A Study of Integrated Curriculum Jennifer Ruth Jones Doster

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2004 Co-Study Art Education: A Study of Integrated Curriculum Jennifer Ruth Jones Doster

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS AND DANCE

CO-STUDY ART EDUCATION:

A STUDY OF INTEGRATED CURRICULUM

JENNIFER RUTH JONES DOSTER

A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Art Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2004

The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Jennifer Ruth Jones Doster

defended on July 2, 2004.

Tom Anderson Professor Directing Dissertation

Emanuel Shargel Outside Committee Member

Fanchon Funk Committee Member

Marcia Rosal Committee Member

Approved:

Marcia Rosal, Chair, Department of Art Education

Sally McRorie, Dean, School of Visual Arts and Dance

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My husband, Dr. Henry Clay Doster, gave me the enthusiasm and continuing support needed to embark on and finish this research project. He together with my son, Henry Jared Doster, and my mother, Ruth B. Jones, unselfishly gave me the love and freedom necessary to achieve this goal. Jean Warren was an integral part in the development of the Co-Study Curriculum and her loyalty as well as her creative thinking were foundational to the completion of this dissertation. Further, Karen Collins and Myra Crews were willing and enthusiastic supporters of the Co-Study Curriculum process. Dr. Tom Anderson, major professor, and committee members, Dr. Emanuel Shargel, Dr. Fanchon Funk, and Dr. Marcia Rosal, contributed their patience and wisdom, which were needed to bring the story of Co-Study to fruition. Also, thank you to Dr. Penelope Orr for her insights. The presence and contributions of many others have shaped the telling of this story. I sincerely appreciate each person who made a contribution.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables………………………………………………………………………. viii List of Figures……………………………………………………………………… ix Abstract……………………………………………………………………………. x

I. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………. 1 Background of the Study…………………………………………………… 2 The Role of Art…………………………………………………………….. 6 Statement of the Purpose…………………………………………………… 14 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………... 14 Research Questions………………………………………………………… 14 Objectives of the Study……………………………………………………. 15 Significance of the Study………………………………………………….. 15 Overview of Methodology………………………………………………… 16 The Researcher…………………………………………………….. 17 The Setting…………………………………………………………. 18 Research Population……………………………...... 18 Limitations…………………………………………………………………. 19 Pilot Study…………………………………………………………………. 19 Definitions of Key Terms………………………………………………...... 20 Summary…..………………………………………………………………. 20

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE………………………………………………….. 22 Brain Based Learning……………………………………………………… 23 Memory……………………………………………………………. 30 Right Brain and Left Brain………………………………………… 32 Learning Styles…………………………………………………….. 34 Cognitive Developmental Theory…………………………………………. 36 Gardner……………………………………………………………. 37 Vygotsky…………………………………………………………... 41 Learning In and Through Art……………………………………………… 43 Facilitation of Learning……………………………………………. 43 Art and Cognition………………………………………………….. 49 Learning Theory…………………………………………………………… 54 Behaviorism……………………………………………………….. 55 Constructivism…………………………………………………….. 57 Behaviorism Versus Constructivism………………………………. 59 Perception………………………………………………………….. 61 Expert Learning System…………………………………………… 63 Summary…………………………………………………………… 64 Philosophical Foundations…………………………………………………. 65

iv Idealism…………………………………………………………….. 67 Realism…………………………………………………………….. 70 Intuitionism………………………………………………………… 72 Alfred North Whitehead…………………………………………… 74 Pragmatism ………………………………………………………... 75 Existentialism……………………………………………………… 79 Integrated Curriculum……………………………………………………… 81 Rationale for Integrated Curriculum………………………………. 81 Describing Integrated Curriculum…………………………………. 84 Florida Curriculum Framework……………………………………. 91 Art Education and Integrated Curriculum…………………………. 92 School Improvement Research Series (SIRS)……………..………. 96 Research on Models Using Integrated Curriculum………………… 98 Polar Versus Holistic (Integrated) Curricula………………………. 105 A Definition of Integrated Curriculum…………………………….. 107 Art and Integration…………………………………………………. 108

III. RESEARCH DESIGN……………………………………………………….... 110 My Own Experience with Art and Integration…………………………….. 111 Overview of the Design of this Study……………………………………… 113 Rationale for the Research Methodology………………………………….. 114 Action Research……………………………………………………. 115 Researcher’s Qualifications and Role……………………………………… 116 Research Context…………………………………………………………... 117 Research Population……………………………………………………….. 118 Description of the Co-Study Curriculum Art Activities…………………... 118 Overview of the Treatment Procedure…………………………….. 119 Instruments Used in Data Collection……………………………………… 138 Co-Study Impact Survey…………………………………………… 140 Art Attitude Survey………………………….…………………….. 141 Student Interviews…………………………………………………. 141 Teacher Researcher Observations…………………………………. 143 Administration of the Study……………………………………………….. 143 Data Analysis and Display………………………………………………… 144 Testing of the Research Questions………………………………………… 146 Research Question #1……………………………………………… 146 Research Question #2……………………………………………… 146 Supporting Documentation………………………………………………… 147 Summary…………………..………………………………………………. 147

IV. PILOT STUDY………………………………………………………………. 148 The Co-Study Story……………………………………………………….. 148 Profile of Jean Warren…………………………………………….. 153 1998-1999 School Year……………………………………………. 163 1999-2000 School Year……………………………………………. 169 Karen Collins and Myra Crews……………………………………. 173

v 2000-2001 School Year……………………………………………. 181 2001-2002 School Year……………………………………………. 182 2002-2003 School Year……………………………………………. 188

V. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND FURTHER RESEARCH………………………………………………. 199 Research Questions………………………………………………………... 200 Research Question #1…………………………………………….... 200 Research Question #2……………………………………………… 200 Research Results of Quantitative Data…………………………………….. 200 Research Question #1……………………………………………… 200 Research Question #2……………………………………………… 206 Research Results of Qualitative Data……………………………………… 211 Student Interviews…………………………………………………. 211 Relevant Student Responses to Research Question #1……. 211 Pilot Study Student Responses, Research Question #1……. 220 Relevant Student Responses to Research Question #2…….. 223 Pilot Study Student Responses, Research Question #2……. 226 Teacher Researcher Observations……….………………………….226 Relevant Observations, Research Question #1…………….. 248 Pilot Study Teacher Observations, Research Question #1… 249 Relevant Observations, Research Question #2…………….. 249 Pilot Study Teacher Observations, Research Question #2… 250 Co-Study Curriculum Support of Sunshine State Standards………. 250 Interpretation of the Findings…………………………………….... 252 Overview of Perceived Learning Through Visual Arts Enhancement of Social Studies…………………….. 253 Overview of Attitudinal Shifts Toward Art Due to the Co-Study Curriculum……………………….. 254 Performance Overview…………………………………….. 254 Reflective Overview by the Researcher…………………… 255 Implications for Art Educators…………………………………….. 255 Suggestions for Additional Research……………………………… 258

APPENDIX A, SURVEY INSTRUMENTS……..……..………………………… 259 A-1 Co-Study Impact Survey A-2 Art Attitude Survey

APPENDIX B, PILOT STUDY INTERVIEWS………..………………………… 263 Pilot Study Interviews: Teachers B-1 Interview Guide B-1a Jean Warren (Interview #1) B-2 Interview Guide B-2a Jean Warren (Interview #2) B-3 Interview Guide B-3a Jean Warren (Interview #3)

vi B-4 Interview Guide B-4a Karen Collins B-5 Interview Guide B-5a Myra Crews

Pilot Study Interviews: Students B-6 Interview Guide B-7 Alecia B-8 Charles B-9 Christina B-10 Crystal B-11 Elizabeth B-12 Jackson B-13 Kellie B-14 Michael B-15 Samantha

APPENDIX C, PRESENT STUDY INTERVIEWS.……………………………… 377 C-1 Interview Guide Student Interviewees C-2 Anna C-3 David C-4 Ernest C-5 James

APPENDIX D, STUDY APPROVAL FORMS…………………………………… 419 D-1 Human Subjects Committee Approval Memorandum D-2 American History and Art Co-Study Parental Consent Form for Minors D-3 American History and Art Co-Study Youth Assent Form D-4 Bay District Schools Permission to Conduct the Study

APPENDIX E, CONTACT & FEEDBACK INFORMATION……………………. 425 E-1 Contact & Feedback Information

REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………427

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH………………………………………………….……. 436

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LIST OF TABLES

1. Art Attitude Survey, Pre/Post-assessment Shifts in Attitudes Toward Art, Doster’s Co-Study Class………………………………………………………. 209

2. Art Attitude Survey, Pre/Post-assessment Shifts in Attitudes Toward Art, Warren’s Co-Study Class……………………………………………………… 210

3. Co-Study Impact Survey, Curriculum Component(s) Contribution to Achieving Sunshine State Standards……………….……………………… 251

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LIST OF FIGURES

1. Example of Gestalt Diagram of Cultural Universals……………………………. 62

2. American History & Art Co-Study Grade Improvement………………………. 165

3. Attendance Comparison…………………………………………………………173

4. Co-Study Impact Survey, Percentage Distributions of Student Responses by Survey Statement, Cumulative Data from Doster’s & Warren’s Classes……….202

5. Co-Study Impact Survey, Student Responses by Survey Statement…………… 205

ABSTRACT

Art in elementary and secondary schools is often tagged as a superfluous class, to be removed or restricted at the first sign of a budget crunch, and offered only after “real learning” has taken place. The values of art are often overlooked. Art is a language that utilizes the creative parts of the brain and has served as the core for some integrated curricula. Teachers have been increasingly encouraged to integrate their curricula with other subject matter because integration is viewed as a way to deal with our era’s increased information load, state mandates for school administrators concerning student performance, standardized curricula and assessment, and concern over relevancy of school to the workplace. This study focused on how art could be integrated more effectively with other subjects, in general, and specifically with American history. This study examined how an evolution of integrated curriculum, called Co-Study Curriculum, used art in the delivery of American history. The research questions addressed were: (1) Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions of their understanding of American history?, and (2) Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art? This is a qualitative study with quantitative components; the research type is consistent with classroom action research. The methods used for assessment included: a post assessment survey of students’ perceptions on the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process and its usefulness in the classroom, a pre and post assessment of students’ attitudes toward art, interviews of selected students, and teacher researcher observations. Included, also, is a Co-Study Curriculum Guide that provides step-by-step instructions for implementing the art activities used in this study. Each art activity in the guide is aligned with the Florida Curriculum Framework, Sunshine State Standards for Social Studies. A five-year longitudinal pilot study of the Co-Study Curriculum process preceded this study and gave the impetus for it. Findings from this study support the research questions, specifically, that the Co- Study Curriculum positively affected students’ perceptions of their understanding of American history and their attitudes toward art. Implications of this study support that art education should consider broadening its concept and educational role by offering not only courses within its discipline but also by expanding its role through encouraging teachers of other subject matter to collaborate and integrate art into the presentation of their curriculum. Further, this broadened role should be taught within art education courses at the university level.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

During the last half of the twentieth century, interest in integrated curriculum has waxed and waned but there has been a resurgence of interest over the past decade (Lake, 1994). “Curriculum integration has become incredibly popular among educators in recent years” (Czerniak, Weber, & Sandman, 1999). Parsons (1998) stated that integrated curriculum is part of a larger movement that includes service learning, authentic assessment, whole-language instruction, school-university collaborations, and school-to-work programs. All of these programs are driven by the desire to make school meaningful to students who find schoolwork meaningless. Borrowing from Dewey that meaning comes from purposes, Parsons further stated that integrating across the curriculum helps provide purpose in learning for students. The facts of knowledge that students learn in disciplines during the school day have to be related to some purpose for remembering them. If the purposes for learning are to get grades only then the meaning of the material to the learner will be limited. For integration to occur, thinking must shift to the realization that student abilities and interests are as important to curriculum planning as the structure of the discipline itself and that information must be used or manipulated in some manner to be retained. A need exists to explore how art could be integrated more with other subjects (Parsons, 2000; Lake, 1994). As a secondary school teacher, I, increasingly, have been encouraged during teacher inservice workshops to integrate my curricula with other subject matter. Integration is viewed as a way of dealing with our era's increased information load, state mandates for school administrators concerning student performance, standardized curricula and assessment, and concern over relevancy of curricula to the workplace (Parsons, 1998). Business leaders in a highly competitive as well as global economy are calling for a workforce capable of critical thinking, creating, and working together to achieve common goals (H. Doster, 2003); the human resource

1 has become the competitive edge (H. Doster, 2003; Getty, 1999). Also, integration has been emphasized as a way to prepare students for lifelong learning in an increasingly complex and interactive world that will demand vocational upgrading and changing over a person's lifetime (Schramm, 2000). This dissertation is a study of how a variation of integrated curriculum, called the Co-Study Curriculum, used art to enhance learning in American history.

Background of the Study

It is useful at first to describe briefly what is happening in our society, in general, and education, in particular, that sets the context for this study. For educators, the last two decades of the twentieth century focused on continuing educational reform and restructuring which had begun in previous decades (Getty, 1999). The publication of A Nation At Risk (1983) by the National Commission on Excellence in Education showed American students falling behind in world competition and initiated the current reform efforts which are aimed at curriculum, instruction, and assessment standards in all academic areas. Another reform document, America 2000 (1991) by the U.S. Department of Education said things were not improving (Eisner, 1994). The Goals 2000: Educate America Act (1994) mandated educational reform and established eight national educational goals among other initiatives (Getty, 1999). The highest levels of government, the President of the United States and the U.S. Congress, were involved in the momentum for educational reform. Title II of the Act provided a framework within which appropriate organizations could identify voluntary national standards for each core subject (ArtsEdge, 2003). “The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics led the way in the development of national standards” (Florida Curriculum Framework, 1996, p. 5) and since then standards in other academic areas have been developed by professional groups. Many states have enacted legislation requiring standards for curriculum and assessment. Florida, influenced by the national standards initiatives, developed the Florida Curriculum Framework in 1996; its Sunshine State Standards provide new, high-level expectations for student achievement in Florida. In general,

2 standards in all academic areas at the national as well as the state level have provided benchmarks for quality and accountability in education. Goals 2000 identified eight academic areas targeted for reform (ArtsEdge, 2003). Art along with English, mathematics, history, civics and government, geography, science, and foreign language were acknowledged as core subjects. Art was finally accepted as a basic, as important to the curriculum as traditional core subjects, and moved from being on the periphery of the curriculum to a foundational item. Along with this shift came debate among art educators on how to teach and assess art. In 1992, the Consortium of the National Arts Education Associations drafted the National Standards for Arts Education (ArtsEdge, 2003). The resulting national standards for art were based on a consensus-building process that included gathering the broadest possible input from a variety of sources such as state-level arts education frameworks, standards from other nations, concerns of the arts education community as well as advice, opinions and comments from national forums. These standards state what students should know and be able to do in the arts. The standards are not a predetermined course of study but, rather, competencies that art students should achieve in the classroom. This climate of general educational reform, development of core subject content standards, and introspection by art educators about the nature of art in education has seen the growth and development of discipline-based art education. Discipline-based art education (DBAE) is a comprehensive approach to art education. It exposes students to art through its four foundational disciplines—art-making, art criticism, art history, and aesthetics (Dobbs, 1999). Students in a DBAE art class look at the subject through these four lenses in order to create, understand, and appreciate not only art but the artist, the artistic process, and the function of art in cultures as well. One of the main factors in the current round of educational reform is technology, namely, the computer revolution and the effect it is having on our society. Our society has drastically changed “from an industrial to an information orientation, with fierce global competition” (Getty, 2001). In the past, our schools produced people who could work in our factories. Now the business community’s needs have shifted. The four key advantages of prosperous nations and companies—natural resources, capital, technology, and human skills—are being dominated by the skilled labor factor. Capital and

3 technology are readily available and natural resources can be assembled and produced anywhere. Competitive success is being defined by a skilled, thinking workforce. The new workplace needs highly skilled workers who can think and solve problems as opposed to just following directions. Compounding this shift from manual to mental work is the dependence of the computer and its related industries—telecommunications, software, entertainment—on visual imagery. Traditional education has relied on verbal communication; the information age requires visual literacy (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005; Getty, 2001). The culture at large is bombarded with media images—television, computer screens, video games as well as the traditional print media—and this has created many new forms of nonverbal communication. To fully communicate and not be held at a disadvantage, students need to be able to interpret and understand images, symbols, and icons as well as to create their own. The computer revolution does not appear to be slowing down or maintaining a steady pace; instead, it appears to be accelerating. The Internet is the closest that we have to an information superhighway, in which individuals can access a worldwide network of institutions and individuals. “The federal government’s vision of electronically connecting every home, classroom, library, and workplace in the nation through the National Information Infrastructure (NII) isn’t that far off” (Getty, 2001, para. 3). It is estimated that within the next 25 years we will receive our information—data, text, imagery, sound—through the NII, which is likened to a twenty-first century’s Gutenberg press in its anticipated effect on education. Currently, the impact of art on the worldwide web is incontestable; students readily use the language of art—images, sounds, colors, movements—to negotiate computer technology and interactive media. The third item of interest as background for this study is the multicultural aspect of our society. The United States is the most multicultural country in the world (Getty, 2001). The State of Florida with significant African-American and Hispanic-American populations is one of the most diverse states in the United States with projections that its minorities collectively will form the majority during the early part of the twenty-first century (Anderson & Taylor, 1993). Schools must meet the needs of a very diverse

4 population; classrooms regularly reflect a variety of racial, ethnic, religious, national, linguistic, and cultural differences. The melting pot terminology often used to describe America has given way to the tossed salad or stew metaphor. The melting pot blended everyone into the same flavor while the stew or salad allows for individual differences in taste while still contributing to a common American culture. Not only are today’s students more diverse in the classroom, their future workplaces will demand working with others in collaborative projects at work, as well as, in society and on worldwide communication networks (Getty, 2001). The multicultural aspect has had its impact on curriculum, especially art curricula. Art acts as a bridge to other cultures because it is one of the main ways that people express themselves and define who they are (Getty, 2001). Through art, which expresses the human spirit, students can learn to understand and appreciate other people and other cultures—to develop empathy (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005). Further, students whose first language is not English can use art to communicate their ideas. The arts are seen “as inclusive and democratic because each child can discover his or her own avenue of learning, expression, and discovery” (Getty, 2001). In summary, the background factors that influence this study are the climate of educational reform, the changes brought about by the computer revolution, and the increasing multiculturalism of our society. These factors are not independent but are interwoven. Rapidly changing computer technology has impacted our basic economic structure, moving us away from industrial manufacturing toward creating and selling information. One of the functions of education is to meet the needs of society in the workplace. Therefore, education must meet the needs of computer-driven technology. Add to that the fact that the classroom and the workplace are becoming increasingly multicultural because our population is becoming more diverse and the world is becoming more interconnected. Educational reform initiatives are struggling to meet these challenges by imposing standards on curriculum, instruction, and assessment. This, it is hoped, will produce workers who are highly skilled, who can think “out of the box”, and who exhibit more empathy and ability to work together so that business can be competitive in the global marketplace.

5 The Role of Art

It is necessary at this point to look at the role that art could play as it is integrated with other subject matter. What does art have to offer as a discipline with regard to curriculum integration? Eisner (1994) stated that what we offer in school curricula is bound by tradition and that tradition has allowed one mode, verbal or written language, to dominate. The arts are regarded as not as important as math, science, social studies, or language. They are viewed as dealing with feeling rather than thinking. The perception is that the arts do not demand any rigorous thinking by the student and they are an unimportant part of the school program. However, Eisner argued, art as a symbol system allows the learner to capture ideas, view their visible form, and reflect upon them. Art allows for meaningful association of ideas and promotes creative thinking. Students who are weak in the language mode but strong in artistic expression are held at a disadvantage in the typical school curricula. Eisner (1994) stated: ...if the school gives its most highly prized awards to what it regards as intellectual achievements, children who shine in the arts will never shine as brightly as those who are excellent in mathematics; the arts, like the children attracted to them, will remain second-class citizens in the hierarchy of curricular values. (p. 82) Gardner (1990) also argued that, by definition, the visual arts are a symbol system, akin to language, and require students to deal with visual and spatial kinds of symbols that take form, represent ideas, express feelings, and convey meaning. Further, art is a holistic and organic form of knowing as opposed to sequential learning. Most of schooling deals with verbal and logical forms of symbolization and only artistic students are given the opportunity to think and problem solve in the visual arts. Ulich (1961) spoke to the role of art in education: It is astonishing to see how slowly the schools all over the world have begun to assume the obligation of educating youth

6 toward a better understanding of the role of art in the life of man [sic]. There are two reasons. One is related to the strange fact that the most basic and formative elements of human culture often remain below the level of consciousness. Art is such a basic element. For it is with us not only when we admire a picture or listen to a symphony, but it is silently infused into everything that surrounds us.... (pp. 188-189) He goes on: Strange though it may sound to the modern technical mind, if our schools forget about this intuitive center of the human mind, their instruction, however accurate and diligent, may bury creativeness. (p. 196) Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987) echoed very similar sentiments in Creative and Mental Growth when discussing the meaning of art activities for children: Young children use art as a means of learning, through the development of concepts which take visible form, through the making of symbols which capture and are an abstraction of the environment, and through the organization and positioning of these symbols together in one configuration. (p. 2) Further, art is a unifying experience in that the drawing or painting represents a student bringing together diverse elements into a new and meaningful whole. Art also cultivates "the abilities to question, to seek answers, to find form and order, to rethink and restructure and find new relationships..." (p. 3), qualities not measured by intelligence tests but essential to survival. Art teaches the student to search for answers because the art experience requires self-direction. Art teaches perceptual sensitivity and "the greater awareness of all the senses, the greater will be the opportunity for learning" (p. 5). Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987) described how written knowledge is transmitted through only 26 letters and 10 numerals; "these 36 abstract figures are manipulated and reshuffled from kindergarten through college" (p. 5). The mental growth of students becomes an abstract process of using these tools as they are shuffled to take on different

