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Fish Folk Taxonomy on Brazil's Atlantic Forest Coast

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Fish Folk Taxonomy on Brazil's Atlantic Forest Coast 291 Are Biological Species and Higher-Ranking the species category and the taxon, its practical application Categories Real? Fish Folk Taxonomy on (Bock 2004). Coyne and Orr (2004) offer the following ar- guments for the reality of species: Brazil’s Atlantic Forest Coast and in the 1. Species are real because they are recognized as real by Amazon everyone, even across cultures. 2. Species are real because there is concordance between folk A. Begossi, M. Clauzet, J. L. Figueiredo, L. Garuana, R. V. and scientific species. This argument is based on ethnobiological Lima, P. F. Lopes, M. Ramires, A. L. Silva, and R. A. M. studies that have identified species and compared them with Silvano the Linnean, or biological, species (Berlin 1992; Medin and Fisheries and Food Institute, Rua Coronel Quirino 1636, Atran 1999; Diamond and Bishop 1999; Begossi and Garavello Cambuı´, Campinas 13025-002, Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil 1990; Marques 1991; Begossi and Figueiredo 1995; Paz and ([email protected]) (Begossi, Clauzet, Figueiredo, Garu- Begossi 1996; Hunn 1999; Seixas and Begossi 2001). ana, Lopes, Ramires, Silva, Silvano)/Programa de Capacita- 3. Considering that folk taxonomy may be a form of cluster c¸a˜o de Pescadores Artesanais para o Manejo da Pesca analysis, a way of grouping organisms on the basis of the sim- (CAPESCA)–Pro´-Reitoria de Extensa˜o e Assuntos Comuni- ilarity of particular characteristics or variables, we could not ta´rios (PREAC)–Universidade Estadual de Campinas statistically discriminate or identify groups if they did not exist. (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil (Begossi)/Museu de Zoolo- Ethnobiological studies have identified five hierarchical cat- gia Universidade de Sa˜o Paulo (Figueiredo)/Rua Desembar- egories for the classification of organisms in different cultures: gador Sidnei Sanches 136, Campinas 13050-181, Sa˜o Paulo, unique beginner, life form, generic, specific, and varietal (Ber- Brazil (Lima)/Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Fe- lin 1973; see CAϩ online supplement A). The generic category deral do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil has been observed to be the most common in folk systematics. (Silvano). 8 XI 07 Life forms vary in scale and uses, from intermediate (families/ ethnofamilies) to supracategorical (orders, classes), and they CAϩ Online-Only Material: Supplements A–F are probably among the least-understood categories of eth- nobiological nomenclature (see Brown 1984). This may be Analysis of Brazilian fishers’ classifications of 24 marine (At- because of the variety of life forms in both qualitative and lantic coast) and 24 freshwater (Amazon) fish species reveals quantitative terms, since cultures differ in the number of life that fishers from the Atlantic coast identify fish mainly forms they describe. As societies move toward urbanization through generic names (primary lexemes), while riverine Am- and large-scale organization, they lose their intimate contact azonian fishers typically identify them through binomials. The with nature, and the number of life-form designations tends similarity of Amazonian fish species seems to contribute to to increase. Cultures that rely directly on natural resources, the detailed folk taxonomy used by riverine fishers. High- in contrast, tend to have a detailed knowledge of organisms ranking groups called “relatives” or “cousins” are sorted by and, as a result, emphasize generic/specific terms. These ob- fishers in terms of similarities of habitat, diet, and morphology servations have been supported by comparing animal life and, secondarily, behavior. The general correspondence be- forms in 144 languages. Languages with few biological life tween the folk and scientific taxonomies reinforces the reality forms are usually spoken by people living in small-scale so- of both the supracategories used by these fishers and the cieties whose detailed knowledge identifies hundreds of sep- biological groups as discontinuities in nature. Given the ur- arate plant and animal species (Brown 1984). gency of biological inventories and the lack of knowledge of Folk taxonomy and folk systematics also reflect the avail- high-biodiversity environments such as the Atlantic Forest ability of animals in the environment. For example, bird and and the Amazon, these results suggest that fisher knowledge fish life forms are the most salient animal concepts in Amer- and experience could contribute to scientific research. ican English, Arabic, and Spanish, while languages spoken in the highlands of New Guinea lack the “fish” life form, ex- The reality of species has been the subject of debate since the amples of which are either absent or rare in the local envi- early days of