worldview walked 1,450 miles as she visited sex. Except for the elite who were and faith of her children, but also the indoctrinated into their Confucian the churches under her care! Family long-term impact of that influence on responsibilities prevented Sam-Tok role, women were neither educated the establishment of the church. nor allowed to own property or pos- Chun, a married Bible woman, from sess money. When the Methodists arrived in assuming a Methodist-style itinerant Korea in the 1880’s, one of the first ministry. Still, she faithfully taught

International Journal of Frontier Missions 21:4 Winter 2004 148 Underground Church Movements: The Surprising Role of Women’s Networks Rebecca Lewis 149 missionaries were able carry on their ingle women missionaries were often sent to work “beneath the radar screen.” the most difficult, anti-Christian . . . areas, And because they were less likely to be persecuted and more likely to be because they were less likely to be persecuted allowed to settle, single women mis- sionaries were often sent to the most Sthe Bible to her daughters-in-law women missionaries went to China. difficult, anti-Christian or anti-for- and neighbors, Sam-Tok, working Two main factors contributed to this eigner areas. As a result, women were with other Bible women, is credited influx. First, the hugely destructive reached in these locales as well. with winning over 600 women to Civil War in America deprived many Christ. Although Bible women func- women of their husbands (or potential The “Bible Women” of China tioned as evangelists and as pastors husbands), creating a much larger As in Korea, women in China were of female congregations, not once in available female missionary force. trained and employed as “Bible 100 years were they ever officially Second, the structures needed to har- women.” While the female foreign ordained as “elders” or “pastors.” ness this force—women’s missionary missionaries themselves never con- training schools and women’s mission verted large numbers of Chinese As in many oppressive contexts, life women, their example of independent was difficult for these early women boards—were created in the aftermath of the war. female evangelism, coupled with their believers. Indeed, many were mar- training of native Bible women (who tyred before 1900, especially those Once in China, these missionar- were very well received and were effec- who had taken a vow of celibacy as ies established girls’ schools, visited tive evangelists), all proved invaluable. part of their Christian commitment. women in their homes, taught them Since the Bible women were frequently The church in Korea owes a great to read, and trained them in practi- only semi-literate—Chinese being a debt to these women. cal handicrafts. They also rendered very difficult language to read—much Finally, I will mention the National medical services. Because seclusion of the Bible training was done orally. Organization of Korean Presbyterian practices made it extremely difficult Amazingly, by 1917, Chinese women Women, founded in 1928 by the for male doctors to treat women, made up almost half of the available Presbyterian Church of Korea, which medically-trained female missionar- female harvest force in China. One had a huge impact on society. Similarly, ies became the primary health care survey counted 1,819 missionary wives the YWCA also helped to lead women providers for Chinese women. and 1,818 single women missionaries, in active social change. Today, whereas As we have seen, women in China lived but 2,579 paid Chinese Bible women! ordained men remain the official life beyond the reach of male mis- Challenges and Opportunities leaders of the Korean church, one can sionaries. And yet they generally found As churches began to develop, an scarcely exaggerate the importance of Christianity much more attractive than attempt was made to incorporate women in the rapid expansion of early did the men. Their receptivity caused women into the general worship ser- Korean Christianity, especially at a one early missionary to fear that win- vices. As in Korea, propriety dictated time when women and men lived in ning so many women and children to that women be kept separate from the completely separate worlds. Christ would “feminize Christianity” men. In rural areas, where women in China. That women have turned to Case Study: China were generally less secluded, they Christ in much larger numbers than joined in the male church gatherings In China, as in Korea, women were men is undeniable. Over the last 50 more readily. Unfortunately, baptism quite secluded, especially in the more years, China’s Christian population, requirements often made church life populous or upper class areas. Female which has exploded to nearly 90 million difficult for women, as even mini- , a widespread practice (nearly 10% of the population), is over mal literacy was harder for them to in China, made walking extremely 70% female. Yet in terms of percep- achieve. Moreover, public confes- painful for women, and kept them tions, Christianity is far from being a sion of faith ran counter to cultural from venturing far from home. How “woman’s religion.” Indeed, men are requirements for modesty, as “proper could these women be reached? Even actively involved in highest levels of women” did not speak in public. if the few Chinese male converts been official leadership. much more numerous, men in China Nevertheless, from the very begin- The separation of the sexes, which were not used to having personal rela- ning, women assumed many different resulted in foreign women work- tionships with their wives, much less informal leadership roles among the ing among Chinese women and with other women. If Chinese women growing number of female believers. children, created a situation whose were to be won, it would depend on As one author writes, impact would be more far-reaching the arrival of women missionaries than these missionaries could ever They learned to be teachers, evange- from the outside. have imagined. Because they were lists, leaders of religious ritual, and counselors in local congregations . . . . And arrive they did. Outreach to less threatening to the population Other volunteers offered their help women significantly increased after at large (which was very suspicious in teaching Sunday Schools, organiz- 1870, as growing numbers of single of male foreigners), female foreign ing prayer meetings, visiting the sick, International Journal of Frontier Missions 21:4 Winter 2004 148 Underground Church Movements: The Surprising Role of Women’s Networks Rebecca Lewis 149

