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Why Do We Say That? The Indo-European Factor
IE: 4000-2500 B.C. Inherited Word Stock Indo-European vocabulary correspondences
English night (OE eight (OE garden (OE guest (OE meal (OE mane (OE niht) eahta) geard) giest) melu) manu) German Nacht acht Garten Gast mahlen Mähne Gothic nahts ahtau gards gasts malan mana (Old Gmc) ‘house (OHG) Latin nox, noctis octo≠ hortus hostis molere mon|le ‘neckband’ Greek nyktós (G.) okto≠ xórtos m¥llo≠ ‘court’ Old Indic nák, naktam as˝t¸au grhá- mrn˝a≠ti mánya≠ (Sanskrit) ‘house’ ‘neck’ Old Irish -nocht ocht gort melim muin ‘neck’ (Old) Welsh nos oeth garth malu mwn ‘neck’ ‘enclosure’ Lithuanian naktis a£tuonì gar~das malù ‘enclosure’ Old Slavic no£t@ osm@ gradu` gost@ meljoˆ monisto ‘neckband’ Vowel Gradation (Ablaut)
Indo-European made frequent use of vowel gradation (Ablaut) to indicate tenses and various forms of words. Its effects live on in the daughter languages and beyond. From IE st(H)\-/st(H)a-≠ ‘stand’: Lat. stare≠ OE standan, MnE stand (with present -n- infix) Lat status, OE sto≠d, MnE stood (from perfect stem) From PrGmc sta∂iz: E stead, G Stadt, Statt, Stätte Skt sthíti ‘(the act of) standing’ Lat statio,≠ stationis, Gk stásis OE sto≠d ‘group of animals, esp. for breeding’ > MnE stud, Ger Stute Also E stall < Gmc sta∂laz; E stool, Ger Stuhl, Rus stol ‘table’, Gk ste≠le≠ ‘column’ Possibly E stem, G Stamm Zero grade -st-: nest Vowel Gradation (Ablaut)
Why do we say SING - SANG - SUNG or WRITE - WROTE - WRITTEN? Vowel Gradation (Ablaut)
Indo-European vowel gradations were of two types qualitative (e.g., a/o, a/e,) quantitative (e.g., a/a≠, o/o,≠ a/Ø that is, zero-grade) Germanic retained the alternations very visibly in the verb system, with original IE vowels changed slightly but regularly in some instances. Gothic, the oldest Gmc language for which we have extensive records, shows the most regular pattern and is used to mirror the PrGmc situation. German and English exhibit variations due to sound changes and the effects of analogy. Vowel Gradation (Ablaut)
Traditional verb class I PrGmc pres | pret1 ai pret2 i p.p. i Gothic steigan ‘rise’ stáig stigum stigans OHG tr|ban ‘drive’ treib tribun gitriban OE b|tan ‘bite’ bat≠ biton biten
Traditional verb class II PrGmc pres eu pret1 au pret2 u p.p. u Gothic kiusan kaus kusum kusans OHG sliofan ‘slip’ slouf sluffun gisloffan OE be≠odan ‘command’ be≠ad budon boden Vowel Gradation (Ablaut)
Traditional verb class IV PrGmc pres e pret1 a pret2 æ≠ p.p. o Gothic baíran (pron ‘e’) bar be≠rum baúrans OHG stelan ‘steal’ stal stalun≠ gistolan OE beran ‘bear’ bær bæron≠ boren
Traditional verb class V PrGmc pres e pret1 a pret2 æ≠ p.p. e Gothic qiπan qaπ qe≠πum qiπans OHG geban ‘give’ gab ga≠bun gigeban OE metan ‘measure’ mæt mæ≠ton meten Preterite-Presents Preterite-present verbs have past-tense (preterite) forms for present-tense meanings. These verbs are ancient, all the way from IE days. In Germanic languages, as we have seen, preterite tenses had two different vowel gradations. In OE:
OE singan: ic/he ≠ song πu ≠ sunge (thou sangest) I/he sang we/ge≠ /he≠ o≠ sungon we/ye/they sang Preterite-Presents In Germanic languages, preterite tenses had two different vowel gradations:
OE singan: ic/he ≠ song πu ≠ sunge (thou sangest) I/he sang we/ge≠ /he≠ o≠ sungon we/ye/they sang The OE verb witan (to know) uses similar forms with a present meaning: OE witan: ic/he ≠ wat≠ πu≠ wite I/he know(s) we/ge≠ /he≠ o≠ witon orig. ‘I have seen’ we/ye/they know PRESENT meaning ! Preterite-Presents
Preterite-present witan (to know) came from IE. OE witan: wat≠ - witon know Originally meant way back in IE ‘I have seen’, the perfect (past) tense. If I have seen something, I ‘know’ it. In form it is thus past, but came to have a present meaning. It is related to Lat video,≠ videre≠ ‘see’’! Cf. also Russian vizhu, vidit, ‘I see, she sees’ Preterite-Presents
