Cultural Harmonization in East Asia: Adaptation of Hana Yori Dango / Boys Over Flowers
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EAPC 1 (1) pp. 113–131 Intellect Limited 2014 East Asian Journal of Popular Culture Volume 1 Number 1 © 2015 Intellect Ltd Article. English language. doi: 10.1386/eapc.1.1.113_1 seiKo yasumoto University of Sydney Cultural harmonization in east asia: adaptation of Hana yori dango / Boys Over Flowers abstraCt Keywords In the domain of popular culture since the 1990s, Japanese media has increasingly cultural harmonization crossed regional and international borders. There has been appropriation, adapta- harmonization tion and remaking of many of these media products into different formats, such as remade (remaking) manga, anime, TV drama, films and games. Products, when traded and remade TV drama across geographical boundaries, have a multidimensional aspect and potentially manga contribute to an evolving cultural re-engagement between Japan and Asia. This textual and cultural article analyses, within a sociocultural context, the significant textual and cultural content elements of the iconic Japanese manga, Hana yori dango / Boys Over Flowers. cultural framework Firstly, it explores how the originating manga has been adapted into TV drama formats through the process of remaking, in Japan, Korea and Taiwan. Secondly, it examines the differentiation of textual and cultural content in the three countries; and, finally, it measures audience reception within a distinct fan group. Survey questionnaires and focus group interviews are used to collate the audience reception of the texts. The article argues that the media trade, through products like Hana yori dango, is contributing to the enhancement of regional intercultural understanding beyond regional historical antipathy. The article further argues that the influence 113 EAPC_1.1_Yasumoto_113-131.indd 113 10/10/14 2:00:33 PM Seiko Yasumoto of media trade and Japanese popular culture is contributing in a positive manner to the idea of regional ‘harmony’, rather than hybridism, with the retention in Japan, Korea and Taiwan of inherent cultural values. introduCtion Popular culture has played a significant role in Japan and Asia in the twenti- eth and twenty-first centuries and has contributed to globalization as well as localization in regional contexts. A number of scholars regard the 1990s as a period of transition in Japanese popular culture toward being a global culture (Ishii 2001; Ogura 2005; Iwabuchi 1999, 2002, 2004). Characteristics of this transition include regional flows from Japan into adjoining communities in East Asia and counter flows from East Asia into Japan, as well as composite global cultural flows. The sociocultural impacts of the trade in popular culture are enhancing regional intercultural understanding beyond historical antipa- thy, in turn contributing to harmonization in East Asia. Remaking, as part of the regional and global flows of popular culture content, of TV drama, film, anime (animation) and manga (comics) is common in Japan and East Asia, as well as being an international phenomenon. There have been studies of Japanese media cultural products in a variety of content and formats (Kelts 2007; Johnson-Woods 2010; Hamano 2005), but surpris- ingly little scholarly attention has been directed towards the specific phenom- enon of adaptation and remaking of Japanese popular culture products for regional and global trade and the influence of this trade on regional audiences from a sociocultural viewpoint. Remaking of manga, anime, TV drama and film occurs within Japan, primarily for Japanese consumption. Some media products, such as Japanese manga and TV dramas, are remade outside Japan and localized for consumption by the respective national audiences. Localized remaking has the propensity to contribute positively to evolving cultural rela- tionships in East Asia. The effects of these cultural transfers are determined using audience analysis to search for regional harmonization or hybrid- ity. Arguably, the export trade of Japanese media products and their remak- ing is an important part of the influence of Japan in the East Asian region. Technological advances, government media controls and the effects of cultural similarities and differences are all important elements in the remaking process. The technology provides the means for the transformation and trade of media and cultural products. Governments can, through regulation, block or allow the trading of these products. Consumers’ cultural framework and personal taste largely governs the acceptance of media products in Japan and overseas. This article is an examination of the remaking of the Japanese manga Hana yori dango / Boys Over Flowers and its influence on regional audiences. Media scholars interpret remaking in