and providing comfort for women in And they led Bible distribution efforts persecution was at its worst. These need. Women’s religious groups, around China, both in the early days, networks of women believers survived therefore, became training grounds and in times of persecution. the closure and destruction of church for women to develop their own buildings precisely because their inter- leadership. (Pui-Lan, 1992, pg. 66) How Women’s Networks Helped the Chinese Church actions mostly took place in homes, Not surprisingly, younger single and were less structured. And where women and older women, having Survive Persecution Bible women were predominately fewer household responsibilities, After almost 100 years of Protestant volunteers instead of full-time paid often took the lead. , severe perse- workers, the work fared even better. cution of Chinese Christians broke One factor proved to be crucial both to out, first during the Today, as in the past, the designated the rapid multiplication of lay women in 1900, and later under Communist church leaders are men. This is true leaders, and also to their survival during rule. Chinese women believers had in both the government-controlled times of persecution. Because women challenged cultural evils in China, Three-Self Churches and in the had never been accepted into the more but radical students (many of whom movements (although it formalized “ordination” model of had been educated in mission schools) is not unusual for local house churches training and leadership organized for would seek violent solutions to China’s to be primarily women, led by unof- the men, women’s leadership patterns deeper systemic problems. Leaders of ficial women leaders). In the under- within the church developed indepen- the Chinese Communist Party, which ground seminaries, however, half or dently of Western patterns. As a result, was founded in 1920, attacked the more of the students are female. many gifted female leaders, regardless women’s reform movements as Western By now it is not surprising to learn of their age or social status, became and middle-class, replacing them with that many male and female lead- evangelists and teachers among the the equally Western revolutionary ers have had believing mothers, or women. The seminary and ordination philosophy of Marx. The focus of the other older believing female relatives, process not only severely limited the Communist agenda was on improving who led them toward Christ. One number of male leaders, but the status it the lot of the male peasant, not female spectacular case is Lu Xiaomin, one conferred made them easy targets when reform issues. Nevertheless, many of the most amazing women to influ- persecution came. female Communist leaders had been ence Chinese Christianity. Won to Chinese Women’s Societies influenced by the reform movements of Christ by an aunt, “Sister Ruth” (as Outside normal church structures, the WCTU and the YWCA. Lu is widely known) has now written Chinese women did copy American In the 1940’s, Christians in China over 900 Chinese hymns. Her songs models. They formed their own societ- began to get a burden for taking the have taken the underground house ies both to combat social evils and also gospel “back to Jerusalem.” In 1947, church movements and the official to raise their own money for missions. the first mission team of five young government-controlled churches by Through these societies, Chinese women and two young men set out storm. Clearly, leading contributors Christian women exercised an influ- for the western border of China, only to the rapid growth of the Chinese ence disproportionate to their numbers, to be turned back. That same year, church continue to be women. and helped to expand the gospel into the Communists took control. The Greater Spiritual Interest non-Christian Chinese society. Western missionaries were expelled among Women One such association is the Women’s and Chinese believers, including the Many estimate that almost 80% Christian Temperance Union Back to Jerusalem Evangelistic Band, of Christians in China, whether (WCTU), which established chapters were caught in the Communist push in official or house churches, are in China in the late 1800’s. By 1916, to obliterate the church. Many lead- women. Some attribute this imbal- over 40 WCTU chapters could be ers were tortured; some were impris- ance to the greater interest of men found in seven provinces. Like their oned for decades. While the most in careers, and of women in spiritual American counterparts, WCTU violent repression took place during issues. To be sure, in China as in members wore white ribbons as sym- the “Cultural Revolution” of the the Greco-Roman world, the gospel bols of purity. They held public lec- 1960’s, Chinese Christians essentially has brought women freedom and tures and distributed literature to stir went underground from 1950 to 1980 dignity. But there are other impor- up public opinion against such evils as to avoid persecution. tant factors. In Korea and China, as foot binding, polygamy, prostitution, The male-dominated official church well as in the Muslim world, women and the selling of daughters into slav- hierarchy provided an easy target for have traditionally practiced a much ery, as well as against the importation revolutionaries; however, the separa- more animistic or folk version of of , tobacco, and alcohol. tion of women had enabled females to the official religion. Women are the Through other societies, Chinese develop leadership skills, form their ones who deal with spiritual forces. Christian women promoted educa- own networks, hold their own confer- Using amulets, appeasement or other tion, literacy, children’s welfare, and ences, and exert their own influence— means, they