Preterite-presents are largely modal auxiliary verbs: Eng can OE can/cunnon G kann/können shall sceal/sculon soll/sollen may mæg/magon mag/mögen will wille/willa∂ will/wollen must mot≠ /moton≠ muss/müssen (durst) πearf/πurfon darf/dürfen OE (mostly) retained the two-vowel past tense system in these ancient verbs (but of course with PRESENT meaning). Modern German still does as well, but ONLY in the modal verbs and wissen (OE witan). MnE has leveled them out to one vowel only. Preterite-Presents Modern English, by way of Middle English, has ended up with just one vowel. In the case of witan, we have the remains of the verb ‘to know’ in: witless ‘having no sense, knowing nothing’ unwittingly ‘without knowing’ witness > OE witnes ‘knowledge; testimony’ witling ‘person of little wit’ dull-witted, dim-witted ‘weak in the knowledge department’ Preterite-Presents More modern traces of witan ‘to know’: nitwit ‘know-nothing’ (or ‘brain the size of a louse’s egg’) witty (formerly, ‘having great knowledge’) wits (brains, knowledge) at one’s wits’ end ‘not knowing what to do’’ to wit ‘so that you know’, for example wittol (ME wetewold): an archaic term for a cuckold, one who knows of his wife’s infidelity but does nothing about it More vowel gradation
Do these vowel gradations only show up in verbs? More vowel gradation
The IE Connection: not only verbs
fare drive Gk pos≠ ‘foot’ ferry drift foot, Ger Fuß wayfarer in droves Lat pe≠s, pedis ford pedal, podium, firth tripod; in fetters Ties thatthat bind: Proto- Germanic
Ties that bind: Proto-Germanic Development of Germanic
Proto-Gmc: 500 B.C. - 3C A.D.
PreGmc: 2500-500 B.C. Germanic Tribes
Off to Merry Olde England! (beginning around 400-450 A.D.) IE toto Germanic
How did the Germanic language family become different from Indo-European? What kinds of factors made it a different language family? IE toto Germanic
First Sound Shift: consonant changes: IE bh, dh, gh > Gmc b≠, ∂, ©, later b, d, g in some positions IE p, t, k > Gmc f, π, x (h initially) IE b, d, g > Gmc p, t, k Relatively complicated IE verb system simplified in Germanic to present and past tenses only. (Compound tenses added later.) Vowel changes: IE o > Gmc a (L octo≠, Go ahtau) IE a≠ > Gmc o≠ (L ma≠ter, OE mo≠dor) Dental preterite (past tense formed by a t/d/π suffix) was a Gmc innovation: origin of MnE -ed, now in the vast majority of our verbs
IE accent could be on any syllable; the accent became fixed on the first syllable in Germanic Some vocabulary not found in other IE languages Germanic Sound Shift
Examples of First Germanic Sound Shift Separated Germanic from other IE branches Germanic changes shown in red in chart
IE bh > L f, Gk ph IE dh > L f, Gk th IE gh > L h, Gk ch Gmc b Gmc d Gmc g fra≠ter / brother fi(n)gere ‘mold’ / hostis / guest fiber / beaver dough (OE d|ge) hortus / geard fra(n)go≠ / break foris / door homo / OE guma Gk pho≠gein / bake Gk thygater≠ / (cf. ME bridegome) daughter Gk chole≠ / gall IE/L/Gk p > Gmc f IE/L/Gk t > π IE/L/Gk k > Gmc h pater / father tre≠s / three cornu≠ / horn piscis / fish tu≠ / thou cord- / heart portus / ford tenuis / thin quod / hwæt, what pullus / foal tumere≠ ‘swell’ / cent- / hund-red ped- / foot thumb capere / heave, pecu ‘cattle’ / fee tona≠re / thunder have OE feoh canis / hound IE/L/Gk b > Gmc p IE/L/Gk d > Gmc t IE/L/Gk g > Gmc k G kannabis / hemp duo≠ / two genu / knee turba / thorp ‘town’ dent- / tooth ager ‘field’ / acre (IE b was very rare; domare≠ / tame genus / kin little evidence left decem / ten G gyne≠ / queen of it) edere / eat granum≠ / corn Dental preterite
If we inherited a system of vowel alternations from Indo-European, why do we put -ed on most of our verbs to form the past tense without changing the vowel at all? Dental preterite