many ways. Atkinson refers to the processes of ‘adaptation and appropriation’ and ‘the over-arching practice of intertextuality’ (Atkinson 2008: 17). Moran refers to adaptations ‘of television program formats in the areas of game shows and soap opera’ (Moran 1998: 75). In reference to cross-national adaptation, Moran expresses a concern regarding textual trans- lation and the ‘national colouring’ of the translation (Moran 1998: 76). Tunstall uses the word ‘versioning’ (Tunstall 2008: 7), where the imported content is realigned to localize the content, for example, in a television mini-series. Hutcheon (2006) refers to adaptation. The range of terms used illustrates the difficulty in arriving at a finite description of the practices and the complexity 114 EAPC_1.1_Yasumoto_113-131.indd 114 10/10/14 2:00:33 PM Cultural harmonization in East Asia of the process of remaking. In the context of this article, the term ‘remaking’ is adopted to include not only a remaking of media content within a genre or format but also of transferring it from one format to another. Hana yori dango The core element of this article is the analysis of what is arguably one of the strongest examples of the remaking of a Japanese popular culture text, the manga comic series Hana yori dango, written by Kamio Yoko from 1992 to 2004. Television remakes of this manga have occurred in Taiwan (2001); Japan (2005); Korea (2009); PRC (2010); and the Philippines (2011). The analysis focuses on the content of three remakes of the manga Hana yori dango: the Taiwanese Liuxing huayuan / Meteor Garden, the Japanese Hana yori dango and the Korean Kkochboda namja / Boys Over Flowers. The intent is to isolate specific themes and motifs that have resulted in successful production, distribution and reception in Japan, Korea and Taiwan. Each production is therefore a catalyst for an ongoing pattern of trade in remakes and merchandized products. The remaking of Hana yori dango from its originating manga to its audi- ence has three distinct components. The first, and most important in the Diagram 1: Remaking of original text to audience reception. 115 EAPC_1.1_Yasumoto_113-131.indd 115 10/10/14 2:00:37 PM Seiko Yasumoto context of this article, is the journey of the originating text through the process of remaking. The second component is the transition of the remade text from local to regional, or global. The third component is the effect of government regulations, which has an interrelationship with the first and second compo- nents and which may allow or disallow official distribution of media content, in part or completely, to the intended audience. Content can also reach audi- ences through unauthorized Internet access, copying, scanlations and the like, but that is beyond the scope of this article, although the remade content may have a sociocultural influence on the regional audience and, in turn, lead to a sharing of common cultural elements. Diagram 1 illustrates a typical journey of remaking, from an original text to the audience through authorized and unauthorized distribution channels. Hana yori dango has moved from the originating manga text from local to regional to global. Cultural issues, which are many and varied, interlace the reception of the remade product by the audiences in Taiwan, Korea, Japan and elsewhere. researCh method The methodology used triangulation for a convergent validation to draw together the data gathered, thus enabling analysis and the drawing up of conclusions. The method adopted was designed ‘to capitalize on the compar- ative potential of three data sets rather than establishing a hierarchy of evidence’ (Barbour 2007: 47). Bryman refers to the approach ‘which refers to the use of more than one research method’ as ‘methodological triangulation’ or ‘multi-method research’ (Bryman 2011). I have used (1) foregrounding analysis; (2) textual analysis; and (3) audience analysis to arrive at my find- ings. Diagram 2 illustrates the concept. Bryman confirms five disciplines for using triangulation: sociology, social psychology, organizational behaviour, human and cultural geography, media and cultural studies. The three chosen segments for data collection and analysis are comple- mentary to the context of the study. Foregrounding analysis draws out those elements that are agreeable (or not) to the audience. Textual analysis focuses on textual changes through the process of remaking, to meet the scriptwriters’ perceived target audiences’ needs and audience analysis as a means of verify- ing outcomes. The selected segments fall within the ambit of the sociocultural context of this article. The analysis of an audience utilizes grounded theory Diagram 2: Triangulation. 116 EAPC_1.1_Yasumoto_113-131.indd 116 10/10/14 2:00:38 PM Cultural harmonization in East Asia within the scope of qualitative analysis: