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Sands School – Student Interviews) THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL Trust me, I‟m a student: An exploration through Grounded Theory of the student experience in two small schools being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Hull by Max A. Hope, B.A. (York) September 2010 Abstract The majority of literature about democratic education has been written from the perspective of teachers or educators. This thesis is different. It has a clear intention to listen to and learn from the experiences of students. Empirical research was conducted using grounded theory methodology. Two secondary schools were selected as cases: one was explicitly democratic; the other was underpinned by democratic principles. Extensive data sets were gathered. This included conducting interviews with eighteen students; undertaking observations of lessons, meetings and social spaces; and holding informal conversations with teachers, staff and other students. Documentary information was also collected. All data were systematically analysed until the researcher was able to offer a conceptual model through which to understand the student experience. This thesis argues that the quality of learning is likely to improve if schools pay attention to how students feel. In particular, students with a strong sense of belonging and those who feel accepted as individuals are likely to be less defensive, more open, and more able to be constructive members of a school community. A theoretical model is presented which identifies key factors which contribute to these processes. This model presents a challenge to the way in which school effectiveness is assessed within the current education system. Acknowledgements First and foremost, my thanks must go to the staff and students at two small alternative schools – Sands School in Ashburton, Devon and The Small School in Hartland, Devon. Without your openness and honesty, this research would have been a harder and a less enjoyable process. I also appreciate your willingness to be identified by name, as guaranteeing anonymity would have been nigh-on impossible for two such unique schools. My appreciation continues to go to the young people I worked with during my employment as a youthworker. From you, I have learnt so much. You continue to inspire me. I also thank my supervisor, Nigel Wright, for his continual support, advice and good humour. As for everyone else, you know who you are. Thank you. The credit is shared, but any mistakes are my own. Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Grounded Theory Methodology 5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Development of Grounded Theory 6 2.2.1 Theoretical Sampling 8 2.2.2 Theoretical Sensitivity 9 2.2.3 Constant Comparison Method 10 2.2.3.1 Data coding / Memo writing 10 2.2.3.2 Integrating categories 1 0 2.2.3.3 Delimiting / Solidifying the theory 11 2.2.3.4 Writing 11 2.2.4 Conflict between Glaser and Strauss 11 2.3 The Constructivist Challenge to Grounded Theory 15 2.4 Other Perspectives on Grounded Theory 19 2.4.1 Rennie and the field of psychotherapy 19 2.4.2 Turner and the field of organisational 20 behaviour 2.5 This research project 20 2.6 Summary 22 Chapter 3 Research Design 2 4 3.1 Introduction 24 3.2 Research Methods 26 3.2.1 Case Study 26 3.2.2 Interviews 27 3.2.3 Observations 30 3.2.4 Documentary Analysis 31 3.3 Sampling Strategy 31 3.4 Verification Strategy 33 3.5 Ethical Issues 34 3.5.1 Methodological standpoint on children 35 3.5.2 Consent 36 3.5.3 Access 38 3.5.4 Privacy and Confidentiality 40 3.5.5 Unequal Power Relationship 42 3.5.6 Gaining Ethical Approval 43 3.6 Research in Practice 43 3.6.1 Sands School 43 3.6.2 The Small School 44 3.7 Researcher Reflexivity 45 3.8 Summary 48 Chapter 4 Sands School: Student Interviews 49 4.1 Process of Analysis 49 4.1.1 Open Coding on paper 50 4.1.2 Open coding using ATLAS-ti 52 4.1.3 Merging and deleting codes 54 4.1.4 Writing vignettes 54 4.1.5 Statistical analysis 55 4.1.6 Micro analysis of individual codes 56 4.1.7 Diagrammatic mapping of relationships 57 between codes 4.1.8 Writing up 59 4.2 Information from interviews 59 4.2.1 Overview 59 4.2.2 Identity 61 4.2.3 Relationship with Teachers 63 4.2.4 Power and Influence 69 4.2.4.1 School Meeting 70 4.2.4.2 School Council 72 4.2.4.3 Trial Week System 75 4.2.4.4 Staff Reports 77 4.2.4.5 Personal choice about learning 77 4.2.4.6 Democracy 78 4.2.5 The Learning Environment 82 4.2.6 Culture, Values and Norms 89 4.2.7 Belonging and Individuality 95 4.3 Summary and conclusions 99 Chapter 5 Sands School: Observational and Documentary 101 Analysis 5.1 Process of Analysis 101 5.2 Information from observational and documentary sources 106 5.2.1 Overview 106 5.2.2 Ethos and Values 107 5.2.3 The Learning Environment 109 5.2.4 Democracy 116 5.2.5 