7 configurations and different meanings. However, they are not learning itself, but only tools with which to learn. "Being able to assemble letters in proper sequence to spell rabbit does not constitute an understanding of a rabbit" (p. 6). Meaning comes from engaging the five senses and thinking; "it is the interaction between symbols, the self, and the environment that provides the material for abstract intellectual processes" (p. 6). Therefore, a student needs a full and meaningful relationship with the environment and a creative art experience provides this. It is incumbent on educators to develop the entire human being—the spiritual side, the emotional side, the creative side, the social side. Art education aids in the development of these human attributes because it is a means of expression, a reflection of the inner workings of the student. Art education, as an essential part of the educative process, may well mean the difference between a flexible, creative human being and one who will not be able to apply his learning, who will lack inner resources, and who will have difficulty relating to his environment. In a well-balanced educational system, the total being is stressed, so that potential creative abilities can unfold. (p. 6) Cognitively, art also stimulates divergent thinking (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987). Divergent thinking is the ability to think of more than one answer to a question, or to think of different ways of approaching a problem, or to think of anything unusual or original. Schools, in general, promote and measure convergent thinking—a predetermined correct response. This is true, also, of intelligence tests. Creativity and intelligence (as usually measured) are not necessarily linked. "It has been estimated that the most productive people in our society are not necessarily the most intelligent" (Lowenfeld & Brittin, 1987, p. 78). The creative arts would be important in the educational system for this reason alone, divergent thinking, because it causes the student to look at a problem from multiple points of view and to use imagination to discover an answer. One of the prime purposes of art in education is to develop creativity and "it makes no difference whether this creativity will be used in the arts or sciences" (p. 79). More recently, Anderson and Milbrandt (2005) characterized art as a vehicle in which learning could occur holistically, crossing discipline boundaries. The average person, when thinking of art or artists, thinks of creativity. Parents and administrators think of creativity and personal expression as the role of the art curriculum. However,

8 the curriculum in the art room goes beyond that and promotes divergent thinking, necessary for problem solving. They suggest the use of an art research journal for students as one strategy for interdisciplinary study and enhancing creativity. In this manner, art is not used as an end but as a vehicle for discovery. Dewey (1910), in How We Think, characterized the ideal mental condition as a balance of playfulness and seriousness at the same time. He maintained that work and play, product and process, had split apart to the detriment of education. Too much focus on end product, achieving results, led to dogmatism and prejudice and work became drudgery. On the other hand, free play of the mind on a topic, or process, invites intellectual curiosity and flexibility. Dewey contended: To give the mind this free play is not to encourage toying with a subject, but is to be interested in the unfolding of the subject on its own account, apart from its subservience to a preconceived belief or habitual aim. Mental play is open-mindedness, faith in the power of thought to preserve its own integrity without external supports and arbitrary restrictions. Hence free mental play involves seriousness, the earnest following of the development of subject-matter. (pp. 218-219) Dewey stated "that harmony of mental playfulness and seriousness describes the artistic ideal" (p. 220). The artist who is overly concerned with means and materials may achieve excellent technique but the spirit is lacking. Conversely, if there is too much animation and not enough thought to method, then the presentation of the idea is lacking. There must be a balance between the two. This attitude toward balancing process and product is found typically in the arts but can and should be employed in all disciplines. In Democracy and Education, Dewey (1916) furthered this thought by comparing the attitude of the spectator with the attitude of the participant in the learning process. The word participant denotes concern and interest. "The ideal of interest is exemplified in the artistic attitude” (p. 135). In other words, for learning to occur, the student must be an interested participant in the learning process and art, by its nature, fully engages or interests the student. For Dewey (1934), in Art as Experience, this is exemplified by the fact that in the ancient world there was no distinction between art and life. Art was not

9 viewed as separate from life; instead, art exemplified life. To the Athenian Greeks, art reproduced or imitated life because "it reflected the emotions and ideas that are associated with the chief institutions of social life" (p. 7). This tight bond between art and life led Plato to the idea of censoring certain types of art; the idea of art for its own sake would not have been understood. Art is organized energy that conveys meaning. "The expressions that constitute art are communication in its pure and undefiled form. Art breaks through barriers that divide human beings, which are impermeable in ordinary association" (p. 244). According to Jackson (1998), Dewey saw the arts as having three major functions: (1) giving us intense, meaningful, and holistic experiences, (2) giving us an aesthetic experience, and (3) teaching us new ways of thinking, feeling, and perceiving. Eisner (2001) suggested that the arts teach us ways of thinking and identified eight key competencies of cognitive growth developed through an education in the arts: perceiving relationships, recognizing nuance, fostering divergent thinking, acquiring ability to shift aims in the process of development, developing ability to make decisions in the absence of rules, increasing imagination and visualization, operating within limits of a medium, and acquiring ability to see the world from an aesthetic point of view. These types of thinking skills will be needed in the workplace of the 21st century and needed by people to create meaningful lives for themselves. Eisner (2002), in The Arts and the Creation of Mind, summed it up this way, “Through the arts we learn to see what we had not noticed, to feel what we had not felt, and to employ forms of thinking that are indigenous to the arts” (p. 12). Efland (2002) suggested, however, that in spite of these understandings by a few, the arts are on the periphery of the school curriculum. He stated that “placing the arts in the category of the cognitive has done little to change their low standing in the school curriculum” (p. 157). The arts are often regarded merely as modes of entertainment and there is “a serious lack of awareness of the substantive roles the arts can play in overall cognitive development” (p. 7). Further, art educators are not sure how to use the arts in cognitive development or assessing their impact in that area. He stated: …the purpose for teaching the arts is to contribute to the understanding of the social and cultural landscape that each individual inhabits. The arts can

10 contribute to this understanding, since the work of art mirrors this world through metaphoric elaboration. The ability to interpret this world is learned through the interpretation of the arts, providing a foundation for intelligent, morally responsive actions. (p. 171) The Florida Curriculum Framework: The Arts (1996) cited The National Standards for Arts Education: What Every Young American Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts (1994) as suggesting that studying the arts helps students to better understand the whole and helps build bridges for the students between verbal and nonverbal experiences. In this context, the Florida Curriculum Framework recommends connecting the arts to other subject areas for three reasons: (1) because life does not occur in subject-matter packets, (2) making connections across subject areas is more meaningful to students, and (3) to keep pace with an ever-expanding curriculum. The arts can be keys to correlation and integration of subject matter. The National Standards for Arts Education (1994) said: Because forging these kinds of connections is one of the things the arts do best, they can and should be taught in ways that connect them both to each other and to other subjects. Significantly, building connections in this way gives students the chance to understand wholes, parts, and their relationships. (Florida Curriculum Framework: The Arts, 1996, p. 230) There is, however, internal disagreement in art education on how to view the role of the arts. Some advocates of discipline-based art education (DBAE) favor the separation of art from other disciplines and indeed the separation of art into subdisciplines. Dobbs (1998), in Learning in and through Art: A Guide to Discipline-Based Art Education, defined DBAE as an approach to studying art through the four foundational disciplines in art—studio art, art criticism, art history, and aesthetics. Each discipline is regarded as a different perspective, or lens, through which to view art and art production: 1. Studio art is the skillful creation of works of art. 2. Art criticism is methodically talking about art to increase understanding and appreciation of art as well as to define its role in society.

11 3. Art history is understanding the social and cultural aspects of works of art. 4. Aesthetics is questioning the nature, meaning, and value of art and how to distinguish it from other activities as well as how to evaluate it. DBAE is a comprehensive model for art education for K-12 as well as adult education, lifelong learning, and art museums. Critics of DBAE focus on the idea that studying art through four disciplines would make it like any other academic subject at the expense of art's creative growth function. To quote Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987), "Art should not fall into the trap of competing with academic subjects, but should have the integrity to remain basically human" (p. 472). They stated that art provides an opportunity for growth, creative and mental, that other subject areas cannot. Further, secondary school students should feel that art is an area where they should not feel concern about being evaluated or performing to someone else's standards. Gardner (1990) suggested by stating "that to attempt to fragment [the arts] and to break them into separate concepts or subdisciplines is especially risky" (p. 42). Art is not the simple accumulation of more facts, more skills, or more bodies of knowledge, instead it is a creating and reflecting process that should deepen over time as one keeps actively involved in artistic processes. The fear is that art would be no longer be considered a whole process but, rather, four disciplines with little regard for child development through creative play. Yet DBAE does have characteristics notable for integrated curriculum: art education is for all students not just those who demonstrate talent in making art; it is written in sequential lesson units and learning experiences that derive balanced content from all four areas; and, art may be integrated with the general curriculum through its four disciplines. DBAE is art for all students whether gifted in art or not and integration could occur through all and any of the four separate disciplines. Making art or talking about art or viewing art could all be equal venues for integration with other subject matter. Outside the field of art, there are also misperceptions about the role of art in schooling. Eisner (1994) stated that students perceive art as a form of play "that one can engage in only after the real work of schooling has been finished" (p. 92). Even though almost all elementary schools devote some time to the arts, it is often a smaller amount of

12 time than the academic subjects and, generally, taught in the afternoon. Eisner described it this way, "In the afternoon, the arts can be used as a reward, as a break from the demands of thinking" (p. 92). He characterized the arts as part of the null curriculum in the secondary school, null curriculum being learning options not afforded to students. In summary, art has been characterized as a symbol system which can be used to visualize ideas that can be reflected upon (Eisner, 1994; Gardner, 1990; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987), as a language and mode of expression (Eisner, 1994; Gardner, 1990; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987), as a unifier and generator of holistic experiences (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005; Gardner, 1990; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987), as a conveyor of emotion and feeling (Gardner, 1990; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987), and as a creator of divergent thinking and outcomes (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005; Eisner, 2001; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987). Further, art creates a balance between mental thought and hands-on activity, therefore, connecting the brain with the body and senses (Dewey, 1910). It allows for creative play which is part of the thinking process. Art, in a larger sense, is a human endeavor that exemplifies and conveys meaning about life and in so doing brings people together (Dewey, 1934). However, neither people outside nor people inside the field agree upon or fully understand the role of art in education. There is no agreement on the vision for art education. The aims and content of art education come from within the field as well as from without. At the two extremes, some think art should be taught as a discrete discipline while others see it as a vehicle for delivering an entire school's curricula. Still others fear that art will lose its integrity as a discipline and become just a handmaiden to other subject matter. A broader view is that art by itself has intrinsic value for students by enriching their lives as well as qualities in its nature that develop thinking skills in students and allow it easily and successfully to integrate with other subject matter to increase learning and understanding (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005). Art allows our feeling and sensing nature to join with our thinking abilities. As the debate continues, the role of art has shifted, in the minds of many, from being an accessory to being essential in the curriculum as we prepare our students for the 21st century. It is in this context that this study is framed.

13 Statement of the Purpose

Integrated curriculum has been defined in so many ways that it has confused many educators as to what it is or what is expected of them in implementing it. Because of this confusion, many have become unwilling to try integration or feel threatened by it. A need exists to examine integrated curriculum and determine whether or not it can become a practical part of today's art education curricula and how this integration could occur.

Statement of the Problem

In this context, this dissertation will examine how a variation of integrated curriculum, called the Co-Study Curriculum, used art in the delivery of American history subject matter. What I want to know is, will the Co-Study Curriculum be an enhancement in students’ perceptions to their understanding of American history? And addressing the second major issue in the interdisciplinary debate, I want to know will art, in this context, be valued for its own sake or will it lose its identity in an interdisciplinary context? Specifically, I propose (1) to show longitudinal, empirical evidence in a pilot study that the Co-Study Curriculum process used art to enhance learning outcomes in American History, World History, and Chemistry at Rutherford High School between the 1997-98 and 2002-03 school years, (2) to design, implement, and assess the Co-Study Curriculum process in American History at Rutherford High School during the 2003-04 school year, and (3) as a result of these studies to develop a Co-Study Curriculum Guide based on selected Sunshine State Standards for American history teachers to use as supplemental material for their course textbooks.

Research Questions

Research Question #1: Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions of their understanding of American history?

14 Research Question #2: Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art?

Objectives of the Study

The process of this study framed as objectives was to: 1. review the literature on the psychology and philosophy of learning to establish a rationale for integrating curriculum, specifically learning in and through art. 2. review the literature to examine integrated curriculum models and determine a working definition of integrated curriculum. 3. review the literature to examine current research models on integrated curriculum using art paired with other subject matter. 4. construct, based on insights rising from the review of literature, and use a variation of integrated curriculum, called the Co-Study Curriculum, in the classroom in which art is used to enhance learning in American history as perceived by high school students. 5. assess the results of the curriculum. 6. develop, as a result of insights gained, a teacher guide based on the Sunshine State Standards that can assist other high school teachers who want to try the Co-Study Curriculum in their American history classrooms.

Significance of the Study

Spurred on by the latest wave of educational reform, there are a significant number of articles in the literature concerning integrated curriculum. These articles range from attempting to define the topic (Czerniak, Weber & Sandmann, 1995; Lake, 1994; Drake, 1993; Jacobs, 1989), to citing examples of application (Edens & Potter, 2001; Luftig, 2000; Schramm, 2000; Lake, 1994), to passing judgment on its effectiveness (Luftig, 2000; Easton, 1997; Schiller, 1995; Lake, 1994). There are also a significant number of articles concerning art and its intrinsic qualities as a subject that makes it more easily and effectively integrated with other subject matter (Burton, Horowitz & Abeles,

15 2000; Rettig & Rettig, 1999; Schiller, 1995; Clark, 1985). There are articles both for and against integration, pro and con regarding breaking down the barriers between academic disciplines (Burton, Horowitz & Abeles, 2000; Parsons, 2000). In review, integration is being viewed as a way to bring purpose and meaning to schoolwork for disinterested students, to manage our society’s information overload, and to accommodate business needs for capable workers in a competitive environment; art is viewed as a vehicle capable of effecting the integration of curriculum. The issues that this study addresses are the viability of integrated curriculum in the classroom and the suitability of pairing art with other subject matter for integration. My pilot study showed increased objective test scores for students participating in the Co-Study Curriculum process; enhanced learning outcomes were achieved in world history, American history, and chemistry classes using art co-study methods. The present study examines whether the Co-Study Curriculum enhances student perceptions of learning in American history and whether that process has any effect on students’ attitudes toward art. The Co-Study Curriculum uses art skills and exercises, history related studio projects, art criticism, and art history to enhance American history subject matter. The rationale of this study is to make a contribution to the body of knowledge concerning the perceived usefulness of the application of integrated curriculum in the classroom and whether art appreciation may “get lost” or be enhanced in the process. More specifically, the study provides information on whether or not the Co-Study Curriculum enhanced student perceptions of learning in two American History classes at Rutherford High School in Panama City, Florida, and whether or not art learning was attitudinally fostered. Overview of Methodology

The following is an overview of the methodology used in this study which is addressed in greater detail in Chapter 3. The methodology is both quantitative and qualitative in perspective. The research type is consistent with classroom action research. “Classroom action research typically involves the use of qualitative, interpretive modes of inquiry and data collection by teachers with a view to teachers making judgments about how to improve their own practices” (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000, p. 569). This

16 classroom action research will give teachers a view of the use of the Co-Study Curriculum process in the classroom. The methods used to assess this included: a post- assessment survey of students’ perceptions on the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process and its usefulness in the classroom; a pre- and post-assessment survey of students’ attitudes toward art; interviews of selected students; and, teacher researcher observations. The Researcher I am a teacher certified by the State of Florida in both Art (K-12) and Social Studies (6-12). For the past eight years, I have taught at Rutherford High School (RHS) in Panama City, Florida. My present duties include teaching courses within both the Art and Social Studies Departments. Over the past five years I have created, developed, used, and tested an innovative form of integrated curriculum, called the Co-Study Curriculum, in many of my classes at RHS. During these years I have involved other teachers in using the Co-Study Curriculum process. They have either taught with me, taught with each other, or taught alone. Jean Warren, a teacher in the Social Studies Department, has collaborated with me the most during the development of the Co-Study Curriculum process. I began my high school teaching career in the Social Studies Department of RHS. After two years of teaching, I transferred to the Art Department but maintained my link with Jean Warren. We discovered that beginning with the school year 1994-95 and through the school year of 1997-98, Rutherford High School had 39% of its students who took American History receive a "D" or "F": 19% of those failed. State laws and county policies require that all graduating seniors achieve a GPA of 2.0 or better. Required core subjects, such as American History, have high potential to pull down this GPA. Therefore, we felt that any improvement in students' abilities to achieve higher grades in required subjects should enable them to meet better the state and local requirements for graduation. Suspecting the potential for art integration with other subject matter, we began exploring ways to collaborate and bring our two subjects together. Further, from personal observation in past history classes we had taught, we both observed that 10% to 15% of our students were apathetic in the classroom. Behaviors included sleeping through class, talking incessantly with other students, and wandering

17 around the classroom when possible; these students were definitely not “on task”. We also had observed through written work and from interaction with the students that 10% to 15% had low reading and writing skills. Some of these students were in both groups; they were not on task because of their poor skills. Others were not focused on the subject or lacked the self-discipline to maintain a consistent level of work. To try to improve grades as well as to engage more students, we decided to reinforce American history content with art skills, exercises, and history-related studio projects along with art criticism and art history. The Setting Jean Warren and I felt that Rutherford High School was open to new and innovative curriculum experiments, partially because of its constitution. RHS is one of four high schools in Bay District Schools, Panama City, Florida. It is the second oldest high school, established in 1961, and the most culturally diverse and economically disadvantaged Bay County high school with 1,750 students of which 37% are minority. The Rutherford School Improvement Plan for 1994-95 depicted the school as "the most willing to face change and challenge because its students don't fit the traditional mold" (SACS Report, 1995). In that school year, the Communications Technology Academy began with a $450,000 state grant for a publishing and broadcasting center that was housed in a new two-story media center and business building. The integrated curriculum of ComTech was mirrored later in the development of Personal Education Plans (PEPs) for students. PEPs were small, theme-based curriculum programs for students centered on occupations. Teachers spent Wednesday afternoons planning together and integrating curriculum for their PEP. Both the PEPs and Block 8 scheduling (90 minute class periods) began in 1995. Given this history of innovation and integration in curriculum, a need to improve the number of students passing American History, and sufficient class time, Jean and I began collaborating during the second semester of 1998. Research Population The population for the study was students enrolled in two classes of American History and Art Co-Study at Rutherford High School for the 2003-04 school year. American History is a required subject generally taken during the eleventh grade year. Students receive one credit toward graduation for this year-long course. American

18 History and Art Co-Study used the same textbook and complied with the same standards as did the other regular American History courses at RHS. The co-study students were enrolled in an average (regular) class and represented a wide range of socio-economic levels. The difference between American History and Art Co-Study and American History was the use of art to enhance history content. Jean Warren, a veteran American history teacher, taught one of the classes and I taught the other. Students were either assigned by RHS Guidance Department or elected to take this class. Data from the classes was collected, analyzed, interpreted, and evaluated separately.

Limitations

The quantitative and qualitative assessment of the Co-Study Curriculum process is framed by the fact that I am directly involved with the subjects as a teacher of this process and present in the classroom. Although not intentional and guarded against, there could be bias in observation and data interpretation. Another limitation is that this study is specific to two classes at Rutherford High School during a particular time period; the two classes contained 50 students total. There was internal marketing at the school to announce the class as well as normal registration procedures but there was no selective process based on social, cultural, racial or academic factors associated with the enrollment of students. Students were enrolled on the basis of interest or placed in the class by the Guidance Department. There was not enough time or resources to include other schools in this study. So while there are implications for practice in other locations and the theory of interdisciplinary art education, the results strictly cannot be claimed to be generalizable.

Pilot Study

Chapter 4 is a narrative detailing the highlights of a pilot study that was previously conducted on the Co-Study Curriculum process. It is both qualitative and quantitative in perspective; the quantitative is descriptive and evaluative in nature. The evaluative research judges the merit of the program from performance data collected

19 between 1998 and 2000 from co-study classes at Rutherford High School and includes teacher observations. The descriptive data describes the effectiveness of the Co-Study Curriculum process through surveys of student participants in the same co-study classes. During subsequent years of the pilot study, 2001through 2003, the research strategy was solely qualitative in perspective. Interviews of teachers and students involved in the Co-Study Curriculum collaborations and classes were the primary method used while additional methods included surveys and observations. This strategy was consistent with case study research, common in education, which focuses on a program studied in depth for a defined period of time (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). It, also, is compatible with classroom action research. The entire pilot study, from 1998 to 2003, sets the foundation for the present study conducted during the first semester of the 2003-04 school year.

Definitions of Key Terms

The Co-Study Curriculum: The Co-Study Curriculum is a variation of integrated curriculum in which art—studio art, art criticism, and art history—is used to enhance learning outcomes in core subjects. To date, the Co-Study Curriculum has been paired with American history, world history, and chemistry. Integrated Curriculum: Integrated curriculum occurs when one or more subjects are combined and this combination reveals a broader understanding than could be attained through either of the individual subject disciplines alone (J. Doster, 2001).

Summary

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the Co-Study Curriculum process would enhance students’ perceptions of their understanding of American history and affect their attitudes toward art. The primary means for determining this relationship included surveys, interviews, and observations. A previous pilot study laid the foundation for the present study.

20 This concludes the introduction to the dissertation. Chapter 2 deals with a comprehensive review of the literature which is the knowledge base upon which this study is built.

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The topic of integrated curriculum is a large, unwieldy one because it deals not only with the philosophy of knowledge and the psychology of learning but also with current brain research, the physiology of learning. There are two foci in the approach to the literature: looking at (1) integrating two disciplines, and (2) using one of the disciplines as the vehicle for the other. Even though discrete, academic disciplines have been studied since ancient Greek times, there is renewed interest in integrated curriculum fueled by new research on the brain and learning (Snyder, 2001). Coupled with this is the role and importance of art in education in a field in which even art educators have trouble defining what art is due to its complex and pivotal role in learning and understanding. The Co-Study Curriculum is a form of integrated curriculum that uses art as a vehicle for other subject matter. My pilot study has predisposed me to believe that this type of integration and format are learning enhancements. In this chapter, I will review the literature regarding: 1. brain based learning 2. cognitive developmental theory 3. learning in and through art 4. learning theory 5. philosophical foundations 6. integrated curriculum I will do this to establish a rationale for integrating curriculum and using art to enhance learning, to explain current practices in the classroom, to determine a definition of integrated curriculum, and to view models of integrated curriculum and current research on art paired with other subject matter.

