Illegal Logging in the Russian Far East: Global Demand and Taiga Destruction the Forest Program of WWF Russia

Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction The Forest Program of WWF Russia

The Forest Program of WWF Russia is part of the global forest program of the WWF network.

It is focused on the conservation of forests through their protection and regeneration, as well as their sustainable management.

The goals of the Forest Program of WWF Russia: • promotion of the concept of sustainable forest management that considers the interests of all stakeholders; • improvement of forest legislation in Russia; • prevention of illegal logging; • conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of high conservation value forests; • support of ecologically responsible forest business; • implementation of forest climate projects; • promotion of voluntary forest certification under the FSC standards. ILLEGAL LOGGING IN THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST: GLOBAL DEMAND AND TAIGA DESTRUCTION Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction. Smirnov, D.Y. (ed.) Kabanets, A.G., Milakovsky, B.J., Lepeshkin, E.A., Sychikov, D.V. 2013. WWF, Moscow. 39 p.

Illegal logging of valuable temperate hardwoods has reached crisis proportions in the Russian Far East. Comparative analysis conducted by WWF Russia shows that from the period 2004-2011 the volume of Mongolian oak (the most valuable hardwood species) logged for export to China exceeded authorized logging volumes by 2-4 times. Much of this illegal logging takes place in the habitats of the Amur tiger and leads to their degradation. The materials included in this report are pertinent in the context of new legislation in the European Union, United States and other countries aimed at the exclusion of illegally sourced wood products, given that a signiﬁ cant proportion of the illegal timber logged in the Russian Far East enters such markets in the form of Chinese-manufactured furniture and ﬂ ooring. This report is applicable for use by public forest agencies, forest industry, NGOs, students and academics and all those who are not indifferent to the fate of Russian forests.

Technical editor: Anatoly Kuritsyn, Ph.D., Director of “LesExpert LLC”

Translation: Brian Milakovsky, Nikolay Shmatkov

The authors would like to thank the following individuals for their help in the publication of this report: Yuri Darman, Konstantin Kobyakov, Elena Kopylova, Elena Kulikova, Evgeniy Shvarts, Nikolay Shmatkov (WWF Russia)

Citation of WWF is mandatory in the case of full or partial reproduction of this report.

This report is distributed free of charge.

On the cover: Illegal logging poses serious risk to the long-term survival of the Amur tiger. Photo © Valery Maleev / WWF Russia

RUSSIAN GERMAN CLIMATE INITIATIVE Executive Summary

llegal logging of valuable temperate hardwoods has reached crisis Iproportions in the Russian Far East. Ten years ago WWF raised the alarm about the growing rate of illegal logging in the Far East and warned that without strong measures from federal and provincial authorities, criminalization of the region’s forest sector and exhaustion of its valuable hardwood stocks were inevitable. Unfortunately, the reality in 2013 exceeds even these harsh predictions. Comparative analysis of export data show that from 2004–2011 2–4 times more oak timber was logged for export to China than was legally permitted.

Chinese fl ooring and furniture manufacturers are sourcing Russian Far East hardwoods such as Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica), Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandschurica), Japanese elm (Ulmus propinqua), Amur linden (Tilia amurensis) and Manchurian linden (Tilia manshurica) at a rate that far outstrips the legal and sustainable supply. Many of their fi nished products are destined for US, European and Japanese markets, where they are purchased by unsuspecting consumers. Global companies that are importing Chinese furniture and fl ooring made from Far Eastern hardwoods face major risks of violating legislation such as the US Lacey Act, EU Timber Regulations and Japanese Green Purchasing Policy.

This report summarizes case studies and on-the-ground ﬁ eld observations over 10 years of investigations. These investigations reveal a sobering reality: The location of illegal the forest management system has become deeply criminalized, allowing illegal logging case studies loggers to plunder valuable timber stocks with impunity. mentioned in this report and the range of Amur tiger The impacts of this rampant criminality in the “Ussuri Taiga” of the Russian in the Russian Far East. Far East are devastating both for wildlife and local people and industry.

Executive Summary 3 Law-abiding timber companies are undermined by illegal competitors. Illegal logging degrades key habitats of the endangered Amur tiger, reducing critical food supplies for the predators and their prey. It also exposes these wildlife species to heightened poaching pressure by increasing road access and human presence in previously remote forest areas. Forest degradation from illegal logging threatens traditional livelihoods of taiga villagers and indigenous people, including hunting, forest beekeeping and pine nut collection. The region’s unique Korean pine – broadleaf forests, Russia’s most biodiverse, face severe degradation.

The exhaustion of valuable hardwood stocks in managed forests by timber theft is driving legal and illegal loggers into sensitive forest areas not zoned for ommercial logging (e.g. riparian buffers, pine nut harvesting zones, wildlife reserves). Such areas support some of the last intact virgin forests in the region. The best example is the virgin forests of the Bikin River basin, the largest tract of old-growth mixed temperate forests in the world, the homeland of the Udege indigenous people and critical habitat for the endangered Amur tiger. The struggle to keep logging out of these critically important forests has become constant.

Federal and regional authorities have recognized the importance of resolving the illegal logging crisis. This report also highlights positive examples of cooperative efforts by forestry ofﬁ cials, law enforcement and NGOs to counteract illegal logging, for instance in the south of Khabarovsky Province. This report constitutes WWF’s recommendations for resolving the illegal logging crisis in Russia’s last tiger forests.

Governments, Companies and Consumers can all play a role in solving this illegal logging crisis.

The Russian federal government and provincial administrations should take serious action to restore forest management in the Russian Far East by: • Allowing public access to all timber harvest authorization documents, providing greater transparency and public participation to detect and prevent illegal logging; • Increasing oversight and regulatory control of so-called “intermediate harvesting” to close widely abused loopholes for illegal loggers; • Instituting new government regulation that holds forest leaseholders responsible for the detection and reporting of illegal logging on their territories; • Regularly patrolling high-risk forest regions with joint participation of forest rangers, law enforcement ofﬁ cials, local citizens and NGO representatives to discourage corruption; • Conducting a comprehensive re-assessment of valuable hardwood stocks to adjust permitted logging volumes to sustainable levels;

4 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction The Chinese and Russian governments should work together to integrate their respective documentation systems for the transportation of wood products, so that the speciﬁ c origin of hardwood imported to China remains known throughout the supply chain.

Governments of importing countries such as China, Japan, the US and EU member states should strengthen implementation and enforcement of laws against importation of illegal wood, such as the US Lacey Act and the EU Stocks of valuable Timber Regulations. hardwoods in the Russian Far Global companies that are importing high risk wood and wood products East are being rapidly such as furniture and fl ooring can mitigate risks by adopting one of the exhausted to feed following approaches: unsustainable global • For products made with Russian oak, ash, elm or linden, exclusively demand for wood purchase wood products certifi ed by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), products such realizing the supply of certifi ed Russian Far Eastern hardwoods is limited; as furniture and • If FSC is not available but sourcing must continue, establish rigorous fl ooring. Immediate legality confi rmation systems that go far beyond “collecting the right action must be documents” and that incorporate 3rd party auditors and Russian civil taken collectively society stakeholders; by governments, • In the case that neither of the above approaches is possible, avoiding any companies and furniture, fl ooring or other wood products made from hardwoods that could consumers to combat be of Russian Far East origin (oak, ash, elm, linden). illegal logging and exclude illegal timber Consumers can purchase FSC-certifi ed fl ooring or furniture. from the fl ooring and This is the easiest way to ensure that purchases are not contributing furniture market. to the degradation of the Russian Far East’s last tiger habitat.

Executive Summary 5 Contents

Executive Summary ...... 3

Glossary ...... 7

Introduction ...... 9

The Law Enforcement Crisis ...... 11 Low detection rates of illegal logging by forest rangers ...... 11 Abuse of loopholes in forestry legislation ...... 14 Ineffective investigations by police — lack of prosecution by the courts .. 18

The Consequences of Illegal Logging ...... 22 Exhaustion of timber supplies for forest industry and increasing pressure on protective forests ...... 22 Undermining of traditional taiga resource use ...... 23 Degradation of habitat and prey resources of the endangered Amur tiger ...... 24

Solving the Crisis : Recommendations for combatting illegality in forests of the Russian Far East ...... 26 Recommendation: Improved law enforcement ...... 26 1. Regular patrolling of criminalized forest regions 26 2. Open access to all logging authorization documents 27 3. Comprehensive re-assessment of valuable hardwood stocks 28 4. Holding forest leaseholders responsible for timely reporting of illegal logging 28 5. Closing the “intermediate logging” loophole 28 Recommendation: Improved international coordination between governments ...... 29 1. Coordination between Russian and Chinese governments ...... 29 2. Coordination between Russia and other importing country governments ...... 29 Recommendation: Reducing demand for illegal timber ...... 29 1. Purchase products made from wood certifi ed under the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) ...... 29 2. Establish rigorous legality confi rmation systems that include fi eld verifi cation and the participation of 3rd party auditors and Russian stakeholders ...... 30 3. If legality of sourcing cannot be rigorously confi rmed, avoid furniture, fl ooring and other wood products made from hardwoods that could be of Russian Far East origin (oak, ash, elm, linden) ... 31

Appendix: Calculating the volume of illegally harvested oak exported from the Russian Far East ...... 32

Citations ...... 38

6 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction Glossary

• Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) – An independent, international non-governmental, non-proﬁ t organization established to promote the responsible management of the world’s forests. FSC has developed rigorous global standards for socially and environmentally responsible forestry, and associated chain-of-custody certiﬁ cation and labels for products made from those forests.

• Illegal harvesting or illegal logging – We use the terms synonymously to describe logging without authorizing documents, logging with documents but outside the permitted area, overlogging or the logging of trees not permitted for harvest.

• Intermediate logging – A legal practice under the Russian Forest Code designed to improve forest health by removing dying, dead and poorly formed trees. Often used as a loophole to conduct commercial logging in protective forests.

• Korean pine-broadleaf forests – temperate forest type found in the southern portion of the Russian Far East, northeast China, North Korea and parts of Japan. The dominant species are Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) and various broadleaf species including ash, oak linden, birch. This forest type overlaps closely with the range of the Amur tiger.

• Leaseholder – A company or individual which has obtained a timber harvesting lease for a forest concession from the provincial government. Leases are typically for 25 or 49 years.

• Logging for the Support of the Local Population – A legal practice under the Russian Forest Code designed to provide ﬁ re wood and construction timber to local villages. Often abused as a loophole to conduct commercial logging in protective forests.

• Ministry of Internal Affairs – the Russian federal ministry responsible for police functions. All local police forces are branches of the ministry.

• Pine nut harvesting zones – a special category of protective forests zoned for the commercial collection of Korean pine nuts and related non-timber resources.

• Protective forests – Forests zoned to protect important resources such as soil, water quality or rare plants and animals rather than for commercial logging. They include riparian buffers, steep slopes, pine nut harvesting zones, green belts around towns and some wildlife reserves.

• Roundwood – Felled, de-branched tree in log form that has not been further processed.

Glossary 7 • Roundwood equivalent volume – a measure of the volume of logs used in the manufacture of wood based products.

• Russian Far East – region at the eastern end of Russia bordering the Paciﬁ c Ocean and extending inland along the Amur River. This report regards the three southernmost provinces within the region – Primorsky, Khabarovsky and the Jewish Autonomous Provinces.

• Ussuri Taiga – popular name for the temperate forest region in Primorsky, Khabarovsky and the Jewish Autonomous Provinces of Russia. The Ussuri Taiga is made up primarily of Korean pine-broadleaf and spruce-ﬁ r forests.

• Valuable hardwoods – in this report the term will refer to Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica), Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandshurica), Japanese elm (Ulmus propinqua), Amur linden (Tilia amurensis) and Manchurian linden (T. manshurica). These high-value species are the primary object of illegal logging in the southern portion of the Russian Far East

8 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction Introduction

llegal logging of valuable hardwoods has reached crisis proportions Iin the Ussuri Taiga of the Russian Far East. Volumes of hardwoods many times exceeding Russian legal limits are being exported to China to feed massive domestic and global demand for cheap furniture and ﬂ ooring. This demand has strained the region’s unique forest ecosystems to the breaking point, with dire ecological, economic and social consequences: • Exhaustion of timber supplies for the region’s legal forest industry • Undermining of traditional forest resource use by local people • Degradation of unique forest ecosystems • Degradation of Amur tiger habitat and food resources of its prey

It is diffi cult to precisely quantify the wood fl ows from the Russian Far East through China to western and Japanese markets. But import-export fi gures provide some indications of the scale. With limited volumes of available timber within country, China is strongly dependent on log imports for its manufacturing sector.i In 2011 Russia supplied around 25 % of the roundwood and sawnwood exports to China. From the Far East alone were exported more than 260,000 cubic meters of valuable hardwood logs (oak, ash, elm, linden) and 447,000 cubic meters of sawnwood from these species. In turn, China exported $9.4 billion of wood furniture (primarily made from hardwood species) and $393 million of solid hardwood fl ooring to the US, EU and Japan in 2011.ii Thus, the value of wood products made from Russian Far East valuable hardwoods entering western markets is likely in the hundreds of millions of dollars.

Illegal logging of Far Eastern hardwoods is not simply a widespread violation of the forest law – it is a entire parallel system, which far exceeds legal Illegal logging of old- logging limits. These crimes are carried out by a variety of actors: “brigades” growth oak timber of local loggers that steal timber without any legal cover; forest leaseholders on a commercial timber who conduct overlogging on permitted logging sites; logging companies that lease in Dalnerechensk receive permission to conduct “intermediate logging” in unleased forests County, Primorsky but use this opportunity log export quality timber in violation of forestry Province. regulations and often above permitted volumes.

In 2010, the forest agencies of Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces authorized the logging of 452,213 m3 of Mongolian oak, the region’s most valuable hardwood. From these two provinces 340,780 m3 of oak products (logs, boards, glued panels and veneer) were exported in 2010, mostly to China. But calculating the “roundwood equivalent” of these exported products shows that at least 905,702 m3 of oak timber would have to be logged to produce them, or 200 % the permitted volume. At least half the exported oak was stolen. And customs data suggests that 2010 was not the worst year for illegal logging of oak. In 2007 and 2008, more

Introduction 9 than 1,700,000 m3 of oak were logged for export according to calculation of roundwood equivalent. Assuming authorized logging levels similar to those of 2010, illegal logging of oak in those years could reach 400 %. A detailed analysis of data is included as in Appendix 1 of this report.

This was not the fi rst analysis to show such shocking levels of valuable hardwood overlogging. A similar analysis conducted by WWF in 2001 showed that in that year the roundwood equivalent of exported oak, ash and elm from Primorsky Province exceeded the logging volume authorized by provincial authorities by 1.5–2 times.iii According to data presented by representatives of the Primorsky Province Duma to the federal government, the permitted logging volume of Manchurian ash in their province in the period 1996–1999 declined from 272,000 m3 to 191,100 m3, while the actual exported volume rose from 267,000 to 363,000 m3.iv It should be recalled that the latter fi gures show the export of high quality logs. The total volume harvested to produce these logs would be signifi cantly higher. As visible in these fi gures, illegal logging is not a new problem for the Russian Far East. Cub. m 2 000 The former head of the Primorsky Province Forest х 3,8 х 3,8 1 800 Management Agency, Pyotr Diuk, colorfully х 3,4 1 600 corroborated these statistics in a secretly fi lmed х 3,1 interview shown on the television expose “Dark 1 400 Forest” in 2010. The director candidly described 1 200 х 2,1 the scale of illegal logging in his province – “We’re 1 000 х 1,9 х 2,1 supposed to cut about 200 thousand [m3] of 800 х 1,5 oak, but we cut 800 or a million. Every year.” – 600 Diuk predicted the oncoming exhaustion of the 400 resource – “I want to say you, fi ve [more] years and there’ll be no more oak here… Ash has 10 200 more years and that’s it”.v He also warned that 0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 as hardwood stocks disappear in forests zoned for timber harvesting, logging pressure will only grow Roundwood equivalent of exported oak products from on so-called protective forests where logging has Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces 2004–2010. traditionally been limited — “That’s where the The red bar shows the volume permitted for logging thieves work. And they’ll work there their whole in 2010. Figures above the bars show how many times lives.” vi export volumes exceeded the legal harvest volume authorized in 2010. Table assumes that legal logging WWF investigations confi rm Mr. Diuk's assessment volumes remained approximately the same over of the critical situation with illegal logging in the period. the Ussuri Taiga and the worsening outlook if this crisis is not addressed. The strong warnings put forward in 2001 and 2010, unfortunately, did not prompt the necessary changes. Precious little time remains to confront illegal logging before the unique ecological, economic and social wealth of the region’s forests will be irreparably damaged.

This report provides data on the extent of illegal logging in the Russian Far East, identiﬁ es the root problems that enable illegal logging and highlights them with selected cases studies, and offers recommendations for governments, companies and consumers which can all play a role in reducing the level of criminality in the Russian Far East forest sector.

10 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction The Law Enforcement Crisis

n the Russian Far East many forest management ofﬁ cials and police Iactively work to counteract illegal logging and the sale of stolen timber, as is demonstrated by examples shown in this report. But as this report will show, these efforts are insufﬁ cient to alter the basic reality: illegal logging remains largely uncontrolled, with severe consequences for the nature and economy of the Far East. The response of law enforcement to this crisis has proven ineffective.

The following problems have facilitated the criminalization of the forest sector in the Russian Far East: • Low detection rates of illegal logging by forest rangers • Abuse of loopholes in forestry legislation • Poor investigations by police and extremely low rates of prosecution

Details about these problems including Case Studies are listed below.

Low detection rates 113,500 m3 of stolen timber were registered by forest rangers in Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces in 2010 according to data from the provincial forest of illegal logging agencies. Yet according to the comparison of permitted oak logging volumes by forest rangers and actual volumes logged for export (see Introduction) at least 451,300 m3 of Mongolian oak were stolen that yearvii. Thus, the volume of registered illegal logging in these two provinces may constitute only one quarter of the actual stolen volume of one tree species.

Independent investigations by many NGOs have demonstrated how much illegal logging goes undetected on the ground (Case 1). Frequently the extent of illegal logging only becomes evident when a fresh forest inventory is compiled for a timber lease (Case 2). There is evidence that provincial forest rangers often strongly underreport the volume of stolen timber at ofﬁ cially registered illegal logging sites (Case 3). Table 1 Recording illegal logging shows examples of in the riparian buffer of the such underreporting Armu River, Primorsky gathered by WWF over Province. a nine year period.

The Law Enforcement Crisis 11 CASE 1. Evidence of low rates of illegal logging detection by state foresters — Roschinskoe Forest Management Unit, Primorsky Province, February 2011

In February 2011, WWF specialists together with the vice-director of the Primorsky Province Forest Management Agency conducted an anti-illegal logging raid in the western portion of Roschinskoe Forest Management Unit (FMU). This state FMU is one of the most criminalized in the region: in the past ten years three directors have been removed for corruption related to illegal logging. In four days the WWF specialists and Agency vice-director detected 1,865 m3 of illegally logged oak and ash , or about 466 m3 per day. This volume constituted 78 % of all the timber theft registered in the FMU in the first two months of 2011. In contrast, the remaining volume in that period was detected by local forest rangers at an average rate of Detection of illegal logging in Roschinskoe FMU (Primorsky about 20 m3 per day. When working alone, Province) January-February 2011. In the first three periods state forest rangers detect illegal logging at detection was conducted by forest rangers alone. In the last a rate 23 times lower than when they work period it included participation of independent stakeholders together with motivated stakeholders. (WWF specialists).

CASE 2. Koksharovka and Vostochnaya Pine Nut Harvesting Zones, Primorsky Province, 2009: New inventory reveals massive illegal logging A fresh inventory of the Koksharovka pine nut harvesting zone in Primorsky Province conducted by state forest inventory specialists found that between 2000 and 2009 three times the area had been illegally logged (1779 ha) than had been legally harvested (533 ha)1. In the Vostochnaya pine nut harvesting zone between 2005 and 2009, on average 728 ha had been authorized for logging each year but the average area actually harvested was 1591 ha. In addition, from each hectare on average 3 times more wood was removed than had been permitted, and in some cases as much as 13 times the legal volume was logged2.

Volume authorized Illegal Species Volume actually logged (m3) to for logging (m3) overcutting Korean pine 290 3072 x 10,6 Manchurian ash 190 2592 x 13,6 Total 833 6528 x 7,8 (including 8 other species)

Authorized versus actual timber volume harvested in forest block 9 of the Voctochnoe subunit in Vostochnaya Pine Nut Harvesting Zone in 2006.

1 Federal enterprise “Roslesinforg-Dallesproekt”.2009. Forest management plan for lease of Production and Harvesting Base LLC in Chuguyevskoe forest management unit, Primorsky Province. Khabarovsk. 2 Alekseenko, A.Y. 2009. Analysis of the quality and efﬁ cacy of forest management practices in the pine nut harvesting zone of Vostochnoe forest management subunit, Roschinskoe forest management unit, Primorsky Province in the last survey period. Far Eastern Forest Management Research Institute, Khabarovsk.

12 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction CASE 3. Dalnerechenskoe FMU, Primorsky Province, February 2012: Dramatic under-reporting of illegal log volume by provincial forest rangers

In February 2012, a WWF forest specialist detected large scale illegal logging in the basin of the Soldatskiy River (Dalnerechenskoe FMU) which had been conducted throughout the winter. He estimated that 2,000 m3 of elm, ash and linden timber had been stolen. This information was communicated to the Primorsky Province Forest Management Agency. From local residents the specialist learned that the crime had already been registered, but only 147 m3 of stolen timber had been recorded.

Over the next three months, WWF made multiple official requests for a full investigation. The Primorsky Province Forest Management Agency continuously delayed its official investigation, but eventually responded when it learned that the provincial prosecutor would become involved. The delay held off the investigation until mid- May when the spring thaw had made most of the area impassable. Still, a portion of the logging site could be measured and the registered volume of stolen timber increased fivefold.

This case does not represent an isolated example of underreporting by provincial forest rangers. A number of other examples detected by WWF demonstrate the systematic nature of this problem (Tab. 1, below).

Date of Volume of illegal logging Volume as reported by Location of illegal logging detection (m3) officials (m3)

04.11.2001 Blocks 85,103 Novopokrovskoe 3 697 369 forest management subunit

24.09.2002 Block 96 Martinovo-Polyanskoe 1 315 77 forest management subunit

15.01.2004 Block 29 Novopokrovskoe forest 240 5,46 management subunit

23.01.2009 Locks 84–95 Pozharskoe forest 5 000 0 management subunit

30.04.2010 Blocks 290,302 Vostochnoe >1 000 0 forest management subunit

26.04.2010 Blocks 216,217 Tayozhnoe forest 250 0 management subunit

24.08.2010 Block 454 Tayozhnoe forest 50 5 management subunit (Korean pine) (reported as fir)

Table 1. Sample of illegal logging sites on which volume of stolen timber was underestimated by provincial forest rangers. Actual volume determined with participation of WWF specialists.

The Law Enforcement Crisis 13

Abuse of loopholes A signiﬁ cant proportion of timber theft occurs on authorized logging sites, in the form of logging above permitted levels and logging of export quality in forestry legislation timber in the place of low-quality trees authorized for harvest. Such abuses are particularly common during “intermediate logging” and “sanitary logging”, forestry practices intended to improve forest health by removing sick, dying and poorly-formed trees that inhibit the growth of healthy individuals. But according the results of a federal investigation into the forest management in Primorsky Province, “during the conducting of such logging most of the trees removed are valuable species (ash, oak, spruce and others) while those trees requiring removal (dead, damaged, slow-growing, etc.) are left on the harvest site”.viii Because these logging types can be conducted in “protective” forests where commercial logging is ofﬁ cially restricted (riparian buffers, pine nut harvesting zones, some wildlife reserves), intermediate and sanitary logging have become a huge loophole for harvesting valuable hardwoods.

The most active user of the intermediate logging loophole is the Primorsky Province State Logging Enterprise, a branch of the provincial forest agency. The Enterprise is tasked with conducting intermediate logging in protective forests not given out under lease. Under the guise of such “forest tending” this organization logs over 500,000 m3 of valuable timber annually, making it one of the largest timber harvesters in the province. The behavior of the State Logging Enterprise is well explained by two provincial foresters in an open letter to the regional Governor (Case 4).

CASE 4. Illegal logging under the guise of intermediate harvesting

In March 2012, senior forest rangers of the Dalnerechenskoe and Chuguyevskoe Forest Management Units sent an open letter to the Governor of Primorsky Province requesting that he address egregious violations by the Primorsky Province State Logging Enterprise:

“Sustainable forest management is implemented only on paper, while in fact under the protection of the State Enterprise barbaric harvesting of high value species is carried out. Under the guise of tending operations only the highest value commercial timber is extracted. Forests that actually require tending are ignored entirely. The existence of State Enterprise ‘Primorskoe Forest Management Association’ creates a loophole for the Forest Management Agency of Primorsky Province to harvest timber, which comprises one of the primary channels of illegal wood in the province.

…Logging is carried out by subcontractors to the State Enterprise, and they are given the right to carry out numerous violations, most importantly – the right to conduct illegal timber harvests, cutting much greater volumes than are authorized in the auction documents. In becoming a subcontractor to the State Enterprise, a company receives not only volume on the stump, but immunity from law enforcement agencies.”

14 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction The systematic abuse of intermediate logging by the Primorsky Province State Logging Enterprise is not atypical for the region. In 2010, this dubious practice resulted in the logging of 3.5 million cubic meters from leased and unleased forests of the Russian Far East. The Far Eastern Forest Management Research Institute estimates that 90–95 % of these harvests were conducted in violation of forestry regulations and actually should be classiﬁ ed as “commercial logging for extraction of high-value timberix.”

Investigations between 2008 and 2012 conﬁ rmed systematic forest law violations during the conducting of intermediate and sanitary logging: • Logging outside permitted harvest sites (Case 5); • Overlogging of valuable timber species by as much as 400 % the permitted volume (Case 6); • Harvesting of high-quality sawtimber instead of the poorly-formed trees authorized for harvesting (Case 6 and 7);

Intermediate and sanitary logging are not the only originally worthwhile forestry regulations to be subverted for the purpose of illegal logging. The authorization of timber harvest for the needs of local communities (ﬁ rewood and building materials) serves as a similar loophole to steal export-quality sawtimber. Rogue logging brigades obtain the rights to harvest nearby forests to supply the needs of villages, but use this legal cover to conduct commercial logging in remote forests

CASE 5. Subcontractor immunity: Hunting for the “best” logging sites

Boundaries of permitted logging sites are regularly ignored by the State Enterprise and its subcontractors. In winter 2008–2009, WWF inspected logging sites in Kluchevskoe forest management subunit (Dalnerechenskoe FMU) and Pozharskoe forest management subunit (Verkhne- Perevalnenskoe FMU). On-the-ground investigations showed that in the first case not only the permitted harvest sites were logged, but also, with no legal basis whatsoever, a larger area covering the floodplains of two adjacent streams. In the second case, logging was found to have occurred 100 % outside of the permitted areas. The loggers appear to have simply gone “hunting” for the best logging site, and took what timber they saw fit from public forest lands.

Illegal logging by State Enterprise subcontractors outside the boundaries of authorized logging sites in Kluchevskoe (top) and Pozharskoe (bottom) forest management subunits in Primorsky Province. Solid red lines show the authorized boundaries, red crosshatching shows the actual logging sites.

The Law Enforcement Crisis 15 CASE 6. “Forest tending” in a key tiger reserve: Overlogging of valuable timber up to 4 times

The Tayozhniy wildlife reserve was established in 1978 to protect the most productive tiger breeding grounds in Primorsky Province. The reserve’s management regime is strict, stating that “silvicultural activities with the goal of timber harvest are forbidden”. But the regime permits so-called “intermediate logging” to maintain forest health and logging to provide firewood to villagers. This loophole allows authorities to give loggers access to forests within the reserve that are then logged for export-quality timber.

In 2009–2010, the Primorsky Province State Logging Enterprise authorized such logging inside the reserve (forest block 231, 240 and 241 Dalnekutskoe forest management subunit) and sold the rights to three subcontractors. During the preparation and harvesting the following violations took place, according to investigations by forest rangers and game wardens together with WWF specialists: • Logging was authorized in forest stands which according to forestry regulations were not in need of “tending”. • Only large, high quality oak, ash and Korean pine were marked for logging, rather than the dead, dying and poorly-formed trees stipulated for cutting under these logging types. • Two of the subcontractors exceeded the permitted logging volumes for oak, ash, spruce and pine by 4.2 times.