Relationships 120 5.2.6 Belonging 121 5.3 Summary and conclusions 123 Chapter 6 The Small School: Student Interviews 1 24 6.1 Process of Analysis 124 6.1.1 Open coding using ATLAS-ti 125 6.1.2 Merging and deleting codes 126 6.1.3 Statistical analysis 127 6.1.4 Drawing together key themes 128 6.1.5 Micro analysis of individual codes 129 6.1.6 Diagrammatic mapping of relationships 129 between codes 6.1.7 Writing up 130 6.2 Information from interviews 131 6.2.1 Overview 131 6.2.2 The external context: rumours and 131 preconceptions 6.2.2.1 Load of hippies 132 6.2.2.2 The perfect education 135 6.2.2.2.1 Impact on students 139 6.2.3 The school itself 141 6.2.3.1 Identity 141 6.2.3.1.1 Identity as informal / youth club 142 6.2.3.1.2 Identity as small 143 6.2.3.2 What is school for? 147 6.2.3.2.1 Learning / including GCSEs 148 6.2.3.2.2 Friendship / Being social / 151 Being in a community 6.2.3.2.3 Messing around / Having fun 154 6.2.3.3 Freedom 155 6.2.3.4 Financial constraints 155 6.2.3.4.1 Impact on freedom 156 6.2.3.5 How decisions were made 159 6.3 Summary and conclusions 163 Chapter 7 The Small School: Observational and 164 Documentary Analysis 7.1 Process of Analysis 164 7.2 Information from observational and documentary 168 sources 7.2.1 Overview 168 7.2.2 Historical Development 168 7.2.3 Ethos 171 7.2.4 Teaching and Learning 176 7.2.5 Parental Involvement 183 7.2.6 Finances and Funding 184 7.3 Summary and conclusions 187 Chapter 8 Generation of Theory 1 8 9 8.1 Introduction: Theory Generation within Grounded 189 Theory 8.2 Summary 190 8.3 Belonging 193 8.4 Acceptance as an individual 195 8.5 The overlap between belonging and acceptance 197 8.6 What contributed to a sense of belonging and / or 198 acceptance as an individual? 8.6.1 Relationship with teachers 199 8.6.2 Relationship with the school as an entity 200 8.6.3 Relationship with peers 202 8.6.4 Relationship with self 203 8.7 What were the outcomes of belonging and / or 205 acceptance as an individual? 8.7.1 The quality of experience for the student 205 increased 8.7.2 Students learnt more 205 8.7.2.1 Students learnt because they were part 206 of a community 8.7.2.1 Students learnt more through being 206 ready to engage with a formal curriculum 8.8 Concluding Comments 206 Chapter 9 Review of Literature 2 08 9.1 Introduction: Role of literature within Grounded Theory 208 9.2 Educational theory and philosophy 210 9.2.1 Democracy, Person-Centred Learning and 210 Freedom 9.2.2 Size 220 9.2.3 The citizenship agenda 223 9.2.3.1 Citizenship in classrooms 224 9.2.3.2 Pupil Voice 226 9.2.4 Section summary 230 9.3 Belonging – and being an individual 230 9.3.1 Belonging 231 9.3.2 The development of personal identity 240 9.3.3 Interplay between belonging and personal 247 identity 9.3.4 Section summary 249 9.4 Perceptions of Effectiveness 250 9.4.1 School Effectiveness 251 9.4.1.1 Summerhill School and OFSTED 256 9.4.2 School Improvement 259 9.4.2.1 The role of relationships 264 9.4.2.2 Developing cultures for learning 266 9.4.3 Connections between School Effectiveness 267 and School Improvement 9.4.4 OFSTED Reports from Sands and Small 268 schools 9.4.5 Section summary 270 9.5 Concluding Comments 271 Chapter 10 Reflections and Conclusions 2 74 10.1 Introduction 274 10.2 Model Clarification 275 10.3 Resonances with literature 278 10.4 How was this research original? 284 10.5 Revisiting the research settings 285 10.6 Assessing the quality of this research 293 10.6.1 Credibility 294 10.6.2 Transferability 294 10.6.3 Dependability 296 10.6.4 Confirmability 296 10.7 Limitations of research 298 10.8 Conclusions 301 References 304 Appendices A Letter and consent form for Participants 314 B Ethics Form 316 C Code List (Sands School - student interviews) 319 D Code List (Sands School - observational and 322 documentary analysis) E Code List (The Small School - student interviews) 325 F Code List (The Small School - observational and 329 documentary analysis) G The Naturalistic Treatment of Trustworthiness 331 List of Tables Table 3.1 Profile of participants interviewed at Sands School Table 3.2 Profile of participants interviewed at The Small School Table 4.1 Sands School - Codes with highest frequency (student interviews) Table 5.1 Sands School - Codes with highest frequency (observational and documentary analysis) Table 6.1 The Small School - Codes with highest frequency (student interviews) Table 7.1 The Small School - Codes with highest frequency (observational and documentary analysis) Table 10.1 Areas of convergence and divergence between data, theoretical model and literature review List of Figures Fig 4.1 Open Coding diagram – Sands School Fig 4.2 Rough Diagram showing possible connections between codes (student interviews – Sands School) Fig 4.3 Diagrammatic Mapping – Sands School Fig 4.4 Identity – “inside”
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