22 Brain Based Learning

“Because half of the human brain is devoted directly or indirectly to vision, understanding the process of vision provides clues to understanding fundamental operations in the brain” (Sur, 1996). Scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are just beginning to understand the cognitive processes in vision. Areas previously thought to process simple visual information are known now to handle complex visual images. When an image enters the brain’s cortex from the eye’s retina, the brain is already trying to understand the context and relationship of the images not just their spatial orientation. In other words, the brain is not trying just to place an object vertically or horizontally but trying to decide if it is a pencil or a finger. “Our work is the first and most important step in showing that right in the earliest stages of the visual cortex, where visual input first enters the brain, there are groups of cells that break down these stimuli and respond to them. That leaves open the question of how higher-order visual cortex areas further process these kinds of stimuli” (Sur, 1996). Learning theories do not address actively the role of the body’s physical organ used in learning. However, most people believe that the brain is somehow implicated in learning (Driscoll, 2000). The physiology of learning is a growing field made possible by new technology used in medicine. Neuroscience is the study of the human nervous system, the brain, and the biological basis of consciousness, perception, memory, and learning (Kasschau, 2001). The physical part of learning is housed in the nervous system and brain and neuroscience links what we know about cognitive behavior with the actual physical processes that support it. Educators do not have to be neuroscientists to benefit from this ongoing and rapidly changing research. Neuroscience should give teachers practical tools to use in the classroom as well as an appreciation for the complexities of learning. The brain is a multifaceted organism and Caine and Caine (1994) use the analogy of a city to illustrate its complexity. The brain, as a city, has many physical structures (buildings) connected by roads and wires; people are the element that keep the city running by transferring information and material from one area to another. Some people work in clusters (neighborhoods) and others work alone. At any given time, people are

23 working at simultaneous functions within the city. In the brain, many things are happening at once, in parallel, therefore, the brain is a parallel processor. The parts of the brain are interconnected and dependent on each other, just as systems—electricity, water, sewage—in a city interrelate. Plus, the brain stays busy and each part influences the others. A child is born with a definite organization to its brain and ways of interacting with the environment. After birth, the brain appears to grow in spurts followed by periods of rest. Many neural connections are made during the early years of life. Another important discovery is that experience causes the physical structure of the brain to change, referred to as brain plasticity (Caine & Caine, 1994). Environmental stimulation causes the brain to grow physiologically and growth can be targeted for certain areas of the brain. The brain has the ability to grow and change with use. Further, plasticity is maintained throughout a lifetime. Brain research supports psychologists’ belief that there are critical periods in cognitive development, that we are continually being shaped by and shaping our environment, and that enriched environments produce more highly developed brains (Caine & Caine, 1994). It appears, also, that the brain needs variety in its functioning. It needs periods of rest and activity as well as different intensities or states, such as meditation, creativity, and rationality. The student does not need a steady diet of bland and boring, narrow approach to teaching. For example, Rettig and Rettig (1999) stated that recent brain research supports the necessity for art education in the curriculum. People have two minds—a feeling mind (the oldest) and a thinking mind (the rational); sometimes the two minds work together and, sometimes, against one another in determining how we learn. The emotional center emerged from the most primitive root, the brain stem. Over a million years later, the emotional centers evolved the thinking brain. The fact that the thinking brain grew from the emotional one reveals a lot about the relationship of thought and feeling. The emotional brain is the first to receive input. While we are thinking about a logical response, we have already had an emotional one; therefore, emotions affect learning and memory. Having an emotional experience while learning information enhances the learning outcome. Therefore, art as an emotion-laden activity increases learning.

24 This thought is taken further by Kovalik (1994) who cited the work of MacLean on the triune brain. According to MacLean, the brain has three parts which constantly monitor its surroundings: the brain stem, the limbic system, and the cerebral cortex. Caine and Caine (1994) used the analogy of three brothers living together under one roof to explain the three layers of the brain. The oldest brother (reptilian or R-complex brain) housed in the brain stem takes charge of maintenance. Security, comfort, food, and waste disposal are handled in an automatic and systematic way. This brother does not use language and resists changing his ways. The middle child is the emotional (limbic system) one. While having deep feelings, he monitors his emotions as well as organizes events and helps remember new information. When threatened, he decides whether to fight or flee. He, occasionally, has to keep peace in the family. Sometimes he has to keep the older brother from dominating the family and, also, he has to act as a nurturer for his younger bother. The younger brother (neocortex) is the intelligent one: he uses language, handles language and images for learning, is creative, composes music, critically analyzes, has abstract thoughts, synthesizes, and plans for the future. He is where cognitive learning takes place. The brothers live together, support each other, and are involved in each others’ lives to some extent. They can be, however, at odds with each other. When the household is threatened, the older brothers take charge because of their experience. They both know that safety and survival are their top priorities. As mentioned, all three layers of the brain interact with one another (Caine & Caine, 1994). This means that what we are teaching our students—concepts, emotions, and behaviors—are interrelated, and influence and shape each other. The extent of the interconnectedness is unknown but “the limbic system mediates both emotion and memory” (p. 63). An emotional tie becomes necessary for learning; it lends a sense of reality to what we are thinking and doing and personalizes information. Therefore, student involvement is essential to learning. It is the thought plus the feeling that is remembered and both must have value to the learner. The emotions of the learner affect the capacity to grasp content and, conversely, information devoid of emotion is difficult to understand. A learner needs a way to be able to personally relate to information. Without that the subject being taught has no meaning to the student.

25 Educators need to understand the environment that allows for optimal brain functioning (Caine & Caine, 1994). They define it as: The optimal state of learning is roughly equivalent to that of an athlete who performs at the peak while maintaining a deep sense of relaxation, allowing the body to perform without inappropriate tension. We call this state relaxed alertness. This state of relaxed alertness is met by two conditions: (1) students are generally rested, relaxed, and feel secure enough to take risks, and (2) students are intrinsically motivated. Students become intrinsically motivated in an environment of creativity and challenge— helping them to find meaning in what is being studied and helping them to be creative. Optimal conditions include open-ended outcomes, maximizing personal meaning for students, and students taking ownership of the learning process. Art is a natural vehicle for creating these conditions. Caine & Caine (1994) summarized brain based learning in twelve principles. The following ones have implications for integrated curriculum and art in the classroom. 1. The brain is processing information in a parallel fashion which means that thoughts, emotions, and imagination operate simultaneously with other ways of information processing. The lesson for educators here is that no one teaching style will accommodate all learners; multiple methods need to be employed in the classroom. 2. Searching for meaning is innate to the brain as well as the need to act on our environment. Students need meaningful lessons in the classroom that allow them choices, challenges, and activity in their completion. 3. The brain seeks to understand patterns and create patterns in its search for meaning; this is called patterning. The brain resists meaningless information imposed on it. Information appears meaningless if it is isolated bits of information. Integration of information helps the student to make meaning; integrated curriculum allows the student to see patterns. 4. Emotions play a critical role in patterning. The affective and cognitive domains are not independent because emotions cannot be switched on and off. Both students’ feelings and attitudes are involved in learning.

26 5. The left brain and right brain organize information differently. The tendency is for one to reduce information into parts and the other to work with it as a whole. These tendencies are separate but simultaneous and interactive. Looking at parts and wholes facilitates learning. 6. The brain learns from what it is directly focused on as well as what is on the periphery of its perception. Visual peripherals such as charts and works of art aid learning. 7. The brain is always learning at both a conscious and unconscious level. It is constantly processing at an unconscious level, especially the peripheral information it has perceived. Students need more processing of their experiences in order to understand what they have learned at both a conscious and unconscious level. 8. The brain has at least two types of memory systems. One is for rote learning and the other is spatial that allows for instant memory of experiences. Understanding and recall are best in the spatial memory system. This system is invoked through experiential learning. 9. Each person’s brain is unique. Physically, we all have the same systems but they are integrated differently for each one of us. Teaching should allow for students to express visual, tactile, emotional, and auditory preferences for taking in and giving out information. One methodology that is brain based in nature is integrated curriculum (Caine & Caine, 1994). Integrated curriculum is a way to contribute to meaningfulness and to provide a rich learning environment. Integration can be achieved by one teacher combining the content of two classes or two teachers each representing a different discipline. “The curriculum can be further integrated with art and music” (p. 127). Teaching two disciplines together allows students’ brains to search for patterns and connections. Topics under study can be examined through different disciplines. For example, a study of history can be viewed through the lenses of geography, politics, economics as well as art and music. This type of redundancy, repackaging of information through different disciplines, aids understanding. Kovalik (1994) stressed the importance of maintaining a non-threatening learning environment when the triune brain goes to school. The cerebral cortex (neocortex) operates more slowly and needs a safe environment in which to function. It needs

27 challenging and creative lessons to keep it occupied and away from thoughts of peer ridicule, fears of a low grade, or threat by another classmate. School is an extremely social place and this can interfere with learning. Any real or perceived threat to the cerebral cortex shifts the brain to the limbic system or reptilian system and reduces learning. The limbic system’s role in learning is that of comparison and memory. It compares new information to old and then directs it to appropriate storage areas in the brain. For example, visual images are stored in the visual cortex and words in the language center. The limbic system has high rates of blood flow during visual processing. Life-threatening events cause us to “downshift” to the reptilian brain which is action-oriented and takes care of problems immediately. The brain stem, responsible for survival, has no language or visual memory; it is reactive. It is up to the teacher to maintain a classroom atmosphere that allows students to stay “upshifted” to the part of the brain that processes language and enables them to learn academic subjects, to reason, to plan, to deal with symbols, and to develop our culture. Another cornerstone for a brain based curriculum is an enriched environment (Kovalik, 1994). An enriched environment awakens the entire nervous system and stimulates all 19 senses—sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell, balance, vestibular, temperature, pain, eidetic imagery, magnetic, infrared, ultraviolet, ionic, vomeronasal, proximal, electrical, barometric, and geogravimetric. Kovalik cited the work of Rivlin and Gravelle (1984), Deciphering Your Senses, as the scientific evidence underpinning this assertion. Engaging all 19 senses maximizes brain growth. Typical teaching is full of lecture and print media and almost every course has an assigned textbook. As discussed earlier, the brain was designed to look for pattern among the complexities of real life. The assigned textbook is artificially simple. Our brain grows as we experience, therefore, we must offer experiences in the classroom not just printed sources. An enriched environment excites the brain to action. Involving fewer senses makes the task of learning more difficult. Kovalik summarized other brain research occurring over the last 25 years and supported by high-tech equipment, such as CAT scans and MRIs, in the following manner: intelligence is a function of experiences which cause physiological growth in the brain (the enlargement of neurons and the growth of dendrites); there are at least

28 seven intelligences functioning from different parts of the brain; when functioning, the brain uses a pattern-seeking process which is not logical and sequential when making meaning; and, most useful information is embedded in a mental program for later practical use and, if not, is largely forgotten. The learning environment must be one in which the students can remain "upshifted" in the cerebral cortex for maximum learning to occur. Kovalik (1994) cited the work of Hart for the concept that the brain is not naturally logical while learning (although it can use information, once learned, in a logical manner). Also, the brain does not operate in a linear fashion. Hart characterized the brain as a pattern-seeking device that learns by sifting through massive amounts of input which is processed in a "multi-path, multi-modal way" (Kovalik, 1994, p. 46). Further, recognition of patterns is what constitutes insight and facilitates the transfer of knowledge to new situations, which is creativity. Consequently, "logical, sequential curricula delivered in logical ways are highly brain-antagonistic" (Kovalik, 1994, p. 49). Educators concerned with brain based learning should organize curriculum around real experiences and integrated, whole ideas which help to grow the brain (Caine & Caine, 1994). Kovalik (1994) stated that "the curriculum of the 21st century must be based in reality, not in subject areas 'disciplines' and textbooks" (p. xvii) because "the mind is genetically designed to learn from the natural complexities of the natural world" (p. 49). Reality is defined as “the slice of life directly experienceable by students at, around, or through their school’s location or outreach capacity” (p. xvii). Curriculum organization "musts" compatible with brain research and recommended by Kovalik are: curriculum must be personalizable for and by individual students; concepts, skills, and attitudes and values must be learned by "being there" physically, e.g., studying real frogs in a real pond; allowances must be made for students' unique ways of learning; the amount of talking must be reduced and exploring increased. All curricula should stress problem solving and decision making. These recommendations for curriculum organization fit well with learning theories that stress the need for students to actively construct knowledge through hands- on activities, discussion, experiments, and open-ended objectives. Art, as a subject or as a process, is a perfect vehicle for hands-on activities and, also, contributes to brain development in other ways. The teaching of drawing as patterns and designs stimulates

29 the brain to see and recognize patterns. Art allows for the unique learning styles of students and open-ended objectives promote exploration and expression on an individual basis. Memory There are different theories that attempt to make predictions about memory of “concrete concepts”, the type of information taught in classrooms (Preston, 1996). Preston examined four studies of line drawings and words. The studies suggested that concrete items containing more information are easier to remember than those with less information. Therefore, drawings are more easily remembered than words because they contain more information than printed or spoken words. This may be true especially for young children who have limited vocabularies. For them, drawings may be much more informative. Generally, spoken vocabularies are smaller than written ones, hence, spoken words would be less informative than printed words. Remembering concrete concepts is ranked in this order: first, line drawings; second, printed word; and last, spoken word. Line drawings were processed faster in the brain than words and facilitated non-linear thinking. Memory tasks for both printed and spoken words were inferior to drawings. Early studies on memory by biological researchers focused their efforts on information storage (Driscoll, 2000). Since that time research efforts have broadened to understand the biology of learning and memory. Given that learning involves a change in the brain, it follows that memory, also, changes the brain in some fashion. The exact nature of the change is not known but the process has been studied. It has been determined that there are different types of memory. The most common is the type requiring memorization and effort and is represented by traditional information-processing models. Kasschau (2001) stated there are three processes involved in this type of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding is the process of transforming information so that the nervous system can process it. The senses are used to encode a memory. There are three types of memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term. Sensory memory is virtually everything that is heard or seen in an instant and is held in the mind for only a fraction of a second. A healthy adult can hold about seven unrelated items in short-term memory and it will last about 20 seconds unless rehearsed. Maintenance rehearsal, repeating in the mind or out loud, will

30 keep the items in short term memory for a longer period of time. The short-term memory capability can be enlarged if the items to be held are chunked. A chunk can consist of many other items. The brain will remember seven singular items or seven chunks of items. Even so, short-term memory is still temporary. To transfer items to long-term memory, they must be rehearsed with intent to learn. Long-term memory is vast and can last, perhaps, a lifetime. Memory requires storing many thousands of bits of information that can be retrieved when the need arises. The key to retrieval seems to be organization. "Techniques to improve memory are based on the efficient organization of the things you learn and on chunking information into easily handled packages" (Kasschau, 2001). As maintenance rehearsal helped in short-term memory, elaborate rehearsal aids in long-term memory. In elaborate rehearsal, new information is linked to already learned information or to a strong emotional experience. If an input is analyzed and indexed under many categories, each association can serve as a trigger for the memory. If you associate the new information with strong sensory experiences and a variety of other memories, any of these stimuli can trigger the memory. The more senses and experiences you use when trying to memorize something, the more likely it is you will be able to retrieve it—a key to improving memory (Kasschau, 2001, p. 287). For curriculum, this would mean activating as many senses as possible when trying to memorize or retain information. In other words, combining art with other subject matter could promote retention of the subject matter as the visual sense is engaged in the learning process. Caine and Caine (1994) called memorization a taxon memory system. In order for information to get into taxon memory there must be repeated practice and rehearsal. This system is linked to extrinsic reward so that students memorize for tests in order to get a good grade as opposed to seeking to understand ideas. Taxon memory creates habits, is resistant to change, and accounts for why stored knowledge does not automatically transfer to other situations. The items stored there are somewhat isolated, devoid of meaning, and waiting to be called when needed.

31 Caine and Caine (1994) stated that we have another type of memory system— called locale—that is spatial in nature. It is a natural system that does not need rehearsal and allows for instant memory of experiences. The locale memory system is motivated by novelty, has unlimited capacity, recalls where we were in space as well as what we were doing. It is why we remember "where and what we had for dinner last night..." (p. 93). Facts and skills that are embedded in natural, spatial memory are understood and remembered. They are not memories of facts out of context but memories existing in time and space forming a mental map. Experiential learning and use of the senses activate spatial memory. For curriculum, this necessitates using real-life activities, such as demonstrations, projects, field trips, stories, metaphors, drama, and visual imagery. The two memory systems work together. The taxon system has information in “parts” while the locale system has the whole story. The locale system uses the information stored in the taxon system; both interact to generate meaning. There must be strong connections between the two systems for the information to flow from the taxon to the locale system. If the strong connections are not there, the stored information cannot be called up except in limited ways. The students have memorized facts but are unable to apply them within a context. It becomes the difference between memorization and understanding. Connections should be made between the two memory systems and this is accomplished through experiential learning. For curriculum, this necessitates using real-life activities, such as demonstrations, projects, field trips, stories, metaphors, drama, and visual imagery. Right Brain and Left Brain The brain is physically divided into two hemispheres and the two lobes of the brain house different processes (Plotnik, 1999). The left hemisphere houses and is responsible for Verbal: language-related abilities such as speaking, understanding language, conversing, reading, writing, spelling, Mathematical: mathematical skills such as adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, solving complex problems in calculus, physics, and Analytic: processing information by analyzing each separate piece that makes up a whole.

32 The right hemisphere houses and is responsible for Nonverbal: a childlike ability to read, write, spell and understand speech, Spatial: solving spatial problems such as arranging blocks to match a geometric design, and Holistic: processing information by combining parts into a meaningful whole. The hemispheres of the brain appear to interact together and pass information back and forth quickly. Occasionally, a hemisphere will work alone. Kasschau (2001) further described the right brain as adept at visual relationships and that perceptual tasks seem to be more suited for the right hemisphere. "The right side is better at recognizing patterns. Thus music and art are better understood by the right hemisphere. Creativity and intuition are also found in the right hemisphere" (p. 163). Brain research is inconclusive at this time about the role that hemisphericity plays in learning because both lobes are involved in all activities (Caine & Caine, 1994). However, most individuals prefer one or the other mode of thinking but some people are more whole-brained and equally adept at both. The two hemispheres use contrasting methods for information processing (Edwards, 1986). Even though both specialize and have their own particular capabilities, they are able to work together in a cooperative manner while maintaining their differences. “Both thinking modes are involved in high-level cognitive functioning” (p. 10). However, the right brain is less easily described and understood and is relegated to minor status by the left brain. The left brain has trouble verbalizing the function of the right brain and it remains unnoticed in everyday activities. Curriculum in schools, in general, favors left brain thinking and subjects focus on logical thinking, analysis, and accuracy. Right-brained subjects, such as art and music, focus on aesthetics, feeling, and creativity. They are not given as much importance in the curriculum. Often they are electives and not required subjects. There is a general neglect of the arts in elementary and secondary classrooms (Eisner, 1994). At the elementary level, “few well-thought-out and competently taught art programs exist” (p. 106). At the secondary level, “the arts are taught in about half of all secondary schools and only 20 percent of the school population enrolls for as little as 1 year” (p. 106). To offer a more whole-brained experience, instructional techniques should incorporate more patterning,

33 metaphors, analogies, role playing, visuals, and kinesthetic movement in reading, calculation, and analytical activities. Learning Styles Nature is common to all people so everyone has the biology of the brain in common, how it functions and how it can be stimulated for growth and development. However, people are different because of their environments and how they have been nurtured. A spin-off from the hemispheric research was the identification of an area called learning styles. Split-brain research and, from that, hemispheric speculations acknowledge that there are differences in styles of learning; reading styles, learning and creative/perceptual styles, and management styles inventories originally developed from left brain/right brain theory. Learning styles are based on the fact that people perceive and process information differently and this diversity must be addressed in the classroom in order to improve student performance (Miller, 2001). Teachers who understand this and present information in a variety of ways to accommodate learner’s preferences help to improve student motivation. Several theories regarding learning styles have been proposed over the last thirty years. They all address some aspect of learning but look at it from different angles, such as, information processing, personality, or perceptions. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple intelligences, which will be discussed in the cognitive developmental theory section, is probably the best known (Miller, 2001). Other models include the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator which types personalities and how they acquire information and Witkin’s Bipolar Construct of Field Dependence and Field Independence which measures the extent to which a learner is influenced by a surrounding field. Both of these have been used extensively over many years. Other models focus on modality preferences, i.e., the modes (senses) that people prefer to use when taking in and giving out information. People are classified as visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learners. Another popular classification arranges learners as: (1) concrete and abstract perceivers, and (2) active and reflective processors (Hwang & Henson, 2002). Concrete perceivers absorb information through doing, acting, sensing, and feeling; abstract perceivers do so by analyzing, observing, and thinking. Active processors create meaning from information by immediately using it; reflective processors make sense of

34 experience by reflecting and thinking on it. Traditionally taught curriculum favors abstract perceivers and reflective processors. While learning style theories abound, there are areas of consensus: learning styles are not measurements of intelligence; they are unique to the individual; we learn in more than one way but have a preference; teachers have distinctive teaching styles; matching teaching and learning styles improves student achievement and motivation; schools are learning style biased because they favor one type of learner; students learn best through actual experience and high levels of interaction; and learning increases if the student is enjoying the process (Miller, 2001). It is important to consider both the content and context in curriculum development. To offer a student the best possible learning experience and accommodate learning styles, teachers need to emphasize intuition, feeling, sensing, and imagination as ways of knowing and introduce a wide variety of experiential elements such as sound, music, visuals, movement, experience, and discussion. Caine and Caine (1994) concurred "that traditional education favors an all-too-narrow approach to learning" (p. 37). Learning styles is another area in which integrated curriculum and art can meet the needs of the learner. Hands-on activities allow the concrete perceiver and active processor a way to learn in his or her own style. For example, a concrete perceiver could learn physical geography by drawing a map rather than observing one; the act of drawing would help the student to absorb the information. Art history and art criticism could allow a concrete perceiver to gain a sense or feeling about a historical time period; looking at and talking about artwork from the American Revolution could aid in understanding about that epochal struggle. These same activities would be appropriate, also, for visual and kinesthetic learners. In summary, there are many implications of brain based learning for learning and instruction. Rettig and Rettig (1999) summarized brain research and its implications for curriculum as follows: experience is the factor that causes neural growth; emotion is key because the brain remembers or recalls a concept better if it is learned in an emotional setting; using as many senses as possible is important because the greater the number of senses used, the greater the memory; encouraging self-direction by students is necessary so that they will help create the environment they are interacting with, making learning

35 personally meaningful and enabling storage in memory; enabling social learning is good because students working in groups learn from one another and solve problems together; and, encouraging students to look for patterns and connections in what they have learned is essential. Neuroscientists have made great strides in trying to understand the structures and functions of the brain. Although trying to understand the neurobiology of the brain and its relation to memory and cognition is a huge undertaking, it is sure to have a great impact on learning theory and curriculum as more research is done. This section explored the physical structure of the brain and how it functions in learning. We realized through brain research that the brain changes and grows as we learn, therefore, learning and development cannot be separated. Because schooling is a developmental process, teachers need to understand the changes that are occurring in students as they mature. It is important to understand how to facilitate growth at different ages and stages of development. With that in mind, I turn now to cognitive developmental theory.