Dental suffix to form past tense/past participle Examples from Germanic languages
Infinitive / 3s past / past participle Gothic nasjan/nasida/nasiπs ‘save’ haban/habáida/habáiπs ‘have’ OHG nerien(nerren)/nerita/ginerit habe≠n/habe≠ta/gihabe≠t OE fremman/fremmede/fremed ‘perform’ habban/hæfde/hæfd MnE save/saved/saved have/had/had keep/kept/kept rip/ripped/ripped MnG retten/rettete/gerettet haben/hatte/gehabt Dan spise/spiste/spist ‘eat’ have/havde/haft bo/boede/boet ‘live, dwell’ Ice dæma/dæmdi/dæmdur ‘deem’ hreyfa/hreyf∂i/hreyf∂ur ’move’ her∂i/herti/hertur ‘harden’ bor∂a/bor∂a∂i/bor∂a∂ur ‘eat Fixed Accent
Greek retained Gmc (here OE) fixed IE movable accent: accent on first syllable: Nom pate≠r Sing. N/D/A fæder Sing. Gen patros Gen fæder(es) Dat patri Acc patera N/A fæderas Plur. Voc pater Gen fædera Dat fæderum N/V pateres Plur. Gen patero≠n This was to have dramatic Dat patrasi effects in Middle English. Acc pateras Fixed Accent Compare these words from Old English, featuring full vowel values in unstressed syllables, with their Middle English equivalents: Old English Middle English ‘lame’ lama lam≠ e ‘go, fare’ faran, p.p. faren far≠ en (both forms) ‘stone’ sta≠nes (G), sta≠nas (pl) sto≠ˆnes* ‘falleth’ fealla∂ falleth nacod na≠ked ‘we made’ macodon mak≠ eden ‘sure’ sicor sek≠ er leng∂o lengthe ‘liquor’ medu meˆd≠ e Unaccented vowels were leveled to the neutral -e. *In Middle English, the final -s came to be a plural signal. *It also retained its previous function of marking the genitive. Verner’s Law
Why do we say I WAS but YOU WERE? Verner’s Law
When the original IE accent FOLLOWED a syllable with Gmc voiceless f, π, x and s were VOICED to b(v),≠ ∂, g, z (which by OE had become r).
Similar things happen in modern English and German. Compare: accent before accent after causes voicing MnE éxecute (ks) exécutive (voiced to gz) Ger Hannóver (f) Hannoveráner (voiced to v) Verner’s Law IE,PrGmc: Voiceless Voiced Accent + f, π, x, s b(v),≠ ∂(d), g, z(r) + Accent cf. Skt vavárta, OE wearπ Skt vavrtimá, OE wurdon
Effects of Verner’s Law frequent in past tense plural and past participle of verbs; accent used to be AFTER f, π, x, s in these forms:
OE fre≠osan ‘freeze’, PAST fre≠as / fruron PP froren ce≠osan ‘choose’ ce≠as / curon coren se≠o∂an ‘seethe’ se≠a∂ / sudon soden fle≠on ‘flee’ fle≠ah / flugon flogen sn|∂an ‘cut’ sna∂≠ / snidon sniden feolan≠ ‘reach’ fealh / fulgon fulgen se≠on ‘see’ seah / sæ≠gon segen be≠on, wesan wæs / wæ≠ron Modern English has (sensibly?) eliminated all but was/were. Mutating Vowels!
Why do we say stone-stones, friend-friends, but goose-GEESE, mouse-MICE, foot-FEET? Mutating Vowels!
OE vowels
High |, y≠ u≠ y, i u e≠ o≠ Front Back e o æ a≠ æ a Low Mutating Vowels!
In PreOE (PrGmc), base vowels are fronted (or just raised for æ>e) if |, i or j (semivowel as in yes) were in the following syllable. High y≠ u≠ y u e≠ o≠ Front Back e o æ a≠ æ a Low The vocal organs anticipate the high front position of |, i or j . Mutating Vowels! The effects of the earlier |, i or j remain by evidence of the changed stem vowel. The mutation factor is usually lost by the time of OE, appearing to be an exception unless you look back earlier. The umlaut factor often caused doubling of the consonant before disappearing, an additional ghost of its former presence. Gothic, for instance, shows us the closest information we have to Proto-Germanic: Gothic example Old Engl/Modern Engl reflex (vowel unmutated) (showing mutated vowel) certain verb classes nas-j-an ‘save’ nerian sat-j-an ‘set, cause to sit’ set (from past tense), OE settan at-j-an etch (‘eat away at’), Ger ätzen haf-j-an OE hebban, MnE heave comparative & superlative suffixes: -iz-, -ist- (alπiza) old,elder,eldest; < eald,ieldra,ieldesta sceort, sciertra, sciertesta BUT: but no umlaut if -o≠z-, -o≠st- fægen, fægenra, fægnosta ‘fain, glad’ Mutating Vowels!
