CEU eTD Collection T F HE ORGING C In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of ASE OFTHE I DENTITY THROUGH Supervisor: Professor Florian Bieber Florian Professor Supervisor: Nationalism Studies Program Central European University European Central Jovana Mihajlovi Jovana C Budapest, Hungary ONTEMPORARY Master of Arts Master Submitted to Submitted 2008 By ü Trbovc N B OSNIAK EGOTIATION N ATION : CEU eTD Collection ILORPY...... 48 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... CONCLUSION - WHY THE BOSNIAK EXCLUSIVE 45 SOLUTION ...... WON? CHAPTER 4 – 40 THE COURSE ...... OF NEGOTIATION CHAPTER 3 – COMPETING DEFINITIONS 29 OF THE NATION...... CHAPTER 2 – COMPETING NATIONALISMS CHAPTER 1 – HISTORICAL 5 BACKGROUND...... INTRODUCTION...... 1 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...... IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... III N S F 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.2 1.1 L ERBIAN AND ERBIAN AILED LEGITIMACY OF COMMUNISM OF LEGITIMACY AILED ITERATURE REVIEW ITERATURE EWSPAPERS B B B M A C C C K OSNIAK OSNIAK EXCLUSIVE NATION OSNIAK INCLUSIVE NATION INCLUSIVE OSNIAK OSNIAN NATION LAIM OVER TERRITORY LAIMOVER LAIM OVER PEOPLE OVER LAIM OMMUNIST POLICYOMMUNIST TOWARDS NTI ALLÁY USLIMS AS A NATION AS USLIMS -I SLAMISM ’ S POLICY OF ...... 52 ...... C ROATIAN PRESSURE ROATIAN ...... 26 ...... 33 ...... 3 ...... 18 ...... B – OSNIAN NATIONHOOD OSNIAN ...... 24 ...... “M USLIM WITH CAPITAL WITH USLIM ...... 35 ...... 38 ...... T B ...... 45 ...... ABLE OF OSNIAN /Y UGOSLAVISM M USLIMS ii ...... 9 ...... C VIS-À-VIS ONTENTS ...... 45 ...... ”...... 31 M”...... 15 ...... “ONA USIN ...... 18 “BOSNIAN ...... QUESTION” CEU eTD Collection Dragan Golubovi deservesin andSarajevonation. Mediacentar headofits Special the gratitude archives sharewere kind enoughto their and knowledge onthe opinions issues ofBosniaktroubling well Mustafa Professors as Imamovi Dedicated to my little one that is about to come to this world. I would like to thank my supervisor Florian Bieber, for disciplining my as for thank discipliningI wouldmy supervisorthoughts, like Florian Bieber, to ü , who helped and hosted me so friendly. ü A , Zdravko Grebo, Nerzuk , Zdravko CKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii û urak and Ša ü ir Filandra,ir who CEU eTD Collection from BCS to English are responsibility of the author if notspecified differently. in,written languageifBosnian-Croatian-Serbian not specified All differently. translations All terms in square brackets […] are written in, or English translation of a word or phrase ZAVNOBiHAntifašisti –[Zemaljsko VKBI – [Vije VKBI i SKBiHBosne Komunista –[Savez CommunistsHercegovine] Leagueof and of Bosnia of SFRY –SocialistFederative Republic Yugoslavia stranka] Serbian demokratska Party Democratic SDS –[Srpska Action akcije]of Democratic Party demokratske SDA –[Stranka NDH – [Neyavisna Država Hrvatska] Independent State of Croatia MBO –[Muslimanska bošnja ICTY –International Criminal Tribunal for former the Yugoslavia zajednica] demokratska Democratic Union HDZ –[Hrvatska Croatian Committee Central Bosnei Hercegovine] Komunista Saveza Komitet – [Centralni CKSKBiH BH –Bosnia and Herzegovina BCS – Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian language AH –Austria-Hungary Herzegovina and Bosnia Liberation of People's of Anti-Fascist Council Hercegovine] Regional Intellectuals Herzegovina of of of Leaguethe Bosnia of andCommunists Herzegovina ü e Kongresa bošnja Kongresa e þ ka organizacija] Muslim Bosniak Muslim Organisation ka organizacija] þ kih intelektualaca] Council of the Congress of Bosniak of Congress the of Council intelektualaca] kih L ISTOF ABBREVIATIONS þ ko Vije ko iv ü e Narodnog Oslobo e Narodnog ÿ enja Bosne i enja Bosne CEU eTD Collection 4 3 brokered the change of a group’s name, and how was the consensus achieved – because: achieved consensus name,was the andhow changeof the a group’s brokered identity group was transformed. Subsequently questionof the agency be posed–who should the because changed was name the or identity, in change the produces name the of change helps to establish the structure of thebecame the official denomination for same the group. world,” 2 determines or reflects the nature of the thing that it signifies, of thing the nature the that reflects or determines change of group’s identity took place as well. The next dilemma is whether the name term of 1992-95, the dissolution warinBosnia the of Yugoslavia and [ – name national official endorsed establishment Communist formationmodern 1960sYugoslav as nation. Inthe a recent precedes their relative 1 its name to questionthe why – of thedid national Bosnia andgroup called Herzegovina of name mind the a nation. Questionfrom taken Mary Neuburger, Pierre Pierre Bourdieu, InSlavic languages, religious membership is writtenwith lower-case, while national membership withcapital Generally, hereafter Generally, Muslimani Nationhood in Modern Bulgaria beginning letter. Therefore letter. beginning The fact that a group changed its name is significant per se, since “the act of naming of “the act per se, since nameissignificant a groupchangedits that fact The Existence of Existence of Slavic Muslims of Bosnia The initial idea for this paper, as well as the starting point of the research for it, was for research the of point starting the as well forpaper, this idea The initial Nomen estomen ] Bosniaks 2 –for ethno-religious the group of Muslims.Bosnian of Duringcourse the the Language and Symbolic Power Bosnia at beginningthe of 1990s? the will stand for muslimani . The name is a sign. This statement seems even truer if having in if having truer even seems statement This sign. is a name The . (Ithaca, London: Cornell University Press, 2004), 143. denotes Muslims in religious sense and sense in religious Muslims denotes Bosnia and Herzegovina The Orientwithin: Muslim Minorities and theNegotiation of (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 105. I NTRODUCTION 3 therefore it may be reliable indicator that a 1 as a recognised distinct group historically group asarecognised distinct 1 . Muslims 4 and accordingly, whether the whether accordingly, and Muslimani (written with capital M) capital with (written Bosniaks in national sense. in national Muslims [ Bošnjaci changed ] CEU eTD Collection identity identity had been forged. Bosniak contemporary which to relation in others” “significant the nationalisms Serbian issuebackground attention willbepresented.Special Croatian bealso of and the to will given historical identity, national Muslims’ Bosnian of for negotiation the framework necessary toprovide offer prevailed.exclusive’explanation Inorder concept why ‘Bosniak the “identity negotiation”; describeto howsubsequentalternatives mount failed to support; and to of Bosnian course the “offered”identification to Muslims during presentalternative group inclusive’,‘Bosnian’, ‘Bosniak exclusive’. and this ‘Bosniak paperwill aim Therefore, to M’, capital with labelled bemay ‘Muslim as: that in of Bosnia present thesphere public Actually, time atthe of change,the several specifically from 1990-93, identity wereoptions 5 from shift this that shown has research preliminary my evolved, change the how exploring When Bosniaks Bourdieu, unmake thegroups.” legitimate definition of theto make division people see and of believe,the socialto get them worldto overmonopolyknow struggles struggles overclassifications, different the power the of and and,recognize, thereby, to impose the to make and Muslims This line of inspiredThis linelook for of thought me answers, to notonly why , but also what is, if there is any, difference in the substance of the two identities. two the of substance inthe is difference is,any, if there what also , but Language and Symbolic Power, “Struggles over ethnic or regional identity … are a particular case of identity the are aparticular“Struggles caseof ethnic… orregional over to Bosniaks 5 was not linear, wasnot preliminary smooth nordetermined, instant. 221. 2 Muslims became CEU eTD Collection 3 - Chapter in the sources them as primary and treat Iwill debate, of bethe part to materials these Muslim/Bosnian/Bosniakidentity,be and taken cannot as unbiased. Therefore Iconsider are, inmostindividualspart in took cases,whoactually publicthe of negotiation others. the overwhelmed identity national of concept one why and how of explanation detailed into go not does author the Therefore identities. other and national everyday to features spaceis of life,some whereamongBosnian devoted village, other inonly introduction, is the based book sincethe pre-war anthropological on a research of main lines of argumentations, is Bringa’sTone the outlines that and negotiation, identity the of existence the mentions briefly that publication Legacy phrase Fairexcusemay be Bosniak-Muslim. Andjeli haveshifting interchangeably,in period MuslimandBosniak a whichthey use terms or is to option Other name. new the use to start chapter new beginning when only but shift, the place.nothowevenmark thisquestion most timely casesthey ofwhyand In changedo took indulgedinto the specifically No author continuity. as alinear ‘Bosniakhood’ of concept based ethno-religiously to M’ capital with ‘Muslims of identification national designed 6 review Literature Here I call upononly those publications focusing onthe topic and the time-frame specifically, suchas: Neven Muslims: Denial of a Nation Herzegovina: A Tradition Betrayed Andjelic, Bosnian Way Herzegovina, Community to Socialist Nationhood and Post-Communist Statehood, 1918-1992,” in Competing definitions of thenation There are many more publications on the topic written by the local authors. But they local by authors. the written topic onthe many more publications There are English language literature who informsexplaining butstill without the on why.Theonly who change, the reader Bosnia-Herzegovina: The End of a Legacy (Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press,1995); RobertDonia J. John and V.A.Fine, ed. Mark Pinson(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Bringa, 1996);Tone (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996). (London: Hurst and Company, 1994); Francine Friedman, 6 tends to present shift from communist-style- civic from shift present to tends . (London: Frank Cass, 2003);Ivo “FromBanac, Religious Being MuslimtheBosnianWay. Being 3 ü ’s Bosnia-Herzegovina: TheEndof a The Muslims ofBosnia- Being Muslim the She does so The Bosnian Bosnia and CEU eTD Collection this paper. fewlasted goal for the out identity years,set of that Muslim/Bosnian/Bosniak negotiation of This common omission of not mentioning, or being aware of the process of 4 CEU eTD Collection Contemporary historiography hasproven Contemporary in heresy that medieval Bosniapractices wasnot Bulgaria. emergedin nowadays sectthat Gnostic heresy medievalor Christian refers to Bogomil sect. The term sect. Bogomil whom was the was whom medieval Bosnia,most organised of inthe heretical Christian were widespread practices network. Orthodox or Catholic strong no with low, generally was changing their confession. [ rulers Bosnian subsequent thus control, This reflectedand interest of zones Christianity Eastern and on Western the between thein was it that is region religiosity of the population this peculiarity of nowadaysmostpart of territory. The Bosnian the the century, covered as well, which as such in medieval times. Themedieval Bosnian state at its height, in the first part of the 14 of disputed historiographic interpretations, and material inused various national myths. were subjects that historical events particular information regarding provide excurse isto sequencerather relevantfor of our points turningAdditional topic. historical of purpose this question. will not all-encompassing be Here presented history Bosnia anditsof but peoples, aware of in previousthe stages the building of andpolitical identity national in group of the Bosnian Muslims’ collective identity formation. In order to understand it one needs to be 7 See John V. A. Fine, “The Medieval and Ottoman Roots of Modern Bosnian Society” in Bosnia-Herzegovina, The region of Bosnia, geographically similar to the one we know today, was identified This most in paper deals recentdevelopments with the longthe process lasting of Church of Bosnia Church of ed. Mark Pinson (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996), 1-21. Bogumil C HAPTER is distortion of original Bulgarian term [ Crkva bosanska 1 – ban H ] turned to one or the other centre of power, thus ISTORICAL 5 ]. It is often mistakenly referred to as B ACKGROUND 7 Additionally, various Additionally, Bogomil The Muslimsof , which th CEU eTD Collection 11 primary purpose Mahmud “known Sultan the Great”of “Peter Empire. II(1808-1839), Ottoman as the The of the reformsmilitary, political and economic power on the local level, came under danger by reforms of was to increase theorigin. This was another peculiarity of Bosniapower comparing to other Ottoman lands. of thepopulation, landlords,judges, clergy–wasinlarge Muslimelite the of –local the proportion Porte and local the of Islamisation of the large rate the to due Bosnia, sultan. In the to to obligation turn the non-Muslimthe subjects. Though privileged asaruling class,Muslim elite hadmilitary communities, and for significantprovided religious, educational andprivate-law autonomy of Bosnia 10 nationalisms. andBosniak by Croatian manipulated Serbian, hasbeen issueexcessively of conversion As be later,the questions. will presented Islam are still to from disputed converted which one faith Christian original ones; the and of motives converted the the forced; or was voluntary comparing to other Balkan regions. The nature of conversion, particularly the level to which it waives of conversion to Islam by local Slavic population, and overall,it was untypically high, 8 the halt in the face of Islam as the state religion. From 15 two. between the connection theological or Therewasnohistorical Bosnia. butBogumil,Manichean