Cognitive Developmental Theory

Efland (2002) stated that Piaget designed the prototype for cognitive developmental studies. Piaget described learning as a developmental process that occurs through a series of steps as children are becoming aware of their surroundings and adapting to them. He believed that children develop in a universal way, everywhere, regardless of culture. In his theory of intellectual development, children think very differently from adults; they are not small, inexperienced adults (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987). Children travel through four stages—sensory-motor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations—during their maturation. At each of these four stages, they deal with information differently. They start by learning motor skills and directing their behavior toward the attainment of goals; then, they progress to learning language; next, they think logically; and finally, they reason and think abstractly. The child has evolved from lower to higher forms of thinking in the process. If teachers wanted to apply Piaget’s principles, they would have a child centered orientation in their classrooms with learning centers, thematic curriculum, and

36 opportunities for student exploration. There would be a variety of resources on hand for the learner who is always in the process of trying to understand things. Learning does not have to occur with formal instruction but can result with the student interacting with the environment. Lowenfeld & Brittain (1987) stated, “Although Piaget’s stages are for intellectual development, it is not surprising to find the same stages in art” (p. 45). Children are able to be taught art skills only at the appropriately developmental time. Conversely, their drawings reflect their developmental stage in thinking. Children are always trying to make sense of the world, to make meaning. Expressive art activities foster emotional growth and provide students a meaningful way to organize and display their understandings of their environment and give themselves meaningful feedback. The activity of art allows students time to see what they have learned—displayed in their final product—and to process it. Gardner Gardner (1994), in The Arts and Human Development, found fault with Piaget's theory because the end result of the developmental stages was intellectual and scientific. Piaget's focus on cognitive development led him to identify the mental processes that culminated in scientific thought. Children grew up to be either a normal personality or, even better, a scientific thinker. There was no consideration given for the arts as an intellectual endeavor and a problem solving activity. Until Gardner, little attention was paid to the feelings and emotions of the learner. Learning theories focused on cognitive processing and developmental stages with little regard for the affective domain. Gardner focused his attention on the feelings and emotions of the learner and artistic development. As a potential piano performance major at one time, Gardner felt that unique to the arts is the intertwining of feeling and knowing. Not all decisions are made rationally, reasoning through the mind, or empirically, figured out from observation. Many important and life- altering decisions, especially artistic ones, are made on "hunches" or intuition. Gardner characterized the arts as communication of subjective knowledge through symbols which cannot be translated. It is an integrated, holistic communication. This communication is presented in a sensory medium and is apprehended by the intellect as well as by one’s feelings. The observer of art may be more or less involved while contemplating the

37 messages embedded within the symbols. This understanding of art as communication differentiates it from mere play or science and is better known as aesthetic development and the artistic process. Gardner’s developmental theory has two broad stages: the presymbolic or sensorimotor stage and the symbol use stage (Gardner, 1994). The presymbolic period is during the first year of life. In this period, Gardner categorized human knowing into three systems to better explain how people become involved in the arts and how the arts integrate feelings and thought. The three systems are making, perceiving, and feeling. These systems are present at birth, unfold, and begin to interact during the sensorimotor period. The motor actions of the person constitute the making system and are the performance capability of the person. The perceiving system involves the senses, the person’s sensitivity to the environment and ability to discriminate and make distinctions. The feeling system is emotional and registers the effects of experience on the person. In the symbol use stage, information gathered is starting to be used on a symbolic plane (Gardner, 1994). The three developing systems of making, perceiving, and feeling are fully interacting by age three and the learner is immersed in symbol making. What started as three separate systems is now the interaction of three systems. Gardner stated that the existence and interaction of the three knowing systems is the same for both animals and people. What makes us different from animals is that we have the ability to use and understand symbols—to advance to the symbol use stage. The greatest development and progress in the aesthetic realm is made right after infancy because that is the time of symbol development. Small children show the capacity to use and comprehend symbols in language, dreaming, sounds, and gestures. Gardner stated that children perceive artistic works as organic wholes—through feelings and all of the senses—but do not have the experience to interpret them. Developmentally, by age seven or eight children are fully capable of making art at all levels. This does not mean that the child is an accomplished artist; it means that the capacity is there and must be nurtured to grow. Therefore, after the age of seven, it is necessary for students to have training in art because natural evolution has stopped. Students will not continue to grow in the artistic realm without instruction. To Gardner, the artistic process offers great opportunity for the learner to problem solve, to manipulate information so that it can be

38 embodied within a symbol. For this to happen, schools will have to include the arts as an integral part of the learning process or students will not experience much growth in the aesthetic realm after the second grade. Further, Gardner (1990) discussed the different kinds of knowledge that children in a school environment must learn. Looking at the natural development of the child is not enough; formal schooling and its effects must also be considered. “A synthesis of information drawn from developmental and educational studies suggests the existence of at least five different kinds of knowledge that any individual who grows up in a schooled environment must ultimately attempt to master and integrate” (p. 25). The first is intuitive which begins at birth and is the knowledge the child gains by interacting with the world. Second, beginning by the second year of life, the child learns symbolic knowledge. Children start to begin to use the first-order symbolic systems of their culture such as words, pictures, gestures, and musical patterns. Then, school age children learn notational systems—the more formal symbolic codes—which refer to the first order symbol systems, such as, written language refers to oral language, written musical notes for musical sounds. The fourth form of knowledge is various concepts, principles, and formal bodies of knowledge (disciplines) that researchers and scholars have organized; the fifth is the skilled knowledge of vocations, leisure activities, art forms, and religious procedures of a culture. There is a lack, however, of integration between the various forms of knowledge. The linking of intuitive and first-order symbolic knowledge seems to occur readily. The more formal ways of knowing, though, do not easily link to intuition and first-order symbols. The most promising way to integrate these forms of knowing is by allowing students to encounter the forms of knowing happening together in a natural situation, watching adults moving back and forth among the forms, and engaging the students in projects that call on them to use the various forms. Further, Gardner said the visual arts deal with visual-spatial kinds of symbols—thinking in terms of forms, what they represent and feelings they express, and how they can be composed and combined. These things are not easily understood or grasped with verbal or logical symbols, the ones used most often in school. "It is because this form of knowing is so precious, and yet so threatened with being overwhelmed by the more typical scholastic modes of

39 symbolization, that I call for the protection of artistic forms of symbolization" (p. 42). Artistic knowing is less sequential and more holistic and "we might do well to allow this form of understanding to infiltrate other areas of the curriculum" (p. 43). Gardner, in disagreeing with Piaget that the end point of development was scientific thinking, developed his theory on cognitive learning in the arts and his view of learning in a formal school setting. Eventually, he included other end points for human development in his multiple intelligences theory, a pluralized definition of the intellect (Gardner, 1983). Based on recent advances in cognitive science, developmental psychology, and neuroscience, he proposed that intelligence is composed of several faculties (originally seven) that can work alone or in concert with others. These faculties, he labeled intelligences, are as follows: musical, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, logical- mathematical, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Gardner (Connections, 1997) in 1995 added an eighth intelligence, the naturalist intelligence (the ability to understand, relate to, and function in the natural world). These are all ways that people have of perceiving and understanding the world. Because they are distinct faculties, or intelligences, they are a set of skills that can be used for problem solving. Traditional schooling relies heavily on the verbal-linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences. Gardner suggested a more balanced curriculum that includes the arts, self-awareness, communication, and physical education. Instructional methods should appeal to all of the intelligences. Teachers could start by including role playing, musical performance, cooperative learning, reflection, visualization and story telling. Art instruction could allow students to cut through cultural, educational, and ability differences because it enables more than one intelligence to be engaged in the learning process. Gardner's writings on art and intelligence add to the importance of experiential learning and the arts in the intellectual growth and development of human beings. He underscores the need for student understanding of concepts and the ability to apply memorized information to a real-life problem. Teachers need to teach understanding, not just the memorization of factual information. Both Gardner and Piaget are looking at the development of an individual person who is trying to make sense of the world. Piaget primarily focused on the individual while Gardner also considered development in a social context. Because students are not

40 educated in isolation but rather as part of a group, other theories of cognitive development look at the person as part of a culture. The following is a discussion of a social learning theory that states what children learn and how they think is derived from their culture. Vygotsky For Vygotsky, a contemporary of Piaget’s, children learn from the world around them. Their social world is the basis for their concepts, ideas, attitudes, and skills; learning results from interactions with others, especially adults who convey the knowledge to them (Efland, 2002). Language is the main vehicle for transmitting the body of knowledge existing in the culture. Vygotsky divided the study of development into two phases. The first is characterized by the use of lower-order mental processes, elementary attention, perception, and memory, to interact with adults as they are being socialized into the surrounding culture, including language and customs. The second stage is characterized by the use of higher mental processes acquired through the acquisition of the tools of culture. (pp. 32-33) Children do not automatically evolve from the lower-order to the higher-order mental processes; cultural learning is what bridges the gap between the two. Not only was Vygotsky interested in the process of development but also the beginnings of skill development (Driscoll, 2000). He called the gap between the current capabilities of a child and the projected capabilities, the zone of proximal development. This zone is the most widespread of Vygotsky’s educational ideas (Efland, 2002). It is a social space between the actual developmental level of the child and the level that will be attained with assistance by the teacher. Instruction leads the way for learning and is ahead of the development of the student. Therefore, instruction plays a pivotal role and can enhance or retard development. The teacher must meet the learner at his or her level of development and build upon the child’s experiences. It follows that certain teaching strategies are going to be more effective than others in the zone of proximal development (Driscoll, 2000). Because interaction is the key to learning, children should have problem solving experiences with parents and teachers. Children need a more advanced partner in the learning process who helps the

41 students construct knowledge and challenges them to go beyond their actual level of development. Eisner (2002) characterized the process this way: This process, one that parents around the world have negotiated successfully for millennia, is what the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky has called the zone of proximal development. This zone is the space within which tasks need to be set to be, on the one hand, challenging and, on the other, capable of being successfully negotiated by the child with a helper, peer, or adult. No challenge, no growth. No success, no growth. Finding the child’s zone of proximal development is the way to keep growth moving. (p. 73) Lesson plans should emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks. Teachers are there to direct and guide students through the learning process which has been individualized to meet the needs of the learner. With the help of the teacher, children can perform at a level higher than what they could achieve on their own. Working with adults is more effective in skill development but working with other students allows children to see another’s perspective. Children’s play allows them to stretch their capabilities and start to develop abstract thought. In summation, for Vygotsky, learning occurs within a child’s culture which largely determines the child’s individual development. It is a process by which children acquire knowledge and develop skills. In other words, the culture provides the leaner with what to think (knowledge) and teaches the learner how to think (the process for thinking). Children learn from their culture with the help of adults and peers and the tool of language. Cognitive development results from problem solving experiences shared with other people. The method of acquiring skills is based on recognizing the gap between what a child can do on his own and what he can do with help (the zone of proximal development) and narrowing that gap. Therefore, the child cannot be understood in isolation but rather in a social context of school, home, family, personality, attitudes, and aptitudes. Efland (2002) outlined themes in Vygotsky’s work that are being studied today: the idea that learning occurs in a social context; that language is the tool for the acquisition of culture; and, that learning is a form of enculturation. He outlined three implications for learning in the arts based on the Vygotsky social learning theory. First,

42 for art educators, this translates into studying art in a social context and not in isolation. For example, studying mask making would mean discussing the function of masks in a particular culture and, then, the student creating a mask that fulfills the function of that social context. The second is to realize that human beings use symbols, such as language and art, to create their culture and to advance. The third is that through the use of symbols, a child learns his or her culture as well as transmits it. Learning in the classroom should be centered on cultural practices rather than on domains of knowledge.

Learning In and Through Art

At this point I have examined brain research and how the brain functions while learning as well as theories of how cognitive functions develop as a human being grows from infancy toward adulthood. I turn now to the role of art in brain functioning and in the developmental process. First, can art facilitate learning? Further, does art have any intrinsic qualities that make it suitable as a learning vehicle for other subject matter? Second, does art make a contribution to cognitive development? Facilitation of Learning To answer the first question, I examined the literature regarding the nature of art and its ability to act as a facilitator of learning based on the principles of brain based learning stated earlier on pages 34-35. I will state each principle and follow it with supporting opinion for art as a facilitator of learning. 1. The brain processes information in a parallel fashion which means that thoughts, emotions, and imagination operate simultaneously with other ways of information processing (Caine & Caine, 1994). The lesson for educators here is that no one teaching style will accommodate all learners; multiple methods need to be employed in the classroom. Art as a facilitator of learning. The teacher has to orchestrate the learning experience with multiple perspectives in mind—the thoughts, the emotions, the imagination, and the background of the student. Efland (2002) stated that, often, the justification for art in the curriculum has been that it allows students to have an aesthetic experience. Viewing art and making art is an aesthetic experience which engages the

43 senses and emotions of the learner as the object is viewed or made. Along with feelings and emotions, art stimulates imagination—the ability to form mental images and to manipulate them into new configurations. Art facilitates learning by engaging not only thought but also the emotions and imagination of the learner. 2. The search for meaning is innate to the brain as well as the need to act on our environment (Caine & Caine, 1994). Students need meaningful lessons in the classroom that allows them choices, challenges, and activity in their completion. Art as a facilitator of learning. The search for meaning is a survival mechanism in our brains (Caine & Caine, 1994). The brain registers and responds to both familiar and unfamiliar stimuli, on a continuous basis, in an effort to make meaning of what it senses. Efland (2002) stated that imagination allows the combination and reorganization of previous experiences into new ideas. Imagination is a necessary component for creating metaphors which allows connections to be established between items that appear unrelated. Efland sees art as the vehicle for allowing students to create metaphors and, therefore, understanding and meaning. He was adamant that the arts are the only places where imagination is explored openly and that the principal function of art is the creation of metaphor. Before a metaphor can become active in the learner’s mind—as a metaphor—he or she must understand the underlying reality or context where the metaphoric nature of the image or expression is active. Let me emphasize this point once more—the arts are places where the constructions of metaphor can and should become the principal object of study, where it is necessary to understand that the visual images or verbal expressions are not literal facts. (Efland, 2002, p.153) Efland suggested that not all visual images as metaphor are beneficial. The advertising community has learned the strength of using visual imagery, emotions, and imagination to create demand for products. 3. The brain seeks to understand patterns and create patterns in its search for meaning; this is called patterning (Caine & Caine, 1994). The brain resists meaningless information imposed on it. Information appears meaningless if it is isolated bits of

44 information. Integration of information helps the student to make meaning; integrated curriculum allows the student to see patterns. Art as a facilitator of learning. Learners are continuously patterning, i.e., perceiving and creating meanings (Caine & Caine, 1994). This is an ongoing process that cannot be stopped but can be channeled, directed, reinforced, and enhanced. Gardner (1994) placed the ability to see patterns in the perceiving system and called it gestalt perception. Infants display gestalt perception when they identify their mother’s face from all of the other facelike configurations they see. Gestalt perception continues throughout life and is evidenced by a person making increasingly fine distinctions and classifications in different areas of knowledge; “human beings particularly excel in the ability to form new, complex, and unexpected gestalts” (p. 67). Artists have sensitivity to configurations and the ability to create new ones and viewing art stimulates gestalt perception. Efland (2002) stated that the arts lend themselves to the role of integrating knowledge because their interpretation depends upon understanding the social and cultural context in which they were generated. The arts act as a bridge between different disciplines in the curriculum. A work of art is an expression of the artist’s vision made possible by the actions of his or her imagination. Moreover, the expressive content of a work of art reflects the larger situation surrounding the work, namely, the social and cultural influences and sources of motifs initially perceived and felt by the artist. Acts of interpretation enable individuals to discern the work in relation to the cultural and social worlds it mirrors. Moreover, the relation between artwork and culture is reciprocal. That is, the work of art becomes meaningful when it is seen in the context of the culture, and the culture becomes understandable as read through its arts. (Efland, 2002, p. 164) He also stated that integration could be viewed on a second level wherein the discipline knowledge is integrated into the learner’s everyday knowledge. The arts, because they are imaginative in nature, facilitate the transfer of new knowledge into the learner’s existing view of the world.

45 4. Emotions play a critical role in patterning (Caine & Caine, 1994). The affective and cognitive domains are not independent because emotions cannot be switched on and off. Both students’ feelings and attitudes are involved in learning. Art as a facilitator of learning. The emotional impact of experiences can be felt long past the time of the event, and the feelings and emotions involved will determine future learning (Caine & Caine, 1994). Eisner (2002) stated that art can teach educators that the intrinsic satisfaction of the learner is important. Students are in the habit of learning for extrinsic rewards, such as a good grade on a project or passing score on a standardized test. Observations of students engaged in the arts show them to be highly focused in a world unto themselves. Artistic activity generates a desire to pursue the process of creating; the journey is just as important as the destination. Using art activities in the classroom increases intrinsic motivation and satisfaction in the learning process such that students will pursue a learning activity voluntarily. They will choose to learn now and in the future when the teacher and the classroom are but a memory. 5. The left brain and right brain organize information differently (Caine & Caine, 1994). The tendency for the left hemisphere is to reduce information into parts and the tendency for the right hemisphere is to work with it as a whole. These tendencies are separate but simultaneous and interactive. Looking at both parts and wholes facilitates learning. Art as a facilitator of learning. People have great difficulty in learning when both hemispheres are not engaged in the learning process (Caine & Caine, 1994). According to Eisner (1994), schools are not addressing the full range of intellectual processes by using both hemispheres equally. The two hemispheres perform different functions and these functions can grow or atrophy depending upon whether or not they are used. Schools are neglecting the right hemisphere, the affective processes which have been regarded as minor and not as important as the linguistic left brain. However, the right hemisphere houses much of the visualization process, is the seat of metaphoric and poetic thought, and seeks to form structure in intellectual activity. Schools are neglecting the intellectual processes inherent in the right hemisphere of the brain and emphasizing the use of the left hemisphere, the seat of speech. Schools and teachers should plan activities that engage right brain learning and add subjects to the curriculum which do the same. Eisner called the subjects left out of the curricula in most schools the null curriculum.

46 Law, anthropology, the arts, communication, economics: these are just a few of the fields that constitute the null curriculum. I identify these fields and subject matters for purposes of exemplification and to highlight the point that what we offer the young in schools is largely bound by tradition. One could hope for more. (Eisner, 1994, p. 106) 6. The brain learns from what it is directly focused on as well as what is on the periphery of its perception (Caine & Caine, 1994). Visual peripherals such as charts and works of art aid learning. Art as a facilitator of learning. The brain absorbs information from the entire context in which the learning occurs (Caine & Caine, 1994). Therefore, peripheral information is important and the teacher should organize information that is outside the learner’s focus. DiPaolo (1985) stated that the subconscious mind is affected by the physical, tangible setting. “The vital dynamic of creating the physical setting is to remember that the spiritual and mental aspects of the child are being reached at the same time” (p. 27). Room displays should be selected with thought and care. Addiss and Erickson (1993) recommended a built-in review of previously studied artworks to be a part of the classroom environment. “A permanent visual display in the art room or elsewhere in the school can be used as a reference to aid students in recalling works and cultures studied in earlier grades” (p. 139). 7. The brain is always learning at both a conscious and unconscious level (Caine & Caine, 1994). It is constantly processing at an unconscious level, especially the peripheral information it has perceived. Students need to spend more time processing their experiences in order to understand what they have learned at both a conscious and unconscious level. Art as a facilitator of learning. Caine & Caine (1994) declared “much of the effort put into teaching and studying is wasted because students do no adequately process their experiences” (p. 92). Eisner (2002) concurred: Another development that the arts can teach education is the importance of taking one’s time to relish the experience that one seeks. Experience is not so much something that you take; it is more like something you make. Experience, the medium of education, is a made process, and it is made by the ways in which

47 people attend to aspects of the world they care about. If there is any lesson that the arts teach, it is the importance of paying close attention to what is at hand, of slowing down perception so that efficiency is put on a back burner and the quest for experience is made dominant. There is so much in life that pushes us toward the short term, toward the cursory, toward what is efficient and what can be handled in the briefest amount of time. The arts are about savoring. (p. 207) 8. The brain has at least two types of memory systems (Caine & Caine, 1994). One is for rote learning and the other is spatial that allows for instant memory of experiences. Understanding and recall are best in the spatial memory system. That system is invoked through experiential learning. Art as a facilitator of learning. The taxon system devoted to rote memorization is used for the remembering of mainly unrelated facts and skills (Caine & Caine, 1994). Because these bits of information (e.g., multiplication tables) are isolated and not learned in a context, they need practice and rehearsal to be retained. The more senses used in the process of practicing and rehearsing, the easier it is to memorize them (Kasschau, 2001). Therefore, art can enhance rote memorization when visuals are incorporated in the memorizing process. Preston (1996) noted that studies show memory for line drawings is superior to that of memory for printed and spoken words. Spatial memory (local memory) is superior, unlimited in scope and depends upon experience for activation (Caine & Caine, 1994). Learning your native language requires multiple interactive experiences and is an example of how the learning process is enhanced when the information to be learned is embedded in ordinary experiences. Vygotsky’s notions about social learning go hand-in-hand with embedding information to facilitate the activation of spatial memory. Teachers using an activity curriculum that includes visual imagery of certain experiences or best performances could activate spatial memory. “Success depends on using all of the senses and immersing the learner in a multitude of complex and interactive experiences” (Caine & Caine, 1994, p. 94). 9. Each person’s brain is unique (Caine & Caine, 1994). Physically, we all have the same systems but they are integrated differently for each one of us. Teaching should allow students to express visual, tactile, emotional, and auditory preferences for taking in and giving out information.