Gothic example Old Engl/Modern Engl reflex (vowel unmutated) (showing mutated vowel) certain noun classes cf. PGmc *bo≠k, pl. *bo≠kiz mouse/mice, louse/lice (OE mus≠ > pl. mys≠ > m|s > mice) fotus,≠ fotjus≠ (PGmc pl *fotiz)≠ goose/geese, foot/feet
Umlaut is essentially inactive in modern English. Its remains are viewed as “irregularities” now. As a side note, modern Icelandic is in contrast to English so conservative that it has retained full case inflections from ON. Phonological processes like umlaut remain very much alive to this day. These nouns, for instance, alternate 2 or even 3 vowels:
‘tooth’ NGA tönn, G tannar; (pl.) NA tennur, G tanna, D tönnum ‘foot’ N fótur, G fótar, D fæti, A fót; (pl.) NA fætur, G fóta, D fótum Mutating Vowels!
In summary, the combination of original ablaut (vowel gradation) from Indo-European and the effects of umlaut factors (i-, u-, w-mutation and some other factors)--plus a few later developments having to do with syllable structure--all serve to create the vowel alternations we see today in various word families. broad/breadth (OE brad!)≠ long/length wide/width fall, fell, fallen; to fell a tree heave, hove; have; heft, hefty give, gave, given; gift etc. etc. etc. Alliteration (Stabreim)
Why do we say things like FRIEND or FOE? Alliteration (Stabreim)
In Old Germanic oral tradition, alliteration (Ger. Stabreim), or repetition of initial sounds in successive words, was common instead of rhyme as we think of it. Alliteration served: As a memory aid For dramatic effect, emphasis on important words Alliteration (Stabreim)
An example from Beowulf (translation by Seamus Heaney): Ongeat πa≠ se go≠da grund-wyrgenne, mere-w|f mihtig; mægen-ræ≠s forgeaf hilde-bille, hond sweng ne ofte≠ah πæt hire on hafelan hring-mæ≠l a≠go≠l græ≠dig gu≠∂-le≠o∂. (...)
The hero observed that swamp-thing from hell, the tarn-hag in all her terrible strength, then heaved his war-sword and swung his arm: the decorated blade came down ringing and singing on her head. (...) Alliteration (Stabreim)
The mindset of Germanic alliteration survives in many alliterative pairs, some of which are modern formations: kith and kin tried and true time and tide now or never friend or foe live and learn rough and ready hippety-hop with heart and hand house and home wind and weather vim and vigor life and limb no rhyme or reason down and dirty hale and hearty bed and breakfast come hell or high water rest and relaxation Word Order
Why do we hear things in strange orders in nursery rhymes that we’d never say normally? You know, like A merry old soul was he. and Then came his fiddlers three. Word Order
Although Subj-Vb-Obj was a typical word order in Gmc., and very much so already in Old English, placing another element first was common, especially since the inflections indicated grammatical function. The verb then usually remained second if for instance an adverb came first: ˜a ≠ clipode he ≠ and cwæ∂ ... Then called he and said ... (MnE: Then he cried out, saying) ... Word Order Modern English retains the V-S inversion only in a few fixed expressions: “Give me wine!” said he. (Old King Cole?) Little did we know that a cliff lay ahead. Not only was she rich, but she was also smart. Never would I presume! No sooner had he said it ... Otherwise, the S-V order prevails. Modern English, with no inflections, relies solely on word order to indicate grammar function. Soon they saw a clearing ahead. “Give me some wine!” he said. Word Order
The V-S inversion was also typical in older English for questions with question words: Hu ≠ clypode A±beles blod≠ to ≠ Gode ... ? ‘How called out Abel’s blood to God ... ?’
As well as in yes/no questions: Gehyrst≠ πu,≠ sælida?≠ ‘Hear you, sailor?’ Word Order
Modern English retains the V-S inversion in all questions, but most often inserts a helping verb: not How called out Abel’s blood to God ... ? but How did Abel’s blood call out to God ... ? As well as in yes/no questions: not Hear you, sailor? but Do you hear, sailor? Word Order Generally, only auxiliary verbs (used with infinitives or participles as completions) are allowed to form a V-S inversion in Modern English questions:
OK Can you bring me some tea? OK Must they always shout so much? OK Have you forgotten anything? OK Is Mrs. Jones coming to the social? but Have you any change? seems quaint (or British!), and Wish you anything else, Sir? or Brought Tom the pizza? sound downright wrong in MnE. Semantic shift
OK, so, if German, Dutch, Danish and English all came from the same source, why does tide mean a different thing in English from the other three, even though they were originally the same word? English tide (regular ebb and flow of the sea) Danish tid (= time) Dutch tijd (= time) German Zeit (= time)
OE t|d also meant ‘time, hour’ and survives in such words as Yuletide, Whitsuntide, or “time and tide will admit no delaying” (an alliterative doublet) Semantic shift
Many times words change their meanings slightly or a great deal over centuries. This is semantic shift.
MnE deer // G Tier, Du dier, OE de≠or ‘animal’
MnE wife - OE w|f ‘woman, wife’ // G Weib, Du wijf (now pej.)