evolutionary biology. Darwin defined species as ronment (Brown 1984). Therefore, the fish life form seems varieties that are well demarcated and defined and actually to constitute a salient discontinuity in nature, as is found in exist at a certain point in time, but his analysis left open the many languages. Clusters of fish may be intermediate cate- possibility that species might be arbitrary constructions of the gories, sometimes called “families” (Paz and Begossi 1996). human mind (Darwin 1859a [1982], 1859b; Coyne and Orr Such intermediate groups, between life forms and generic 2004). The term “species” is vague because it includes both ranks, are seen as covert taxa (Berlin 1992). Analyses of the universal markings of life forms suggest that binary opposi- ᭧ 2008 by The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. tion, criteria clustering, dimension salience, and utilitarian All rights reserved. 0011-3204/2008/4902-0006$10.00. DOI: 10.1086/ concerns influence the classification by name (Brown 1984). 527437 We have been conducting studies on the ethnoichthyology 292 Current Anthropology Volume 49, Number 2, April 2008 of Brazilian fishers for more than ten years (Begossi and Ga- and a corresponding describer or adjective; CAϩ online sup- ravello 1990; Begossi and Figueiredo 1995; Paz and Begossi plement D). Some species, among them groupers, mullets, 1996; Seixas and Begossi 2001). These and other studies have bluefish, certain jacks, sand drums, southern kingcroakers, revealed aspects of the folk taxonomy (nomenclature) and and cutlass fish, were readily recognized by most fishers and ethnoecology (habitat, diet, and migration) of marine and also identified quite homogeneously. In contrast, the hogfishes freshwater fishes (Silvano et al. 2001; Moura˜o and Nordi 2002; Bodianus rufus and Bodianus pulchellus were not recognized Silvano and Begossi 2002, 2005; Ramires de Souza and Barrella by 41 and 25 fishers, respectively; the weakfish Cynoscion 2004; Silvano 2004; Cabalzar, Lima, and Lopes 2005; Clauzet, jamacensis was not recognized by 16 fishers; and the damsel Ramires, and Barrella 2005). In this study, we examine fish Stegastes fuscus was not recognized by 38 fishers. nomenclature and attempt to understand the criteria for clus- Generic richness was higher for some species than for oth- tering (grouping) by artisanal fishers from the coast of the ers, and these were often species that were not recognized by Atlantic Forest of Brazil and from the Negro River, Amazon. most fishers. In other words, the number of genera cited Fishers are an interesting subject for ethnotaxonomical increased for less recognized species (different fishers cited studies because their day-to-day extractive activities are a way different generic names). The less knowledge fishers had of of acquiring very detailed knowledge of fish biology and ecol- fish, the greater the diversity of names cited (figure E1, CAϩ ogy, in addition to a particular way of grouping these organ- online supplement E). Other things being equal, about 30% isms. Comparing the ethnotaxonomy of fish in two culturally of the lack of knowledge of a species was responsible for the similar groups might therefore be helpful in understanding increase in diversity of fish nomenclature, in particular, the the process of folk classification. The caic¸aras of the Atlantic diversity of fish genera cited. Forest coast and the caboclos of the Amazon (for the latter, Fishers formed many fish groups by ordering species as see Mora´n 1974) are rural inhabitants of Brazil, descended “relatives” (parentes) or “cousins” (primos). The ways in mostly from Portuguese colonizers and native peoples, who which they explained these groupings—for example, mor- live in aquatic environments and depend on marine species phological similarity, swimming together, eating the same of the coast (for the caic¸aras) or riverine fish (for the caboclos). food, having similar behavior, and living in the same place Caic¸aras and caboclos are also similarin engaging in small- (habitat)—were similar in all seven communities. A strong scale agriculture (manioc) as well as artisanal fishing, but they tendency to group fish in terms of morphological similarity live far apart (CAϩ online supplement B) and differ in their was observed during the interviews, but diet and habitat were aquatic environments (coastal and riverine, respectively) and also mentioned. The groups formed by at least 20% of the their local histories (for details, see Begossi 1998; Begossi et fishers interviewed are shown in figure 1. We thus have five al. 2004). In other studies (Begossi and Garavello 1990; Be- groups formed by 12 species, corresponding to five biological gossi and Figueiredo 1995), morphological and ecological var- families: Mugilidae, Carangidae, Labridae, Pomacentridae, iables such as habitat and fish diet were found to be important and Serranidae. Genera
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