48 Art as a facilitator of learning. Because learning alters the brain as we learn, we become more unique through learning (Caine & Caine, 1994). This calls for a multifaceted approach to teaching. The discussion earlier regarding learning styles focused on many different models but all share in common that the mind is complex, learners are diverse in nature, and there is a need to address diversity in the classroom (Miller, 2001). Two models have implications for art education. Gardner’s (1983) Theory of Multiple Intelligences is one. The learner, with at lest seven intelligences, needs to develop each one to a level of competency. The spatial intelligence corresponds to an aptitude for the visual arts. These intelligences interact with each other in complex ways. Students need to be able to learn in and through and express their knowledge in and through the different modes. Another learning style theory deals with the manner in which students like to take in and give out information and is called the visual-auditory-kinesthetic model or modality preference model (Miller, 2001). Miller cited a study by Specific Diagnostic Studies which found that 29% of elementary and high school students learn best through the visual mode and 37% through the tactile/kinesthetic mode. Another study she cited by Barbe, Milone, and Swassing found similar results: 30% visual, 30% mixed, 25% auditory, and 15% kinesthetic. Both studies showed similar results in preferred visual learning but there were large differences on kinesthetic between the two. Regardless, the studies underscore the fact that people learn in different ways and these needs have to be addressed in the classroom for optimal learning to occur. Those students who are visual and kinesthetic and have well-developed spatial intelligence need and benefit from visual learning in the classroom. We have completed a review of the nine principles of brain based learning addressed in this literature review and gave supporting arguments for each (also from the literature review) as to why the visual arts should have an integral place in the curriculum. The art activities mentioned as valuable for learning were drawing and viewing artwork. At this point, I turn to look at the role of art in developing cognition. Art and Cognition Efland (2002) saw three problem areas for the arts as subjects in general education: they are viewed as nice but frivolous; they are not recognized as fostering

49 cognitive development; and, art educators themselves are unsure how to use the arts to develop cognitive abilities in children. Eisner (1994) concurred when describing the placement of the arts in a typical elementary school curriculum as usually in the afternoon when “the arts can be used as a reward, as a break from the demands of thinking” (p. 92). Efland (2002) listed the following ways that art can help in the development of cognitive abilities: 1. Art allows the student to make meaning of the world through art of the past, art of the present, and his or her own art. He characterized art as “sources of powerful revelations about local culture, the cultures of others, and other historical times” (p. 8). 2. Art allows the student to see the context in which the art was made, to understand the storyline behind the art. This is important because life and learning occurs within a context and is often discussed through narrative form. 3. Art establishes linkages between various disciplines to which it is related. Art is made within and should be viewed and discussed within its cultural context. Lowenfeld & Brittain (1987) discussed art as way of understanding and documenting development in a child. Seven means of observing growth in a child’s artwork were outlined: 1. Drawings provide the opportunity for emotional growth depending on how intensely involved the child was in their creation. There is a direct relationship between intensity of involvement and emotional growth. 2. Intellectual growth is shown in drawings by how aware children are of their surroundings, how much knowledge is used, and how they relate to their environment. 3. Physical growth is evidenced by visual and motor coordination. 4. Perceptual growth is documented by an increasing variety of sensory experiences. 5. Social growth can be seen if the child is devoting a large percentage of his or her subject matter to social activities. 6. Aesthetic growth shows up in work that has a feeling of unity, a working together of all of the elements in the artwork. 7. Creative growth is shown through the individuality of each child’s artwork. Lowenfeld & Brittain (1987) stated that although adults consider children’s artwork to be “free and spontaneous” it is really an attempt by them to make sense of

50 their environment and display it meaningfully. Adults should not be concerned with attempts to correct the drawing of children, but rather just give them the time and space in which to explore. They are using art to learn; drawings can stimulate and encourage growth. Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987) furthered the case for art as cognitive growth with the following: Although the early symbols by children tend to be isolated and somewhat randomly distributed on the drawing surface, within a year’s time the symbols begin to relate one to another and are usually drawn in reference to a continuous baseline…This manipulation of symbols that still retain their meaning although they are moved up or down, left or right requires a method of thinking that is akin to algebraic reasoning. This type of thought process cannot be imposed from without, but develops through the child’s manipulation of mental images. It is becoming more and more evident that the manipulation of forms and shapes relevant to the child’s own experiences is a necessary prerequisite for the utilization of words and numbers. It is amazing that anyone would consider art an educational frill; it is a fundamental catalyst in the thinking process and development of cognitive ability in children. (p. 54) Silver (2000), in a study of children with language impairment due to brain damage, wanted to know if handicapped children could “bypass verbal weaknesses and capitalize on visual strengths” in cognitive development (p. 3). Three main art procedures were chosen to test art being used to develop conceptual, sequential, and spatial skills. Drawing from the imagination was used to test the ability to associate and represent concepts. The subjects were given stimulus items (pen and ink drawings of people and objects) to choose from and asked to draw a picture that tells a story with the chosen items. Drawing from the imagination encourages subjects to put different items together in a meaningful association. In the second test, subjects worked with paint and clay in order to assess if they could order sequentially. Mixing paint colors and working in clay involve sequencing, recalling, and predicting outcomes. In the third test subjects drew from observation in order to see if they could perceive and represent concepts of

51 space. Still lifes were staged for the subjects to draw. From his original study in the 1970s, Silver (2000) found the following: Drawings can serve as instruments for identifying and evaluating cognitive skills that are usually associated with language: the ability to associate and to represent concepts, the ability to order sequentially, and the ability to perceive, to predict, and to represent spatial relationships. (p. 236) Silver (2000) also outlined the roles that art can play in cognition. The art experience can: 1. take over some of the language function of organizing experiences and perceptions and represent thinking, 2. accommodate those who prefer thinking in the right hemisphere of the brain, the visual-spatial mode, 3. help association areas of the brain (centers in the brain where information is integrated and relayed) establish patterns for language to follow or reinforce patterns set by language, 4. teach vocabulary as children ask the name of something they have drawn, 5. activate and reinforce vocabulary as children write and talk about their art, 6. aid the transfer of learning to new situations by drawing about something learned previously, 7. aid imaginary play by letting the child draw about imaginary experiences, 8. assist in the development of abstract thinking by drawing about hypothetical events or being able to discern similarities and differences of objects, and 9. help recall by structuring or “chunking” bits of information to be stored. Eisner (2002) described curriculum as a “mind-altering device” (p. 13). The tasks that students are given and the materials with which they work help to form the way they think. Different disciplines of knowledge, because of the way they are organized and the methods that are used in learning them, make different demands on the student. One develops an intelligence for a domain as one becomes skilled in it. Art making requires enhanced perception, fertile imagination, judgment, and technical expertise in its execution. Eisner (2002) eloquently described it this way:

52 A major aim of arts education is to promote the child’s ability to develop his or her mind through the experience that the creation of perception of expressive form makes possible. In this activity, sensibilities are refined, distinctions are made more subtle, the imagination is stimulated, and skills are developed to give form feeling. (p. 24) Eisner stated (2002) that art is often viewed as having little to do with complex forms of thought. He said that, in fact, the opposite is true: Yet the tasks that the arts put forward—such as noticing the subtleties among qualitative relationships, conceiving of imaginative possibilities, interpreting the metaphorical meanings the work displays, exploiting unanticipated outcomes in the course of one’s work—require complex cognitive modes of thought. (p. 35) Further, art activities that ask students to conceptualize their own end art product, to problem solve, to reflect on their thoughts while making art, and to engage in art criticism particularly promote cognitive development. Efland (2002) stated that artistic and aesthetic development was shortchanged by the early psychologists. Piaget certainly was enamored with the place of science in human development. Art was relegated to being an affective process only. He summed up the debate over whether or not art is just an affective process, dealing with the emotions only, or does it require both cognitive and affective modes of thinking by saying that “graphic or artistic development is accounted for by the development of cognition as a whole” (p. 51). Further, Eisner (2002) stated: Indeed, if we place in chronological sequence all the theories that have attempted to explain why children draw the way they do, a familiar pattern emerges, namely, the theories of drawing development tend to parallel the changing theories of cognitive development that emerged throughout the last half of the twentieth century. As cognitive developmental theories became more inclusive, they should be able to account for the development of graphic ability as well, suggesting that graphic development is explained by cognitive development or, better yet, that it is evidence of such development! (pp. 50-51)

53 In summation, art, as a subject or as a process, is naturally suited to help the brain grow and develop. It is emotion laden, engages more than one of the senses, and forces the student to pull from internal ideas within the mind and heart. The student artist has the opportunity to sift through ideas, look for the patterns and connections, and then, focus them into a unified, meaningful whole. After looking at evidence that art facilitates learning and can play a foundational role in cognitive development, it is now time to focus attention on what is happening in the classrooms across America. To do this requires looking at the dominant learning theories subscribed to by educators.

Learning Theory

Driscoll (2000) stated that the study of learning is derived from two sources: philosophy and psychology. The relatively new science of psychology, since the late 1800s, is the second source of modern learning theories. "The second source in which modern learning theory is rooted concerns the nature and representation of mental life" (p. 13). How does the mind work and how does it process knowledge? Psychologists are deeply divided on how people learn (Kolesnik, 1976). "When a teacher turns to psychology for information about the nature of learning, he [sic] is offered a choice of literally dozens of systematic theories" (p. 14). Driscoll (2000) stated that learning theories abound but all share some underlying assumptions. They refer to learning as a persisting change in human performance or performance potential and that a change in performance or performance potential must come about as a result of the learner's experience and interaction with the world. Learning theories must answer the question of what brings about this change—what is needed for this change to occur, by what process does this change occur, and what does the change look like. Bigge & Shermis (1999) stated that the two most prominent families of contemporary learning theory are the behaviorists and cognitivists. The cognitivists are the forerunners of constructivist theory. Kolesnik (1976) stated that nearly every method of teaching and pattern of curriculum organization are found in one or the other or a combination of these two systems.

54 Behaviorism The behaviorists are concerned only with observable behavior and simplified learning to a simple stimulus and response system (Kolesnik, 1976). Most behavior can be understood in terms of conditioning: classical and operant. Pavlov's famous experiment when a dog "learned" to drool at the sound of a buzzer is classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is used often for language learning and factual information learning. Skinner is best known for operant conditioning. The basic principle of operant conditioning is that behavior is shaped by consequences. Skinner emphasized the importance of positive, negative, or neutral consequences following a behavior because these would determine whether or not the behavior was repeated. People learn new behaviors or modify existing ones depending on whether events in their environments reward or punish these behaviors. This had a great impact on educational practice; it is where we get the notion of positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior and negative consequences for inappropriate behavior. Also, it is the genesis of behavioral objectives in lesson planning. Further, behaviorists had a major impact on those who studied personality; many were interested in what causes a person to act in a specific way. The behavioral approach does not try to understand the causes of behavior. Rather, it is concerned with predicting and controlling it. Behavior is controlled from without, not within. Behaviorists believe that reality is objective and that it can be perceived by everyone in the same way (Utah, 1999). The differences among people are accounted for by the type and amount of experiences that the person has had. The expert has accumulated more experiences; the novice can become an expert with the correct amount and type of experiences. In the same way, the physical reality of the world can be understood as we gain more experience about it and replace outmoded theories with new ones. We come closer to understanding the absolute truth of the physical world and its natural laws in this manner. To the behaviorist, learning is a combination of behaviors that has been reinforced (Utah, 1999). The behaviorists believe that people will learn better with training and instruction than through trial and error. Learners' behavior can be shaped through stimulus-response. Students acquire knowledge through memorization and practice.

55 Books and lectures contain the truth, as defined by the experts, and knowledge can be transferred to the novice through reading, listening, and observing. Teachers lecture and demonstrate; students read. New information is received and internalized by students who memorize, practice, and rehearse to become like the experts. In behavioral thought, associations or connections form between events and actions (Driscoll, 2000). In this way, learners make cause and effect relationships in their minds. For example, babies learn to link crying with hunger and then the baby cries for food. Instructional materials shape student behavior, step-by-step, to a predetermined outcome. Information is delivered in a logical and sequential manner, taking the student through each step in the assignment. Information is in smaller units which can be systematically built. Students proceed at their own pace, are able to go back in the sequence to relearn information, and receive regular feedback. This style correlates well with individualized, self-paced computer instruction. Evaluation is based on the correct answer given by the student to the prompt. Behaviorism emerged during the early 1900s in the United States during a time of great growth in science and technology (Utah, 1999). The principles which drove the Industrial Revolution, like standardization of parts and assembly lines, spread to other segments of society including education. Behaviorism's emphasis on objective, scientific observable behaviors fit in well with modern society. Although it has limitations due to the fact that human beings are complex and reinforcement is multi-faceted, behaviorism was dominant in psychology in the first half of the twentieth century. Efland (2002) concurred, “Throughout the 1950s, psychological behaviorism dominated the educational scene and its influence on schooling still persists” (p. 14). Further, there is an inherent bias against the arts in psychology because of its preoccupation with trying to function as an empirical science. The influence of behaviorism is seen in the widespread use of standardized testing (Efland, 2002). However, behaviorism never really explained higher-order thinking abilities or the feelings and emotions connected to making art. Despite this it still had a significant impact on art educators. There was a split for art educators between factual learning of knowledge and skills (behaviorist theory) and understanding the expressive nature of art (psychoanalytic theory). Bloom’s taxonomy furthered the separation by

56 dividing instructional objectives into cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. Art received the label of a non-cognitive subject because of its affective nature. There was “a prevalent tendency among art educators to divorce graphic development from overall cognitive development” (p. 49). This is reflected in most school curricula that place the sciences in the cognitive domain and the arts are regarded in a lesser light. Constructivism The roots of constructivism are found in cognitive psychology and the work of Piaget that focused on student thinking and learning processes (Driscoll, 2000). Piaget's theory challenged the behaviorist's theory that the environment determines behavior. He underscored the thought that children actively participate in gaining knowledge by saying that children do more than just respond to their surroundings; they are actively involved in making sense of the world, forming their own guesses of how the world works. Piaget hypothesized about human thinking through observation and interviews with his own children. Behaviorists found that Piaget ignored two of their basic premises—the focus on observable behavior and the carefully controlled experiment—and dismissed his theories. Since the 1970s, constructivism has become an ever increasingly popular learning theory in the United States and challenges the dominant behavioral theory as overly simplistic and mechanical (Utah, 1999). Constructivists said that behaviorism with its emphasis on observable behaviors could not account fully for complex learning such as language. Further, not all learning was observable; internal mental representations, thinking, and memory were important and could be inferred from experiments in which people were interviewed and observed as they learned. Constructivism as a philosophy of learning is founded on the premise that we construct an understanding of the world by reflecting upon our personal experiences. Constructivists assume that we cannot know the physical world directly and, instead, we construct an interpretation of it (Applefield, Huber, Moallem, 2000). Our internal, personal system of understanding reflects our experiences with the world and may, or may not, directly correspond to external reality. Our constructed knowledge does not have to correspond directly with external reality to be useful; useful knowledge meets the needs of the learner. Knowledge is open to challenge or modification by alternative

57 theories whose viability is tested. Viability, or usefulness of knowledge, replaces the idea of truth. Knowledge is subjective because it is constructed and we each have our own view of the world based on our unique experiences (Applefield, Huber, Moallem, 2000). We build knowledge by accumulating unique experiences; any new experience is assessed and interpreted through our previous experiences. We continually revise our personally built cognitions as we gain new information. Because new learning is filtered through knowledge built upon prior unique experiences, Kolesnik (1976) stated that "two students are likely to respond quite differently to the very same stimuli because of what they have already learned, what they hope to achieve, what they feel they are capable of achieving, because of differences in the way their minds work, or because of other differences which distinguish one person from another" (p. 16). Constructivists, therefore, say that knowledge cannot be directly transferred to another person, from expert to novice, by lecturing or reading because each person's unique background interprets the information differently (Utah, 1999). Individuals may agree on many points but each person's prior knowledge assures that no two people will have the exact same understanding. Learners have an organized way, a schema, of perceiving cognitively (Utah, 1999). Learners organize their learning into schemata which are interrelated. For example, a dog schema may be related to another schema about animals, in general. When we encounter a dog, we use our dog schema to act appropriately. When we encounter a new type of animal, we use our dog schema to make sense about the new animal. Thus, we are actively organizing our knowledge gained through experience and reflection into interrelated complex patterns. Experiences and reflection on experiences challenge us to examine our beliefs and, maybe, reconfigure them. Books and lectures provide only words, not knowledge, which can help us to rethink what we know. Applying constructivist principles to learning entails supporting the active construction of knowledge by allowing students to represent or model complex processes (Colburn, 2000). In this way, understanding becomes more concrete. Hands-on activities, discussion, experiments, open-ended objectives, among others, encourage exploration and ground knowledge in the real world. In this manner, students learn underlying principles rather than simply memorizing facts and procedures. Meaning

58 entails understanding wholes as well as parts; learners are searching for meaning. The knowledge constructed by students is an interpretation of the physical world. Open- ended materials allow more than one right answer with advantages and drawbacks to each solution visible to the learner. Constructivism has gained momentum in the United States during the postmodern era of the 1980s as reliance on industry, science, and technology, which dominated the early part of the 20th century, came into question (Utah, 1999). The Industrial Age skills of uniformity, punctuality, and efficiency were viewed as no longer appropriate in an information society (Getty, 1999). Instead, business called for workers who were more team-oriented and able to create solutions to complex and challenging problems. This is the basis of reform movements that emphasized processes of thinking about and understanding of principles rather than just memorizing content (Utah, 1999). Behaviorism Versus Constructivism These two competing learning theories are the basis for teaching in public schools across America (Utah, 1999). The activities and materials selected and the instruction and assessment used is directly influenced by teachers, administrators, or policymakers beliefs in learning theory. The instructional focus of the behaviorists is to shape the behavior of the learner. This is done through a sequence of steps that leads to a predetermined outcome. The role of the teacher and the material is to promote this sequential process until learning occurs which is shown by student response that is quick and accurate. In opposition to behaviorism, the constructivists use activities and materials that promote the building of knowledge. They think curricula should not be standardized but customized for the students' prior knowledge. Teachers draw from many sources to supply materials that represent complex processes helping to make these processes more concrete and understandable. Students are encouraged to explore and experiment; learning is a discovery process. Assessment is open-ended and multiple answers are acceptable. The role of the teacher is more of a guide, or facilitator. Bigge & Shermis (1999) stated that the greatest difference between the two views centers on the learner. For the behaviorist, the human being is passive or reactive and, for the constructivist, the human interacts with his or her environment and needs to have a personal involvement with the subject matter in order to fully learn and utilize it.

59 According the Kolesnik (1976), the teacher in the behaviorist mode becomes classroom manager and director of the learning process and the curriculum is systematic and carefully planned so that the teacher figures out what kind of responses the student should make. Teaching is programming the student. In the constructivist approach, the role of the teacher is broader in that (s)he organizes the learning situation and guides rather than tells the learner (Applefield, Huber & Moallem, 2001). In this way, students discover and generalize relationships for themselves. Constructivists place the major emphasis on perception and the discovery, or inquiry, method of teaching. “The overriding goal of the constructivist educator is to stimulate thinking in learners that results in meaningful learning, deeper understanding and transfer of learning to real world contexts” (p. 13). Applefield, Huber & Mahnaz concluded that there has been a paradigm shift in instruction away from behaviorism and toward constructivism during the last two decades. This is evidenced by best practices for teachers, articles in the literature, and current textbooks. Art lends itself very well to a constructivist classroom. According to Efland (2002): The function of the arts throughout human history has been and continues to be the task of “reality construction.” The arts construct representations of the world, which may be about the world that is really there or about imagined worlds that are not present, but that might inspire human beings to create an alternative future for themselves…Therefore, the purpose for teaching the arts is to contribute to the understanding of the social and cultural landscape that each individual inhabits. (p. 171) Eisner (2002) agreed, “The course of children’s development in the creation of visual images is characterized by the gradual emergence and refinement of forms of thinking” (p. 111). Studio art, which is the making or constructing of a finished piece of artwork, is a good example of the use of constructivism in the classroom. A student making art employs the emotions (feeling), the hands (kinesthesia), the head (thinking) and is fully engaged. The teacher provides the art supplies, the environment, the topic or theme, the initial thoughts and factual content of the unit under study, maybe some examples, and

60 the learner uses these separate elements to create a unique, unified, observable product. Sometimes, in the behaviorist mode, the teacher guides the student in the learning of an art skill, e.g., how to shade the apple the student has drawn to make it more lifelike. Skills are used by the learner to help construct the artwork. The end product is a holistic expression of the learner's understanding made visual. The learner, then, has the opportunity to view his or her creation and reflect upon the creation itself and the act of creating which produced it. Thirty students in the same class will produce 30 different answers to the same question. Eisner (2002) stated “…the arts teach that there can be more than one answer to a question and more than one solution to a problem; variability of outcome is okay” (p. 196). The teacher has the opportunity to share these "answers" to all members of the class, to facilitate group discussion, to allow students to connect to each other's thoughts. Students see that they are different from each other but alike because they have all had a shared experience in the classroom. “What we see in the features of children’s artwork over time are the fruits of learning” (p. 111). Perception Lefrancois (1972) stated that Gestalt psychology—because of its concern with perception, awareness, and insight—is considered the forerunner of cognitive psychology and, hence, the cognitive constructivists. Driscoll (2000) and Kolesnik (1976) agreed that cognitive and cognitive constructivist theories are derived from early Gestalt theory. Gestalt began as a countermovement by German theorists interested in perception during the early 1900s as association learning theory was being articulated by Ebbinghaus, Thorndike, and Pavlov (Driscoll, 2000). Gestalt theory came to the attention of American psychologists through Kohler who wrote a paper concerning ape behavior. "According to Kohler, the most outstanding characteristic of the problem-solving behavior of the ape is that he employs insight rather than trial and error to solve problems" (Lefrancois, 1972, p. 188). Even when the ape tried several approaches, the activity did not lead to solving the problem. Instead, the solution came after the ape was sitting or lying down, perhaps contemplating the problem. He assumed the ape had gained a small insight from each trial and error attempt. He concluded that humans also use insight to solve problems and this is the basis of Gestalt psychology.

61 Gestalt psychology is "ordinarily defined as the sudden perception of relationships among elements of a problem situation" (Lefrancois, 1982, p. 189). Learning results in the formation of memory traces that form a gestalt which is better than the original perception. People solve problems through insight that involves perception of relationships. The other primary belief of gestaltists is that behavior cannot be understood in terms of its parts. They believe that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Evidence of the perception of wholes (gestalts) is seen in daily activities, such as, listening to music which is heard as bars and passages and not individual notes. "Perception is the psychological process by which we organize and coordinate and thus interpret or derive meaning from our sensory experiences" (Kolesnik, 1976, p. 75). As previously mentioned, these sensory experiences do not occur as independent and isolated events. Instead, they are in a setting, relate to other stimuli, and are part of a pattern. To understand the experience, it has to be related to the total of which it is a part.