itsteaching of loosely intoown, which structured was Church of 9 John V. A. Fine, “The Medieval and Ottoman Roots of Modern Bosnian Society” in See Darko Kara Darko See See Colin Heywood, See Colin “BosniaOttoman under Rule, 1463-1800” in Tur. Mark Pinson, 22-53. vol.5 (2005): 113-127. “Perceptions of Islamization in the Serbian National Discourse,“ National Serbian the in ofIslamization “Perceptions Historiographies,” (MA Thesis, Central EuropeanUniversity, Budapest, 2005); Bojan and Aleksov, Herzegovina, Bosna eyelet, vilayet,pa 10 However, the long-lasting privileged position of Bosnian landlords as the ultimate the as landlords Bosnian of position privileged long-lasting the However, By late Ottoman period the period Ottoman late By With Ottomanthe inoccupation Bosnia,of inter-Christian 1463, areputconflicts to , it regulated different statuses for the members of Muslim, Christian andJewish Christian Muslim, of members the for statuses different regulated it, 9 ed. Mark Pinson (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996), 8. þLü , “The perception of the Conversion to Islam in Bosnia in the Western Balkans’ Western the in Bosnia in Islam to Conversion of the perception “The , ú al Õ k – depending on period the the administtrative units changed. millet system was well established in of the province established well system was 6 Southeast European andBlackSea Studies th to 18 to The Muslims ofBosnia-Herzegovina th century, there were several were there century, The Muslims of Bosnia- 8 11 , ed. , CEU eTD Collection 13 among themselves exclusively as religious ones. As one of the first Bosnian journalists, Bosnian first the of As one ones. asreligious exclusively themselves among inHerzegovina 19 only secondpartof the the and Bosnia entered movements national to claim much it moreseems that accurate However, Gradaš yearlater. the rebellion, proclaimed autonomy state. thewithin Ottoman 12 Gradaš the interpret consider that Bosnian belonging themselves to Muslim/Bosniak tend ethnic/national to group, hand,highlight Empire,Edict of in hadits the1939.On Tanzimatother scholars the which “Europeanising” framework larger inthe conducted of Ottoman reforms to opposition preserve quo, localleaders they have status intothe put Bosnian to uprising1831 of the Drawing parallel to the providedinformalby protecting theirprivileged status Bosnian province. the autonomy of similar situations of rebellious autonomy, and similar intentions by reforms, led which to theirwith conflict open Portein the 1831. central Faced withgovernment. diminishingthe Bosnian liberties, elite firmly the opposed of control direct the under army, modern, alarge, European-style create to was programme the of element main The in Europe. those to similar state centralised a into state Ottoman organised armed rebellion under the leadership of Gradaš of Husein-kapetan organised leadership armed the under rebellion by only a local in thefuture. Determined toprotect theirlocal preiviledges, Bosnian elite be occupied may vezir Bosnian of position that and rights, tenure land their of involiability Bosnian elite was not fully developed, but at its core were two demands: insisting on Noel Malcolm, Mustafa Imamovi Preporod, 1998),334. þ As far asmiddleof 19 Western scholars that researched history of Bosnia in their analysis of of in Husein-kapetan analysis theirBosnia of history researched scholars that Western evi ü uprising agree in depicting it as a class movement of lordslocal thataimed movementat inof ita class depicting agree uprising as Bosnia: A Short History ü , Historija Bošnjaka þ evi ü uprising as some sort of national emancipatory movement. national assome uprising of sort emancipatory th century, inhabitants century, ofBosnia were perceivingdifferences (London: Papermac, 1994), 121. [The [The History of Bosniaks](Sarajevo:Bošnja th century. 7 13 Ottoman forces eventually crushed the 12 The political programme of programme political The þ ka zajednica kulture þ evi ü , and CEU eTD Collection themselves as “ Slavic to the Muslims note that contemporaries referred asinfidels.Otherwise, Christians intention of connotation pejorative giving sinceto theby theywere group, perceived as thisbe Inthe historical namingshould Turks. understood ethniccontest, Turkish-speaking “Turks” was usedby population Christian Bosnian referto toSlavic Muslims, andnotto hierarchy hierarchy was in the of charge schooling. staffs Theeducational inBosnia were provided beWithin and religious wereplaying schools. Serbs Croatians thearrangement, Ottoman members. active the use of Croatian name among Sarajevo Catholics, with young Franciscans as its most aimedspreading was It at organised. counterpart At sametime, Croatian Hungary). similar the from Sad (then Novi SerbianYouth with United established connections which soon In 1863, an foundedOrthodox priest propagation for society in name of the Sarajevo, Serb national consciousness among theirflock was to introduce them to their “true” national name. had thesame strategy national of entrepreneurship. Intheirview, first the step in raising clergymen Catholic and Orthodox coordination, mutual Without well. as function educational holding was, atthe time, that of clergy organisedpropaganda to Herzegovina thanking up to the second half of the century, when this started to change. one. The national names of Serbs and Croatians were not in use in Bosnia and Herzegovina 15 Church”) or “ 14 “ Franciscan, Ivan FranjoJuki krstjani Imamovi Ivan Franjo Ivan Juki [Integration National Ideologies and Bosnia], Glorious Bosniak], Zagreb, 1851, cited from Mustafa Imamovi However, the most effective role in the “national enlightenment” ofBosniansoon-to- enlightenment” in the“national role most effective the However, Serbian and Croatian national ideologies penetrated into lands of Bosnia and ” (followers of the “Western Church”), “ Church”), “Western the of ” (followers ü , “Integracione nacionane ideologije i Bosna,” 115. Bosna,” i ideologije nacionane “Integracione , Turks muslimani 15 ü , Zemljopis ipoviestnica Bosneod Slavoljuba Bošnjaka ” (“followers of Mohammed”). Juki Mohammed”). of ” (“followers ” i. e. Muslims. Therefore, the prime social identity was religious was identity social prime the Therefore, Muslims. e. i. ” ü reports Godišnjak Pravnog fakulteta uSarajevu 14 , people were referring to themselves as either 8 hristjani ü , “Integracione nacionane ideologije i Bosna” ü himself underline that the name the that underline himself ” (followers of “Eastern the of (followers ” [Geography History and of a , no. 39 (1996): 112. CEU eTD Collection 16 reforms of 1839 and 1856.These intentionsmost are visible in of conductthe lastthe inrecognised thatlocalOttoman policies Bosnian authorities launched aspartof the patriotism, within the framework of the Dual Monarchy, of course. Bosnian specific developing at aimed policies his Therefore religion. their to regard no with he envisionedan alternative –national movement shouldthat gatherallBosnian inhabitants, national movements among the people ofBosnia toachieve andHerzegovina.order In that, “Bosnianhood”. The prime goal of Kállay’s policies was to restrict development of the Hungarian of governor BH –Benjáminvon Kalláy (in office 1882-1903)– the policy of nationhood ofBosnian policy Kalláy’s 1.1 political, cultural and religious centre in relation to which they were used to live. felt towhichmatter nofrom class belonged, anddisconnected declassed, they the actually Berlinwas a big Congress1878.It social forchange Muslim the population. In general they andforming Croatians were Bosnia. within Serbs of generations new occupation, Austro-Hungarian up tothe time of practice. Therefore, embeddedRomantic into of thoughts “national andawakening” eagertoput were them into weredeeply educators Empire. These within lands Habsburg from Croatian were coming developedof infrastructure Serbian incultural autonomy Hungary,similarly,Catholic ones from outside educational the centres ofitmost– of clergymenOrthodox were coming the out Mustafa Imamovi kulturni centar, 1997), 105. Legal and Status Domestic Political Development of Bosnia-Herzegovina 1878-1914] (Sarajevo:Bosanski The idea of Bosnian nationhood was not entirely Kállay’s invention. It can be can It invention. Kállay’s entirely not was nationhood Bosnian of idea The forEspecially topic out important is Austro- prominent policy particular most the of Austria-Hungary to occupy was allowed andHerzegovinaBosnia of byprovisions the ü , Pravni položaj i unutrašnjo-politi þ ki razvitak Bosne iHercegevine od1878. do1914. 9 16 Tanzimat [The CEU eTD Collection 18 institutions. language for their they own, were allowed toofficially in it use their cultural autonomous language into Serbian and Croatian national movements, The Provincial Government renamed the local scripts, and wasusedinpublic schools until World First the War. inGovernment its in1883, whilein waspublished 1890, both grammar Latin and Cyrillic Government. Additionally, public education was established. Provincial – came underscrutiny priests, andteachers appointment school policies bishops and handledof independently election – the communities the hitherto that matters the Therefore Monarchy. Dual the of jurisdiction the under wereplaced confessional groups verythe beginning of Austro-Hungarianthe religious the rule, institutions of three the included language codification, common history writing, andcreation nationalof Atsymbols. Kállay embarked on two big –education projects reform identity and building, which Ottomanthe failure. may be therefore, inbuildingremake” assessedas“higherbudget endeavour of Bosnianhood, privileged position, while lackedChristians the in trust Ottoman Kállay’s goodwill. byMuslimelite asderogation their of regarded had sinceit concept limitedwas success, of Ottoman Empire are equal, regardless of their religion – to the local level. Topal pasha’s 17 – Bosnianpeople. ideaallpoliciesthe werebasedon that in livingonegroup Bosnia comprise confessions three prominent Ottoman governor – Osman Šerif Topal pasha [Tur. pa Ibid. Imamovi Bosnian language was proclaimed to be official local language of the Provincial the of language local be official to proclaimed was language Bosnian Bosnia, land the of affiliation with national of encourage sentimentthe to In order ü , “Integracione nacionane ideologije i Bosna,” 113-114. Bosna,” i ideologije nacionane “Integracione , Serbo-Croatian 17 This view was, in a way, application of Tanzimat principle – all citizens in Muslims1907. Since the namethe adopted Bosnian 10 18 Under the pressures of ú a] of the 1860s. His CEU eTD Collection 19 the word uses of scattered were At same there the name. time, national of of momenttheirbirth be the people of national emancipation Bosnian Muslims.of Inthis the context, use of phrase“ the uprising of 1831 of OttomanBosnian (Muslim) elite marks against government thebeginning that the historians agreeonthe point contemporary before, As Bosniak dimension. stated in claimthat, 19 historiographic interpretations certain the in Slavic version – denomination, this wereMuslims, Porte with the communicated that of those majority Since Bosniaks in it declarations, tothe referred populationpublished, asthe textbooks the Bosnia of Slavic “tribes”, typical for the social research of the 19 These endeavourstoclassifyforeign ethnographic individual authors. were South usually Ottoman administration referred to the people coming from province of Bosnia as The textbooks and popular literature supported by the Provincial by Government revitalised andsupported Provincial the literature popularThe textbooks implied ofits historic fate path.parts of peoplescommon that and Bosnian unique their past those out he stressed Therefore, ideology. a national of creation the for interpretations historic meaning of name the by that Austro-Hungarian timethe of wasno there public rule, consensus on proper the imply that the use of the denomination was adopted by the locals. Therefore, we can conclude In the letters of Husein-kapetan Gradaš ofHusein-kapetan letters the In June 1832, respectively. Imamovi respectively. 1832, June leader of Serbianthe uprising in Belgrade pa ”, by the leader of movement the leader of ”, bythe During Ottoman the name the period Benjamin von Kállay’s administration in its formal communiqués, in it public in it communiqués, formal inits administration Kállay’s von Benjamin As byprofession,Kállaya historian was Benjaminvon of importancethe aware of the [ Bosniak Bošnjaci as the name for all Bošnjak ]. This is not a word invented by Kállay’s administration, as well. The Bosniak [Bosniak], wasused by Bosnian the Muslims themselves. , which made room for the Kállay’s nationality policy. ü , Historija Bošnjaka þ inhabitants inhabitants of Bosnia by and Herzegovina localthe and evi 19 ü ú to Habsburg Kanzler Metternich and knez Miloš Obrenovi Miloš knez and Metternich Kanzler Habsburg to al , to refer only Slavicto Bosnian Muslims,is taken to Õ k, dated in Travnik and Grada Bosniak , 13. 