The baldly commercial nature of this logging is typical of “intermediate harvesting” in the region. Experts of the Far Eastern Forest Management Research Institute estimate that 90% of intermediate harvesting is oriented not on improving forest health but on producing valuable timber for sale.

Species Permitted Volume, m3 Harvested Volume, m3 Overharvest Mongolian oak 63 174 x 2,7 Korean pine 65 442 x 6,8 Manchurian ash 114 396 x 3,4 Ayan spruce 82 344 x 4,2 Total 324 1 355 x 4,2 Volume permitted for harvest in stand 1, forest block 231, Dalnekutskoe forest management subunit, Roschinskoe forest management unit and volume harvested by a State Logging Enterprise subcontractor in winter 2008–2009.

Export quality hardwood cut under the guise of In violation of forestry regulations, prime oaks were “firewood for the local population” in the Tayozhniy authorized for harvest instead of dead, dying and Wildlife Reserve. Detailed in Case 6. damaged trees. Tayozhniy Wildlife Reserve.

16 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction and in protected areas (Case 6). Such abuses of “logging for the needs of the local population” take place at a time when many villages in remote areas face an acute shortage of ﬁ rewood. In 2010, while thousands of cubic meters of export-quality wood were harvested in the Ussuri Taiga under the guise of “local needs” the residents of Ariadnoe village had to burn old tires to heat their schoolhouse.

In response to these practices, the Far Eastern Scientiﬁ c Research Institute of Forest Management recommended banning “intermediate logging” in stands older than 90 yearsx and the federal government has proposed banning the sale of “wood harvested for personal use”xii. Until these worthwhile propositions are implemented, the degradation of protective forests will continue.

CASE 7. Avanskoe FMU, Khabarovsky Province: detection of illegal logging under the guise of sanitary logging In December 2012 the control division of the Khabarovsk Province Forest Agency and the Khabarovsk Province branch of the Interior Department (police) conducted a joint operation against illegal logging. WWF specialists took part as invited experts. During the operation the group investigated so-called selective sanitary logging on the territory of a forest leaseholder in Avanskoe FMU. The leaseholder had received pertmission to remove dead, dying and poorly-formed trees on the harvest site.

The forest rangers and WWF specialists determined that in place of the low quality material permitted for harvest only large, export-quality trees were logged. Investigation revealed that the loggers had themselves selected the trees for harvest, at the orders of their superiors. On one logging site the specialists even observed a group of men, believed to be employees of the leaseholder, marking already-logged stumps with paint to create the impression that they had been permitted for logging. Besides these violations, it was determined that the loggers had exceeded the legal logging volume.

The damages incurred from the illegal activity were registered at 14 million rubles. Four criminal cases were opened based on the observed violations under Article 260, part 4 of the Russian Criminal Code (illegal logging of forest stands).

Commercial logging of commercial timber under the guise of sanitary logging: left An example of unhealthy trees which should in the first order be removed during sanitary logging, but which were left standing on the logging sites. Right An example of high-quality oak and linden which was logged instead.

The Law Enforcement Crisis 17 Ine ective Despite the poor detection rates described above hundreds of forest violations are registered each year, due in large part to the work of forest rangers that investigations have maintained their commitment to the law. For instance, specialists of by police — the Primorsky Krai Forest Management Agency registered 691 cases of illegal lack of prosecution logging in 2011.

by the courts But of the violations registered in 2011 only 16% made it to a trial, the lowest ﬁ gure in the past 10 years. The picture in individual regions is even more alarming – in Dalnerechensk County (long a center for illegal logging) only 6 % of the registered cases made it to trial. These ﬁ gures are especially poor considering that in half of the cases the identity of the perpetrator had been determined.

In the rare cases of prosecution, punishment is given almost exclusively to small-scale violators. 66 % of sentences for illegal logging are carried out against perpetrators who harvested less than 10 m3 of timber, and only 8 % of sentences involve violations that exceed the average volume of an illegal harvest in the Far East – 90 m3xii. To the knowledge of WWF, only a single case of large- scale illegal logging (greater than 1000 m3) has ever been tried in Primorsky Province despite the regular registration of such crimes. In 2005 the Russian president’s representative in the Far Eastern federal district observed that “…law enforcement agencies show their inability to combat the lawlessness in the forest sector. They process criminal cases only against poachers and small traders, and not against the serious networks of forest thieves.”xiii

This unjust situation is common to many countries wracked by corruption and illegal logging. A World Bank report on global timber theft published in 2012 noted that “a misplaced focus on low-level criminals engaged in illegal logging… undermines the credibility of forest law enforcement by ignoring the organizations and ‘masterminds’ in control of the illegal activity. It also misleads the public by suggesting that concrete action is taking place—while, in fact, the powerful masterminds behind illegal logging operations remain protected”.xiv

This adequately describes the situation in the Russian Far East. According to Russian expertsxv and high ranking ofﬁ cials such as the president’s representative and prosecutor general of the Far East regionxvi, corruption within public agencies plays a role in the low levels of prosecution of illegal logging. There are also more pragmatic causes: limited knowledge of and experience with forest regulations amongst law enforcement agencies; the absence of some effective methods for illegal logging detection from ofﬁ cial procedures (such as the comparison of stump and log shapes, shown in Case 8) and premature closing of cases due to serious mistakes and irregularities during investigations (Case 9).

18 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction CASE 8. Taking sawmills to account for the purchase of illegal timber

Small, fly-by-night sawmills and log yards operated by Chinese citizens play a key role in the trade of illegal timber in the Russian Far east. These operations are typically located on the outskirts of remote villages and engage in the purchase of high-risk timber from local logging brigades. These enterprises are believed to have benefactors in the form of large Russian timber leaseholders who supply forest declarations that the mill managers. Such documents can presented to law enforcement officials in the case of a raid on the mill as “proof” of the legal origin on purchased wood.

Dalnerechensk County sported 13 such sawmills, with 5 in the village of Malinovo alone. In 2011 local residents raised the alarm that valuable hardwoods were being illegally logged in nearby forests and sold to mills in the villages of Malinovo and Ariadnoe. In response official investigations were launched by the local branch of the Internal Affairs Ministry (police) while WWF specialists initiated an informal investigation as well.

The police officers reviewed the documentation offered by the mill owners, which formally appeared to cover the log volumes contained in the yards. The officers made no attempt to check the authenticity of these documents, which showed that the wood originated more than 200 km from forest leaseholders that have their own processing facilities.

At the same time WWF specialists proved the purchase of illegal timber by comparing the shape of stumps on illegal logging sites with the shape of butt logs in the mill yards (see examples below). But this method is not included in official police protocols, and so in the beginning officers were reluctant to accept the results as evidence. As a result, in many cases the chance was lost to disrupt illegal wood sale at its most sensitive “bottleneck” – the mill yard.

But as is visible in Table 2, after a number of cases law enforcement officials recognized the validity of the method and began accepting its results as evidence. The gradual introduction of this method is also occurring in Khabarovsky Province, where in 2012 and 2013 police officers twice accepted as evidence in criminal cases matches in form between stumps on illegal logging sites and butt logs in mill yards. This is an example of the productive role that non- governmental organizations can play in aiding law enforcement in its struggle with illegal logging and the sale of stolen timber.

Two example of “matches” between logging residue on illegal logging sites in Pozhiginskoe forest management subunit and butt logs in the yard of a sawmill in Ariadnoe village.

The Law Enforcement Crisis 19 Evidence observed by Location and date of Volume stolen, forest rangers and WWF Reaction of police illegal logging m3 specialists

16 forest blocks in 3 730 Rutted logging road from Perfunctory check of timber harvest Zimnikovskoe subunit, area of illegal logging to authorization documents at mill; 20 km to south of neighborhood of Malinovo officers declined to compare logs in Malinovo (Jan-March where mill is located the millyard to stumps and allowed 2011) logs to be milled

Block 63, Pozhiginskoe 69 Photographs of stumps Perfunctory check of timber harvest subunit (July 2011) from logging site matched documents at mill in May; seized to log butts in millyard in one pile of logs in July after link to Ariadnoe; overgrown branch illegal logging proven by rangers stub found on logging site and WWF matched to log in yard

Block 41, Pozhiginskoe 476 Photographs of stumps Criminal case opened for illegal subunit and block 93, from logging site matched logging, but officers declined Zimnikovskoe subunit to log butts in millyard in to compare logs to stumps and (October 2011) Malinovo allowed logs to be milled

Blocks 62 and 63, 61 Photographs of stumps Seized 400 m3 of wood from Pozhiginskoe subunit from logging site matched millyard on basis of evidence (December 2011) to log butts in millyard in collected by WWF Ariadnoe

Table 2. Investigation of illegal logging and wood purchasing in Dalnerechenskoe FMU (Primorsky Province) by police officers and WWF specialists.

CASE 9. Industrial scale illegal logging in protective forests goes unpunished

In the winter of 2009–2010 the Primorsky Province State Logging Enterprise authorized three subcontractors to carry out intermediate logging in the riparian buffer of the Armu River. In this period massive overlogging of valuable hardwoods and Korean pine took place on all the authorized logging sites and large volumes of pine timber were stolen from nearby leased forestlands. As a result, some of the finest virgin riparian forests left in the province were subjected to severe degradation.

Investigation of the subcontractor logging sites by WWF revealed that shocking overharvest had taken place. On the logging site of the first company 6.5 times more Korean pine was harvested than was authorized (635 m3 instead of 98 m3). On the site of the second Korean pine was overlogged by two times and ash by 4.2 times. On the third site Korean pine was overlogged by 2.7 times and elm by 8.4 times.