Ice hross, MnE horse // G Ross, Du ros, ‘steed’
MnE town - OE tu≠n ‘enclosure, village’ // G Zaun ‘fence’ // Du tuin ‘garden’ // OIr du≠n ‘fortress’
Frequent as -ton in English place & personal names: Brighton, Newton, Flemington, Wellington, etc. NWGmc & Ingwaeonic
What’s the origin of bring vs. brought? NWGmc & Ingwaeonic
North Sea dialects (e.g., OE, Dutch, Frisian) shared certain charac- teristics. One was loss of nasal consonants (n, m) before a fricative sound. The vowel was lengthened in compensation for the loss. Ingwaeonic OE *finf > f|f, MnE five, Du vijf cf. Ger fünf bring vs. brought (g was fricative) think vs. thought (k
Why does German seem so different from English when it’s a related language?
(You knew I had to sneak German into this, didn’t you!) Second Sound Shift
All Germanic languages shared the First Sound Shift. That’s how they split off from Indo-European. Only Central and Southern German underwent something called the Second (or “High German”) Sound Shift which further differentiated it from the remaining Germanic languages--including, incidentally, northern German dialects. This “Zweite Lautverschiebung” occurred most completely in remote Swiss mountain villages and spread northward. Only some of the sounds shifted in central Germany--or only in some words and not others--so those dialects are a “mix” of shifted and unshifted sounds. The process happened around 400-800 A.D. Second Sound Shift
As with the First (Germanic) Sound Shift, consonants were affected in the Second (High German) Sound Shift: English Dutch German (showing 2nd shift) ten, two tien, twee zehn, zwei water, that water, dat Wasser, das pepper, deep peper, diep Pfeffer, tief make, book maken, boek machen, Buch
Northern German dialects, along with Frisian and Dutch, are more akin to English in their consonants. In fact, Frisian is the closest relative to English. Latin Leftovers
If Latin was so important in Europe until well into the 18th and even 19th centuries, did English absorb any Latin vocabulary? Latin Leftovers
Latin loan words (examples from Pyles) early loans: common to all Gmc languages oral loans, popular language wine (OE w|n), Lat v|num cheap (EmnE good cheap, OE ceap≠ ‘marketplace, wares, price’; cf. name Chapman), Lat caupo≠ ‘tradesman, wineseller’ Latin Leftovers anchor (OE ancor), Lat ancora butter (OE butere), Lat bu≠tyrum chalk (OE cealc), Lat calc- cheese (OE ce≠se), Lat ca≠seus cf. Ger Käse, Frisian tji dish (OE disc), Lat discus cf. Ger Tisch ‘table kettle (OE cetel), Lat catillus ’little pot’ cf. Ger Kessel’ kitchen (OE cycene), L coqu|na cf. Ger Küche mile (OE m|l), L milia (passuum) ‘a thousand (paces)’ mint (OE mynet ‘coin, coinage’), L mone≠ta cf. Ger Münze -monger (OE mangere ‘trader, merchant, broker’), L mango≠ cf. gossip monger, war monger mongrel is not from this root; probably from OE gemong ‘crowd’ > ME ymong, mong ‘mixture’ pepper (OE piper, pipor), L piper cf. Ger Pfeffer pound (OE pund), L pondo≠ ‘measure of weight’) cf. Ger Pfund sack (OE sacc), L saccus) sickel (OE sicol), L secula’ cf. Ger Sichel street (OE stræ≠t), L (via) strata≠ ‘paved (road) cf. Ger Straße wall (OE weall), L vallum
These were all borrowed into Gmc after the first sound shift but before the second “High German” sound shift, as shown by German equivalents of indicated words. Latin Leftovers Pyles lists as earlier loans (some acquired from British Celts):
Old English Latin source German/Dutch cognate tæfl ‘gaming board’ tabula Tafel, tafel candel candela≠ sealtian ‘to dance’ salta≠re sealm psalmus (from Gk) Psalme leahtric ‘lettuce’ lactuca≠ eced ‘vinegar’ ace≠tum Essig, edik/azijn Læden ‘Latin’ Lat|na Latein, latijn mægester ‘master’ magister Meister, meester cest ‘chest’ cista > cesta Kiste, kist/kast peru ‘pear’ pirum Birne, peer senop ‘mustard’ sina≠pi Senf, sennep regol ‘rule’ re≠gula Regel, regel mynster ‘monastery’ monaste≠rium Münster, munster earc ‘ark’ arca Arche, ark/arke t|gle ‘tile’ te≠gula Ziegel, tegel sicor ‘secure’ se≠cu≠rus sicher, zeker stær ‘history’ historia segn ‘mark, banner’ signum (MnE sign from Fr signe, later) ceaster ‘city’ castra ‘camp’ Manchester, Gloucester, Worcester, Casterton, Chesterfield, Lancaster, Exeter (< Execestre) Latin Leftovers
Somewhat later loans, after about 650 A.D., do not exhibt the typical English sound changes:
Old English Latin source German cognate plaster emplastrum Pflaster alter ‘altar’ altar Altar martir martyr Märtyrer templ templum Tempel de≠mon daemon Dämon paper papy≠rus Papier messe ‘mass’ missa > messa Messe circul circulus Zirkel ‘compass’ ca≠lend ‘month’s beginning’ calendae, Kalendae Kalender come≠ta come≠ta Komet
There are more than 500 in OE up to the Conquest; later borrowings than this from Latin are massive in number in comparison. Some of them were ultimately from Greek, from which Latin borrowed extensively. (Pyles) Latin Leftovers
Middle English borrowed heavily from French and Latin. Often not really possible to tell from which language the words were taken. • ecclesiastical terms: dirge, mediator, redemptor, later Redeemer; • legal: client, subpoena, conviction; • scholarly: simile, index, library, scribe; • scientific: dissolve, equal, essence, medicine, mercury, opaque, orbit, quadrant, recipe. • verbs: admit, commit, discuss, interest, mediate, seclude; • adjectives: legitimate, obdurate, populous, imaginary, instant, complete. Pyles reports that there were hundreds of Latin words adopted between the Conquest and 1500. Latin Leftovers
The most Latin and Greek terms were borrowed in the Modern English period, after 1500. From 1500-1600 or so: area, abdomen, compensate, composite, data, decorum, delirium, denominate, digress, edition, education, fictitious, folio, fortitude, gradual, horrid, imitate, janitor, jocose, lapse, medium, modern, notorious, orb, pacific, penetrate, querulous, resuscitate, sinecure, series, splendid, strict, superintendent, transition, ultimate, urban, urge, vindicate. Some of these again may be via French. From Greek via Latin: allegory, anemia, anesthesia, aristocracy, barbarous, chaos, comedy, cycle, dilemma, drama, electric, epoch, enthusiasm, epithet, history, homonym, metaphor, mystery, paradox, pharyx, phenomenon, rhapsody, rhythm, theory, zone. From Greek via French: center, chronicle, character, democracy, diet, dragon, ecstasy, fantasy, harmony, lyre, machine, nymph, pause, rheum, tyrant. From Greek directly: acronym, agnostic, anthropoid, autocracy, chlorine, idiosyncrasy, kudos, oligarchy, pathos, phone, telegram, xylophone. Celtic Carryovers
How about the Celts? After all, they had settled Britain before the Angles and Saxons, right? Celtic Carryovers
Celtic loans are not numerous because they were the conquered people. Pyles states that it is likely ceaster (< L castra) was one, as was the –coln in Lincoln (< L colo≠nia; cf. here G Köln, Du Keulen). One is torr ‘peak’. Several place names are of Celtic origin: Cornwall, Devon, Avon, Usk, Dover, London, Carlisle, and many more. A Case forfor Cases
Old dative forms: methinks, me thoughte ‘it seems/seemed to me’ me mette (ME) ‘it dreamed to me’ Old accusative: If you please ‘if it please you’ (Fr s’il vous plaît, D.O.) Old instrumental forms (OE πy≠): the more, the merrier ‘by that (much) more, by that (much) merrier nonetheless ‘nothing less by that’ all the better to eat you, my dear Old reflexive pronouns: Now I lay me down to sleep ... (myself) He set him down. = He sat (set himself) down. Prepositional Plunderings
Why do we say “to fight WITH someone”? Aren’t we really fighting against the person?