Art and Architecture Conflict Religion and War

Economics Language and Industry and Education CHINA Government and Family and Social Political Science Organization

Philosophy Geography

History

Figure 1: Example of Gestalt diagram of Cultural Universals

62 Gestalt principles were applied to education in the form of integrated curriculum in 1932 when some "elementary school systems initiated a new approach to the unified curriculum, called the Unit Approach. Much later, in the form of Core Curriculum, it began to influence secondary education" (Linskie, 1977, p. 140). In this method, the teacher was able to have a focus (gestalt) and explore with students different facets of a concept. In the 1930s, some attempt at unification in knowledge was attempted in higher education. The concept of cultural universals was put forth as "a Gestalt of all those facets of social organization that are common to all societies regardless of time or geography" (Linskie, 1977, p. 141). The cultural universals are generally listed as: art and architecture, economics and industry, family and social organization, government and political science, language and education, geography, history, philosophy, religion, conflict and war (Linskie, 1977). Additionally, "a second circle can be superimposed on the cultural universals. This could show the curriculum areas and specific learning skills appropriate to the development of a particular segment" (Linskie, 1977, p. 142). For example, math is helpful in interpreting economics. This learning process allows for the gestalt to be enlarged as much as awareness creates more interest. In this manner, the students and teacher can go as deep into the knowledge as the learners are ready and able to explore. The gestalt diagram of cultural universals claims art to be a foundational item for civilization. Art should be studied for that reason alone and in context with the other universals. It will be understood and appreciated more when studied within the context of other facets of society and, hence, other disciplines. The fields of art history and art criticism lend themselves to this type of inquiry. Expert Learning System This learning theory focuses on the process of learning (H. Doster, 1991) and has implications for art being used in the process. The Expert Learning System moves learners through a schema of cognitive experiences that permit optimum information retention while also providing a sequential development of the learner's critical assessment abilities. Level I, Reception, allows the learner to acquire core information through existing learning patterns, for example, audio, visual, kinesthetic. A Gatekeeper (learning facilitator who monitors and evaluates student's progress and authorizes

63 advancement) insures that adequate information has been received before the learner is advanced to Level II, Manipulation. In Level II, acquired information is reviewed and enhanced so that it can be more permanently stored within existing perceptions. Again, a Gatekeeper insures that the learner has sufficiently understood and stored the core information within a more life-oriented reality. Also, in Level II, the learner is encouraged to manipulate the core information through different learning behaviors not previously used. For example, a learner who is dominantly a visual is encouraged to use audio and/or kinesthetic learning modes. Level III, Application, moves the learner from reception and manipulation into conceptual and practical levels of application. Here, the learner considers how the core information can be practically used in daily behavior. Eventually, before leaving Level III, the learner transitions from conceptual to practical and is mentored and coached as initial applications are attempted. Also, the Level III learning environment places additional emphasis on the learner expanding his/her cognitive skills into all three learning modes: audio, visual, kinesthetic. Art has a role in the visual and kinesthetic modes. Finally, in Level IV, Exploration, critical assessment skills are addressed. Here, the learner builds upon the earlier levels such that application of the core information is now expanded into innovation and creative usage. Expert Learning System is a process type of learning in which skills are first presented to the learner (received), then, understood (mentally manipulated), and finally practiced (applied) (H. Doster, 1991). During reception, the teacher is a presenter. During manipulation, the teacher is a prompter. During application, the teacher is a facilitator. During the fourth stage, exploration, the teacher is an observer. Doster showed how curriculum in Level I (Reception) is mostly subject centered. As the learner advances through the levels, the curriculum becomes more student centered. In Level III, the learner applies the new knowledge through hands-on experiences that converts it into useful skills and attitudes. Experiential learning and the role of art in helping the student to visualize is of the utmost importance in Level III. It is at this point that the learner is able to use the information in a practical and useful way. Summary I have explored the two major learning theories used by teachers in the classroom. Teachers using behaviorist methods and behavioral objectives know in advance what the

64 student should learn. This is necessary for certain tasks. However, these types of objectives do not promote creative thinking and multiple solutions. Eisner (1994) put forth the need to expand objectives beyond behavioral and include problem solving objectives. Problem solving objectives prompt the learner to work through a process to solve a problem; the answers will be varied. Further, he added a third “objective” he called expressive outcomes. Expressive outcomes result after learners engage in activity learning. His point was that our educational aims are too narrow and too restrictive; we have relegated the “cognitive subjects” to behavioral objectives and the arts to expressive outcomes. This approach to learning is insufficient In fact, all subjects need instruction in skills (behavioral objectives), open-ended questions (problem solving objectives), and activities (expressive outcomes), at the correct time. The behaviorists and the cognitive constructivists are both right but neither has the whole truth. The Expert Learning System allows for the use of all types of objectives in the learning process at the appropriate time it is needed. Gestalt psychology underscores the role of insight, perception, the sudden “aha” of understanding and links it with the integration of disciplines. Both the Expert Learning System and Gestalt psychology support the role of art and the integration of disciplines. The reality in the classroom, though, is an “either-or” approach to one style or another—behaviorist or constructivist. Further, this support is based on not only psychological premises but philosophical ones as well. Philosophy through its questioning of the nature of knowledge provides a foundation to modern learning theory. In fact, it is the original source of learning theory. All learning theory has philosophical foundations and it is important to be able "to identify curricula and methods in their relationship to particular philosophical positions" (Gutek, 1988, p. 10). At this point in the review of literature, I will turn my attention to the philosophical foundations underpinning learning theory.

Philosophical Foundations

Teachers’ philosophies about life and learning impact the curricula they devise for their classes. People’s beliefs and assumptions, personal philosophies, guide their everyday behaviors and it is important for all teachers to understand what their personal

65 philosophies are so that they will understand the reasons for their curriculum decisions. “Teachers’ beliefs about how students learn shape the instructional decisions they make in the classroom” (Utah, 1999). For example, their orientations determine whether their students learn through disciplinary or interdisciplinary approaches to subject matter and this is key to whether or not they will use integrated curriculum in their classroom. Philosophy has a particular subject matter and deals with it by using a particular method. The subject matter is questions and the methodology is critical thinking. The main questions are: What exists? (metaphysics), What do we know? (theory of knowledge or epistemology), and What is moral? (ethics). These form the main branches of philosophical study; a fourth branch, logic, is a large part of the critical thinking methodology. The branch of most concern, here, is epistemology. Kattsoff (1953) described epistemology as the branch which "investigates the origin, structure, methods, and validity of knowledge" (p. 71). Its fundamental questions are: How do we know? What is the origin of our knowledge? How do we know we know? How do you distinguish between fact and opinion? The questions can be divided into two types: source questions (philosophical epistemology) which are closely related to psychology and semantic problems which concern the relationship between the objects of knowledge and knowledge (meaning). Kattsoff advised us to notice that the questions of metaphysics and epistemology are closely related because "how we know about reality may condition what we know" (p. 71). He further stated that answering the questions of philosophy leads to formulating systems of belief because philosophers, generally, do not look at the problems of philosophy separately. The questions and answers are "interrelated and hang together" (p. 100). These systems can be differentiated on the basis of their answers to philosophical questions. Historically, different positions have been taken about what we can know and how we can know it. This second aspect of philosophy, how we can know, pertains to the instrument of knowledge. Butler (1968) put forth five possible instruments of knowledge: sense-perceptual, reason, intuition, authority, and revelation. Some of these positions are outlined in the following sections, namely, sense-perceptual, reason, and intuition. Authority and revelation will not be addressed as they do not have any relationship to curriculum organization for public schooling in contemporary America. Authority is regarded as knowledge coming from

66 an "indisputable authority" outside of the learner. This authority could be governmental or religious and sees no difference between what is good for the authority and what is good for the individual. The instrument of religious knowledge is revelation, divine truth revealed, and is not relevant as an instructional strategy in the classroom. Idealism, realism, and intuitionism are three traditional approaches to the field of epistemology. They have had a long history in western civilization and remain vital philosophies that guide educational processes and curriculum designing (Gutek, 1988). Idealists view the human mind as the main vehicle for knowing and unlocking the truth. Realists believe that knowledge is external to the learner and (s)he is capable of knowing through sensory perception. Intuitionism is the concept that people can learn through a sudden insight or awareness that conveys truth without a reasoning procedure. Also, according to Gutek (1988), three additional approaches explored are based on more contemporary ideas. Alfred North Whitehead (1929) was a philosopher who believed that all knowledge was related and connected and advocated a holistic view of learning. Pragmatists, too, wanted the learner to make connections between subject matter and they advocated experiential learning for the student. Existentialists also emphasized that education is a process of self discovery, individualized to the learner, and happens within a social context. These six positions are examined below. Idealism During the third great period of ancient Greek philosophy, Plato developed a system of thought which was concerned with all of the problems of philosophy (Thilly, 1957). Stumpf (1966) stated that Plato explained knowledge in his theory of forms or ideas. Forms are eternal patterns of which the objects we see are only copies. The minds of humans learn through (1) recollection (visible things remind humans of their acquaintance with the forms as a soul before birth), (2) dialectic (discussion and reasoning by dialogue), and (3) desire (to know and understand). Gutek (1988) stated that Plato's epistemology of reminiscence implied that every human being possessed a soul which prior to birth lived in a spiritual world of perfect ideas. The knowledge of perfect forms was locked in the mind and could be brought to consciousness by the learner who was willing and ready to learn, seeking truth, and discarding false beliefs.

67 Eisner (1994) characterized Plato's teachings as "individualized" to the student, as shown by Plato telling the story of Socrates using the parable of the cave (sixth book of Plato's Republic) to explain the nature of knowledge to his student who had not understood an abstract explanation. The parable was more concrete and used vivid imagery to describe the cave in order to meet the learner at his level. The educational implication is that the teacher must recognize and tailor the curriculum to the level of abstraction the student is capable of understanding. Gruber (1973) stated that Plato recommended a state-controlled system of education with "censorship of art, literature, and music so that society would reflect the true, the beautiful, and the good" (p. 4). Thilly (1957) characterized the curriculum as including the narration of myths, gymnastics, reading and writing, poetry and music, and mathematics. The curriculum was chosen for specific objectives: selected myths carried correct ethical content; gymnastics developed not only body but soul; poetry and music aroused the senses of beauty, harmony, and proportion and encouraged philosophical thought; and, mathematics focused the mind on the abstract and the real. Those who progressed in school would eventually study the discrete subjects in their interrelations and learn to survey them as a whole. At age fifty, worthy students would devote themselves to the study of philosophy. Stumpf (1966) stated that Plato's problem with artists' images is that they are at least two steps removed from true reality. For example, suppose an artist paints a woman's portrait. The levels of reality are: (1) the Idea of Woman, (2) this Idea in the person of this woman, and (3) the portrait of the woman. For Plato, art imitates nature; artwork is imitation, twice removed. However, the image, the painting, has the power to shape people's thoughts and will stimulate ideas of illusion in the viewer when the image is taken as a perfect version of something real. To counter this, the viewer must fully understand that the artist is creating this image through his/her own way of seeing. Even though art is removed from reality, it still has the power to shape our beliefs and is dangerous to rational thought. Gutek (1988) stated that under idealist epistemology the main goal of education is to encourage students to be truth-seekers. Learning is an unfolding in which students expand mental awareness that leads to self-definition and a comprehension of the

68 universe. Education is general, rather than specific vocational training, and is taught through the subject-matter disciplines. However, all of these are derived from and lead ultimately to the "One Unifying and Integrating Concept, Idea, or Cause" (p. 26). "The highest degree of knowledge is that which sees the relationships of these various subject matters and is able to relate them into an integrated unity" (p. 24). Learning is a discovery process related to the learner's interests and willingness to put forth effort for intuitive and introspective self-exploration. "Students are exposed to valuable lessons based on worthy models or exemplars from history, literature, religion, biography, and philosophy" (p. 29). Also, students should study the great works of art and literature which have endured over time. According to Gutek, idealism "has encouraged a hierarchical view of people, society, and knowledge" and "the position of a person in society and a subject in the curriculum is in ranked order based on the ability to abstract or to be abstracted" (p. 19). Butler (1968) characterized idealist-inspired education as ideal-centered. "It is not wholly child-centered, subject matter-centered, nor society-centered; it is ideal- centered" (p. 200). The teacher is central to the educative process because (s)he personifies reality for the child, specializes in knowledge of the pupil and is a friend, exemplifies the art of living and commands respect, appreciates and capably communicates subject matter, and awakens in the pupil the desire to learn. The above is important because the pupil learns to respond by imitation when given a worthy model. The teacher promotes interest in the content and is looking for an active response by the learner. Curriculum should be designed around an ideal; selected activities, experiences, life-situations, and studies that promote this ideal should be the content. Courses of study in conventional liberal and vocational education should be supplemented with activities, projects, and exercise. The various content subjects and added activities are used to teach about life, understanding it, and living it fully. In summation, people who conclude that reason is the instrument of knowledge embrace the position of rationalism. Kattsoff (1953) stated that “the rationalist believes that truth and falsity lie in our ideas and not in things” (p. 130). Plato is considered a rationalist (epistemologically) and an idealist (metaphysically). Perception has its place in the knowledge process but is secondary. Sensory experience provides some of the raw

69 materials for knowledge but reason interprets, relates, and unifies the results of experience to yield meaning and significance. Efland (2002) argued, “In favoring the ‘ideal forms’ as the supreme source of true knowledge, Plato argued for the lesser status of the arts” (p. 1). Knowledge of the rational mind was pure and not to be distorted by the senses. Perception was two steps removed from the ideal and not to be trusted. Even though Plato argued against the arts, he actually gave strength to the idea that art can shape our sense of what is real. According to Dewey (1934), Plato went further than this and said that art can take us beyond perception and into rational thought. In Dewey’s words: …the object of art is to educate us away from art to perception of purely rational essences. There is a ladder of successive rungs leading from the sense upwards. The lowest stage consists of beauty of sensible objects; a stage that is morally dangerous because we are tempted to remain there. From thence we are invited to mount to the beauty of the mind, thence to the beauty of laws and institutions, whence we should ascend to the beauty of the sciences and then we may move on to the one intuitive knowledge of beauty absolute. (p. 291) In other words, although art as imitation of life is deceitful and dangerous, artistic beauty can lead the viewer away from sensory phenomena toward reason and truth. Dewey (1934) quotes Plato: …the rhythmic and harmonious elements of art, like a breeze blowing in a goodly place, may from earliest childhood lead us peacefully into harmony with the beauty of reasonableness; one so nurtured will, beyond others, welcome reason when its time comes and know it as his own. (p. 291) Art can act as a facilitator of learning. Realism Aristotle, the student of Socrates, is considered the founder of realism. Gutek (1988) stated that the basis of realism lies in methods used by Aristotle to study the world. "While Plato was concerned with an abstract world of perfect forms or ideas, Aristotle used methods of common-sense observation to investigate a public world of natural and social phenomena" (p. 36). For realists, we live in a world of real existence with many things (such as people and objects) which exist outside of us. "Human beings

70 can know these objects through their senses and their reason" (p. 41). Knowledge begins with sensation, from sensing objects and their qualities; cognition, or knowing, involves the mind and the sensation. As we gain experience (sensory data), we put it into a structure (we abstract it). Subsequently, the "abstracts" are conceptualized into groupings (or classes). These classifications are the basis of bodies of knowledge. People who conclude that the sense-perceptual experience is the starting point for all of our knowledge are embracing a position in epistemology known as empiricism. Empiricists, generally, are considered realists metaphysically (Butler, 1968). For the empiricist, reason by itself cannot yield any knowledge. Reason is subordinated but not excluded; its function is to coordinate the findings of experience. The authority for the empiricist is the scientific method which is a means for testing experience. Gutek (1988) stated that the epistemology of realism has been referred to often as a “spectator theory of knowledge” meaning that we are observers of reality. Further, he concluded that the spectator theory of knowing appears to be passive and this has many educational implications. Education should train the observer in using the instruments and technology with which to observe, and, thus, enabling the observer to make accurate classifications. The function of school is to transmit the bodies of knowledge and inquiry skills. This is, primarily, an intellectual endeavor and the role of the expert scientist and scholar (found in the university) is to do research. The student studies subject matter as defined by the curriculum of undergraduate college and the secondary school system. The method of instruction is the teacher imparting the skill or subject matter to the student through lecture, discussion, and experiment. The teacher is the "expert" and the student is ready to receive the knowledge. The teacher must know his or her topic and evaluate the level of the learner in order to transmit the correct amount of information. Curriculum in the realist sense must come from a tested body of knowledge taught by a professional. Students are capable of receiving information and relating objects to one another. Curriculum beyond content becomes a means of forming desirable habits, such as, symbolic habits (use of words), habits of study, research skills, critical thinking, group discussion, application of principles, and evaluation. Content courses should include the natural sciences, social studies, and areas of self-improvement, such as, psychology, the arts, philosophy, and, possibly, religion. Values, also, should be

71 taught with the opportunity for making value judgments. Gutek (1988) concluded that most of contemporary education is based on some form of realist philosophy. Aristotle’s ideas concerning art were more sympathetic toward art than Plato’s (Addis and Erickson, 1993). Art was created through skill and knowledge and given life by the spirit of the artist. Aristotle favored idealistic art over the naturalistic art of Plato and thought that art should serve a moral purpose. Influenced by this, a goal of early twentieth century art historians was to enrich people’s lives and help their moral development. According to Dewey (1934), Aristotle classified all art as representational using that term in its broadest sense to mean that art represents the full range of feelings and emotions of human life. For Aristotle, imitating or representing life does not mean the obvious physical dimension; it means the essence of life. The world unseen, its forces and universal laws, are more real than the scenery of the physical world. Further, “the more a work of art embodies what belongs to experiences common to many individuals, the more expressive it is” (p. 285). Art becomes a form of knowledge, a mode of learning. A person’s understanding of the inner workings of things can increase through the aesthetic experience of making or viewing art. In Dewey’s words: Tangled scenes of life are made more intelligible in esthetic experience: not, however, as reflection and science render things more intelligible by reduction to conceptual form, but by presenting their meanings as the matter of a clarified, coherent, and intensified or “impassioned” experience. (p. 290) Art can act as a communicator about and a clarifier of human experience. Intuitionism At this point, reasoning (the idealist/rationalist view) and sense-perceptual experience (the realist/empiricist view) have been addressed as ways of knowing. The last view of the three traditional approaches to the field of epistemology to be covered is that of intuition. "...Another aspect of epistemology has to do with the degree of directness or indirectness there is in the knowing process" (Butler, 1968, p. 25). Intuitionism is a flash of insight or an immediate awareness which conveys truth. Intuition is "regarded as jumping ahead of reason and discerning understandings at which reason later arrives by its own slower means" (p. 24).

72 Thilly (1957) characterized Bergson, a twentieth century French philosopher, as the most interesting and popular figure in the movement questioning the scientific mode of thought. Dissatisfaction with the mechanistic view of the universe led to questioning the ability of science to understand reality. The kinds of instruments we use to acquire knowledge determine the limitations of our knowledge (Kattsoff, 1953). Bergson labeled this discrepancy as discursive knowledge (knowledge about) and intuitive knowledge (knowledge of). Discursive knowledge is knowledge about something and is acquired through the use of symbols. The symbols attempt to tell us about something "by acting as translations for that something. This depends upon taking a point of view, a frame of reference, and describing the event relative to it" (Kattsoff, 1953, p. 136). In this manner we obtain knowledge about an aspect of an event but do not experience the whole event. Intuitive knowledge is of the event—immediate, direct, and absolute. Intuition does not depend on analytic thinking in a step-by-step manner. Instead, intuition takes form as a holistic view. "Intuition overcomes the eternal nature of symbolic knowledge, which is basically analytic in character, and gives one the simple, absolute whole without any expression, translation, or symbolic representation" (Kattsoff, 1953, p. 136). What intuition tells us cannot be communicated because that would translate it into symbols (language). In this sense, intuition is a form of experience rather than a method of acquiring knowledge. Knowledge comes after the intuitive experience is translated into a description from a certain point of view. This means that the intuitive experience is not knowledge but it does allow for a form of experience not provided by the senses. Experience would include both sense-perception and intuition. Bruner (1960), in The Process of Education, concurred that "intuitive thinking, the training of hunches, is a much-neglected and essential feature of productive thinking not only in formal academic disciplines but also in everyday life" (p. 14). He stated that analytic thinking follows a slower, step-by-step progression whereas intuitive thinking jumps around, perceives a totality of the problem, and the thinker does not know how (s)he arrived at an answer. Bruner advocated the need "to discover how we may develop the intuitive gifts of our students from the earliest grades onwards" (p. 59). He stated that schooling has devalued intuition, and that curriculum designers need to discover how to develop the intuitive gifts of students because it may be important for students to have an

73 intuitive grasp of subject matter before studying its discrete elements. To apply this in the classroom, using a graphic organizer (drawing or mapping the concept) would allow students to see a holistic picture of subject matter, therefore, prompting an intuitive grasp of the concept before studying its discrete elements. Alfred North Whitehead Whitehead, another 20th century philosopher, reacted, along with Bergson, to the analytic mode of thought (Stumpf, 1966). "His main theme was that 'connectedness is the essence of all things'. What science tends to separate, philosophy must try to see as an organic unity" (p. 395). Whitehead was "appalled at the lack of organic interrelation among the parts of the usual educational curriculum" (Johnson, 1962, p. 117). In his mind, learning was a seamless robe and a unity of various worthwhile experiences (Whitehead, 1929). Whitehead felt that schools should not teach too many subjects and what they did teach should be taught thoroughly. The result of teaching small parts of a large number of subjects was passive reception on the part of the learner of disconnected ideas. Instead, students should feel the joy of discovery. A few important main ideas should be taught and they should be looked at from all angles. The disconnected ideas of the modern curriculum destroyed its vitality. Whitehead (1929) stated that education and knowledge should pertain to the utilization of it in everyday life; education was the art of utilizing knowledge. Students did not see connections between discrete disciplines and life. He proposed a national system of education in England "which will combine the elements of a literary, a scientific, and a technical curriculum" (Hendley, 1986, p. 87). This triad, he thought, tailored to meet the needs of individual students, was the best secondary school curriculum to produce a balance of intellect and character in the learner: the literary component transmits values, the scientific component develops thinking, and the technical area imparts skills needed by the great majority of people (Johnson, 1962). Hendley (1986) stated that the technical component would provide creative experience as well as putting theory into practice. Whitehead liked to call this connecting "headwork and handiwork", coordinating thought and action (Hendley, 1986, p. 88). Whitehead’s (1929) ideas on curriculum included the following: the mind is continuously active and interacting with the environment; knowledge learned must be applied at once to be