11 denoted only however, denoted regional origin, th century. However, these texts do not do texts these However, century. th century, it gained also national þ ac, on13th March and 23rd Bosnaklar Bosniak ü . , CEU eTD Collection in the in thus Muslims should take part in Serbian i.e. Croatian national movement. Therefore, authors Croatians, or Serbs Islamised are Muslims Bosnian that implied which nationalisms Croatian Serbian both of content and latent was fiercely opposing It magazines. Croatian Serbian and patriotism. The towardsMuslimdirected the magazineaudience, wasintensively idea promoting of Bosnian Kapetanovi of young intellectuals Muslim gathered around Enlightenment-thinker Mehmed-beg and appliedit in forgeneral all people coming from Bosnia. itas regional reference understood ideologies national andCroatian Serbian however, itself; questioned was not Thenamelanguage, onthesidewhich complained. Bosniak depending 20 was that The difference andBosniaks. Serbs – Croatians, differently name themselves Balkan Peninsula, South Slavs dispersed differentto regions, dividedby rivers, thus started to the to coming after interpretation, their In lands. “historic” their and Croatians, and Serbs belonginghistoricfrom independent land Bosnia,fates unique tothe andof Bosnia’s path, by decree” “created nation being and press.Theidea Kállay’s fiction was accused of of Bosnian Croatian tradition that remained in the folk culture, which surpasses the religious divisions. Bosnian historians asauthentic byKállay’s waspresented beforeoccupation, Ottoman the The Bosnian born. was Church, identity Bosnian common when time the as Ages Middle the of memory officialcollective religion of the medieval Bosnian Kingdom for a short period Ante Malbaša, ibid. Serbianand Nationalproblem inBosniaduring the regime of Kállay]Benjamin (Osijek, 66.Cited 1940), in Bošnjak The strongest support The strongest support Kállay’sto the policy Bosnian nationhood cameof from a group Kállay’s were confronted policies Bosnianhood of with constant critiques inSerbian ü 20 Ljubišak. He founded magazine with indicative name , while language as Bosnian was forgery of Serbian/Croatian denounced Hrvatskisrpski i nacionalni problem uBosni zavrijeme režima Benjamina Kállaya indulged into history wouldwriting that Slavic support Muslims’inherent Bošnjak was to be counterpart to the national propaganda coming from propaganda coming national to the be counterpart was to 12 Bošnjak in 1891. Though [Croatian CEU eTD Collection 22 around group bey 21 intellectuals, offsprings of Muslim landlord first the elite, generation in educated European Muslim inpopulation Bosnia. magazine Theabovementioned was written and readbyyoung identity” national for religion of “substitution as Pinson Mark by described trigger for articulation of national identity of Bosnian Muslims. This process was adequately Muslims sometimes Bosniaks, sometimes namingin theirown group, inconsistent werealso national entrepreneurs beginning they viewingwere the Muslims asapolitical, only not These group. religious the from Muslims, to only sometimes population, Bosnian whole the to referring sometimes historiography Benjamin that von Kállay wanted to promote. gave Bosnia uniqueness. Obviously, narrative this is distortion of initialthe idea of but leadingthe that present, intrinsic its population, notonly – the social oneaswell group Bašagi narrative that Bosnian Muslims from originate nobility. his In pioneer historiographic work, feudalists, whobecame Muslim elite of Bosnia. Safvet-beg Bašagi Islam.adopted Within this historiographic narrative,leader of Islamisation the were Bosnian they occupation the Ottoman of arrival with congregations, former two the of pressure under constantly were Bogumils the Since Bogumilism. and Orthodoxy, Catholicism, became differentthree evenbiggerthey – adopted confessions of Christianity when andclimate customs, distance,different geographic Slavs between dueto growing South Mark Pinson, Mark “The Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina underAustro-Hungarian Rule, 1878-1918” in Here Muslims was writtenwith capital letter, Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina, families (to which he belonged) with the medieval Bosnian nobility. In this way, the way, this In nobility. Bosnian medieval the with belonged) he which (to families ü However, this support for the idea of Bosniakhood is not representative for the whole the for representative not is Bosniakhood of idea the for support this However, the of authors Though tried to prove, though without using any primary primary using continuity prove,Bosnian sources, the of without though tried any to Bošnjak was eager to present historical continuity of Bosnia in which Muslims which in Bosnia of continuity historical present to eager was ed. Mark Pinson, 89. 21 . We can conclude that the concept of Bosniakhood served as Bošnjak Muslimani werenotusingthe name Bosniak consistently, , in order to denominate political/national group. 13 ü developed historical 22 . The CEU eTD Collection 23 manner.itsfor Thereforediscourse was majority distant the population Muslim of 1880s. Serbian magazines,and Croatian cultural educationalsocieties, funds, were the end the of formed weregetting towards movements Croatians ofBosnian and Serbs Bosnia, butalso,by withinmirroringtheir counterparts it. national The autonomous undermined not only by developedthe Serbian and Croatian national movements outside was project The needed. are tools civic nation a civic-based build To nationalisms. emerging overcoming at aimed that nation a of concept the with incompatible was project Kállay’s more mythologies. convincingnational Overall, ideological the argumentation supported that developmanaged much by to to thewhich timethat flourishingones, Croatian Serbianand culturaland historic myths.tobeweak Thissponsored creating proved comparing production Age, ideaGolden Medieval of craftingthe “folk the traditions”, to entrepreneurs –returning ethnic-national Romantic of typical endeavour mirroring its were means for achieving the state, the loyalty to civic wasaimingat nationhood idea Bosnian the Though mistake”. Bosniak nation, in the way Benjaminthat von Kállay designed it, proved to possess “systema nation irreversibly equal meaningacquired inBosnia. On hand, other the concept the of The appeal for Bosnian civic national communities, soon toculturalturned and political mobilisation its own of group. religious unity came too late, whenlacking two other ideathe but inthe elite of partnership Bosnianhood, respondedto the notions of religion and deep roots amongtook Bosnia. the Christian population Only small intellectual the of Muslim unsuccessful among Muslims as it was among Serbs and Croatians. category,in asMuslim. general, was Kállay’s of Thus, nationhood equally concept Bosnian lowerpeasants and toidentify –whocontinued themselves classes urban religious within Robert J. Donia, J. Robert (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1981), 5. 1981), Monographs, European East (Boulder: To conclude, Kállay’s policy failed because Serbian and Croatian nationalisms already nationalisms Croatian and Serbian because failed policy Kállay’s conclude, To Islam undertheDouble Eagle:TheMuslims of Bosnia andHerzegovina,1878-1914 14 23 – CEU eTD Collection the founding session of ZAVNOBiH (Zemaljsko Antifašisti (Zemaljsko ZAVNOBiH of session founding the Serbs within from suchas andto equal group Bosnia-Herzegovina, Resolution the Croatians, or a national group. Therenot reach consensus areon how the Bosnianwar-time Muslim population should be treated documents– as a religious that recognise the Muslims Bosnian towards policy 1.2 Communist Muslims as political Organisation. Muslim wasYugoslav political leadingrepresentative Muslim whenthe interwar period, butreligiousless group, than a nation.of type This denomination remained throughout the beginning letter interchangeably. In a way, they were perceived as something more than just a politically organised.political in parties BH, Bosnian Muslims were perceived as group was that religious getting They were referred to as Muslims, written with capitalpolicy. or small-caseduring 1890s, Kállay Benjaminvon himself failurethe admitted of nationhood Bosnian the organise themselves in manner. By this negotiating with leaders inethnic-national Bosnia had noother option cooperate withbutto local political decided that representatives, to rule, its stabilise to in order and reality, with faced Government, Provincial The community. political pan-Bosnian self-organised no was There bases. ideological, not religious-ethnic, National founded on Organisation, ProgressiveClearly, parties Party. Muslim were the Union,Muslim Catholic Community,Croatian National National Croatian Organisation, same parties atthe time –Serbian future first organised weregetting political grouping, flourishing, and overtime, gettingindependent evermore from Belgrade and Zagreb.Finally, Before, during, and after the Second World War, Communist party party WorldYugoslavia did of War, Communist Second the during,Before, after and As presented above, at the turn of the century, at the time of formation of the first 15 þ ko Vije ko ü e Narodnog CEU eTD Collection 28 27 26 should opt for some nationality Youthof the Yugoslavia in1963. [i. e. Croatian in “Muslimnation” personally 7 at the a speech given recognised or Serbian], since – as comrade Tito says – from Bosnia, Serbia and Montenegro declared themselves asYugoslavs. themselves declared Montenegro and from Bosnia, Serbia 25 etni 1948, and‘Yugoslavs undecided’ 29 24 ‘Muslims for category undecided’ opted predominantly results canshow population the that Bosnian-Muslim ethno-religiousoriginating group gradually eitherevolve into Croatian Serbian or national Close corpus. analysis of census the state. multiethnic and for withinprovided each rights group statuses nationalities that certain national/ethnic the and of nations framework Communists’ Yugoslav the outside left was were Muslims but Serbian, and Croatian, and Muslim” state. Muslim, states thatBH“is Croatian, nor nor that Serbian, neither Bosnia andHerzegovina] Oslobo There was 842,954 “Muslims in the ethnic sense” in the whole of Yugoslavia. Some authors specualte 891,800 in BH declared ‘Yugoslavthat out undecided’. Ibid. 788,403 BHin declared as ‘Muslim undecided’. See inAtif Purivatra Kasimand Suljevi Fordetailed explanationof arrangement of national statuses withinthe SFRY, i.e. nations [narodi] and Sedmikongres Saveza Omladine Jugoslavije,Belgrade,1963,pp. 10-11 Ša in Mustafa Imamovi official data, available at: and Enes Kari Enes and of 275,883 declared Yugoslavs the Republic in of BH“no fewer84%than were Muslims”. InŠa popisa stanovništva u 1971. godini naroda Bosne i Hercegovine, February 1971), 7. odnose i me 1971. godini nationalities [narodnosti], referto Atif Purivatra and Kasim Suljevi Bosniac Idea prava in Herzegovina] and ofBosnia Continuity Legal-State of the Expression Legitimate a as [ZAVNOBiH þ kom smislu” , no. 3-4(2003): 10. ÿ 1961 census offered hybrid definition of “Muslims in ethnicsense”the [ However, after the war, under the pressure of Serbian and Croatian party lords, enja Bosne i enja Bosne Anti-FascistHercegovine) [Regional Council of Liberation People's of [The national Aspect of Populationthe Census in 1971] (Sarajevo: Komisija za me , 242. ÿ ü urepubli , The Bosniac Idea ü 25 ], which provoked some confusion, because of Muslim many because still some of which confusion, ], which provoked , “ZAVNOBiH kao legitiman izraz državnopravnog kontinuiteta Bosne i Hercegovine” In the spirit of secularisation, it was expected for Bosnian Muslims to þ ku saradnju Predsjedništva Republi http://www.fzs.ba/Dem/Popis/NacStanB.htm (Zagreb: Nakladni zavod Globus,242. 2004), Figures modified according to , 13. 27 [‘ 29 Tito actually Tito “condemned anyinsistingMuslims that Jugosloveni neopredeljeni’ 24 16 þ ke konferencije Socijalisti ü 26 , [‘ Nacionalni aspektpopisa stanovništva u Muslimani neopredeljeni ], in], 1953. th Congress of the League of ü ir Filandrair and Enes Kari 28 þ ü Josip Broz Tito Broz Josip kog savezaradnog , Nacionalni aspekt “Muslimani u ÿ unacionalne ü ir Filandrair Ljudska ’], in ü , The CEU eTD Collection 34 33 32 31 30 SFRY, official grammar of all languages,Yugoslav school andtextbooks media. and with small-case letter, wheninter-war – write periods Muslimto with beginning whenletter capital nation,referring tothe referring to religious group – entered all legal codes of limited publicsphere. the Atif functionary and whowereactively Communist within thePurivatra, party advocating narod”] suposeban nation” [“Muslimani the League of Communists of BH (CKSKBiH) it has been stated that “Muslims are a distinct and“Serbs, pastby life”in Croats Muslimsallied the referred to a common membership”. national any them upon force should nobody and are, they bewhat may everybody decreased thenumber “Yugoslavs” in of BH Republic. inrecognised bythepopulation theappropriate denomination.question as instantly This [ nationality” in senseof the “Muslims LCBH in 1969. their status as nations [ number of and academics officials, such Muhamed philosophy as professor Filipovi isit a of butalso acredit party the elite; streams within and centralisation/decentralisation recognition of Muslims. To a point it is a product of Tito’s balancing Serbo-Croatian rivalry 1,482,430citizens declared as“Muslims inthe sense of nationality”, while only “Yugoslav”.43,796 as Francine Friedman, Francine Imamovi Noel Malcolm, Atif Purivatra and Kasim Suljevi Figures from: Figures Consequentially, inuseAustro-Hungarian and principle the wasspontaneously that There are several explanations for the change in the party policy towards national in theparty for policy towards the change several explanations There are ü , Mustafa, http://www.fzs.ba/Dem/Popis/NacStanB.htm 30 Bosnia: A Short History The same year Constitution of BH had been changed, and the new preamble new the and changed, been had BH of Constitution year same The 33 Finalisation of the policy was the new category on the 1971 census – The Bosnian Muslims: Denial of a Nation, Historija Bošnjaka, narodi ü ]. In May ]. the1968, on 17 , Nacionalniaspekt popisa stanovništva u 1971. godini, , 198. 565. 32 “Muslimani usmislu narodnosti” , which was confirmed by , which wasconfirmed 5 the 17 . Compare to the Footnote 27. Footnote the to . Compare 159. 34 th Session of the Central Committee of th 31 14. Congress of the of Congress , thus equalising, thus ] – which was ü and CEU eTD Collection 19 ideas,nationalismsnotbut only with claimedcontinuity also orrepublished the cited oldthe in(re)popularised nationalism risethe during of “new” inYugoslavia, and the 1980s 90s.The ideologies. Myfocus onthe national 19 depending on politicalthe situation. history throughout of Serbian andCroatian national ideologies, marginalised activated or betraced can Muslims, of Bosnian call “appropriation” thatI discourse, This respectively. nationalismsSerbian havenoted feature andto Croatian common Banac, etc.) Ivo Malcolm, MarkPinson, – that is claimingpeople over 2.1 Claim that Bosnian Muslims “are in fact” Serbs or Croats, nor Croat national ideology Bosnia-Herzegovina majority without Croatnational ideology nor to advance could claims Serbs and Croats, and triadic religious composition of the population. “Plainly, neither Serb followed byHabsburg from (and rule 1878, developing national movements successful) of Herzegovina framework: withincomplicated the Ottoman decaying powerin region,the th century sources in order to prove “antiquity” of their national claims. 19 I will devote more time to the early period of formation of Serbian and Croatian Most of the authors dealing with the issue of Bosnian Muslims (Robert Donia, Noel th century C HAPTER , the time of “nationalfound awakening”romantic time, the of Bosnia and 2 – C OMPETING NATIONALISMS OMPETING th QUESTION century is justified by ideas were these is factthat the justified century 18 ” VIS - À - VIS “B OSNIAN CEU eTD Collection Education, during the First Serbian Education, Serbian First 1804-13. Uprising during the Karadži Serbs”. Muslims, who would “immediately understand and confess that they are not Turks, but national name after the Bosnian nobility had converted to Islam”. had nobility converted name Bosnian national the after criticised Muslims,Slavic since they called themselves andTurks, have “abandoned their were Particularly faith. Orthodox of those only but Serbs, the themselves call them of all Catholics, but all of them were Serbs according to the language they spoke. He admits that not millions were Greek Orthodox, and the rest of two millions were Muslims or Roman of collective awareness” among Muslim Serbs, Karadži Muslim of awareness” among Serbs, collective 38 37 know it yet, or refuse to acknowledge it” orrefuseyet, to itknow “those calledwho differently, infactnot themselves belong thisbut do … to community, one. Karadži (territorial)boundaries. The only hecriterion used foridentifying nations was linguistic the inEvrywhere],idea of 1836,heset his written Serbiannationalthe identity out and its a way a “cultural father of the Serb nation“. In the article the father In nation“. Serb a way of the a “cultural spirit of romanticism, was leadingthe figure of Serbian cultural life in the 19 36 35 scientistic and historicist, by both sides on behalf of Serb or Croat status of Muslims.” winning the Muslims –hence the demand Muslim for “nationalisation” and arguments, Dositej Obradovi Darko Kara Darko Ivo Banac, zakona Kara Ibid.24. Historiographies”,Based 19. Vuk on Stefanovi 1993, c1984), 361. þLü This idea of Serbs of three faiths, was not originally created by Vuk Stefanovi As codifier of As folkcodifierof Serbian language,VukStefanovi [Small BoxHistory, for Language and Manners of the Serbs of All Three Laws], 1-27. ü , “The perception of the Conversion to Islam in Bosnia in the Western Balkans’ Historiographies”, 21. Historiographies”, Balkans’ Western the in Bosnia in Islam to Conversion ofthe perception , “The , but by an older enlightenment intellectual, Dositej intellectual,Obradovi Dositej by an but enlightenment older , The NationalQuestion inYugoslavia: Origins, History,Politics þLü ü considered all Slavic people who spoke Štokavian dialect to bewhile Serbian, Štokavian dialect to spoke who people allSlavic considered , “The perception of the Conversion to Islam in Bosnia in the Western Balkans’ Western the in Bosnia in to Islam Conversion of the perception “The , ü , Izabrana djela, Izabrana [Selected Works], Belgrade: Politika, Narodna knjiga, 2005. As in Darko ü Karadži 36 . Karadži 19 ü , Kov 38 ü wrote that among three Štokavians, that wrote þ Before him, nobody Beforenobody him,expressed view eži ü ü zaistoriju, jezikiobi proposed founding for schools proposed ü Srbi svi isvuda Karadži (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 37 The remedy for this “lack ü (1787-1864), in (1787-1864), true th [Serbs All and century, and in and century, ü , Minister of , Minister þ aje Srbasva tri 35 ü CEU eTD Collection 42 41 40 identity.” Serbian (national) own their only a matter of time when theyis it so – faith will, Islamic the of in Serbs are the Muslims spirit“Bosnian words: offollowing in evolutionarysummarised progress, become aware of Christianity”. Orthodox to bound sentimentally as characters Muslim his Novi Sad, who was open to “harmonious Serb triconfessionalism, [but] did not fail to portray intellectuals of the time. liberal Serb most among even present faith” was predecessor’s to the “return of the One of them is Jovan Jovanovi Muslims are converted[Mountain Wreath], publishedin 1847. Thoughitis based on assumption the Slavic that Serbs, it clearly states that if the “turning Turks [ reconvert they are worse enemy to the Serbian nation, than the Turks themselves. theTurks than nation, Serbian the enemy to areworse they reconvert 39 influential, example is PetroviPetar most and best, The nation. the to belonging of proof the as demanded often was Christianity, to Orthodoxy”.“return Muslimsnationality, expectationthat the “confess” would was also the Serbian their Not only welcomed,official policy of the Serbian state. the of paperswereneverstatement these itbe that should Muslims”. Finally,Slavic underlined (re)conversion of “Serbianhood of notion the of persistence the for responsible held partly be may nowadays, of foraccredited popularityand him thischallengingtheory, andthe get of up histo work and Slavic Muslims Serbscould However,Karadži the Orthodox. that but beanything to Orthodox Sre Ivo Banac, See Bojan Aleksov, “Perceptions of Islamization in the Serbian National Discourse.“ Depicting as historical an event that never happened in reality – massacre of Islamised Serbs on Christmas Eve Christmas on Serbs ofIslamised massacre – reality in happened never that event an historical as Depicting Political Discourse], 1702. ü ko M. Džaja, “Bosna i Bošnjaci u hrvatskom politi This “pan-Serbian ideological model”, asSre model”, ideological “pan-Serbian This Another dimension of Muslims realiseand that eventually Another dimension expectation will this of The National Question in Yugoslavia Erasmus , 9 (Decemberno. 1994): 33. ü 42 Njegoš’s historiographic quasi , 362. 20 þ kom diskursu“ [Bosnia and Bosniaks in Croatian ü ko M. Džaja refers to it, can be bluntly it, canbe to M. Džaja refers ko ü -Zmaj, a poet from then Habsburg ü wastheone toelaborate 39 41 epic Poturice Gorskivjienac 40 This idea ]” do not CEU eTD Collection 48 47 46 majority of who declared themselves as Croats. in was West, university-educated firstthe generation especially that their intellectuals, in particular this audience themes Muslim piecescentral with who wrote circle. Besidesthis equally “pull”effect, importantwas“push” effectof intellectuals Croatian opened its as pages for authors Muslim introducingwell, therefore Croatian them to cultural published idea from 1898 on, promoted is thatreligion amatter of personal choice, and marked the Franciscans, who dominated region of Mostar. Their magazine Their of Mostar. region dominated who Franciscans, marked the attitude conciliatory “entrepreneurship”. Especially and national betweenreligious difference Croatian nobility the are class, upper is Muslim that Muslims, “Bosnian 45 44 rights torule lands. overrights the natural preserve their to inorder converted Ottoman toIslam occupation after gentry, that Muslims as best Croats, since they are, in his interpretation, descendents of medieval Croatian itstolerantandjust subject than to Christian any European Heviewed empire. Bosnian 43 Ante Star Ante nationalism, andnation” Croat modern the of “father the Islam.However, towards mistrust the intellectuals shared Croat of generation” “Illyrian modern the early period at the that notes Ibid. 365. Milan Ogrizovi Josip Eugen Tomi Eugen Josip Sre Ibid. Ivo Banac, ibid. 364-5.ibid. as adherents of Stra Jusuf ü ko M. Džaja, “Bosna i Bošnjaci u hrvatskom politi Compared to the Serbian Orthodox Church, Catholic institutions in Bosnia made inBosnia institutions Church, Catholic SerbianOrthodox the Compared to On the other hand, “Croat national ideologies flattered theMuslims” flattered ideologies national “Croat hand, On other the , Ferdo Vrban , Ferdo þ evi The National Question in Yugoslavia ü ü (1823-1896), was openly Turcophilic, and considered Ottoman state asmorewas state and Ottoman openly considered (1823-1896), Turcophilic, and Frane Bina þ evi ü ”. (novel 45 ü ’s party. InIvo Banac, þLü as Zmaj od Bosne Zmaj Ferid Maglaji þ 47 44 ki jointy as . This approach proved successful in Muslim successful attracting proved . This approach Thispan- [Dragonof Bosnia] in1879), Eugen Kuma ü , Ivan Mili The National Question in Yugoslavia Omer andIvo , 363. Croatism 46 ü 48 þ evi , or under pseudonymwhentargeting, or Muslim kom diskursu“, 33. This is maybe even more explainable by by the explainable more even maybe is This 21 ü , Krsto Pavleti and Osman Nuri Hadži , as Sre ü oldest European andthepurest oldest European ko Džaja names it, claimed that ü asOsman-beg Štafi , 364. ü jointly as þLü , MilanOgrizovi Osvit 43 ü Osman-Aziz . Ivo Banac , Josip Šebe [Dawn], ü , all . In þLü CEU eTD Collection 50 of inrepresentatives population the question. nationalfrom vanish less by even two the werenot/were when discourses, supported they the claims that Bosnian Muslims are/should be part of Serbian/Croatian national corpus did not Serbian) nationality, and those adopting new national ideology of loyalty of majority of Muslim intellectuals divided, between those who opted for Croatian (or of Bosnian inMuslims, the form Yugoslav of Muslim Organisation (founded in 1919), the ways still in line with “ with inline still ways many in was which inhabitants, Bosnian among divisions religious of salience the to also membership. Thatwasinaccordance notonly with ruler’s the national policy on but question, survey conducted by Austro-Hungarian administration was recording religious, not national, response among population to these identity definitions ishighly The questionable. population sympathy of Muslim intellectuals the moreCroatian side. successful was However, larger the targeting.winning the wereclearly driven and elite In elite movements ofSerbsandCroats, identity identity by some prominentMuslim individuals proved that considered.” not was simply asCroatian declared clearly majority never Muslim the fact that the while evidence; as crucial wastaken educated,Muslims Western-style by some, identity national Croatian acceptance of simply declare Bosnian Muslims as the Croats of Islamic faith, as Džaja rightly puts it: “The 49 society cultural Croatian of stipend a on were whom Zagreb many young of fact that wasprimary Muslims, university of education centre of Sre Nada Kisi Intelligentsia and Islam in the Independent Stateof Croatia], ü ko M. Džaja, “Bosna i Bošnjaci u hrvatskom politi With the articulation of the first political, later emerging to proto-national, movement proto-national, to emerging later political, first the of articulation the With These claimsBosnian towards Muslims, bystill fresh and forming national Based on above presented tradition,Based inlong presented onabove wasCroatian tendency to there politics ü Kolanovi ü , “Muslimanska inteligencija iislam uNezavisnoj Državi Hrvatskoj“ [Muslim millet 50 way of life”. Therefore, in the eyes of Croat nationalists, adherence to Croat þ kom diskursu“, 34. 22 ý Napredak asopis za suvremenu povijest all [Progress]. Muslims felt as Croats. felt Muslims Yugoslavism 49 , 3 no. (2004): 905. . However, the CEU eTD Collection 53 national denominations, such“Serbs”as and“Croats” medieval populationto the of times, modern the of inapplicability is the notice to fail theories both What origin. “ethnic” on based Muslims Bosnian over claim “Serbian-style” the resembles ways many in argumentation (heretic) and Catholic both Croatian, exclusively was Bosnia medieval of population Franciscan1973), historian.historiographic vast His to“proves” work tries the that Catholics, converted under pressure, in the 16 in the pressure, under converted Catholics, Nevertheless, the diaspora was very active on these issues, such as Dominik Mandi Dominik as such issues, these on active very was diaspora the Nevertheless, considered as less relevant they academicfrom However, were generally arena. magazines, political to historical topics “scientific” more to popular from shifted under variant), (Croatian sphere cultural the to thebelonging influence of the dominant politics of the time. the ideathe of communistregime, Yugoslav post-war by the condemnation its NDH, and of with defeat the 52 51 Kulenovi beg Džafer was who of highest NDH the into Herzegovina legitimise incorporation and of toBosnia adeclarationhadprimary policy. role Such state official was actually corpus ethnic Croatian into Muslims subsuming the when time of pro-fascistic existence Dominik Mandi HakijaHadži Itshould be clarified that the NDH mostin parts inherited territory of zajednica “Herceg-Stjepan”,zajednica 1992), 123. Bosnian-Herzegovinian Muslims], eds. Petar Šarac and Miljenko Primorac (Zagreb: Hrvatska hercegova Hrvatska (Zagreb: Primorac Miljenko and Šarac Petar eds. Muslims], Bosnian-Herzegovinian revija Bosnia and Croatia: Onthe Occasion Anniversaryof 500-Years of Fall ofBosniathe (1463-1963)]. inteligencija i islam u Nezavisnoj Državi Hrvatskoj“, 910. within the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, established only in 1939. in only established of Yugoslavia, Kingdom the within , (1963).Reprintin In the time of The time of reactivation of the discourse on Muslim Croatians was during the wasduring Muslim Croatians on of discourse the of The time reactivation 53 . Therefore with the Ottoman occupation, Croatian Bogomils andmajority of nationalisation ü , Muhamed Alajbegovi ü ,“Herceg-Bosna i Hrvatska: Prigodom 500-godišnjice pada Bosne (1463-1963)” [Herzeg- SFRY Hrvatskopodrijetlo bosansko-hercegova , orbetter to say, Independent of State Croatia (NDH) 51 , the theories, either based on origin (Serbian discourse) or on , but ithighfewbroughtalso, but official Muslims positions to ü andAdemaga Meši ü Croatization , Deputy Prime Minister of the NDH. However, NDH. the of Minister Prime Deputy , th 23 and first half of 17 halfof andfirst ü . InNada Kisi of of Muslims devaluated. þ kih Muslimanakih Banovina 1941-45.This is only the ü Kolanovi Croatia, autonomous entity th centuries. Mandi [Croatian Origin of ü , “Muslimanska ü Bogomil Hrvatska (1889- ü þ 52 ka ’s , CEU eTD Collection as future boundaries of nation-states in the eyes of national entrepreneurs. in national of eyes the nation-states of boundaries as future significant implications, territorial inthesense imagined thatthe mapswere ethnic envisioned over territory 2.2 Claim land.the that is: Claiming the “ownership” over the people leads to the issue of the “ownership” over of authentictruth. and unquestionable literary classics, were considered and used as primary historiographic sources, i. e. the bearers the of renommé and language, archaic fiction, totheir of due works These contextualisation. educationalandthrough nocritical promoted system, assessmentandhistorical with Gorski vijenac Equally national important, literary wererepopularised,romantic works such Njegoš’s as [Croatian ofBosnian-HerzegovinianOrigin Muslims], publishedin war amidstthe 1992. 54 public under figures, suggestive title 19 the from articles of is compilation examples typical the of One reprinted. being still are them predominantly atamong SerbsandCroats, the and wars epidemics. migrations, intensive and even more, the impossibility to “prove” any claims of ethnic continuity over centuries of Petar Šarac and Miljenko Primorac, Miljenko and Šarac Petar th and first half 20 and of the Considering Bosnian Muslims to be a part of one or the other ethnic group Muslims, Bosnian of appropriation bigthe of dimension second the to Here wecome had Many of the works cited here were republished at the time of rise of nationalism and Serbianfolk epics. pieces were These disseminated,public redon events, th century, written by Croatian and Muslim (declaring Croatian) (declaring byCroatian and Muslim written century, Hrvatsko podrijetlo bosansko-hercegova Hrvatsko podrijetlo bosansko-hercegova end ofthe1980sand 24 þ kih Muslimana during the 90s þ kih Muslimana , 1992. . Many of 54 CEU eTD Collection 56 Na in epitomised policy, expansionistic state the hand, other the On is Serbian. Herzegovina 55 claims of of in all state. Serbs one According the plan to they be withwere the firstto united Serbia, followed bythe unification which nomatter although belong considering too, confession they them Serbs the to. all Bosniaks, as to ideas.Bosnian population with the referred aforementionedthe Garašanin line in the still was peculiarities, ethnographic into indulging not though Interior, of Minister one by Vuk Stefanovi like the explanations wereoffered, elaborated the Asshownabove, questions. interdependent were go, should expansion the far how and Serbs, the are Who state. independent Ottomanjoiningthe ideasharboured Empire, allmembers within of nation the one of supported, partition Bosnia. of supported, for, or in firstwon called elections 1990 eventually the democratic on republics, that aim from beginning,the Croatian and Serbian political parties, both in BH and respective the land stating and notBosnia and openly of theHerzegovina. Croatian claim Though this over Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croatian Democratic Union [Hrvatska demokratska zajednica – HDZ] won the elections in Croatia in May Ilija Garašanin, president of Republic of Serbia. becameSDS] – stranka the demokratska [Srpska Party leadingDemocratic Serbian elections same Onthe 1990. November Serbian in election the BH on in party Croatian leading the became partyBosnia in party same of the branch the 1990, in BH. It was openly supported by the regime of Slobodan Miloševi in the Western Balkans’ Historiographies”. Balkans’ Western the in þ ertanije As mentioned before Independent State of Croatia (NDH) also used already existing already used also (NDH) Croatia of State Independent before mentioned As from graduallyemerging were such similarlyother that Serbian entities proto-state, to The rise nationalism of in inthe Yugoslavia 1980s (re)opened the questions of Serbian Croathood [The Plan], a secret document written a secretdocument by in1843,Serbian written [ThePlan], Garašanin Ilija Na þ ertanije of of Bosnian Muslimsadvance to expansionistic plans over the territory of ü Karadži , cited in in Darko Kara 56 Over the course of 1991-92, and negotiations over the future andnegotiations the over 1991-92, of Overthe course ü , which implied the , which that whole population of Bosnia and þLü , “The perception of the Conversion to Islam in Bosnia 25 ü , the 55 CEU eTD Collection 59 devshirme property” preserve obtain or narratives and stressed Rule] Influenceof Turkish Bosnia under the two factors:života uBosnipoduticajemturske vladavine the blood tribute framingIslam, his thusMuslims. the Slavic and of doctoral In dissertation ( had largeinfluence onthe contemporary collective imagining of nature the of conversion to consciousness the significance of a ritual cleansing, acatharsis of the nation.” “Elimination converts’ ‘the of treacherous as inthe described epicin acquired the national Poturice 58 57 epic Njegoš’s Aforementioned heritage. literary epicsand freedom-fighter of national part significant was and “Turks”,which the duality of sentiments was depending on how the conversion to Islam was being interpreted. the nationalisms both In dimension. anti-Islamic its was so equally nationalisms, Croatian 2.3 Anti-Islamism state. Bosnian partition common toof leading the people”, practically became involved inmobilising in their“protect forces paramilitary order to endangered parties andSerbian Croatian (HDZ) of (SDS) Herzegovina,the leading SFRY andBosnia and Original title: Die Entwicklung des geistigen Lebens in Bosnien unterder Einwirgung der turkischen Bojan Aleksov, “Perceptions of Islamization in the Serbian National Discourse“, 118. Discourse“, National Serbian the in ofIslamization “Perceptions Aleksov, Bojan Herrschaft,University of Graz, 1924. Bojan Aleksov, “Perceptions of Islamization in the Serbian National Discourse“, 116. Discourse“, National Serbian the in ofIslamization “Perceptions Aleksov, Bojan The work of The work first the andonly Yugoslav Nobel PriceAndri winnerIvo The Serbian national movement was imbedded into deep antagonism towards Islam antagonism was imbedded deep The national movement towards into Serbian As appropriation of Muslims Slavic throughout history the was present of and Serbian ”, massacre of Montenegrin Muslim, in order to give a rebirth to the Serbian nation. Serbian the to givea rebirth to in order Muslim, Montenegrin of massacre ”, assevereprocedureof takingyoung Christian Ottomanboys into schools and 59 . Laterin his novels and stories, Andri Gorski vijenac Gorski 58 whenexplaining Islamization,he “invoked folk [The Development of the Spiritual Life in Life Spiritual the of Development [The 26 devshirme ends “destruction with of the ), and greed – the wish to ü vividly vividly described Razvoj duhovnog 57 ü (1892-1975) CEU eTD Collection Croatian national ideology was enriched by the idea of “Croatian cultural sphere” to which to sphere” cultural “Croatian of idea the by enriched was ideology national Croatian nationalism, of variants both of assumption underlying as remained case, in Serbian as origin, could be equally easily welcomed to, or expelled from, orexpelled to, be welcomed couldeasily equally the Therefore Muslims forced, Islam painful,and unjust. (2), conversion to was centuries, or legacies, Islam (1)conversion to for Croatian continuity medievalprovided our nobility over origin. their genealogical “inSerbs”, dueto fact are Slavic Muslim assumption that underlying and arebased onthe of national of thought, of tradition Both ideasarepart Serbian these Muslims shouldthat and Christian be Orthodox only can a Serb that claiming either(2), and nation, Serbian of (re)convert or be exterminated,inflammatory roleare was played by academic orientalists, especiallythe those of “Serbian” side. two sides it. Particular Saidas inmuch Edward deconstructed pretty of ofcontemporary line orientalism, the samedanger, immanent an coin.as Muslims framed fundamentalism, Muslim terrorism, on “experts” stereotypes, but also produced new ones. Floodand greedy. severe, of press articles, of“becomingprocess aMuslim”framedidea also the what Muslims the are like –unjust, many of them writtenevaluation of the Ottoman rule.by To certain point one can conclude that this way viewingof the general alsothe on but imagery of Islamization, not only collective on deeply influenced injustice,Islam of context greed to severity, and within conversion presentation the of 60 establishment military.Andri of Dueto Balkans] (Sarajevo: Institut za istraživanje zlo istraživanje za Institut (Sarajevo: Balkans] Muslimanima Balkana The most detailed account provides Norman Cigar, Norman provides account detailed most The Similarly to Serbian nationalism, the Croatian one also provides material for two for material provides also one Croatian the nationalism, Serbian to Similarly part are Muslims Slavic that claiming (1), nationalism, Serbian of legacies two These In 1990snationalistthe intensified notonly propaganda old and prejudices [The Role of SerbianOrientalists in Justificationof Genocide against Muslims of the þ ina protiv protiv ina ü as a classical figure of his literature, asaclassical figure Yugoslav of Uloga srpskih orijentalista u opravdanju genocida nad þ 27 ovje þ nosti i me nosti Croathood ÿ unarodnog prava, 2000). prava, unarodnog . Though genealogical 60 CEU eTD Collection 61 Serbs. the for Orthodox and Croatians the for Catholic – faiths the of one only promoting of way as a is by concept of multi-confessional nation, as it usually rule a by envisioned proposer the social,or political group. Finally, when Croatian or Serbian nationalism tends topresentitself and CroatianSerbian group. the of continuity ethnic/national to transferred be nationalcan individuals the between ideas generally generational ideacontinuity is that or“bad”, persistent “good” the framed – are Muslims do not seehow and isIslam explained, conversion to of how process the matter idea. national No to our Bosnian Muslims notdo in fit sort,those that some appropriately asahistoricalmalformation of are presented as a distinct historical, viewed predominantly Serbo-Croatian theframeworkof within Muslims relations. Bosnian is population its and Bosnia of issue the is that nationalisms Serbian and Croatian it, of by Muslims themselves. met acceptance the Muslims Bosnian of appropriation Croatian why explanation my opinion, in is, That “bad”. or thought, helped “good” betweenevaluating in Muslim as converts division overcoming national of feature Croatian culture. This shared common the belonged they since Muslims Here I would remind the reader that we are talking only about the responsiveness of elites. responsiveness the about only talking we are that the reader remind would I Here What stems as underlying assumption from of from ideological heritage Whathere presented as assumption stems underlying 61 28 CEU eTD Collection ‘Muslims with capital M’, ‘Bosniak ‘Bosnian’, inclusive’, and ‘Bosniak exclusive’. analyticalon For labels religion.for purposesIcreated – theconflicting identity options itsnamebut nation,the on of inclusive/exclusive, also conceptsecular/based – civic/ethnic, the regarding only not was debate the Therefore, divisions. ethno-religious existing surpass formed promote Additionally, idea nations. tried agroup to of livingpeoplein oronly Bosnia, Muslims, Bosnian since and have Croatians Serbs their Bosnia. therewereambiguities However, overshould whobe considered all asBosniak, promoted itwere certain that change groups official category of ‘ of category official nation(s). the Bosnian comprises who was question true the Therefore whom. of sovereignty but sovereignty, national of principle the over not was Conflict integral calling asan fortogether, Bosnia and divided andHerzegovina. both argument of national principle the invoking sovereignty. – was parties nationalist and democratic liberal emerging communists, It wasreforming usedestablishments, communist republic-level – as stakeholders a all political tool to Common for both breaking of future the of only the clear republicmajority without isand– that Bosnia andHerzegovina. keeping the federation posed question troubling the Serbia Montenegro, and orientated asstatus-quo Croatia, aswell continuing eastward.Calls for redefinition of SFRY,raisedthe by Republics of Slovenia and The tide of The liberalisation swept of tide Yugoslav instarting from republics 1989and Slovenia In this context the redefinition of Bosnian Muslim national identity commenced. The commenced. identity national Muslim Bosnian of redefinition the context this In C HAPTER Muslim with capital M’ 3 – C OMPETING DEFINITIONS OF THE NATION THE OF DEFINITIONS OMPETING was perceived as inadequate, especially eagerto especially inadequate, wasperceived as Bosniak 29 as the proper one for the people proper of asthe Bosnian nation would that CEU eTD Collection 62 options. explicit” “less the three methodological tool – interview individualswith the thatmay be markedasfor representative their explicitness in primary sources. Inorder to be more precise additional I applied of level the to proportional opposite is positions presented here interpreting with interference concepts of politicalnational identity my programmes andper se. not the level of Therefore oflarger“Muslims asa nation”,solutions and wereparts nation” “Bosnian becauseboth ideas. On the other hand, andelaborate his on debate was eagerto who inclusive of was thepromoter Bosniakhood it was hard to deconstructactive most the instance, For of these concepts. each of advocates for salience was of different identity position national of issue the important, more Even media. in the present equally not of therefore those defending optionsequally active, werenot identity concepts of different proponents the topic. However, of onthe publications frame, and time the from press Ireviewedthe purpose For that 1993. is 1989to that negotiated, identity from was national the when time comingthe precisely arethose group. The most authenticfrom to sources group information of gathering differed research. empirical on the based synthesis, my of isproduct classification The organisation. societal identifiable easily presented by not political association a lobbyingintellectuals group, party, of orany kindof were Thefourconcepts groups. organised werenotcoherent First of all, identity the options For “Muslim” – Mustafa Imamovi unavailable at the time of the research; however they were the ones to publish the most on the issue. on the most the publish to ones the were they however research; ofthe time at the unavailable two prominent figures of the “Bosniak inclusive” option– Adil Zulfikarpaši Whendetermine to certaintrying historical at methodology authentic opinions point, Before presenting onmethodology identity each aword of these needed.isoptions ü 62 , “Bosnian” – Zdravko Grebo, “Bosniak exclusive” – Ša 30 ü and Muhamed Filipovi ü ir Filandra. The ü –were CEU eTD Collection 66 65 64 63 in that“Muslimseach believeinAllahany explain are thosewhodon’t Yugoslavia other to to used researchers Western social confusion, clear the out to order In languages. international in most self-evident difference isnot letter since small/capital the encounters international itnationalmisunderstanding name,but provoked also in often intensive theever-more for a denomination use areligious to system Communist atheist for adeclared was itstrange only had Not been solution raised. the of (in)adequacy soon after issueof the endorsement identity” ‘Muslim’ dependent on national religious denied was the category that policy insisted that it is a secular national group, as all other Yugoslav nations, and “implicitly SFRY socialist official The community. religious Islamic of not officials, Communist of idea an create idea bycapitalisingofficial name to the ethnonym religiousthe groupwasthe of M” capital with “Muslim – nation asa 3.1 Muslims Publications history politicalcultural and (re)writing mushroomed.of Muslims nationalism” Muslim “secular calls Malcolm that Muslims, the of question national compared andCroatia. republics, Serbia other especially lower to regarding status in BH hadsomewhatof underrepresented and that Republic Communistthe administration definitely non-religious” Muslims the whoMuslim identity wanted indevelop Bosnia to into something more secularised andother ledby “was Communists a nation’ as ‘Muslims recognise to decision The first Ibid. one being published in 1968 – Noel Malcolm, Tone Tone Bringa, Isakovi inthe field of history, Midhat and Begi development of Muslims]the by Atif Purivatra in 1969. Revolutionary werenew the works of Avdo Su Language] by Salim The national name “Muslim” may be deceptive. As explained in the Chapter 1, nameAs mayThe national be intheChapter explained “Muslim” deceptive. This new party politics of This new interest of party 1960s triggered expansion inpolitics the of of topic the the ü inthe field of literature history. InImamovi Being Muslim the Bosnian Way Bosnia: A Short History û eri ü , followedby 64 . Their primary concern was that Muslims of BH were politically , 200. ü –literature theory, MuhsinRizvi Nacionalni ipoliti Muslimani srpsko-hrvatskog jezika , 10 ü , Historija Bošnjaka 31 þ ki razvitak Muslimana , 566. ü , Muhamed Hadžijahi [Muslims of Serbo-Croatian [National and Political 66 However, ü and Alija 63 . The . ü eska 65 . CEU eTD Collection 73 72 71 70 Imamovi Mustafa –Professor individual significant another to also common is name national This is not sole or untypical case,whoWho is amongBosniaks on the contrary; the similar of firstthe later chiefeditor the was Purivatra VKBI, the of president As the year. following shift of opinion regarding the Congress of Congress Intellectualsof Bosniak [Vije [Kongres bosanskomuslimanskih intelektualaca], the thatrenamed organisation itself into the Intellectuals of Bosnian-Muslim theCongress of founders the in oneof was soon 1992, after, mention Atif that whowrote Purivatra, linesthese in 1974, and them in reprinted 1991, very homeland belonging, but cannot be a substitute for their national name.” national their for substitute be a cannot but belonging, homeland may Gorani,Yugoslav, Macedonian, etc. bearmeaning Bosniak, Montenegrin,Serbian, a of [Yugoslav]nations isfully recognised and aMuslim, achieved.“For denominations such as political, cultural and fields, scientific butitwill beadoptedwhen Muslims’ equality other to 69 future”. andand their culture, theirthemselves, towards past sinceappropriate, itis “absolutely in accordance with intuitivethe feeling Muslimshavethat purpose”. 68 67 more” See Bibliography. See Fadil Ademovi Ibid. 22. Atif Purivatra, “O nacionalnom fenomenu Muslimana” [OnNational Phenomena of theMuslims] in Mustafa Imamovi Rogers Brubaker, personal conversation, 18 March 2008, Budapest. people with the destiny of the man. nation. It seems that this was not merethe coincidence, title is sinceworded the author in insuch his work a tendsway to thattie the itdestiny may ofmean the both, a Bosniak, as an individual, and the Bosniaks, as the Atif Purivatra –Life Work] and (Sarajevo: Vije 2000). Mahmut Muslimani ibošnjaštvo Ko je ko uBošnjaka Ko je 67 On the other hand, there were opinions that the term Muslim (with capital M) perfectlz . In words of Mustafa Imamovi Mustafa of words In . ü ü ehaji –singlecontributor greatest Bosniakto political historiography. 68 ü ü (Sarajevo: Muslimanska biblioteka, 1990), 21-22. , Vrijeme uspravljanja Bošnjaka: Atif Purivatra –život idjelo ü , personal, interview by 26 Aprilauthor, 2008, Sarajevo,digital recording. [Who is who among Bosniaks] (Sarajevo: Vije (Sarajevo: Bosniaks] among who is [Who [The Muslims and the Bosniakhood], Atif Purivatra, Mustafa Imamovi 71 , and his life was commemorated as a life of a great Bosniak ü e Kongresa bošnja ü e Kongresa bošnja ü “it was a political a was “it 32 þ kih intelektualaca,kih 2002). Thefirst part of 69 þ ü kih intelektualacakih the - VKBI], e Kongresa bošnja Kongresa e That term may be contested mayon be Thatterm contested solution forinter-state solution [The Time of Rising Bosniak: Rising of Time [The 70 73 It is interesting to þ kih intelektualaca, kih ü , Rusmir 72 . CEU eTD Collection regional affiliation with the republic of BH, by openly claiming “regionalism is not is “regionalism claiming openly by BH, of republic the with affiliation regional distinguishwas national eager to Muslims Croats, categoriesfrom andof Serbs, possible purpose, party the aswhole. that of For BH, andstate in Republic the balance Serbo-Croatian fragile of the fearing disturbance the appease those of to establishment party Communist nation 3.2 Bosnian people on censuses, andthe byinternational recognition innnerfeeling ofidentity. Inhis opinion, this confirms adoption of Muslimthe identity by the generations of Yugoslav citizens, to whom he himself belongs, the name is as real as their 76 75 Though admitting the confusing path to the national Imamovi name, national the to path confusing the Though admitting name.” national Muslim under only is achievable sense national-political in affirmation and integration their that Muslims the clearto itwas time, Over inBosnia. interests nationalistic, Muslimsto the in not [with capital 1945… M] after order to offendi. national, e. name to Bosniak“Thefrom official andwasdefinitely everyday right ethnicdenied use”. the name ethnic old the while meaning”, national-political “distinct obtained Bosniak and Muslim, he concluded that in the first half of infirst half 20 the he that of Bosniak and Muslim,concluded the of names the historical use presenting the After former. tothe he wasprobably referring text, the of subject the From nationalists. Croatian and Serbian among streams some i.e. as such, nation whothose or Muslim whowere negating were callingfor Bosniakname, mind, those 74 in press” periodical daily and“renaming promoted Imamovi Ibid. 429. “Naziv Musliman”, Moslems”. (Sarajevo: Magistrat, 2008), 427-429. At the time of introducing ‘Muslim as a nation’ policy, it was important for important was it policy, nation’ a as ‘Muslim introducing of time the At In 1990, Imamovi ü cites Harvard Encyclopaedia of American EthnicGroups Književna revija ü waseagertodefend Muslim capital (with M) ethnonymits against , no. 31 (April, no. 1990).in Reprint 33 74 . It stays unclear whom did he have in have he did whom unclear stays It . 76 . that, at that time, had entry on “Bosnian on entry had time, that at that, Knjigezbivanja i th century, the term ü stresses out that for that stresses out Bosniak [Books Events] and “vanishes Muslim 75 CEU eTD Collection atheists) or “ethnic” differences, nevertheless, all these identities were present “but positioned “but present were identities these all nevertheless, differences, “ethnic” or atheists) and communists rule by were 'Yugoslavs” since origin, traditional of since the (in religious themselves nationally as ‘Yugoslavs’. Yugoslav feeling did notnegate regional,linguistic, activities, andare nowknown as public intellectuals and university professors. divisions However, in petition state. the failed, the while refrained petitioners political from hoped that the documentstill enough bore stop amountingsymbolic strength to ethnic This Declaration defined the Republic of BH as a state of “all its citizens”, and the petitionersHerzegovina to put into force the Declaration of citizens’ rights of the ZAVNOBiH of 1944. belongingBosnia. to something anddenotes noun derivesthe from Bosnia, directly that adjective contemporary The term nation. civic Bosnian of a concept reforming Communists, fearing rising Croatian Serbianand nationalisms in Bosnia, proposed nationalists. latent were whom of many it, in officials Croatian and Serbian of rivalry and dominance multinational structure” multinational nation in mean and a“negation individuality national BH, ofitsof every each of and negation would ofBosniannationhood Thus,one. political any butadvocacy and territorial category”, 78 79 77 “ Therefore, nationality”. See Noel Malcolm, Among whom were Zdravko Grebo, Tarik Haveri Tarik Grebo, Zdravko were whom Among Atif Purivatra and Kasim Suljevi Most of the supporters of this national concept were people that were identifying were people that concept of national this supporters the Most of In “thefive”1989, groupof young However, time of atthe of delegitimisation Communism in1989-90,agroup of 78 Bosnia: A Short History 77 Bosnianhood . This position is Party of the understandable ifknowing the ü , Nacionalniaspekt popisa stanovništva u 1971. godini 79 , 193-212. historically wasnot, historically and still is today, not anational filed totheAssembly thepetition Bosnia and of ü , Ivan Lovrenovi , Ivan Bosnian 34 is indicative of the ideology behind. It is It behind. ideology the of isindicative ü , Miodrag Živanovi Miodrag , ü , 15-16. . CEU eTD Collection 82 Bosanski pogledi Yugoslav Yugoslav around discourse, emigration public Adil Zulfikarpaši group times. medieval with continuity historical loyalty equality ideological faiths,all was chargedwith the of territory pretext: of to Bosnia, that a term but ethnonym, a simple not was it This nationalism. civic of programme political province. in the nationalisms Croatian and Serbian subdue and easily, more people the govern to order in nation, Bosniak inclusive promote –to Kállay faiths. The similaridea was of Austro-Hungarian ruler of occupied Bosnia – Benjamin von topromoteideagovernors of nation Bosniak includedthat of inhabitants provincethe of all Tanzimat reforms proclaiming political of equality people of made faith,all local Bosnian the sense of the people coming from that province. In the last period of Ottoman rule, the 81 80 [Tur. were asBosniaks identified Porte with the in communication Muslims the history Bosnia differentgroupsof referpeople.Bosnian rule,of to theto Ottoman During nation inclusive 3.3 Bosniak the state, of the same sort that Yugoslavism used to be until the dissolution of the state. low on the list of identity rankings” Bosanski Bosanski pogledi,“independent paperof Muslims the [with lower-case M] of andBosnia Herzegovina in Kállay’s administrationrecording. trieddigital to fosterSarajevo, common Bosnian national 2008, April identity 27 by evoking collective author, by memory of interview the Grebo, Zdravko Muslim emigration and the Yugoslavia until its reprint editioninLondon in1984. The most detailed account of the post-warBosnian emigration”, been had published inSwitzerland from 1960to This1967. magazine was virtually unknownin medieval Bosnian state as the common national cradle. See Chapter 1 – Historical background. In 1960s, at the time of In 1960s, time atthe deliberations overnational of namefor Bosnian Muslims, outside Therefore the term Bosniak was either used as denomination for regional origin or for As presented in historical the of thischapter term the thesis, existedin Bosniak the [Bosnian Views], were eagerly debating on the issue as well. Bosanski pogledi 80 . For them Bosnian identification was the civic loyalty to loyalty civic the was identification Bosnian them For . provide: Mustafa Imamovi Mustafa provide: 81 35 ü , Bošnjaci u emigraciji: Monografija ü andhismagazine Bo ú naq 82 This ], in CEU eTD Collection 85 84 Zulfikarpaši Bosnia is the do nor they us[Bosnian“to theirsacrifice ever denyit”, because Muslims] Bosniakhood, centre andnever Muslims “Bosnian andSerbs Croatians, to Compared Herzegovina. Bosnia and the goal, and Serbian nationalisms, withCommunist without or disguise, whichfavouredpartition of our ideal and Herzegovina. Yugoslav Though devoted ourand Bosnia of hope integrity of issue the to question this tying always he was However, – our indivisibleMuslim as distinct political and was group, sincere supporter itsof “political affirmation”. homeland”, 83 Zulfikarpaši time, this At underrepresentation. political their faiths unsatisfied was it with Secondly, Croats. lacknationally are Muslims Bosnian of that recognition point the on standing firmly of Bosnian Muslims aswas that diaspora of magazines Croatian inthe it writings was confrontingthe First reasons. nation [ main two for Muslims Bosnian of identification national of issue in the interested was informal consisting group, Bosnian Muslims predominantly of generally or Bosnian émigrés, of Serbian and Croatian nationalisms is foreign, and bore no “attraction for the indigenous the for “attraction no bore and foreign, is nationalisms Croatian and Serbian of hisBosnia. islinked In“nationalism understanding, totheland it thus where presence arises”, [ used term Bosniakhood the Muslims, but also of the Serbs and Croats living there”. Ibid., underlining mine. Adil Zulfikarpaši Adil Zulfikarpaši English as Ša Muslims and Bosniaand Herzegovina], Wisconsin Press, 2003), 286-297. Desimir Toši Desimir Yugoslavia, culminating injoint political project forreformation of SFRY – Democratic Alternative. See (Sarajevo: Bošnja Bosankih pogleda ü ir Filandra and Enes Kari Enes and Filandra ir have become aware that a united Bosnia is the best solution, in the interests not only not only of in interests solution, the best isthe Bosnia a united become awarethat have Bosniac ü ü wrote. , “The Democratic Alternative” in Alternative” Democratic “The , ü ü þ 1955-1967 , “Nacionalno opredeljenje Muslimana i Bosna iHercegovina” [The National identity of the and his group was intensively cooperating withliberal democratic emigrants from all over ki institut Zürich –Odjel Sarajevo, 1996). , therefore I modified the here cited translation. cited here the modified I therefore , 84 Hecontinues: everything “But suggests Bosniaks the that of all three bošnjaštvo ü [The Bosniaks in Emigration: Monography of the of Monography Emigration: in Bosniaks [The , The Bosniac Idea Bosanski pogledi ] he had in mind national identity connected to the land of land the to connected identity national in mind he had ] 83 , he was in constant fear of in fear, hewas of tendencies Croatian in constant , 243.This publicationtranscribes Bosniak [Bošnjak] term in Yugoslavism 36 , vol.3, no.18-19(1962): 15,translated andcited in ed. Dejan Djoki Dejan ed. 85 Therefore, when Zulfikarpaši when Therefore, ü was recognising Bosnian recognising was ü (Madison: The University of University The (Madison: narod Bosniak Views ] in the SFRY and SFRY in the ] 1955-1967] ü CEU eTD Collection 88 87 inclusiveideology. Even livingthough inaMuslimstate, Bosnian Muslims kepttheir as if understood even Bosniakhood, of continuity in protecting Muslims Bosnian to role 19 late the by Bašagi Safet-beg oneconstructed in the many ways narrative resembles historical This Muslims. spirit” areBosnian “Bosnian bearersthe but true the heritage,of of parts Bosnian migration. through Orthodoxy of and areunquestionably Nevertheless,Catholicism traditions imported were they or modernity, until surviving times medieval in existed marginally either congregations, bemay linesbetween two inWhat isthatthe population read Bosnia. the providenarration not explanationdoes of direct presence Catholicof andOrthodox since there are many commonalities between the two, claims Zulfikarpaši claims two, the between many commonalities are since there Ottoman occupation, believers ofBosnian eventually Islam, all church adopted especially Catholic and from Orthodox faiththeir unique – emerged identity common Their sense. states,symbolic and ingenetic both state, Bosnian medieval who were seeking to conquer and convert them. With the 86 of ancestors are Bosniaks contemporary interpretation, In this foundation. historical solid with possibility realistic was him, for nationhood, embraceit. Bosniak to are ready everybody who to entire population, to be open nationalising factor for Croats and Serbs in Bosnia, but in his opinion, Bosniak identity should up of Bosnia”. break- the [foreshadowing] and destructive was Serb with Orthodox and Croat with Catholics consideredpopulation itselfwho Bosniak”. Luka Mi Luka Ša Adil Zulfikarpaši Company, 1998), 86. The Bosniak: Adil Zulfikarpaši ü ir Filandra and Enes Kari Enes and Filandra ir The forinclusive heavilyargumentation Bosniakhood onhistoricalrelied narratives. þ eta, th century, presented in historical chapter of in special of whichalsoascribed this paper, chapter historical presented century, Sudbina Bošnjaka: svedo 87 ü He was aware that, in the course of history, religious membership acted as acted membership religious history, of in course the Hewasawarethat, ] (Tersit, Beograd 1997), 18. ü Church of Bosnia Church of , The Bosniac Idea ü dialoguein with MilovanDjilas and Nadežda Ga þ enja Adila Zulfikarpaši , 244. [ 86 Crkva bosanska Forhim“toequate Muslims with Bosniak, 37 ü a [The Destiny of a Bosniak: Testimonies of ] – and constant pressure from Bošnjans [ Bošnjani ü e ü (London: Hurst & . 88 This line This of ], people of ü in CEU eTD Collection that the Muslim national name is not only inadequate, but also prevents Bosnian Muslim from Muslim Bosnian prevents also but inadequate, only not is name national Muslim the that community Islamic of elements certain he called as “clericalists”, well, as conflict ideological had he whom with Communists, opposition protectingto those national name established Muslim (with capital M) – political meant it Practically, name. that under themselves identify would who everybody his introduction political ofnational programmename was political life his andpromote ideasdiligently developed years. during emigration The core of 3.4 Bosniak exclusive nation exclusive 3.4 Bosniak own views from shifted ’Bosniak inclusive’ to ‘Bosniak exclusive’. 91 awakening of [only] Bosnian Muslims” regardless of religion or social status” social or religion of regardless be close colleague ofAdil Zulfikarpaši be close colleague asking: emancipation whom?of Ahmed Ali when interpretations differencing are there However, movement. emancipatory national government, while Adil Zulfikarpaši Adil while government, which isby Western scholars regarded asclassmovement reforms against of Ottoman 90 89 Ottoman The rule. prime is example uprisingthe of 1831 ledby Husein-beg Gradaš Bosniak identity, is which by proven many uprisings of Bosnian Muslim elite during the However, the standpoint of the Islamic community on the issue changed when Mustafa effendi Ceri effendi Mustafa when changed issue the on community Islamic of the standpoint the However, Muhamed Filipovi Robert Donia, Review Article “The New Bosniak History”, 354. See Ahmed S.Ali See Ahmed 354. History”, Bosniak New “The Article Review Donia, Robert national name. See Ša name. national informal Zulfikarpaši Circumstances of the Political Pluralism] in institut, 1996). Bosne od1831. do1832.godine Upon Upon returning Yugoslaviain to 1990, AdilZulfikarpaši Reis-ul-ulema ü et. al. (Sarajevo: Muslimanska bošnja ü , “Muslimani-Bošnjaci uuvjetima politi ü ir Filandra and Enes Kari Enes and Filandra ir [the [the ofleader community]the 1993, since washe in advocate eager Bosniak of the [The [The Movement forAutonomy of Bosnia 1831-32] (Sarajevo: Orijentalni ü ü 91 90 and contemporary Bosniak intellectuals see it as it see intellectuals Bosniak contemporary and in the 1990s. This is not strange Zulfikarpaši Thisisnot since inthe 1990s. 89 , and Serbian and Croatian nationalist. His point was His, and nationalist.Serbian and Croatian point . It is interesting to note that the later author used to used author later the that note to interesting is It . ü , while Muhamed Filipovi Muhamed while , , Bosna ibošnjaštvo The Bosniac Idea þ þLü ka organizacija, September1990), 24. presents it presents as “undertaking of all Bosniaks, 38 þ kog pluralizma“ [Muslims-Bosniaks inthe (Zagreb: Globus, 2004), 261. Bosniak [Bosniaand the Bosniakhood], Adil , for Bosnian Muslims and ü decidedtotookpartin ü as “national-political as þLü , Pokret zaautonomiju ü became þ evi ü ’s ü , CEU eTD Collection 93 was] a historic opportunity to articulate them as a state-constituent factor”. state-constituent a articulate them as to opportunity was] ahistoric [that that furthermore, and Bosnia, of M] lower-case [with Muslims the of identity national inclusive Bosniakhood vanished in the light of Serbian and Croatian nationalisms. Croatian and Serbian of light in the vanished Bosniakhood inclusive historicalidea continuity.its developed belater This will fullextent to idea of when every efforts. national identity among all among identity national fostering at was aiming ideathat inclusive Bosniak of nation. part The of concept as civic of utmost importance to mobilise Bosnian Muslims to adopt Bosniak name and Bosniakhood 92 neighbours.” preserveindivisible to independent, Bosnia its as with and of possessed rights equal nation by significance that their numbers, andidentity senseof had been byhistory ordained astate-constituent Bosnia, of people majority arethe Muslims] [Bosnian “The Bosniaks contemporaries, that Bosnian Muslims were in special relation to the idea of Bosniakhood. achieve,into his In1990,Zulfikarpaši opinion. allowed not were be precise, to or achieved, not have still they that emancipation political full Ša AdilZulfikarpaši organizacija, September1990), 3-4. bošnjaštvo ü ir Filandra and Enes Kari Enes and Filandra ir However, Zulfikarpaši [Bosnia and the Bosniakhood] the and [Bosnia 93 Bosnian Muslims are the protectors Bosnian itsof bearersMuslims protectors Bosnian uniqueness, arethe and of ü , “Bošnjaštvo ilibauk” –šansa [Bosniakhood –Opprtunity orBugbear], in ü , people of Bosnia, became marginalised in Zulfikarpaši in marginalised became Bosnia, of people The Bosniac Idea ü believed, and he was supported in regard byhis hesupported that was believed,and , Adil Zulfikarpaši (Zagreb: Globus, 2004),261-262. 39 ü believed that “Bosniakhood is believed that“Bosniakhood the only ü et al. (Sarajevo: Muslimanska bošnja 92 Therefore, it was ü ’s political ’s Bosna i þ ka CEU eTD Collection Its founding declaration stated that: stated foundingIts declaration in registered inBosniaDemocratic andHerzegovina wasParty of Action [SDA] March 1990. be party The first beingformed. byissueto sphere waspolitical parties first the of dominated loyalty” shouldcitizens tothe have “constitutional state livethey in. all that principle the view, in their incorporated, itsince tothem was acceptable concept byAdil presented Zulfikarpaši newthe They political environment. showed some for sympathy idea the of Bosniakhood feministmovements, but were open and ready for ideological and rights transformationhuman democracy, and of adaption vocabulary to “progressive” only not adopted Declaration, magazine around petitionedthat ZAVNOBiH studentfor the group Valter/Walter, group the liberal the members, party younger The importance. no andof useless M’ was with capital of name‘Muslim the For them questioning vocabulary.the and thinking of apparatchik way establishment, did notelites were with confronted politicalheterogeneous opposition. The Bosnian Communist feel theCommunists need established when liberalisation political of for time the at opened was the question The change of social order, and were closed within 94 Bosnian Muslims was opened by the most eager advocate for its Adil change Zulfikarpaši eageradvocate by – Bosnian was Muslims most opened the Zdravko Grebo, interview by author, 27 April 2008, Sarajevo, digital recording. digital Sarajevo, 2008, April 27 author, by interview Grebo, Zdravko its borders, represent autochthonous Bosnian nation, thus comprising one of Bosnianborders, represent comprisingautochthonous nation,itsthe thus oneof both Muslims, live those who in Bosnia-Herzegovinalive and thosewho outside … Bosnian-Herzegovinian the of party goals the programmeaccept the the and historicalMuslim asother citizenscultural sphere,Yugoslaviawell as who of However, in 1990 the issue of national name was still a marginal one, sine the public the sine one, marginal a still was name national of issue the in 1990 However, One would not be wrong if would suspect that the debate over the national name of “the SDA is political Alliance of citizens of Yugoslavia who belong to the C HAPTER ü , inasmuch as they The inasmuch as character. its inclusive , they recognised 4 – T HE COURSE OF NEGOTIATION 40 94 ü . CEU eTD Collection early works it was more inclusive concept, while later it rather referred only to Muslims – it – Muslims to only referred rather it later while concept, inclusive more was it works early presented above, though Zulfikarpaši As issue. this on visions differing have did they seems it however concepts; national nation”. the “father of the of position the fighting over were who leader-figures two the between Izetbegovi party, Western-stylewith which was incompatible orientated true andliberal-democracy Zulfikarpaši Bosniak [MuslimanskaBošnja Organisation intellectual intellectual Muhamed Filipovi Couple of those were two distinctive AdilCouple Zulfikarpaši individuals,were two those of 98 left due to ideological Izetbegovi left andsomeconflicts dueto due to gradually inbut fastvery pace, partythe freed from was inside dissonance. Some individuals 96 controversial businessman Fikret Abdi Fikret businessman controversial 95 97 loyal to the party Alija Izetbegovi leader theparty loyal to widepolitical range of hitherto including victimsoutsiders, of Sarajevothe trial 1983 of Paraphrased: Nerzuk Trial in Sarajevo in 1983 of thirteen people charged with “hostile and counter-revolutionary acts derived from derived acts counter-revolutionary and “hostile with charged people of thirteen 1983 in Sarajevo in Trial Marko Attila Hoare, The History of Bosnia: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day (London: Saqi, 2007), Luka Mi Luka http://www.bosanskialim.com/rubrike/tekstovi/000375R024.PDF Bosanska rije Bosanska detailed account of the trial provides Rajko Danilovi Rajko provides trial ofthe account detailed Malcolm, See one. political as assessed be easily can general in trial The state”. Bosnian Muslim pure ethnically for Muslim nationalism”. Leading defendant was Alija Izetbegovic, member of the member Izetbegovic, Alija was defendant Leading nationalism”. Muslim Prosecution used as the main peace ofevidence peace main the as used Prosecution [ Adil Zulfikarpaši 342 Mladi muslimani ground under their feet, their history, their culture, their religion, their poets and poets their writers; in a word,religion, theirtheir past and theirculture, future.” their history, their feet, their under ground six historical nations of Yugoslavia, who have their own historical name, their At the beginning SDA was a quite heterogeneous political ensemble. It was gathering ensemble. It political beginning heterogeneous the At SDAwasaquite 98 þ It would be an overestimation to claim that they departed because of conflicting becauseof they claimdeparted that to overestimation be an Itwould eta, ü ’s Islamic zealotry. ’s Islamic ü þ , it was a clash of partit informing sincehe of totake a was a clash principles, , political sought , 2006). Islamic Declaration is available at: available is Declaration Islamic 2006). , Sudbina Bošnjaka: svedo ü ] which had opposed the Communist attack on Islam at the end of the Second World War. ] (Tersit, Beograd 1997), 131-133. û urak, interview by 25 Aprilauthor, 2008, Sarajevo,digital recording. 