Besides these glaring violations on the authorized logging sites, a 3-kilometer logging road was illegally constructed through the territory of the neighboring forest leaseholder, along which more than 500 m3 of Korean

20 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction pine was stolen. A skid road led from this illegal logging site to the same log landing where the subcontractors worked. In addition, satellite monitoring of illegal logging by the Federal Forest Service revealed a further five illegal logging sites in close proximity.

WWF specialists provided information about all the violations to the Krasnoarmeisky County branch of the Internal Affairs Agency (police). Based on this information two cases were opened in May 2010 under article 260, part 3 of the Russian Criminal Code (illegal harvest of timber), and a further 5 cases were opened in November 2010.

In the course of official investigations testimony was received from witnesses about the illegal construction of the forest road and the choosing of trees for harvest by the loggers themselves, which directly contradicts forest law. There was even testimony about the post facto marking of cut stumps by loggers in order to create the impression that those trees had been marked by foresters for harvest.

But even in the presence of such evidence no suspects were identified by the authorities. All the cases were closed on several occasions, and only reopened after numerous official appeals from WWF. What is more, the following serious irregularities were carried out during the official investigations: • Forest rangers incorrectly identified the forest stands in which the illegal logging took place. This might have been a deliberate attempt to confuse the investigation and set it off course; • A number of illegal logging sites detected by satellite monitoring and WWF investigations were simply excluded from the materials; • The volume and area of one illegal logging site were reduced by at least two times; • None of the illegal overlogging purportedly conducted by State Logging Enterprise Three years after the conducting of massive illegal subcontractors was investigated. Because of this logging in the riparian buffer of the Armu River not omission the vast majority of timber theft was a single guilty party has been brought to justice. ignored; the illegally logged volume of one species At present WWF has no information about whether and (Korean pine) on one subcontractor logging site – when official investigations will be resumed. 555 m3 – exceeded the total volume from the five logging sites included in the cases. • In the final report justifying the closing of the cases, no mention was made of witness testimony about illegal road construction or the illegal selection of trees for harvest by subcontractor loggers.

As a result, three years after the conducting of massive illegal logging in the riparian buffer of the Armu River not a single guilty party has been brought to justice. At present WWF has no information about whether and when official investigations will be resumed.

The Law Enforcement Crisis 21 The Consequences of Illegal Logging

Exhaustion wenty years of uncontrolled illegal logging is leading to the exhaustion of a Thardwood resource that should have supplied forest industry indeﬁ nitely. of timber supplies Ecologistsxvii and timber companiesxviii agree that large swathes of forests have for legal forest been emptied out of commercial timber for the foreseeable future and that far industry and less commercial timber remains than provincial government agencies choose to acknowledge. As the former director of the Primorsky Province Forest increasing pressure Management Agency put it, “It’s all a matter of overestimation. Let’s say that on protective forests today according to the documents some volume of oak grows in the forest. Then somebody comes and cuts all the oak, not paying much attention to the law. That is, they were allowed to cut ten thousand, but they cut 50 thousand instead. That is – all of it. According to the documents the oak is still there, but in reality there’s just stumps. If today you see an unleased parcel, that means everybody else turned it down because it’s already been totally tapped out”.xix

In a recent example, one of the last unleased parcels of exploitation forests in Primorsky Province was offered to a major regional timber company for lease. According to ofﬁ cial forest inventory, it would be possible to harvest on average 0.40 m3 of timber from each hectare each year. In considering whether to take this parcel under lease, the timber company decided to order a fresh inventory of timber volumes there. The inventory revealed that in fact, actual standing volume could only support the harvest of 0.15 m3 per ha per year. Unreported illegal logging had lowered commercial timber volumes by 2.6 times.

As a result of the exhaustion of exploitation forests, pressure has been increasing on “protective forests” like riparian buffers, wildlife reserves and pine nut harvesting zones in which industrial timber harvesting is prohibited. A Illegal logging of elm in favorite loophole for accessing the valuable timber stocks in these forests is the protective forests (riparian organization of semi-legal or outright illegal “intermediate logging,” which can buffer of the Soldatskiy take place in unleased forests (see the section The Law Enforcement Crisis). But River, Primorsky Province) a shocking number of these forests have been directly given out under industrial timber lease, including 58 % of the forest buffers along salmon breeding rivers of Primorsky Province. A federal investigation into forest use in Primorsky Province in 2012 deemed the leasing of protective forests for commercial logging a direct violation of forest law, and also highlighted the systematic law violations that take place during intermediate logging in these forests.xx

The push by loggers (whether legal or illegal) to open these protective forests is increasing tensions with civil society, local residents and indigenous peoples

22 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction who wish to maintain the unique ecological and social value of these forests. Four times in the past decade timber companies have tried to acquire leases for the protective riparian forests of the Bikin River and the surrounding pine nut harvesting zone. They form the largest tract of old-growth mixed temperate forests in the world and are a candidate UNESCO World Heritage Site. Only loud public campaigns and appeals by indigenous peoples to Moscow to protect their traditional rights have held off these attempts to Udege hunters in the middle reaches of the Bikin open the Bikin to logging.

Undermining The ever accelerating illegal logging of nut-bearing and pollinating species has become a serious threat to the livelihood available in many remote taiga of traditional taiga villages. Pine nut harvesting, hunting, sable trapping and forest beekeeping resource use generate essential income for villagers. In contrast to these centuries-old traditions of resource use, rampant illegal logging can lead to the “tapping out” of a region in a few short decades. Left are degraded forests with much fewer resources to support the villagers’ traditional livelihoods.

For 15 years, the theft of prime Korean pine timber for short term proﬁ t systematically reduced the nut supply in remote villages with sad consequences for people and nature. It led to a popular movement for the protection of Korean pine, manifested in such events as the “Pine Nut Uprising” in Ariadnoe when residents began actively patrolling and disrupting illegal logging around their village. As one resident put it, “We kept quiet when they cut the oak and ash, because One of the organizers of we understood that there will always be some logging… But now, it seems, the “Pine Nut Uprising” in the oak and ash are ending and they’ve come for the Korean pine and linden. Ariadnoe, Primorsky Province Usually we just take it, but pine – that’s our limit. We’re fed up.”xxi

The movement eventually achieved its goal with the banning of Korean pine logging in 2010. But the theft of other species continues. Conﬂ icts are escalating in rural counties between forest beekeepers and loggers over the harvest of the prime honey tree of the Ussuri Taiga – linden. Formal and

Beekeepers on a forest “pasika” (apiary), and illegal logging of Amur linden in close proximity to a taiga village. Dalnerechensk County, Primorsky Province.

The Consequences of Illegal Logging 23 traditional “no-cut” zones around forest apiaries are regularly violated by illegal loggers, who are feeding the huge demand for linden logs from Chinese buyers.

Degradation Illegal loggers primarily target Korean pine-broadleaf and ﬂ oodplain forests. Such forests are prime habitats for the Amur tiger, the population of which is of habitat and prey around 450 individuals in the wild. The widespread illegal logging of mature resources of the Korean pine and Mongolian oak in these forests reduces the food supply of endangered pine nuts and acorns for the tiger’s most important prey, wild boars and red deerxxii, xxiii. Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin responded to this issue Amur tiger when he supported a total ban on Korean pine logging in 2010. While the Korean pine is now set for recovery, the rampant theft of mature oak trees from key tiger habitats continues unabated. This has generated resistance amongst local hunters, who see the disappearance of mature oak from Korean pine-broadleaf forests as one of the factors behind sharp declines in regional ungulate populations.xxiv

Roads built for illegal logging create access to previously undeveloped, inaccessible forest massifs, which play an essential role as tiger population “core areas”. Core areas can replenish the tiger populations in surrounding degraded forests with greater levels of hunting pressure and habitat transformation.xxv The illegal logging roads are immediately used by poachers as they allow them to penetrate into new forests with higher densities of tigers and their prey. Multi- year studies in the region show a strong negative inﬂ uence of roads on female tiger and cub survival.xxvi

The threats to Far Eastern biodiversity from illegal logging extend far beyond the oak-ungulate-tiger food chain. Encroachment of logging into riparian forests threatens endangered bird species (such as Blackinston’s ﬁ sh owl (Bubo blakistoni), the world’s largest owl) that nest in the cavities of massive poplar, elm and ash trees. Multiple waves of illegal logging have undone the rich vegetative mosaic of many Korean pine-broadleaf forests, Russia’s most biodiverse forest type and habitat for numerous rare plant species including Asia’s last population of wild ginseng.

24 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction CASE 9. Roschinskoe FMU, Primorsky Province. Connections between illegal logging and wildlife poaching

During an investigation of illegal logging sites in Roschinskoe FMU in 2010, provincial game wardens came across a local man along the side of a forest road near an illegal logging site. He was equipped with a walky-talky and admitted to being a “kukuskha” (cuckoo bird), slang for a person who warns nearby illegal logging crews about the arrival of law enforcement officials. A vehicle soon approached, and when the game wardens stopped it they found another walky-talky set and a rucksack containing eight freshly severed paws and internal organs from Himalayan bears. The driver admitted to having illegally shot two bears in their den tree near the illegal logging site, in order to sell derivatives from the animals to buyers for the lucrative Chinese traditional medicine trade. Upon inspection of the illegal logging site the game wardens identified the den tree and found two orphaned bear cubs inside, which they handed over to a wildlife rehabilitation center.

Poached Himalayan bear paws and internal organs Provincial forest ranger with orphaned bear cubs recovered from the vehicle of an illegal logger. recovered from illegal logging site. Krasnoarmeisky County, Primorsky Province.

The Consequences of Illegal Logging 25 Solving the Crisis : Recommendations for combatting illegality in forests of the Russian Far East

his report has demonstrated the breakdown of the forest management Tsystem in the Russian Far East and the development of a criminalized regime that exports up to 200–400 % xxvii the legal volume of hardwoods to China. Western importers and Chinese consumers have become dependent on these illegal and unsustainable wood streams for suppliers of inexpensive ﬂ ooring and furniture. This poses two signiﬁ cant risks for such purchasers: (1) liability under US and EU laws for trading and purchasing illegally sourced wood products, and (2) supply chain risk due to dependence on rapidly disappearing Russian hardwood supplies.

Recommendation: The Russian federal government and provincial administrations must Improved law re-establish control over forests in the Far East by: enforcement 1. Regular patrolling of criminalized forest regions An important step towards restoring control is the establishment of mobile teams composed of representatives from various law enforcement agencies and independent stakeholders to conduct frequent, unannounced illegal logging raids. These teams should have access to regularly- updated high resolution satellite images and communications equipment linked to a central command. Such a structure has several advantages: • Mobile groups are less susceptible to intimidation and personal pressure than local forest rangers, who often live in the same villages as the illegal loggers they are meant to control.

26 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction • Teams composed of various agencies makes it diffi cult for illegal loggers and their bosses to “come to an understanding” with individual offi cials. • Secret raids by well-prepared teams greatly increase the perception of risk and uncertainty amongst illegal loggers and their customers. • As is shown in Cases 1, 7 and 11, the participation of motivated and well qualifi ed specialists from NGOs in illegal logging investigations can signifi cantly increase their effi cacy.

CASE 11. Successful experience with joint illegal logging raids

In June, 2012 rangers from the Khabarovsky Province Forest Agency, Internal Affairs officers from Lazo and Vyazemsky Counties and specialists from WWF Russia conducted two mobile illegal logging raids in the south of the province. This example demonstrates the significant results possible from such joint raids: • June 1, 2012: 320 m3 of stolen yellow birch and ash timber registered adjacent to authorized logging site of leaseholder • June 4, 2012: Illegal logging of linden and oak observed on different timber lease. Truckdriver showed authorizing documents for a different part of the leased area that were being used to “mask” movement of illegal wood. 56 m3 of stolen linden, ash, oak and elm registered. • June 5, 2012: 122 m3 of stolen linden and oak registered on same timber lease. Illegal logging site located at end of dead-end forest road that runs through leaseholder’s logging camp. In course of June 4–5 observed that leaseholder has not harvested any of authorized logging sites, only illegal sites. • June 6, 2012: Team conducts audit of third leaseholder. On first day illegal log yard found in forest with leaseholder’s logging crew parked 2 km away on the road. Logging supervisor claims they are on fishing trip. 36 m3 of illegal logged oak and ash logs registered in the yard. Audit team also inspects leaseholder’s authorized logging site. Crew claims to have started logging only two days ago, site only 20 % logged. But logging of linden timber already exceeds authorized volume for whole site. • June 8, 2012: Team searches for another authorized logging site, finds it has not been cut but registers a large illegal logging site nearby. 362 m3 of stolen spruce timber. • June 18–19, 2012: Team responds to tip-off about illegal logging near border of Khabarovsky and Primorsky Provinces. The illegal logging of 277 m3 of prime oak and ash timber is registered. WWF specialists successfully match stumps on illegal logging site to logs stacked at a purchasing yard in nearby Vyazemsky. On the basis of this evidence the logs were seized.

2. Open access to all logging authorization documents Forest declarations” identify leaseholders of public forestland, list the volumes of timber they are permitted to harvest and the show location of their authorized logging sites. These documents are essential for all activities connected to illegal logging detection or legality confi rmation. Yet with dubious legal justifi cation forest agencies treat these documents as semi-classifi ed and provide them only through personal connections or after extensive offi cial requests. As a result, local residents cannot receive information about timber harvesting authorized in surrounding public forests and are more or less powerless to conduct any form of citizen oversight.

In 2011, a bill was introduced to the Duma (Russian parliament) “On government regulation of roundwood trade” with the intention of improving oversight of timber harvesting and transport. This bill proposes the creation of an online database of forest declarations and open access to these documents for all Russian citizens. The bill also requires that timber sale agreements and wood transport documents provide information about the origin of the wood in the form of the forest declaration number. If passed, this bill would significantly improve the ability of law enforcement officials to audit the legality of wood sold on the open market.

Solving the Crisis : Recommendations for combatting illegality in forests of the Russian Far East 27 This report has shown the critical role that civil society can play in improving detection and prevention of illegal logging. Free, open access to all timber harvest authorization documents is essential for enabling local residents and non-governmental organizations to participate more fully in the sustainable management of public timberlands.

3. Comprehensive re-assessment of valuable hardwood stocks Highly inaccurate official government forest inventory data allow forestry officials to authorize unsustainable levels of timber harvesting and ignore true levels of illegal logging.

We propose re-assessment of the region’s hardwood stocks by conducting professional forest inveotry on selected, representative territories throughout Primorsky, Khabarovsky and the Jewish Autonomous Provinces. Should these surveys reveal significant differences to existing government forest inventory records, they could be used to adjust the annual allowable cut of valuable species across the region and in specific forest management units. It is critical to issue a moratorium on valuable hardwood exports until inventories have been obtained and the annual allowable cut has been readjusted.

4. Holding forest leaseholders responsible for timely reporting of illegal logging on their territories It is highly unlikely that forest leaseholders are unaware of large-scale illegal logging occurring on their territory. The constant movement of heavy equipment and fully loaded timber trucks to depots and saw mills, and dozens of people living in camps supplied from local villages for many weeks and months will be noticed. It is widely believed that leaseholders regularly permit outsiders or their own crews to illegally log their territories in exchange for part of the proceeds or a cut of the stolen timber. They thus gain access to timber on their territory that they have no legal right to harvest while shielding themselves from legal liability.

Leaseholders should be held responsible for the timely detection and reporting of all illegal logging on their territory. Should forest rangers discover unreported illegal logging on a leaseholder’s territory, that company would be held liable and ﬁ ned in accordance with the scale of the violation, and have its annual permitted harvest adjusted downward by the stolen volume. This would eliminate the incentive for leaseholders to steal from their own territory and instead would establish an incentive to protect their leases from genuine intruders.

5. Closing the “intermediate logging” loophole Well-meaning regulations on “intermediate logging”, designed to keep forests healthy and stimulate the growth of valuable timber, have become an important loophole for gaining access to valuable timber stocks in protective forests. As a result, hundreds of thousands of cubic meters of export-quality

28 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction hardwood are logged in place of the dying and poorly formed trees intended for removal.

We propose the immediate enactment of the proposal of the Far Eastern Forest Management Research Institute to ban intermediate harvesting in forest stands older than 90 years.xxviii

Recommendation: 1. Coordination between Russian and Chinese Improved governments The Chinese and Russian federal governments should coordinate their various international documentation systems for the movement of wood products, so that a clear coordination between paperwork “chain of custody” extending from the Russian supplier across governments the border to China and onward to furniture and ﬂ ooring manufacturers is maintained. The passage of the proposed law “On government regulation of roundwood trade” in Russia would greatly improve the rigor of this paperwork chain on the Russian side; linking this documentation to import and transport documents on the Chinese side would create an unprecedented level of transparency and traceability. The existence of such a chain is critical for Chinese manufacturers that must provide information to EU and US customers, who are obligated to conduct due diligence on the origin of imported products.

2. Coordination between Russia and other importing country governments Governments of importing countries such as China, Japan, US and EU member states should strengthen implementation and enforcement of laws against import of illegal wood, such as the US Lacey Act and the EU Timber Regulations.

Recommendation: Global companies have a critical stake in the illegal logging crisis in the Russian Far East. The fact that that Chinese-made oak, ash, elm and linden Reducing demand wood products has a high risk of containing illegal Russian timber has been for illegal timber publicized by western NGOs for yearsxxix, xxx. North American, European and Japanese companies who have still been buying hardwood products could face legal risks related to the Lacey Act, EU Timber Regulation and other laws and policies that address illegal wood sourcing. Demand for inexpensive hardwood furniture and ﬂ ooring far outstrips legal supplies from Russia, so companies can also face risks of diminishing supply for their products. Until logging levels are brought under control and stronger Russian forest governance is established, even “legal” hardwood from the region cannot be considered entirely sustainable. For global companies that wish to be compliant with their countries’ laws and offer their customers responsibly sourced products, there are only three options:

1. Purchase products made from wood certiﬁ ed under the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Companies that purchase Chinese-made hardwood furniture and ﬂ ooring from Russian Far East oak, ash, elm or linden should limit their purchases

Solving the Crisis : Recommendations for combatting illegality in forests of the Russian Far East 29 to products certifi ed under the international Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) standards. FSC-certifi ed manufacturers must develop chain of custody systems, undergo regular audits and promptly respond to stakeholder concerns. These requirements provide reasonable assurance about the legality of these wood sources. However, the supply of FSC- certifi ed oak, ash, elm and linden is very limited in the Russian Far East and can meet the demands of only a small proportion of buyers. Greater demand from importers could stimulate further certifi cation in the region, but until then this option will be limited.

2. Establish rigorous legality confi rmation systems that include fi eld verifi cation and the participation of 3rd party auditors and Russian stakeholders

Companies that insist on buying Chinese-made hardwood products and cannot ﬁ nd FSC-certiﬁ ed supplies must establish their own rigorous legality auditing systems.

As a fi rst step, it is essential for importers of any oak, ash, elm or linden products from China to demand greater clarity about the species and country of origin. This is important, as suppliers often identify only the genus (for instance, oak) and not the species (Mongolian oak). In this way, high-risk Russian Far Eastern timber can be mixed into lower-risk supplies from other regions without this being clear. Even if the species is identifi ed, the same valuable hardwoods species grow in Northeast China and are often labeled as being of Chinese origin. Importers should avoid any timber for which the species and country of origin cannot be confi rmed.

Should it be revealed that hardwood was sourced from the Russian Far East, the following steps should be taken to conﬁ rm legality:

a. Request and thoroughly check logging authorization documents. Request Russian timber harvesting authorization documents from Chinese suppliers. i. If suppliers cannot provide these documents, no legality confi rmation is possible and the supplier should be dropped immediately. ii. If suppliers provide these documents they need to be thoroughly checked by professionals qualifi ed to identify violations. WWF investigations found that such documents are regularly forged, falsifi ed or misused (i.e. legitimate documents issued for one single shipment are used multiple times to accompany shipments of illegal wood).

b. Confi rm authenticity of documents through fi eld audits. Once documentation has been received and reviewed, an independent audit of a sample of the logging sites identifi ed in the documents should be organized. The documentation provides the location, boundaries, volume and composition of authorized logging. Site visits are essential to reveal the real situation on the ground. The following questions should be asked during such fi eld visits: i. Could the imported wood possibly have come from this site? ii. Did illegal harvest (overharvesting, harvesting beyond authorized boundaries, harvesting of unauthorized species) take place on this logging site?

30 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction c. Assemble a professional audit team for the site visits. Field tours conducted by suppliers are an ineffective means of uncovering hidden violations. It is in the interest of Chinese and Russian suppliers to make their transactions appear legal, so a signiﬁ cant degree of independence from suppliers must be maintained during the audit process. Experienced third party auditors should be hired to check timber authorization documents and visit logging sites, with obligatory participation of local civil society representatives.

Further recommendations on conﬁ rming legality of wood supplies from Russia can be found in the “Keep It Legal” country guide, produced by t he Global Forest and Trade Networkxxxi.

3. If legality of sourcing cannot be rigorously confi rmed, avoid furniture, fl ooring and other wood products made from hardwoods that could be of Russian Far East origin (oak, ash, elm, linden) Importers of products made from Far Eastern hardwoods must take concrete steps to confi rm the legal sourcing of these materials. Two potential strategies were presented above: exclusive purchase of FSC-certifi ed products or establishment of rigorous independent due diligence systems. If importers are unable to take such steps, the only option is to exclude from their supply chains furniture and fl ooring made from valuable hardwoods that could be of Russian Far East origin.

Consumer action Individual consumers of wood fl ooring and furniture can also contribute to the effort to reduce demand for illegal timber. The best means is to purchase FSC-certifi ed products, which, as mentioned above, must undergo a rigorous auditing process. Consumers can also request information from retailers and manufacturers about what they are doing to comply with the requirements of the US Lacey Act and EU Timber Regulations. More and more fl ooring and furniture suppliers are including “Lacey compliance” and “EUTR compliance” information on their corporate websites. Consumers can compare the methods for legality confi rmation cited by suppliers to those suggested in this report.

Solving the Crisis : Recommendations for combatting illegality in forests of the Russian Far East 31 Appendix Calculating the volume of illegally harvested oak exported from the Russian Far East

WWF Russia, Amur branch (Vladivostok, Russia) March, 2012

he problem of illegal logging of high value hardwoods in Primorsky and TKhabarovsky Provinces is well known, but there is contention as to the scale of this activity. One approach to determining the scale of this problem is to compare volumes of high value hardwoods permitted for harvest with volumes exported in the form of roundwood and sawnwood from the two provinces. This document presents the results of such an analysis for Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica), the most commercially important hardwood species in the Russian Far East.

Volume of Mongolian oak permitted for harvest in 2010 In the Russian Federation all forests are held by the government, but are leased by provincial forest agencies out to private individuals and companies for harvesting. Each year leaseholders apply to the agencies with requests to harvest certain volumes. The volumes permitted for harvesting by the forest agencies are included in “forest declarations” that are presented to leaseholders. In addition, sanitary harvesting and thinning is carried out in forests not held under lease. Auctions are held for the right to conduct this logging, which are nearly always won by Provincial Logging Enterprises. Officially, such logging should only be for improving or maintaining forest health, but usually it takes on an entirely commercial character.

The volume of Mongolian oak permitted for harvest by forest leaseholders in 2010 consisted of 228,753 m3 in Primorsky Province and 52,900 m3 in Khabarvosky Province. These data were obtained from the Forest Management Agency of Primorsky Province and the Forest Agency of Khabarovsky Province.

The volume of oak permitted for harvest by the Primorsky Provincial Logging Enterprise was 162,720 m3. This ﬁ gure was obtained from the authorizing documents associated with the 2010 auction for logging rights in unleased forests. In Khabarovsky Province 7840 m3 of oak were permitted for harvest in unleased forests. This ﬁ gure was determined by summing the volumes contained in multiple auction documents for different forest management units.

32 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction Forest user Volume permitted for harvest (m3) Leaseholders (both provinces) 281 653 Primorsky Provincial Logging Enterprise 162 720 Khabarovsky Provincial Logging Enterprises 7 840 Total 452 213

Tab. 1: Volume of Mongolian oak permitted for harvest in Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces in 2010.

Export of oak products in 2010

In 2010 141,702 m3 of roundwood, 184,878 m3 of undried sawnwood, 12,666 m3 of dried sawnwood,156 m3 of glued panels and 1378 m3 of veneer made from Mongolian oak were exported from Primorsky and Khabarovsky provinces.

In order to compare these fi gures with the volume permitted for harvest, it was necessary to calculate the volume of timber harvested to produce the exported products. We will refer to this as “equivalent harvested volume”. The fi rst step in the calculation of equivalent harvested volume is converting the volume of fi nished products (green and dry sawnwood, veneer, glued panels) to roundwood equivalent. For this calculation we used fi gures on sawnwood production from roundwood found in the table “Normatives on output of hardwood unedged sawn materials according to Government Standard 2695-83” . For the output of glued panels and veneer from roundwood we used fi gures recommended by specialists from wood processing faculty of regional universities. The output coeffi cients for these products are shown in Table 2.

Coefficient of output from roundwood during Product processing

Roundwood 1,0

Sawnwood 0,56

Glued panels 0,3

Veneer 0,7

Tab. 2 Output of products from roundwood during processing.

The second step in calculating equivalent harvested volume is determining the total volume of oak timber logged in the forest to produce the roundwood that is either exported in unprocessed form or used for production of sawnwood, glued panels and veneer. We used two tables from the “Reference Book on Forest Inventory in Forests of the Russian Far East” to produce the coeffi cients necessary for this calculation. The fi rst table was “Maximum output of merchantable logs from the total volume of oak stands”, which provides the output of sawlogs and “technical fi rewood” (which can also be used for production of low-grade sawn boards) from the total volume of merchantable, semi-merchantable and fi rewood grade oak trees in a given stand. The second table was “Maximum output of merchantable logs from oak trees of merchantable grade oak trees.” We decided to take the mean of

Appendix 33 the output fi gures shown in these two tables for the following reasons: during harvest of Mongolian oak in the Far East not only “merchantable” grade trees are cut, but also a signifi cant number of “semi-merchantable” trees. So the output of sawlogs and technical fi rewood shown in the second table could be unrealistically high. However, we also believe that the output shown in the fi rst table could be unrealistically low, because during harvest a greater proportion of “merchantable” trees are cut than is shown in the authorizing documents. That is, the true output of sawlogs will be higher than the output calculated for an “ideal” mixture of merchantable, semi-merchantable and fi rewood grade trees.

The calculated mean output ﬁ gures are shown in table 3.

Log grade Coefficient of output from total harvested volume

Sawlogs (with “technical firewood”) 0,55

Veneer logs 0,32

Tab.3 Output of roundwood used in the production of sawnwood, glued panels and veneer from total harvested volume.

The “equivalent harvested volume” of the volume of Mongolian oak exported from the Russian Far East in 2010 was thus calculated using the coefficients used shown in tables 2 and 3 (Table 4). Comparison of the resulting figure (905,703 m3) with the permitted logging volume (452,213 m3) shows that the volume of Mongolian oak logged for export in Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces in 2010 exceeded the permitted logging volume by 2 times. The most plausible explanation for this discrepancy is large scale illegal logging above the permitted volume.

Coefficient of output Coefficient of output Equivalent Product Export (m3) from roundwood from total harvested harvested volume during processing volume

Roundwood 141 702 1 0,55 257 640

Green sawnwood 184 878 0,56 0,55 600 253

Dry sawnwood 12 666 0,56 0,55 41 123

Glued panels 156 0,3 0,55 946

Veneer1378 0,7 0,32 5 741

Total 452 213 905 703

Tab. 4. Equivalent harvested volume of Mongolian oak exported from Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces in 2010.

It is important to note that in this analysis only the volume harvested for export was considered. Volumes logged for sale within Russia were not considered. A signiﬁ cant part of the sawnwood products made from oak in the Primorsky Province are sold on the internal market.

34 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction Data about the volume of Mongolian oak permitted for harvest in Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces were available only for 2010. But customs data about the export of oak products were available for the period 2004–2011. The merchantable volume equivalent of these products was calculated with the same methods used for the 2010 data. The results are shown in Tab. 5.

2004 Coefficient to Coefficient to total Equivalent Product Export (m3) roundwood logged volume harvested volume Roundwood 421 737 1 0,55 766 795 Green sawnwood 52 611 0,56 0,55 170 815 Glued panels 53 0,3 0,55 320 Dry sawnwood 2 953 0,56 0,55 9 588 947 518 2005 Coefficient to Coefficient to total Equivalent Product Export (m3) roundwood logged volume harvested volume Roundwood 638 193 1 0,55 1 160 351 Green sawnwood 75 541 0,56 0,55 245 263 Glued panels 107 0,3 0,55 651 Dry sawnwood 1 017 0,56 0,55 3 301 Charcoal 685 0,8 0,8 1 071 1 410 636 2006 Coefficient to Coefficient to total Equivalent Product Export (m3) roundwood logged volume harvested volume Roundwood 718 257 1 0,55 1 305 922 Green sawnwood 68 040 0,56 0,55 220 910

Glued panels 441 0,3 0,55 2 672 Dry sawnwood 5 168 0,56 0,55 16 778 Charcoal 336 0,8 0,8 525 1 546 806 2007 Coefficient to Coefficient to total Equivalent Product Export (m3) roundwood logged volume harvested volume Roundwood 843 864 1 0,55 1 534 298 Green sawnwood 57190 0,56 0,55 185 681 Glued panels 689 0,3 0,55 4 176 Dry sawnwood 2 807 0,56 0,55 9 114

Tab. 5. Equivalent harvested volume of oak products exported from Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces 2004–2011.

Appendix 35 Parquet 135 0,3 0,55 818 1 734 087 2008 Coefficient to Coefficient to total Equivalent Product Export (m3) roundwood logged volume harvested volume Roundwood 871630 1 0,55 1 584 782 Green sawnwood 47 076 0,56 0,55 152 844 Glued panels 316 0,3 0,55 1 918 Dry sawnwood 1 511 0,56 0,55 4 906 Parquet 156 0,3 0,55 944 1 745 394 2009 Coefficient to Coefficient to total Equivalent Product Export (m3) roundwood logged volume harvested volume Roundwood 196 977 1 0,55 358 140 Green sawnwood 89 451 0,56 0,55 290 427 Glued panels 104 0,3 0,55 632 Dry sawnwood 7 719 0,56 0,55 25 063 Parquet 140 0,3 0,55 849 675 111 2010 Coefficient to Coefficient to total Equivalent Product Export (m3) roundwood logged volume harvested volume Roundwood 141 702 1 0,55 257 640 Green sawnwood 184 878 0,56 0,55 600 253 Glued panels 156 0,3 0,55 947 Dry sawnwood 12 666 0,56 0,55 41 123 Veneer1 378 0,7 0,55 3 579 903 543 2011 Coefficient to Coefficient to total Equivalent Product Export (m3) roundwood logged volume harvested volume Roundwood 95 548 1 0,55 173 724 Green sawnwood 231 885 0,56 0,55 752 873 Glued panels 166 0,3 0,55 1 006 Dry sawnwood 4 795 0,56 0,55 15 568 Dry sawnwood 4 384 0,7 0,55 11 387 954 559

Tab. 5. Equivalent harvested volume of oak products exported from Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces 2004–2011.

36 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction Without data about the volumes permitted for harvest it is not possible to precisely determine the level of illegal logging in the periods 2004–2009 and 2011. But great concern is raised by the fact that the equivalent harvested volume of exported oak in 2007 and 2008 was almost 2 times greater than the volume in 2010, which itself exceeded permitted harvest by 2 times. The permitted volume is determined based on the annual allowable cut (AAC) of oak that is deemed sustainable by forest inventory specialists. This fi gure cannot vary signifi cantly in the short timespan show in this analysis, since there is no way for the oak supply to signifi cantly expand (in fact, the AAC has become progressively more inaccurate since stolen volume is not removed from forest inventory materials). It is impossible for the forest management agencies of Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces to give permission to harvest 1.8 million cubic meters of oak in a single year; the maximum should hold steady at 400–500 thousand m3.

Various theories exist to explain the sharp decline in oak exports in 2009, including the global economic crisis and new export tariffs on roundwood (which greatly inﬂ uenced the ratio of roundwood to sawnwood in the total exports). But a third theory is possible as well – the exchastion of the oak resource in the Ussuri Taiga after ten years of massive, uncontrolled illegal logging.

Appendix 37 Citations

i Indroneil Ganguly and Ivan Eastin. 2011.Economic and environmental aspects of China’s wood products industry. Cintrafor News Winter 2011. www.cintrafor.org ii International Trade Center. http://www.trademap.org/Index.aspx iii Kotlobai, A., Ptichnikov A. 2002. Illegal logging in the south of the Russian Far East. WWF Russia, Moscow. iv Duma of Primorsky Province.2000. Appendix to appeal from the Duma to Representative of the President of the Russian Federation in the Far Eastern Federal District, K.B. Pulikovsky. v Television special Temniy Les (“Dark Forest”) on the program Spetsialniy Korrespondent. Television channel Rossiya 1. 21.05.2010 vi Television special Temniy Les. 21.05.2010 vii WWF Russia Amur branch. 2012 viii On the conducting of planned investigations: press release of the Federal Forest Management Agency. 02.11.2012. http://www.rosleshoz.gov.ru/ activity/monitoring/news/21 vix Kovalev, A.P., P.B. Ryabukhin, V.A. Kovalev and A.Y. Alekseenko. 2011. On the necessity transition to sustainable use of Far Eastern Forests. Herald of Tikhookeanskiy State University 2:61–70. Khabarovsk x Kovalev et al. 2011. xi Draft of federal law “On government control of the sale of roundwood and on adoption of changes to certain legislative acts of the Russian Federation”. http://forestforum.ru/viewtopic.php?f=9&t=10857 xii Zherebkin, G.N. 2011. Liability for illegal logging of forest stands: Analysis of illegal logging in the Russian Far East and a methodology for its investigation. Vladivostok: WWF Russia, Apelsin. 136 p. xiii Pulikovsky, K. 2005. Press release of the plenipotentiary of the President of the Russian Federation in the Far Eastern Federal District. Khabarovsk xiv Goncalves, Marilyne Pereira, Panier Melissa, Greenburg Theodore S. and Magrath, William B. 2012. Justice for Forests: Improving Criminal Justice Efforts to Combat Illegal Logging. World Bank Report. xv Forest Sector of the Russian Far East: an Analytical Survey. Sheingauz, A.S., ed. 2nd edition, revised and supplemented – Khabarovsk: RIOTIP, 2008. 192 p. xvi Avchenko, Vasiliy. 26 June2011. “Corruption pervades everything” President’s representative Ishaev: in the bioresource sector of the Far East 70 billion rubles a year are stolen. Expert Online. http://expert. ru/2011/07/26/korruptsiya-pronizala-vse/ xvii Smirnov, D.Y. 2012. Why do Primorye timber companies want to “develop” protective forests? Testimony before the Federal Duma (Parliament), Moscow.

38 Illegal logging in the Russian Far East: global demand and taiga destruction xviii “Pavel Korchagin: One third of timber processors of Primorye are in crisis.” Primamedia news website. 5 October 2011. http://primamedia.biz/ show/?id=92655 xix Television special Temniy Les. 21.05.2010 xx On the conducting of planned investigations: press release of the Federal Forest Management Agency. 02.11.2012. http://www.rosleshoz.gov.ru/ activity/monitoring/news/21 xxi Starostina, Elena. 2006. The pine nut uprising in Primorye. http://www.wwf.ru/resources/news/article/2684 xxii Dunishenko, Y.M. and A.A. Darensky. 2006. Resources of ungulate animal species in Khabarovsky Province. B.M. Zhitkova Russian Scientifi c Research Institute on Hunting Management and Trapping and WWF Russia. Dalnauka, Vladivostok. 90 p. (In Russian) xxiii Yudakov, A.G. and I.G. Nikolaev. 2012. Winter ecology of the Amur tiger. Dalnauka, Vladivostok. 202 pp. xxiv Zhelnin, V.V. 07.08.2011. Open letter to Russian Prime Minister V.V. Putin from the director of the Organization of Hunters and Fishermen of Soviet District, Vladivostok. xxv Wikramanawake, Eric, Eric Dinerstein, John Sedensticker, Susan Lumpkin, Bivash Pandav, Mahendra Shrestha, Hemanta Mishra, Jonathon Ballou, A.J.T. Johnsingh, Igor Chestin, Sunarto Sunarto,Phuntsho Thinley, Kanchan Thapa, Guanshun Jiang, Sivanathan Elagupillay, Hemanta Kafl ey, Narenda Man Babu Pradhan, Karma Jigme, Seng Teak, Peter Cutter, Md Abdul Azziz, Utin Than. 2011. A landscape-based conservation strategy to double the wild tiger population. Conservation Letters 4: 219–227. xxvi Kerley, Linda L., John M. Goodrich, Dale G. Miquelle, Evgeny N. Smirnov, Howard B. Quigley and Maurice G. Hornocker. 2002. Effects of Roads and Human Disturbance on Amur Tigers. Conservation Biology 16: 97–108. xxvii WWF Russia Amur branch. 2012 xxviii Kovalev et al. 2011 xxix Lebedev, Anatoly. 2005. Siberian and Russian Far East Timber for China: Legal and Illegal Pathways, Players and Trends.” Forest Trends. http://www. forest-trends.org/publication_details.php?publicationID=109 xxx Environmental Investigation Agency. 2007. Attention Walmart Shoppers: How Walmart’s sourcing practices encourage illegal logging and threaten endangered species. http://www.eia-global.org/PDF/report-Walmart- forests-dec07.pdf xxxi Keep It Legal Country Guide:Practical Guide for Verifying Timber Origin Legality.Russia. 2010, WWF Russia. wwf.ru›data/news/6917/do_legal-fi nal- web.pdf xxxii Visible at http://www.zelzel.ru/drevesina-pilomaterialy- derevoobrabotka/17-normativy-rashoda-syrya-i-materialov-v-derevoobrabotke xxxiii Reference Book for Forest Inventory in Forests of the Far East (Справочник для таксации лесов Дальнего Востока). 1990. Far Eastern Forest Management Research Institute, Khabarovsk.

Citations 39 ILLEGAL LOGGING IN THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST: GLOBAL DEMAND AND TAIGA DESTRUCTION

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