74 retained; information should be discovered by the student as opposed to being handed to him/her; the needs and interests of the students should be the starting points of any educational program; and, students should learn from firsthand experience rather than secondhand information from textbooks. Art appreciation, for instance, should have a prominent place in the curriculum because works of art convey values and a sense of enjoyment to the viewer. Handicrafts allow expression by the body. Manual dexterity and realizing thoughts in materiality were thought to be especially important in art, science, and technology. Pragmatism Whereas idealism and realism date back to ancient Greece, pragmatism was developed in twentieth century America. This philosophy deals less with the way we know and more with the process we use. It is the most original contribution of American thought to philosophy (Stumpf, 1966). Gutek (1988) stated that the formulation of pragmatism coincided with the progressive reform movement of the industrializing United States. Dewey methodically implemented it into American institutions (Stumpf, 1966). There was a strong conviction that there must be a close connection between thinking and doing. Dewey (1938) framed it as an “organic connection between education and personal experience; or, that the new philosophy of education is committed to some kind of empirical and experimental philosophy” (p. 25). "Pragmatism, particularly of the experimentalist variety, is impatient with all preoccupations in epistemology which follow the traditional patterns" (Butler, 1968, p. 26). Pragmatists felt that cloistered philosophers had spent too much time at an unsolvable and unimportant problem: We will never know how we know and we should focus our attention on practical social values that will make the world a better place. Pragmatists believed that "experience is the proving ground in which the worth of things is made plain" (Butler, 1968, p. 377). Dewey (1938) concurred that “all genuine education comes about through experience” but he quickly followed that with the idea that not all experiences are equal, or genuine educational experiences (p. 25). One does not automatically equal the other. Further, Dewey felt that many traditional educational practices were “mis-educative” because they did not foster further growth. This reliance

75 on experience is not a new thought but its translation into school practice by Dewey was new, as exemplified by his emphasis on the experiential curriculum. Stumpf (1966) stated that pragmatism sought to mediate between the ever- widening gulf between empiricism and rationalism and sought to combine what was significant in both of them. Empirically, the pragmatists agreed that we could not know the whole of reality, that we know things from many perspectives, and that an approach to education must be pluralistic. In line with the rationalists, pragmatists concurred that morals, religion, and values constitute a significant aspect of human experience. Above all, however, thoughts needed to terminate in some sort of action. Gutek (1988) stated that Dewey argued against an Aristotelian dualistic view of the universe because that had led to a distinction between theory and practice. "These metaphysical dualisms had an impact on life and education in that they created distinctions between theory and practice, between liberal and vocational education, between fine and applied arts, and between thought and action" (p. 90). Dewey (1916) stated that the dualism was, partially at least, a product of the social class structure in ancient Greece. Translated into educational terms, there was "a division between a liberal education, having to do with the self- sufficing life of leisure devoted to knowing for its own sake, and a useful, practical training for mechanical operations, devoid of intellectual and aesthetic content" (p. 261). "In its positive formulations Dewey's own theory of experience and inquiry is designed to ensure that knowledge and action are not isolated from one another through false intellectual or social dichotomies" (Cahn, 1977, p. 179). Stumpf (1966) stated that one tendency of the nineteenth century was to see the world and humankind as part of a mechanical or biological process and the mind to be an observer or reflector and not a creative instrument. These assumptions of science threatened the human aspects of humankind, i.e., moral and religious convictions which gave people a sense of purpose. Scientists had rejected idealism as lacking in objective evidence. The opposite tendency, inherited from past idealist philosophy, was to see the mind as having enormous powers so that entire comprehensive, systematic philosophies could be constructed with just mind. The either-or proposition was be a scientist and renounce all subjective moral and religious thought or accept both science and moral and religious claims while ignoring the contradictions. Pragmatism allowed the two ends of

76 the continuum to work together because it asked what difference it would make if a person accepted one theory or another. Its most influential proponent, Dewey, was leader of the progressive education movement (Butler, 1968). Dewey not only philosophized about education but engaged in the actual task of educating children at his Laboratory School in Chicago established in 1896. Dewey was responsible for making the case that education is a social institution. Previous philosophers treated education in primarily individualistic terms, i.e., as a process that occurs within individuals as opposed to the way a culture reproduces itself. Pragmatists say that we "must approach education as first and foremost a social phenomenon. It is a means by which society renews itself..." (p. 406). Dewey (1916) stated that societal attitudes just cannot be given to the young; a person has to receive this information through an educative process that requires activity by the learner. Education is a social function and the school’s learning activities must have social meaning and relevance to society and not be just a transaction between teacher and student. Dewey's philosophy of education stated that traditional views concerning knowledge and learning were wrong (1916). The error lay in likening the learner to a spectator who passively recognized what is there and whose objective was to be certain about it. This makes objects independent of our knowing them and, thus, knowing them is just recognition. In contrast, Dewey stated that knowing is a kind of action because the mind is a problem solver; intelligence is creative and all knowledge is based on experience. True knowledge and understanding result from doing. “Men have to do something to the things when they wish to find out something; they have to alter conditions” (p. 275). "The spirit of education should be experimental, because the mind is fundamentally a problem-solving instrument, and it is therefore more important to try alternative means for successfully solving problems than to pursue neat theoretical formulations" (Stumpf, 1966, p. 418). Dewey's progressive education moved the educational process away from its formality and toward more child centeredness (Butler, 1968). Curriculum in the old education was one of imposition: imposing adult standards on children, imposing set subject matter considered central to the learning process, and imposing methods. The new education allowed expression and cultivation of individuality, greater freedom of

77 activity, and direct contact with the world through such activities as creative and constructive projects and discussion. Dewey felt that all thinking and learning is a discovery process and new information has to be tested against current social practices (Cahn, 1977). Dewey (1910) felt that formal schooling had become abstract because it was separated from the student's interests, needs, and experiences. Abstract concepts dulled the curriculum; he realized that learning is emotional as well as cognitive. He proposed that instruction should be organized around human work valued by the society in order for it to relate to life after school. "This view of curriculum construed knowledge to be interdisciplinary and instrumental" (Gutek, 1988, p. 107). For Dewey, education required attention and effort by the learner and it is the role of the teacher to teach indirectly (Fishman & McCarthy, 1998). Classes should be structured so that teachers and students identify problems and investigate and discover solutions to these problems. In this manner, the learner will establish a connection with subject matter. Eisner (1994) stated that educators who are progressive tend to emphasize individual differences among students and believe that students "should be given ample opportunity to formulate their own educational aims" (p. 143). "The teacher is not to 'stuff the duck' but rather to facilitate the achievement of aims born out of the interaction children have with the stimulating resources the teacher provides" (p. 143). Driscoll (2000) stated that the epistemological traditions are still being debated today in educational and psychological literature. She argued that either knowledge is external to the learner or an internal construction of the learner. Those who think that knowledge is external and separate from the learner are called objectivists. Their theory concludes that the external knowledge is pure truth and must be transferred into the mind of the learner. "Empiricism and realism characterize this orientation" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 14). On the other hand, the opposite position is that of the interpretists (or interpretivists) who think that all knowledge is within. Understanding of reality is actively constructed by the learner from within, using frames of reference. Their constructed views organize the world around them. "Rationalism and idealism characterize this orientation" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 14). Objectivism and interpretism are often discussed as polar opposites, with pragmatism somewhere between them on the

78 continuum. The pragmatists believe that absolute knowledge is an unreachable goal. Instead, they emphasize using workable hypotheses until more knowledge is discovered. This provisional knowledge can be obtained through empirical or rational processes. Reality is understood through internal and external cues and signs utilizing a combination of experience and reason. Existentialism The last segment of the discussion on philosophy and learning concerns another 20th century body of philosophical thought: existentialism. The questions existentialists ask are (Double, 1999): How should we live in the world? What does it mean to be alive and to be human? The answers include that it is one’s personal interpretation of the world that matters; the individual defines truth, reality, and goodness. Accompanying this is the idea that it takes personal experience and individual action to find one’s personal truth. This process is not necessarily systematic or rational but it is full of personal choice and commitment. Those choices define the person and result in a unique creation; we are continually forming our own personal existence. According to Stumpf (1966): Existentialism was bound to happen. The individual had over the centuries been pushed into the background by systems of thought, historical events, and technological forces. The major systems of thought had rarely paid attention to the uniquely personal concerns of individuals. (p. 454) In a similar vein as the pragmatists, the existentialists found traditional philosophy too remote and academic. It was not providing answers to immediate, real, personal questions about life and living. Feldman (2003) examined three characteristics of existentialist thought and their impact in the classroom: 1. People are situated in a web of relationships which include their entire past history— attitudes, beliefs, actions, culture, and physical environment. They bring this with them to the present learning experience. 2. The individual self emerges through experience and the learner constructs his or her own meanings during the learning experience.

79 3. People are free to choose their course of action even though the choices are finite. Students construct their knowledge through what they have chosen to study. It is important that teachers realize the significance of the relationship between the students and the teacher and how each affects the other. Both need to understand “that each is an individual human being who is situated, whose self emerges through experience, and who has freedom to choose” (p. 10). Further, education should provide the experiences that allow students to create themselves and would cast students as active participants in the learning process (Feldman, 2003). An integral part of the learning experience is the way that students are treated by the teacher, specifically, and the classroom environment the teacher has created, in general. This environment, shaped by the teacher, should convey to students that they are respected, seen as individuals, are cared for and have choices, even within guidelines. Students should realize that no action is a choice, too. Existentialism is concerned with being human and having human relationships. Therefore, education is significant in terms of how it is affecting those who are going through its process. It is the role of the school to aid people in discovering who they are and how they fit into society. Existentialist thought emphasizes self-discovery and is very individualized; in this respect, it is akin to pragmatism. Further, an existentialist classroom should develop the affective side of the person and his or her capacity to appreciate and respond emotionally. The arts would be fundamental for this type of classroom environment. At this point I have examined the literature regarding brain research and cognitive developmental theories, learning theories and their philosophical foundations. A comprehensive search through the theoretical literature shows support for integrating curriculum, in general, and art, in particular, with other subject matter to enhance learning. Further this support is based on biological, psychological, and philosophical premises. It is important, at this point, to review the historical application as well as more recent application of integrated curriculum in the classroom.

80 Integrated Curriculum

In this portion of the literature review, I will examine curriculum organization and why subjects are taught, generally, as discrete disciplines and provide a rationale for integrated curriculum. I will define integrated curriculum and describe how it differs conceptually, discuss its roots in progressivism, and view early models of integrated curricula as well as present day models that incorporate art. Rationale for Integrated Curriculum The United States, unlike a lot of nations, does not have an official national curriculum that schools must follow. Because there is no federal constitutional right to an education, education is the responsibility of the states. Each state operates its own school system and gives more or less freedom to its school districts to devise their curricula (Dobbs, l998). Despite lack of centralization, there is much uniformity among school curricula in America (Oliver, 1977). Reading, writing, and arithmetic are taught in some form in the educational career of a student; other required subjects usually include social studies, health/P.E., science, and, maybe, the fine arts. Beyond these basics, other subjects are included depending on the political and social climate of the times. The federal government can influence education by offering targeted funds to specific areas. Curriculum, although central to every school, is not a tangible object; it is an abstract concept. Curricula are planned, designed, developed, implemented, evaluated, improved, and revised (Oliver, 1977). But what are they? Definitions range from everything that goes on within a school to a set of subjects, a program of studies, a set of materials, or a sequence of courses. For this paper, curriculum is defined as the sum total of formal studies and learning experiences that are offered by a school. This includes not only subjects studied in the classroom but also independent study, guest lecturers, field trips, service projects in the community, participation in school athletics, band, choir, and plays. Once goals are set for the school and content is selected, planners must decide the best way to organize curriculum for maximum learning to occur (Oliver, 1977). Will the curriculum be organized around subjects or around students? Subject centered and

81 student centered are the two ends of the curriculum organization continuum. All other forms of organization, including integration, fall within these two extremes. Traditionally, the curriculum has been organized around subject matter (Oliver, 1977). “Current school curricula tend to be tightly compartmentalized into subjects” (Efland, 2002, p. 102). This pattern of organization dates back to antiquity, from ancient Greece and Rome. Oliva (1982) stated that subject matter is the oldest and most widely accepted form of curriculum organization dating back to the Seven Liberal Arts. Today, subject matter is generally organized on the basis of separate disciplines taught at separate times (Oliver, 1977). Many educators feel that teaching these relatively few bodies, called disciplines, conveys to the student the essential knowledge in our civilization. Scholars have traditionally organized knowledge within the major disciplines recognized today (science, mathematics, social studies, and language arts). Some consider academic disciplines a powerful way for organizing knowledge. (Czerniak, Weber & Sandmann, 1999, p. 4) This type of curriculum organization is based on several assumptions: that children handle discipline knowledge in the same manner as an adult scholar, that the role of the school is to transmit cultural heritage, that the heritage can be grouped into subjects, and that this grouping enables the students to deal with the culture as they meet it. Learning is based chiefly on language activities and adults select and organize what is to be presented to the learner. Students must absorb and memorize using considerable drill to retain content. Conceptually, there are three major concerns with this arrangement (Oliver, 1977). First, there is the interdisciplinary controversy. When subjects are taught in this manner, there is no apparent relationship between classes. Math, science, English, and social studies are taught in one hour (or more) time periods with no correlation between these successive areas of instruction. Some declare that these "watertight compartments" are not lifelike and actually hinder learning by failing to foster interrelationships. Second is the fact that students are learning theory with little or no practical application. Without practical application, theory is much less meaningful. For example, students apparently learn mathematical formulas but then fail to utilize them in practical situations or later

82 science classes. The knowledge does not automatically transfer into later application. A third concern is that the subject content is not related to life outside the school. Often available resources in the community are overlooked. For instance, local political elections could be used as a teaching tool but often are not used by the teacher who is already a month behind in her government class. Beane (1992) echoed the same sentiment: More and more educators are coming to realize that one of the fundamental problems in schools is the “separate subject” approach to knowledge and skills. Among other things, it has little, if any, support in curriculum research; it presents the world to young people in terms of the specialized interests of academic scholars; it reflects a Eurocentric view of knowledge organization; and it is an artifice of real-life uses of content and skill. (p. 46) Further, Czerniak, Weber & Sandmann (1999) summarized the following concerns with the subject centered curriculum and literature that favors integrating curriculum: 1. Making connections between disciplines appears to have common sense because people’s lives in the real world are not partitioned into separate subjects. “Almost every national reform effort is currently stressing the need to integrate or make connections among the curriculum” (p. 1). They cited English, mathematics, social studies, and science teachers associations. 2. Integrated curriculum helps to move the curriculum closer to the needs and interests of the students. They cited organizations that specialize in appropriate instructional practices for teachers of elementary and middle school age children and who advocate integrative and exploratory curriculum. 3. “It is also argued that the integration of content areas can help students learn to think critically and help develop a common core of knowledge necessary for success in the next century” (p. 1). They cited articles which concluded that curriculum integration helps students to form deeper understandings, to see the larger picture, and to form connections among ideas. 4. Support for integrated curriculum is based upon psychological and human development theories. They cited articles about constructivist learning theory that

83 supports the importance of students making connections between prior knowledge and new experiences and about brain research which supports thematic teaching and the idea that “people process information through patterns and connections” rather than through fragments of information (p. 1). Lake (1994), in an article in the School Improvement Research Series (SIRS) published by the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, reviewed 53 documents which dealt with multiple aspects of integrated curriculum. She described the following reasons as most cited for the resurgence in discussion and implementation of integrated curriculum in the classroom: the explosion of knowledge, increasing state mandates, concerns over relevancy of the curriculum to the real world, lack of connections among the disciplines, teachers feeling frustrated by overwhelming curricula and other demands by the school, global interdependence, the fast pace of life, and business demands for workers who are creative problem solvers. A shift was underway from memorization and recitation of isolated facts and toward having an understanding of concepts and connections between concepts. Integration was viewed, also, as a way to make education more meaningful and, thus, alleviate concerns over national achievement levels and high dropout rates. Although there is a lot of enthusiasm for integrating curriculum there is a “paucity of research supporting an integrated curriculum over traditional curriculum” (Czerniak, Weber & Sandmann, 1999, p. 2). There is little empirical research supporting integrated curriculum and schools wishing to try integration face some critical issues, one of which is describing integrated curriculum. Describing Integrated Curriculum What is integrated curriculum? The term integrated curriculum has been tossed around lightly by educators and has come to mean any organization of curriculum that is not strictly subject centered (Oliver, 1977). Broadly speaking, integration is the blending, fusion, or unification of disciplines. According to Beane (1992), the questioning and search for better curriculum organization is a desire to make connections: To understand this, we might begin by viewing the separate subject curriculum as something like a set of jigsaw puzzle pieces with no picture to guide us in putting them together, and no guarantee that they make a picture. Not only would putting

84 the pieces together be a difficult task, but it would border on the irrelevant, since most people would agree that the purpose of the pieces is to make a picture and that the pieces themselves have no real meaning apart from the picture they make. (p. 46) In integration "... the basic consideration is of ways to bring into a broad organization those subject-matter elements which have certain relationships" (Oliver, 1977, p. 243). Oliva (1982) stated that curriculum designers should concern themselves with the problem of integrating subject matter. This idea is echoed also by Oliver (1977) who stated that the term is "not as important as the conditions characterizing the extent of the transition toward less subject-defined boundaries" (p. 243). Educators, generally speaking, support the concept of integrating subject matter but the integration of disciplines is optional for curriculum planners and can be a controversial topic (Oliva, 1982). Whether or not they choose to integrate depends upon their philosophy of the nature of knowledge, the psychology of learning, and the purposes of schooling. Even though integration of subject matter is viewed as being more relevant to the learner, our schools typically and traditionally act as though integration of curriculum is not important. Czerniak, Weber & Sandmann (1999) stated the following obstacles to integration: the time and structure of the school day, teachers not prepared or taught how to integrate subject matter, the pressure of state standardized tests which are discipline based, and standards for disciplines that are separate and not integrated. Beane (1992) stated that integrated curriculum has to be built from the ground up by interested and willing teachers who have administrative support with scheduling and resources. Because the momentum is clearly with discrete disciplines, the tenacity of subject matter curriculum has been shaken only briefly by experiments like the activity curriculum and the core curriculum. During the first half of the twentieth century, reaction against the very tight structuring in the subject centered approach was to swing to the other extreme, i.e., to center the curriculum on the students rather than the subjects (Oliver, 1977). Dewey (Doll, 1982) developed a curriculum that emphasized the life activities of children. Dewey (1938) thought that learning should be a pleasurable emotional experience, more vivid and valuable, with the learner pursuing an active role. Radical progressive

85 education proponents (Ornstein, 1977) argued that education is life, life is always changing, therefore curriculum should not be fixed; they let the child be the source of curriculum construction. They thought that subject matter should be taught for immediate use. The teacher had to determine only what interested the students and build upon that. Learners would develop their own ways of learning inside of a flexible curriculum. People learn only what they experience; the learner would desire, see, do, and obtain satisfaction from the learning experience. Students learned with their heads, their hearts, and their hands; the whole child must be educated. According to Oliver (1977): This program seemed to meet the criticisms against subject organization: it was related to pupil interest; learners were to be active, rather than passive; activity was built around psychological problems, rather than logical topics; the program was flexible, rather than rigid, democratic rather than authoritarian; it cut across subject lines; it was community related. (p. 238) In practice, however, this curriculum organization left teachers and parents feeling uncomfortable. Even the students felt uncertain. There was no plan, no structure, and all concerned felt the lack. Although Dewey was one of the chief advocates for meeting the needs of children in school, he did not agree with the lack of planning by the radical progressives (Ornstein, 1977). Dewey's view was more of a balance between the student and the subject and he criticized educators who overlooked the importance of subject matter. Between these two extremes of curriculum organization, looking only at subjects or looking only at students, many other plans have been tried which incorporate principles from both camps (Oliver, 1977). By and large, most curricula are still organized around subjects. However, curriculum integration, blurring the lines between discrete disciplines, has come in and out of favor since Dewey's time and is, once again, a hotly debated topic (Synder, 2001). Oliva (1982) stated that there have been two major responses made over the years designed to reduce the separateness of disciplines. One is the correlation of subject

86 matter and the other is integration. Oliver (1977) called integrated curriculum "fused" (or broad fields), added core curriculum and placed them all on a continuum.

Subject Correlated Integrated (Fused) Core Student Centered Centered

Correlation is relating subjects to each other while maintaining their separateness (Oliver, 1977). Relationships between subjects on a particular level are taught, e.g., as in history and literature; math and science; history, music, and art; or art, music, and literature. This type of correlation is horizontal on one grade level. Correlation of subjects takes a lot of planning. This can be done by individual teachers but maybe better done by "subject" committees that can explore the contribution that each subject can make to other teaching fields. Correlating subjects needs to take into account the content, the activities, and the timing of the activities. For example, the English teacher could cover the unit on the Romantic poets at the same time the history teacher is covering the social impact of the Industrial Revolution in England. In some schools, there is a double- period plan in which one teacher covers two subjects, e.g., first English and then social studies. Hopefully, the artificial division between the two subjects will fade over time as the teacher starts teaching an English-social studies class. Correlation can also be done in a vertical manner across two or more subjects. For instance, ancient history taught in the sophomore year of high school can be correlated with Latin taught in the junior year. In this manner, Latin could be enriched by the progression. Regardless what form it takes, correlation demands much cooperative planning among departments. Interdepartmental feelings of jealousy and superiority can obstruct the efforts of curriculum planners. Teachers should note that correlation allows each specialist to keep his or her specialty. Correlation moves toward integration when the subjects start to lose their identities. Integration is concerned with ways to bring into a broad organization those subject matter elements which have certain relationships (Oliver, 1977). The task is to develop ways of helping students create a unity of knowledge. This has already been done consistently in some areas, such as in general subjects. For example, general math

87 integrates elements from arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. In the elementary schools, language arts pulls together reading, writing, spelling, speaking, and grammar. Most of this integration is within fields: fusing two different fields is less common but possible. Instead of trying to blend subjects to gain unity, the approach becomes one of trying to find some unifying ideas, principles, or generalizations. In the knowledge of human culture, there can be found central ideas that showcase several disciplines. For instance, this occurs with the cultural epoch approach. English, science, math, social studies, music, and art are all used to illustrate a cultural epoch such as the Renaissance. Another way to fuse could be through problem solving. Rather than taking a cultural epoch as the central theme, real-life problems in a democratic society are used as the basis for content, thought, and activity. An example of problem solving is having students answer the question, "Should we and how could we provide universal health care for citizens?" This would delve into the disciplines of history, religion, psychology, government, math, and economics. Problem solving focuses on current issues as compared to the cultural epoch approach which emphasizes past problems and achievements. Taba (1962) also defined integration as "something that happens in an individual" whether or not the curriculum content is organized that way. Doll (1982) concurred, “Integration, which must actually be achieved by the child, consists of relating experiences to each other in such a way as to create wholeness out of the collection of little pieces that constitute the usual experiences in schools” (p. 139). Beane (1992) also agreed by stating that the integration “is done by the person him or herself; it is not done for that person by others” (p. 49). The person begins integrating knowledge with meanings that are already established and builds extensions onto those meanings. The emphasis is then shifted from integrating subjects to locating integrative threads (Taba, 1962). Integrative threads help learners to relate learning experiences that would otherwise appear unrelated; they are used as a basis for comparing and contrasting experiences. Learning is integrated by stressing the broad concepts which the various subjects share in common and by helping students develop a consistent framework for understanding these concepts.