97 ü , who in 1990founded, who September own theirparty – Muslim Someinterpret that the divorce wasmore due highto tension þ enja Adila Zulfikarpaši ü was inconsistent in usethe wasinconsistent Bosniak of term the –inhis ü ü Declaration , group around Adil Zulfikarpaši around , group Islamic Declaration from his region of Velika Kladuša. However, Kladuša. Velika of hisregion from ü , þ Sarajevski process 1983 ka Organizacija – MBO]. In the words of the words MBO]. In ka Organizacija – 41 had no mentionof Bosnia and its future, and this 95 ü asof 20 May 2008. a [The Destiny of a Bosniak: Testimonies of , which, so they claimed, was “manifesto Bosnia: A Short History ü ’s autocratic style of governing.’s autocratic style of [Sarajevo Trial 1983] (Tuzla: Young Muslims ü and wellknownpublic ü , and supporters of supporters , and , 208. The most The 208. , organisation 96 CEU eTD Collection Bosnian Muslims is the Muslims Bosnian intellectual (re)definedelite its identity. Iwilland on how Bosniafocus representatives and Herzegovina, Bosnian Muslim the religiously based conceptsof nations. Herzegovina failure of proved inclusiveand ethno- national all concepts, gavelegitimacy to marginilised.becomingfree first the Therefore, democratic and elections in Bosnia and Muslim Bosniak Organisation Adilof Zulfikarpaši Markovi Ante Minister Prime SFRY last the of Reformists Yugoslav andpan- (SKBiH-SDP) of League of Communists Bosnia-Herzegovina modernisedthe overwhelmingly won each itswithin own nationality, whileboth, renamedthe andmoderately andHDZ– –SDA, parties based three nationally the 1990, in November-December held elections first the After Croats. and Serbs Muslims, of state common as the Herzegovina Bosnia- of integrity the on insisted and arrangement, federal the of maintenance for called was less forhim. importance of group, national group of the identifiedWhetherBosnian Muslims. they ethnicare group, asreligious or Muslims’ national name. Nevertheless,for him only the isgenuine identity belongingthe to was neither openly neitheropposing, openly supportingidea of change the Bosnian of practicing Muslim, religiosity whose marked hisdeeply political identity. Atthe beginning he 99 Alijahand, Onthe concept. Izetbegovi other was byallmeansasecularnational In many sources the same event is referred to as Preporod, 1998), 569; and Ša Mustafa Imamovi The moment that is often cited as the formal “return of historical name Bosniaks” for in and of war course the the theoutburst of story complicated the indulginginto Not In the context of the Yugoslav dissolution crisis, SDA at the beginning itsof existence ü , Historija Bošnjaka Second All-BosniakAssembly ü ir Filandra,ir [The History of Bosniaks] (Sarajevo:Bošnja Bošnja the Second Bosniak Assembly þ ka politika u XX. stolje 42 ü collected only collected 2 MPpositions, thus [ Drugi svebošnja ü u [ [Bosniak Politics in the XX Drugi bošnja ü þ infamously failed. infamously ki sabor þ ka zajednica kulture þ ki sabor ki ü ] wasa true 99 , held in ] as in: CEU eTD Collection 102 Assembly: “We, the Bosniaks, are that part of our initial Bosnian nation that preserves 101 100 questionthe inclusion intoof gives Bosniakhood Muhamed Filipovi symbolic Theimportant. Muslims andBosnianof soil was evenmore unity clearto answer Bosnia. In the context of war over territoriesalso as underlining of symbolicthe interconnection of Bosnian Muslims and theland of and ethnic cleansing of the occupiedname the of ones, this from Muslim notionspeople land, the andlanguage”.of origin politically anddoubted questioned, manipulated, while even terminologically distancing name national the to tradition”, since Bosniak Assembly, influential intellectual an Alija Isakovi All-Bosniak the of agenda the with connected directly Not aswell. rejected formally plan was voting of the SDA MPs in the Parliament of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the day after, when the Assembly formallywere not politically binding,it however,significantly influenced on the side. for Muslim the territory fairshare of provide not smaller but Muslim nation proto-state. Finally, the Plan was rejected on the basis that it did renounce whethermultiethnic idea the ofintegral andHerzegovina, to and and Bosnia adopt Herzegovina, for Bosnianegotiations and PeacePlan’ and ongoing Geneva‘Owen-Stoltenberg the which proposed regarding consensus” “national the reaching of occasion the on intellectuals, Muslim Bosnian a loosethe union of three entities. September1993, p. 2. returned”,Planwith reserve “forcefullythat occupied territories,in previously inhabited by “VraMuslim majority should be originally used by the newspapers that covered it,such as Century] (Sarajevo: Sejtarija, 1998), 384. Here Idecided to termuse the “Manje emocija, više razboritosti” [Less Emotions, More Rationality], 15%of delegates of All-Bosniak Assemblythe voted forthe Plan, 22% against,while 64,5% voted forthe See Hoare 381. Holiday Inn as a formal national name for Bosnian Muslims. It was promotion of a “natural right “natural a of promotion was It Muslims. Bosnian for name national formal a as Bosniak in besieged Sarajevo on on inbesieged349 27 September Sarajevo meeting 1993.The gathered ü anje otetog – pa potpis” [Returning of the Stolen – then the Signing], was presented not only notonly waspresented as a historicalidentity, for denied retribution but Muslim 43 was tobeprone “ethno-genetically and Oslobo ü proposed declaration for proposed introduction of ÿ enje 101 The decision of the All-Bosniak . Oslobo 102 All-Bosniak Assembly 100 Therefore the endorsement ÿ The main dilemma was dilemma main The enje ü , 28 September 1993,p. 4. inhis speech to the Oslobo since it was ÿ enje , 29 CEU eTD Collection 104 Muslims. The session of the Assembly was closed with the following acclamation: the are Bosniakhood of continuity the of bearers true only the but land, Bosnian the with 103 law.” and state historical its land andbears this of meaning historical essence in this fulfils land, this of essence national the of continuity p. 2. “Vra “Smisao bošnjaštva” [The Meaning ofBosniakhood], Meaning [The bošnjaštva” “Smisao them." all traditions that live here. We invoke as a witness our entire history. … and cherish centuries-old fruits of tolerance and mutual respect of all people protect will that and community free anddemocratic as homeland Bosnia we seeour tradition history. our of language Bosnian our andall-encompassingspiritual legaltradition, to state national landin name that way toour Bosniaks, ourselves tying andits Bosnia historic and peopletheir to our return to are determined here…we gathered ü anje otetog –papotpis” [Returning of the StolenSigning],– thenthe 104 May Allah be the witness of our sincere intentions and supports usin and supports intentions sincere our of witness bethe Allah May that we declare identity confirmed name and regained the of In thespirit “Aware of the historical dimension of the moment in which we are 103 Thus isBosniakhood symbolical connectedness Oslobo 44 ÿ enje , 28 , September 1993,p. 5. Oslobo ÿ enje , 29September1993, CEU eTD Collection von Kállay failed in 19 of ask:If nationhood Benjamin seems question Bosniak to as alegitimate Interconfessional pressure Croatian and Serbian anachronism. establishmentof WorldWar Second ZAVNOBiHcould declaration only sound as democratic more framework, appropriate for post-1989 the politics. Thus their for re- call young wereleft-orientedYugoslav unable advocates people. the idealiberal to translate It into seemed to have resembled too much the Tito’s ideas of ‘brotherhood and unity’ of all Imamovi such and and itsas Purivatra finally failedcreators sincerepromoters, concept when perceived asCommunists’product,and was delegitimized by failureof the communism. The ofcommunism/Yugoslavism legitimacy Failed course of negotiation of Bosnian Muslim identity. concept of Bosniakhood prevailed over other identity alternatives that were presented over the based ethno-religiously exclusive, the why and Bosniak, for changed was M’ capital with When historical aboutthe thinking accountof it ofinclusive concept the Bosniakhood, The civic concept of Bosnian nation, based on idea of citizens’ loyalty to the state, The concept of secular Muslim nation, ‘Muslim with capital M’, was generally M’, was capital ‘Muslim with nation, Muslim secular of The concept ‘Muslim name national why problem the to explanations several present will I Here ü gaveupondefendingit. C ONCLUSION th century its century opposition strong due to by Serbian and Croatian national - W HY THE HY B OSNIAK EXCLUSIVE SOLUTION WON 45 ? CEU eTD Collection exclusive ethnic based nationalisms disputing over a territory, it is impossible for an inclusive an for impossible is it a territory, over disputing nationalisms based ethnic exclusive of context in the terms, general In rivals. their of self-definition national of pattern the follow to nation-builders Bosniak for inevitable, if not logical, was it nationalisms Croatian Muslims withinframework the of ethnic-based exclusive conceptof nation. Bosnian of formation group in the step final time same the at is This Muslims. Bosnian modernity. thehistory be andHerzegovina Thus Bosnia of interpreted ashistory to comes of tended to prove symbolic continuity of Bosnia and its people from medieval times till All-Bosniak Assembly subsequent such national exclusiveentrepreneurs of as thosegatheredatthe Bosniakhood, On contrary, the concept. support Bosniakinclusive to in order were developed that narrativesmyths historical ishenot renounce Whatand interesting,Bosnia. particularly did that renounced of nationhood ideaof wouldnecessary the involveBosniak allinhabitants However, nationalisms. evenZulfikarpaši aggressive SerbianandCroatian mitigate thatwould aguarantee inclusiveness seemed as ideanational of hand,other the narratives, which ascribedMuslims specialsymbolicalin role to thehistory of Bosnia. the On Bosnian historical of sounded compellingMuslims. palette colourful provided to They of of alleged Bosniak revival among them.” Serbs nationally constituted themselvesin 19 Serbs nationally constituted Serb will never be a Bosniak in national sense. That can only be Muslims. Bosnian Croats and a Bosnian or Croat aBosnian because late, istoo coming nation Bosniak of Banac, “creation 105 movements, how a similar idea can succeed at the end of 20 Željko Gormaz, Željko “Bosanske granice odnisu Tita” [Bosnian Borders were not by Created Tito], interview Ivowith Banac by It can be concluded that in the context of competing and conflicting Serbian Serbian and inof and conflicting competing It canbe context the that concluded Therefore whenAdil Zulfikarpaši Bosanski pogledi of 1993, heavily relied on heritage of that argumentation historical of heritage heavily on relied of1993, , no. 16, 20 June 1991. June 20 16, no. , 105 ü entered Bosnian political political enteredBosnian ideas inhisscene 1990, th century. … It is impossible to expectsuccess is to …It impossible century. 46 th century? In the words of Ivo of words the In century? ü himself CEU eTD Collection follow the dominant pattern. dominant the follow forces survive. conceptof all nation multiethnic civic-based to to environment The groups 47 CEU eTD Collection û Donia, Robert J. ReviewDonia, “The History”. Robert Article NewBosniak Džaja, Sre Djoki ý Tone. Bringa, Bourdieu, Pierre. The Bosniak: Adil Zulfikarpaši Ivo. Banac, Banac, Ivo. “Introduction.” In Post-Communist and Nationhood Socialist to Community Religious “From Ivo. Banac, Andjelic, Neven. Andjelic, Aleksov, Bojan. “Perceptions of Islamization in the Serbian National Discourse.“ Ademovi urak, Nerzuk.Interview25 by Aprilauthor, Sarajevo. Digital2008, recording. olakovi ü , Dejan, ed. intelektualaca, 1998. intelektualaca, in Croatian Political Discourse]. Political in Croatian Wisconsin University press, 2003. 2(2000). No. the Congress of Bosniak Intellectuals]. Sarajevo: Vije Sarajevo: Intellectuals]. 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Sarajevo: Muslimanska, 13-30. ü a [The Destiny of a Bosniak: ý igoja 2000. štampa, ü et al., 3-6. þ þ ke [The kih CEU eTD Collection Newspapers Valter/Walter, Sarajevo Valter/Walter, Oslobo NIN, Beograd Bošnjak, Tuzla Bosanski pogledi, Sarajevo ÿ enje, Sarajevo enje, 52