seek to gain control in economic independence for women. a reality that proved invaluable when a world in which they feel powerless International Journal of Frontier Missions 21:4 Winter 2004 150 Underground Church Movements: The Surprising Role of Women’s Networks over everything from sickness and any before it. Yet working through Himself, just like He has Muslim pregnancy, to their husband’s fidelity. networks of women as a strategy often men. Persecution will no doubt come, Is it because women have such deep has either been discouraged, or simply but it has rarely stamped out the needs for hope and spiritual power overlooked. True, Muslim women are growth of the gospel in a culture. that they are drawn to the God of secluded and apparently are powerless If God so mightily used networks Hope, who alone has genuine spiritual and oppressed, both at home and in of despised women to spread His power to help them? Perhaps their felt society. But did women in Korean and kingdom throughout Rome, Korea needs make women more receptive to Chinese societies at the time the seeds and China, surely He can do it in the the gospel and more grateful for God’s of the gospel were first planted enjoy Muslim world. IJFM personal involvement in their lives. any more status or control than in the most oppressive of Muslim societies References Modern Case Study: Nepal? today? Were Korea and China initially Aikman, David It’s worth mentioning in passing that any less hostile to Christianity? It is Jesus in Beijing: How Christianity in the last few decades, a phenom- tempting to regard the Islamic world is Transforming China and as a “special case,” where opposition to Changing the Global Balance of enon similar to what happened in Power, Regnery Publishing, Inc.: Korea and China has been developing the gospel by authorities and families Washington DC. 2003. in Nepal. In an unpublished manu- is exceptionally severe—until one reads Chung, David script, John Wilson writes: the stories of what believers have suf- Syncretism: The Religious Context of fered in these other places. Christian Beginnings in Korea, State From the outset, women have University of New York Press: played a significant role in the church One thing is different, to be sure. Albany, 2001. in Nepal. This is interesting in view of Unlike the pattern in the Muslim Garrison, David the poor status of women in the tra- world, missionaries in both China ditional Hindu culture of Nepal. Church Planting Movements, and Korea were determined from the WIGTake Resources: Midlothian, Two of the oldest churches in Nepal beginning to win women and train VA. 2004. were established by women and to them to win others. Many single Hattaway, Paul, ed. this day, husband and wife serve the women missionaries poured into these Back to Jerusalem: Three Chinese fields, willing to dedicate their lives to Leaders Share Their Vision to Complete churches together (though the husband the Great Commission, Gabriel is designated as the official pastor). raising up women leaders. Publishing: Waynesboro, 2003. David McMillan is quoted as saying, My research, preliminary as it is, leads Hattaway, Paul, ed. Today the church in Nepal seems to me to believe that if we sent women The Heavenly Man: The Remarkable me to have at least as many men as True Story of Chinese Christian by the scores into the Muslim world Brother Yun, Monarch Books: women . . . but when it comes to its to win Muslim women to the Lord, origins, clearly women played the criti- London, 2002. cal role. What I find striking is that this we would see results similar to those Huntley, Martha is completely counter to the culture in China and Korea. As in these other Caring, Growing, Changing: A of the country in which the role of societies, foreign women in Muslim History of the Protestant Mission women is to breed, farm, feed their countries are seen as less threaten- in Korea, Friendship Press: families and literally bow down to ing. Similarly, what women do or Cincinnati, 1984. their husbands. Why was it women to don’t believe is considered of little Kwok, Pui-lan Chinese Women and Christianity, 1860- whom God gave the vision and call to consequence; their opinions are either establish the gospel in Nepal? . . . Why 1927, Scholars Press: Atlanta, 1992. have women played such a key role belittled or overlooked. Parshall, Phil and Julie in the growth of the church in Nepal I believe it is time for us, like the mis- Lifting the Veil: The World of Gabriel even though in church life all leader- sionaries to Korea and China in former the Muslim Women, ship is male and men and women sit Publishing: Waynesboro, GA, on different sides of the building? . . . In generations, to specifically strategize to 2002. family life, commerce, politics and create movements of women follow- Sa, Mija every other walk of life the gender dis- ers of Christ in the Muslim world. Women in the Korean Church: A tinction and the balance of power is Women in the Islamic world are Historical Survey, Reformed World, completely different from our western searching for spiritual power. They are Vol. 45 nos 1&2, March-June, culture—men have it all, women don’t more animistic in their beliefs. And 1995. get “a look in sideways.” they control the emerging worldview Stark, Rodney The Rise of Christianity: How the However, women found themselves of their children. Because sons serve Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement in the same position in the Greco- as a mother’s “social security,” Muslim Became the Dominant Religious Roman, Korean and Chinese cultures, women try to maintain close lifelong Force in the Western World in a Few that is, until the gospel was established. relationships with them. As a result, Centuries, Harper Collins: San mothers exercise much power over Francisco, 1997. their sons’ lives and beliefs. Wilson, John D. What about the Muslim world? From Zero to One Million: An This last generation has seen more God has been giving Muslim women Indigenous Church Multiplication in mission outreach to Muslims than dreams and other revelations of Nepal, unpublished manuscript, 2003.  International Journal of Frontier Missions