And why are thoroughbreds called that? Are they bred to be really hard workers or good at detail? Prepositional Plunderings wiπ in OE meant ‘against, opposite, from’: withstand ‘stand against’’ to fight with someone to break with one’s family to break up with a boyfriend withdraw ‘draw away from’’ withhold ‘hold away, back from’’ notwithstanding ‘not opposing that’ Prepositional Plunderings
πurh (ME also πruh) gives us both ‘through’ and ‘thorough’ in the same meaning: thoroughbred ‘bred through a long line’ thorough bass ‘basso continuo’, playing all the way through the piece throughly ‘(archaic) in a thorough manner’ thoroughfare ‘passage through’ through street, throughway Old English Lives! 100 most frequent words in Old English Those with little or no change in form or meaning: god God hwæt what micel, ma≠ra much, more mann man πis this mæ≠st most heofon heaven self self, same to≠ too eor∂e earth hwelc which eall all weorold world sittan sit swa≠ so, as l|f life se≠can seek πæ≠r there lufu love healdan hold πanne then word word beran bear nu≠ now weorc work giefan give æ≠r ere, before dæg day cuman come in, on in, on hand hand se≠on see to≠ to, toward cynn kin be≠on, wæs be, was for for πanc thank do≠n, dyde do, did ofer over engel angel go≠d good under under ic I w|d wide æfter after πu≠ thou fæst fast æt at he≠ he ha≠lig holy πurh through hit it r|ce rich and, ond and πæt that a≠n, na≠n one, none gif if hwa≠ who he≠ah, h|erra high, -er πeah≠ though Harder toto Recognize 100 most frequent words in Old English Those with substantial change in form or meaning (modern cognate in parentheses): cyning king (Ger. König) mo≠tan, mo≠ste be able, must mo≠d (mood), courage secgan say folc (folk), people faran (fare), travel mynd (mind), memory cunnan, cu≠∂e (can, couth), know do≠m (doom), judgment cwe∂an, cwæ∂ (quoth), say, said fe≠ond (fiend), enemy scieppan (shape), create fæsten (fastness), fortification swelc such ga≠st (ghost), spirit le≠of (lieve), beloved so≠π (sooth), truth e≠ac (eke), also burg (borough), walled town swelce (so-like), likewise wieldan (wield), control a≠, na≠ aye; never, not at all habban,hæfde have, had gel|c like mæg, meahte may, might wi∂ (with), against, willan, wolde will, would opposite sculan, sceolde shall, should a≠gan own Old English Doesn’t Live 100 most frequent words in Old English Those which are lost in modern English: (but not always in other Germanic languages): dryhten lord, Dan. drotning witan (wit), know; G wissen hyge thought, Dan. hygge munan remember, Ice. muna r|ce dominion, Ger. Reich e≠ce eternal πeod≠ people, nation, Ger. deutsch sw|∂ strong wuldor glory æ∂ele noble, G edel æ∂eling nobleman, prince, Ger. edel eft later, Dan. efter scop poet, singer ne not, neither l|c body, corpse, Ger. Leiche πa≠ then, when, G da feorh life sw|∂e very, extremely wer man (but werewolf) mid with, G mit, Ice me∂ he≠o she ac but se≠, se≠o the (m. & f. forms) πe≠s, πe≠os this ha≠tan, ha≠tte (ME hight) be called, G heißen weor∂an (ME worth), G werden beorgan protect, G bergen The Same but Different Words whose meanings have changed since medieval times: now then compare with naughty of no value naught (nothing) dip baptize Ger taufen knave young fellow, servant Ger Knabe ‘boy’ lewd uncultured OE læ≠wede ‘laical, ignorant’ crafty wise, knowledgeable witchcraft, know one’s craft nice foolish, silly, wanton Fr. niais ‘stupid, silly’ silly blessed, innocent OE sæŁ≠lig ‘happy’, Ger selig crude bloody L crudus, Fr cru ‘raw’ hussy housewife OE hu≠s ‘house’ harlot drifter, no-goodnik Harley rider? Ha ha. OFr herlot ‘rogue’; herler ‘yell, make noise’ farce stuffing; later, a filler Fr. farcir ‘stuff’ between acts of play flesh meat Ger Fleisch Invading Danes: Old Norse
Wasn’t there a lot of Scandinavian influence in Old English? If so, do we still see any residual effects from that? Invading Danes: Old Norse
Danes and Norwegians, speaking a tongue very close in many ways to OE (Old Norse, or ON), invaded, settled and thoroughly integrated themselves into northeastern Britain starting in the 9th century. Their contact with the native population was extremely intimate, and they were assimilated into it thoroughly by intermarriage. Since ON was so closely akin to OE, many confusions and mutual influences arose between the two languages (grammar endings and syntax as well as lexical items). Invading Danes: Old Norse
One visible ON element in our vocabulary is the K or SK sound, which had become a CH or SH sound in English. Interesting doublets arise: kirk / church raise / rear dike / ditch shriek / screech skirt / shirt ship / skiff
Other loans from Scandinavian are: kid, get, egg skill, skin, bask sky (OE lyft, Ger Luft, Du lucht), take (OE niman, Ger nehmen, Du nemen) nay, swain Invading Danes: Old Norse
Other Scandinavian loans, all part of our basic everyday vocabulary: leg, neck, skin cake, knife, window (‘wind-eye’) flat, ill, odd, ugly, wrong call, cast, die, happen, raise, take, want though
An extremely important ON loan into English are the pronouns they/them. OE had a rather ill-defined mess: he/him OE: he,≠ him, hine (Subj, I.O., D.O.) she/her heo,≠ hire, heo≠ they/them heo,≠ him, heo≠ You can see why they/them won out! Those Pesky Normans
Why does it seem so easy to learn many French words? They seem just like English, just pronounced differently. How did this come about? Those Pesky Normans William the Conqueror and his band of Normans showed up in England in 1066 and took over the helm at the Battle of Hastings. They were actually Norsemen originally who had invaded northern France and been assimilated. Their language was thus French. French rulers dominatee culturally and linguistic- ally for the next 200 years or so. French became the language of the feudal courts, church institu- tions, civilized life in general. Loan words reflect this cultural importance--although Norse words still enter the language faster until about 1132. ME has a vastly different look from that of OE. French inin Public Life noble, royal, juggler, castle, prince, duke, viscount, baron government, administer, attorney, chancellor, country, court, service crime, prison, estate, judge, jury, peasant, trespass, punish, oppress, prohibit, discipline, tax, penalty, torture, supplication, exile, treason, rebel, dungeon, execution, mortgage (lit. ‘death-pledge’) abbot, clergy, preach, sacrament, vestment army, captain, corporal, lieutenant, sergeant, soldier dignity, enamor, feign, fool, fruit, horrible, letter, literature, magic, male, marvel, mirror, oppose, question, regard, remember, sacrifice, safe, salary, search, second, secret, seize, sentence, single, sober, solace carriage, courage, language, savage, village French Sources
Fr gentil > gentle, later loans genteel, jaunty Loans had different forms depending on original dialect: Anglo-Norman: c-, w- Central (Parisian): ch-, gu/g- chapter (L caput) cattle chattel (L capitale)≠ wage gage warranty guarantee ME borrowings have ch pronounced as in OFr of the time: chase, chamber, chance, chant, change, champion, charge, chaste, check, choice Later borrowings reflect the evolved French pronunciation: chauffeur, chamois, chevron,chic, chiffon, chignon, douche, machine Those Pesky Normans English Old French Modern French retains -s- from Old French has –s- -s- lost in later OFr; (pronounced at time of loan) (pronounced early) indicated by é- school escole école scholar escoler écolier (school pupil) strait estreit, estroit détroit (étroit = narrow) strange estrange étrange stable estable étable spine espine épine spangle espingle épingle (pin) stallion estalon étalon state; estate estat état stanch estanchier étancher establish establir établir spouse espos, espose époux, épouse spice espice, espece épice spinach espinach, espinoch épinard espy espier épier spell espeldre, espeler (explain) épeler (spell) discourage descoragier décourager discover descovrir découvrir scout escolte (spy) écouter (listen) scale (of fish) escale, escaille écaille despoil despoillier dépouiller (skin; plunder) describe descrire décrire squire, esquire escuier écuyer (squire; rider) Those Pesky Normans
English Old French Modern French retains -s- from Old French has –s- -s- lost in later OFr; (pronounced at time of loan) (pronounced early) indicated by circumflex forest forest forêt hostel hostel hôtel (now hotel) host hoste, oste hôte vested vesti vêtu beast beste bête master maistre, mestre maître mistress maistresse maîtresse ghastly gast (ruined) dégât paste past, paste pâte pastry pastoirie pâtisserie hospital ospital hôpital hostage ostage otage (no circumflex) priest prestre prêtre plaster plastre plâtre French isis Fancy
French words are used to describe ‘cultured’ and official life. Everyday things involved with lower classes retained the Anglo-Saxon words. Prepared meats for eating at a fine table are for instance French, as are the terms for their preparation. The animals from which the meats come are Germanic: French terms Anglo-Saxon terms beef, pork, veal, mutton, pullet; steer, pig, calf, sheep, chicken (bœuf, porc, veau, mouton, poulet) boil, broil, fry, stew, roast
Also, the French terms are elegant: English ones earthy or crude: odor, perspiration, dine, deceased smell, sweat, eat, dead depart, return, desire, obtain go away, come back, want, get regard, receive, urine, excrement look at, get, ****, **** Gallic Tidbits
Rotten Row in London’s Hyde Park is from French ‘route du roi’, ‘king’s path’ (a riding path) Hoity-toity refers to upper classes looking down at lower folks from their high roof, or ‘haut toit’ Mayday! perhaps from Fr. Venez m’aider! Fun Facts beware: OE warian ‘preoccupy, claim the attention of’; ME war ‘on guard, attentive’ OE weard ‘guardian, keeper’ lord PrOE *hlaf-ward≠ ‘keeper of the loaf’, > OE hla≠ford > ME loverd > MnE lord lady PrOE *hlaf-d|ge≠ > OE hlæf-d|ge≠ ‘bread (loaf) kneader’ > MnE lady (cf. OE da≠g ‘dough’, ME dogh) Fun Facts
Hocus-pocus may come from Latin Hoc est corpus in the Mass (“This is the Body”) The “loo”: Garde à l’eau! Cinderella’s slipper was made of squirrel fur (Fr. vair ), but mistranslated by retellers poor in French (or who couldn’t afford fur) who thought it was verre, glass. Vulgus is Latin for crowd. Vulgar referred originally to non-nobles. French gentil gives us gentleman, gentility. Willy-nilly from OE wille nylle (contraction of ne wille) ‘if he wants or doesn’t want’ Hope you had fun!fun!