88 The “core” approach to organizing curriculum relies more on structuring. "The plan is to develop unified studies based upon the common needs of the learners and organized without restriction by subject matter" (Oliver, 1977, p. 246). This plan of organization was moderately popular during the forties and fifties. Core programs were developed to allow students to have a core of experience with one teacher during a period of time that was longer than customary. As the student progresses through the system, from elementary to higher education, the general education decreases and the specialized education increases. At the secondary level, the core system allows for a fifty-fifty balance with the school day being split in half. The first half is core with unified studies based on the common problems of the learners. This is called general education or common learnings. The second half of the day is spent on specialized knowledge, experiences selected in terms of individual needs and interests. Using math as an example, students working together on common problems in the morning (functional math such as budgeting, figuring taxes, reading graphs in a magazine, halving a recipe) spend the afternoon addressing their individual math needs (calculus for the boy who wants to be an engineer). For many people, however, core means an administrative method of scheduling with little attention paid to the concepts underpinning core. According to Ellis, Cogan and Howey (1981), there are five patterns of curriculum organization: 1. Separate subject: disciplines are addressed separately 2. Unified: themes which cut across related disciplines, such as social studies 3. Correlated: concepts (e.g., conflict) which cut across subject lines 4. Core: problems which cut across all disciplines, such as pornography 5. Child centered: integrated curricula which stress application Ornstein (1977) agreed that correlation was integrating two or more subjects without destroying their subject boundaries but said that correlation was just a modification of subject-matter curriculum. His continuum looked like this:

Subject Activity Centered Student Centered Centered

89 Modifications of subject centered: 1. Correlation: The integration of subjects without destroying subject boundaries. 2. Fusion and broad fields: Fusion is the merger of related subjects into a new course, such as, algebra and geometry into trigonometry. Broad fields is bringing together several related fields, such as, general science. 3. Core: The integration of subjects by examining a problem, e.g., pornography. Activity-centered curriculum grew out of Dewey's philosophy and was led by one of his students, Kilpatrick (Ornstein, 1977). It was called, also, the project method and emphasized purposeful activity by the learner. The activities should be based on real life; ideas from this method were adopted by many elementary schools in the 1920s and 1930s and gave birth to units, projects, field trips, and centers of interest. In general, the activity curriculum organizes the classroom around a cluster of activities or problems which deal with life outside the school, usually community-oriented. The student is actively participating, involved in problem solving, and relating to the world outside of the school. As integrated curriculum gains in popularity, new names are associated with these approaches to integration. As before, there is no general agreement on terms used to describe integration. Drake (1993) and Jacobs (1989) state that infusion is the term for integration of particular skills such as writing or reading across the curriculum. Topics- within-disciplines is the name for integrating multiple strands of the same discipline such as integrated language arts wherein literature, writing, and grammar are studied concurrently. Interdisciplinary approaches maintain traditional subject boundaries while aligning content and concepts across disciplines. Thematic instruction subordinates disciplines to larger concepts which run as a theme through various subject areas. Lake (1994) offered several names and definitions for integrated curriculum: integrated, interdisciplinary, thematic, synergistic. Lake stated that some authors have gone beyond a single definition and to a continuum of integration, citing Fogarty (1991), in The Mindful School, as identifying ten levels of curriculum integration. All of the definitions of integrated or interdisciplinary curriculum include: more than one subject area, an emphasis on projects, other sources besides the textbook, relationships among concepts, thematic units as organizing principles, and flexible schedules and student

90 groupings. In the thematic unit, instruction is organized around a theme instead of around a subject and allows for meaningful integration across reading, writing, math, history, science, and the arts (Shanahan, Robinson, & Schneider, 1995). A theme is used, rather than a topic, to form the basis of integration. Themes deal with a point of view or a perspective; students must take a position. This allows for exploration into the theme and not just a broad survey of subject matter. Students are asked to think in greater depth; they pursue ideas that support or challenge a particular point of view. This exploration can lead to better connections among ideas and, therefore, greater and deeper understanding. Beane (1992) agreed, “The most common attempt to move away from the straight subject area approach involves identifying a central theme and asking what each subject area can contribute to it” (p. 46). Through these first decades at attempting to integrate subject matter and go beyond discrete disciplines, no agreement has been reached on definitions of the terms involved or where they should be placed on the curriculum organization continuum (Czerniak, Weber & Sandmann, 1999). In fact, the term, integrated curriculum, is becoming obfuscated. Because of this the lack of research regarding integrated curriculum may be a conceptual issue regarding the framing of research questions: At the most basic level, a common definition of integration does not exist that can be used as a basis for designing, carrying out, and interpreting results of research…This ambiguity is evident in the sheer number of words used to describe integration: interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, transdisciplinary, thematic, integrated, connected, nested, sequenced, shared, webbed, threaded, immersed, networked, blended, unified, co-coordinated, and fused. (p. 2). The next section describes the State of Florida's view on integrated curriculum or making connections across the curriculum. Florida Curriculum Framework The Florida Curriculum Framework (1996) encourages making curricular connections because it makes learning more meaningful for students. Four models are outlined. The first model of integration is infusion—a teacher integrates another subject matter into his or her instruction. For example, infusion takes place when the music teacher explains quarter notes with the fractions students are learning in math. Second,

91 parallel instruction is when teachers from different subjects align their curricula to focus on the same theme or topic. Each discipline is taught separately but teachers plan the unit together to address a common theme, concept, or problem. The third model, multidisciplinary instruction, is akin to parallel instruction but with the addition of a common project or assignment that links the various disciplines. Teachers would do prior planning to identify how the concept, theme, or problem would be addressed in each subject area—construction of it, division of duties among teachers, and division of labor among students. In the fourth model, transdisciplinary instruction, two or more subject areas address a common concept, theme, or problem, but, this time, the subject areas are presented in an integrated fashion. Classes meet together, teachers plan together and team teach. Usually, a major project is the focus of transdisciplinary instruction. These four models are based on the degree of integration that occurs. The intent, in my view, was to encourage the teacher to make connections across the curricula. It could be a beginning effort, such as infusion, or a more extended one, such as in transdisciplinary integration. However, there was no consideration given to the length of time dedicated to the integration effort. For instance, would integration be just for one topic or project? Or would it be ongoing throughout the school year? Art Education and Integrated Curriculum Art educators are hotly debating integrated curriculum and are split on the question of whether or not integrating the arts with other school subjects enhances learning (Parsons, 2000). The claim that it does is based largely on anecdotal evidence. Even studies that show learning enhancement do not answer the question of how arts education influences student achievement. Because of the diverse content in the arts and ways of teaching, there is no way to tell at this point what is enhancing learning (if it is) and what is not. What is needed is an examination of particular kinds of art activities and their impacts as well as explanations for their promoting positive student gains in learning. Further, Parsons stated that even if it can be shown that art enhances learning it does not follow automatically that art education should be used in this manner. It would depend on what art educators think the purpose of art education should be. Luftig (2000) agreed that there is no agreement among art educators about the desired outcomes for students in art education and what constitutes a viable arts

92 curriculum. In the literature, there is a lack of studies that assess the positive affects of an arts curriculum. He maintained that these questions remain unanswered while school systems are finding the arts to be increasingly less important and allocating less of their budgets toward these subjects. Rettig & Rettig (1999) disagreed about the research not supporting arts in the curriculum. They stated, “There is a plethora of research that supports the arts in school curriculum” (p. 24). Their assertion is based on brain research that shows learning in an emotional context, engaging as many senses as possible, looking for patterns, and socially interacting all contribute to remembering content. Art education helps to create the right conditions for optimal student learning. Schiller (1995) agreed that art helps to create a rich interactive environment for learning in the Reggio Emilia early childhood centers in Italy. Art is effective and essential for early childhood education and is a central component of the Reggio Emilia preschool curriculum. It is “an integral part of all activities” (p. 45). Art is used as a graphic language by which students embed concepts more thoroughly and represent their learning. The curriculum stresses using a variety of art resources including media for creating art, books about artists, and fine art prints for looking at and talking about art. Art is not taught as a separate discipline. Clark (1985) spoke to the debate over whether art should be taught as a discipline or whether it should be used to enhance learning in other subject matter. Because art activities are inherently exciting, art can be used to stimulate general learning. However, some use this as a reason to replace an art program within a school setting. He concluded that art is important both as a unique subject worthy of study and as a way to enrich other subject matter and both have a legitimate place in the school curriculum. Clark (1985) stated, “Integration of art with other subject matters has a long history…Reading, writing and other subject matters can all be made more exciting when art is used to enrich education” (p. 5). Freyberger (1985) concurred with the long history of integration; correlation of art with other subject matter began as early as the 1920s. The most popular subjects for integration were history and geography. Integration intensified when the subject centered

93 curriculum moved toward more child centeredness in the late 1930s and 1940s with progressive educators. When this occurred, subject matter of children’s artwork moved from adult conceived interest areas to those arising immediately from the child’s involvement with activities and interests in his or her home and school environment. Art no longer functioned as a unique subject matter but became integrated with all phases of living. (p. 7) Lowenfeld & Brittain (1987) stated that correlation was used to combat the specialization of subject matter and that it may or may not be successful. If successful, it is only superficial and, further, art may be viewed as a bad experience by the learner because it is associated with another subject that is not as attractive. Instead, integration had to occur within the individual who was “influenced by emotional responses and perceptual sensory experiences” (p. 172). For example, history is often taught only in terms of dates and events. The Pilgrims landed in 1620. Plymouth Rock is somehow important in the event, and a ship called the Mayflower was there, too. A request for children to draw this event is a meaningless activity. On the other hand, if children can empathize with the experience itself and focus upon this involvement, the activity may be a meaningful one. The children must feel the air and the waves, and even taste the salt on their lips. The experience must be their experience…Meaningful integration occurs in the youngster through such a motivation, which creates an atmosphere that is conducive to self-identification and self-involvement. The art experiences that the youngster has had can provide the means of accomplishing this. To some extent, then, art can be the core of the learning environment within the school. Integrated learning does not happen by merely shuffling subject matter around— such integration can take place only within a child. (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987, pp. 172-174) Further, Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987) stated that art should not be separated into its various disciplines but should be studied together.

94 Integration was a factor in the 1950s progressive school programs until art educators became concerned that art was losing its identity (Freyberger, 1985). “One often heard the refrain, art is a hand-maiden to the areas in which it was functioning” (p. 9). At this stage, art educators fought for reestablishing separate art programs and integration was not heard of again until the 1980s. There are many visions of the aims of art education today as outlined by Eisner (2002) in his book, The Arts and the Creation of Mind. How do these current visions of art education align with the resurgence of interest in integrated curriculum? More specifically, do these visions include using art to enhance learning in other subject matter? The following visions have significance for integrating art with other subject matter to enhance learning. 1. The first vision is discipline-based art education, known as DBAE (Eisner, 2002). This was discussed in Chapter 1 of this study and deals primarily with the visual arts and studying them in their separate disciplines—studio art, art history, art criticism, and aesthetics. Possible significance for integration. DBAE is art for all students whether gifted in art or not and integration could occur through all and any of the four separate disciplines. Making art or talking about art or viewing art could all be equal avenues for integration with other subject matter. 2. The second vision concerns “using the arts to promote an understanding of visual culture” (Eisner, 2002, p. 28). The visual culture refers to all of the images in our society including text, print, and electronic which permeate our lives and influence our decisions. Possible significance for integration. Art enables students to “read” visual images and understand what they are viewing. Integration could aid visual literacy—such as reading charts, graphs, and political cartoons—in all academic disciplines as well as popular culture. Visual literacy creates a more discerning citizen and consumer. 3. The third vision refers to creative problem solving (Eisner, 2002). In creative problem solving, students use the materials given in an academic problem to design a solution. Possible significance for integration. When given new information in a subject area, students first receive it and, next, manipulate it mentally. They could then,

95 through art, make visual their thoughts concerning it by designing a graphic organizer. The graphic organizer could display through symbols the student’s understanding of the new information and its relationships. 4. A fourth vision involves preparing students for the world of work by developing initiative, creativity, and self-expression (Eisner, 2002). Possible significance for integration. Through integration students could become creative, expressive, and show initiative in all subject areas. Art is intrinsically exciting to many students and captures their imaginations and willingness to participate. It allows for the creative expression inherent in all human beings. Individual student responses could promote the discussion and appreciation of diverse outcomes. 5. A fifth vision regards cognitive development and how the arts promote complex thought patterns (Eisner, 2002). Possible significance for integration. Art could help to develop complex and subtle forms of thinking in all subject areas. Students could use drawing to organize their thoughts and reflect upon them. Drawings could be used as well to express and assist in explaining answers to questions. 6. A sixth vision promotes integrating art with other arts and with other subject matter (Eisner, 2002). Typically it is used in one of four ways: (a) to help explain a particular historical period, (b) to examine the similarities and differences among the arts, (c) to build a curriculum around a theme, (d) to challenge students to solve a real life problem through several disciplines. Possible significance for integration. Art could become the center of a school’s curriculum. In this manner, it could be taught on its own merits in DBAE art classes as well as used for support and enhancement for other subject matter. School Improvement Research Series (SIRS) Lake (1994), in her research paper on integrated curriculum, reviewed 53 documents which dealt with multiple aspects of integrated curriculum. The areas of integration included: art, math, and reading; writing across the curriculum; history, science, and math; history and literature; integrated humanities; health and reading; areas of mathematics; social studies, health, and the arts; P.E., the arts, health, and literature;

96 and, science, social studies, health, and the arts. Her conclusions fell into three main categories: the effectiveness of an integrated curriculum on content learning and attitude, successful implementation of an integrated curriculum, and teacher experiences in formulating thematic units. Findings show that there were no detrimental effects on learning by students involved in an integrated curriculum. One of the largest and most thoroughly researched integrated curriculum programs is that of the Humanitas program in Los Angeles (Lake, 1994). This is a high school humanities program taught in an interdisciplinary, thematic, team-based approach. It was compared to 16 other schools with a more traditional approach. The factors of comparison were: performance-based assessments; surveys of teachers, students, and administrators; classroom observations; teacher and student interviews; analysis of assignments and examinations; analysis of portfolios; records of student attendance; records of discipline incidents; and records of college-oriented behavior and standardized tests. The findings were: a statistically significant positive effect on writing and content knowledge; large gains in conceptual understanding (the control groups made no gains in conceptual understanding); and, students stayed in school longer, worked harder, and liked school better. Lake (1994) cited another study, by Willett (1992) of 87 fifth graders, on the integration of math with art. The result was higher post test scores for integration students as compared to those who were taught math concepts in isolation by the regular classroom teacher. Findings related to the impact of an integrated curriculum on students attitudes show: students developed team spirit, improved attitudes and work habits; students were more motivated when dealing with "real" problems; teachers had fewer behavior problems when students helped to design the curriculum; integrated curriculum was associated with better student self-direction, higher attendance, higher levels of homework completion, and better attitudes toward school; and, students were engaged in their learning. Not only did students benefit but also teachers. Many teachers involved in an integrated curriculum preferred to stay in such a program rather than return to a traditional curriculum. The research results on integration had several common elements but the outstanding one is that curriculum integration takes time; common planning time

97 is needed to select themes, explore resources, discuss student learning styles and needs, and coordinate teaching and activities. The research findings (Lake, 1994) supported the positive effects of curriculum integration, namely, helping students apply skills, faster retrieval of information by students, students holding multiple perspectives of knowledge, encouragement of depth and breadth in learning, promotion of positive attitudes in students, and quality time for curriculum exploration. The most effective themes were those that promote the linking of concepts which leads to deeper understanding (a series of activities arbitrarily connected does not make a theme and does not improve learning). In this way, curriculum integration is a means and not an end result. Research on Models Using Integrated Curriculum This section reviews other current research on integrated education and the arts. SPECTRA+ was a schoolwide, multi-disciplinary, integrated arts-in-education program that contained five main components: arts instruction, arts integration, artists-in- residence, professional development, evaluation and advocacy (Luftig, 2000). Luftig tested the hypothesis that the SPECTRA+ program would enhance the academic achievement, creativity, self-concept, and appreciation of the arts in a diverse group of elementary school children in southwest Ohio. Students who participated in the SPECTRA+ program engaged in a variety of activities, including making art, observing art and the creative process, critiquing art, studying art in historical and cultural contexts, and learning about artistic materials. Also, the arts were integrated into other curricular areas, such as, science, math, and reading. These subjects were presented through the instructional processes and devices of the arts. The arts were defined as art, music, dance, and drama, or theatre. There were 615 participants in second, fourth, and fifth grades; students were pre and post tested. Five variables were measured using six instruments: self-esteem (Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory), Locus of Control (Bailer- Cromwell Locus of Control Scale), creative thinking (Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking), appreciation of the arts (Appreciation of the Arts Scale), and academic achievement (Iowa Test of Basic Skills and Stanford Achievement Tests). The results were encouraging. In the area of self-esteem the results were mixed. There were no differences on total or academic self-esteem; however, in the areas of

98 social and parental self-esteem, decided advantages were found in the direction of the SPECTRA+ students. Interestingly, there were gender differences with the males showing the greatest improvement socially and the females the second worst. The results showed that second and fourth graders may have better parent/child interactions at home because of SPECTRA+. Even though the researcher thought the children would feel that they had increased control over their lives, the data analysis yielded nonsignificant results. On creative thinking, the data strongly indicated that creative thinking was facilitated by involvement in the arts. With regard to art appreciation, SPECTRA+ students scored higher than both of the control groups. On academic achievement, generalization was limited because each school district used different standardized academic tests. Results were mixed. The math achievement data, although weak, generally favored the SPECTRA+ students. The SPECTRA+ program represented an attempt by two school systems to institute an integrated arts program into the elementary school curriculum. It represents a formal evaluation of that program in an area where formal evaluation is rare. Despite the problems of the research (the size of the study was staggering), the SPECTRA+ program yielded promising results and warrants further use and evaluation in the schools. Another example of art as an integral part of the school curriculum is at the Reggio Emilia daycare centers in northern Italy near Milan (Schiller, 1995). Central to the philosophy of Reggio Emilia is a belief that art is important as a symbolic language. These schools employ a full-time visual arts specialist who guides children into different types of media to complete their ideas or projects. Special studio space at the center is designated just for this. The Reggio Emilia philosophy states that children's interactions with each other and with adults are vital to learning; drawing and art are representative of the child's learning and embedding of concepts; and art is a graphic language which takes the place of writing. Art is not taught as a separate subject, or discipline, but is an additional language available to the young children. The Reggio Emilia schools have demonstrated that young children grasp "the concept of graphic symbolic representation and can be expected to use it in a more sophisticated manner than is usually expected of them in the United States” (p. 47).

99 Another curriculum based on the natural physiological and psychological development of the child, the discovery method of learning, and the important role of the arts is the Montessori technique (Linskie, 1977). Montessori, an Italian physician who lived at the beginning of the twentieth century, believed that children have within them the people they will become; that they are physical, mental, and spiritual beings with absorbent minds and a great capacity for work and appetite for learning; and, that the environment is of utmost importance. The curriculum had three distinct parts: motor education, sensory education, and language development. The source of the content for motor education was the physical environment. The physical needs of the children were addressed through producing child-sized furniture for the classroom, large art prints decorating the walls of the classroom, and outdoor areas so that the classroom could flow outdoors. The source of the content for sensory education was carefully structured and pre-selected materials. Montessori felt that sensory experience had to occur before any abstract learning could take place. Language was seen as a natural development stemming from rich motor and sensory experiences of children. All sensory education and motor education was in preparation for reading, writing, and math skills. Children who have been deprived of experiences have limited language skills and almost no imagery or curiosity. Special curriculum materials were planned in advance to develop a child's ability to see, to feel, and to discriminate among shapes, sounds, and textures. "All this sensory education is a preparation for reading, writing, and computation" (p. 177). In contemporary Montessori schools, students work in a carefully prepared environment that stimulates learning and discovery. Children work in an independent manner and emphasis is on concrete learning—hands-on learning of concepts. The curriculum at Montessori schools uses a whole child approach. In this child centered environment, the holistic curriculum promotes the development of social skills, emotional growth, physical coordination as well as cognitive preparation. It is believed that children delight in the work itself rather than the end product. Another example of private education in which the whole child is addressed and art is central to the curriculum is the Waldorf school (Easton, 1997). The first Waldorf school was established in New York City in 1928 based on the work of Steiner, an

100 Austrian philosopher (1861-1924). Steiner believed that as societies became more technologically advanced that people needed to become more aware of their humanness. The human being was defined as having three components: body, mind, and spirit. The role of the arts was to develop the capacities to perceive both one's inner and outer world. The Waldorf curriculum integrates artistic and academic work. "The aim of the Waldorf model is to educate the child toward a holistic thinking that integrates knowledge gained from thinking, feeling, and doing" (Easton, 1997, p .3). This is accomplished by actively contemplating, practicing, or creating artistic work which stimulates a person's sensations, feelings, and thoughts. In this approach, the unique inner self is capable of evolving through three stages: the first stage is physical activity when the child learns through imitation and play which stimulates physical growth, language development, and curiosity; the second stage is visual, musical, and tactile artistic activities that develop awareness of feelings and stimulate imagination; and, the third stage is the unfolding of the capacity for abstract thinking and the emphasis on understanding, relating, and integrating ideas and concepts. "To educate the thinking, feeling, and willing capacities of the whole child, Steiner outlined a core curriculum in which the visual, musical, and tactile arts are integrated in all subject areas from preschool through high school" (Easton, 1997, p. 4). It is a spiral curriculum in the way that each level builds on past experience and lays a foundation for future learning. Content is revisited at a later time to deepen understanding as new capacities unfold. In summary: In addition to integrating artistic work in all subject areas and involving students in a broad range of artistic activities, Waldorf method advocates teaching as an art by creating an aesthetic environment and presenting subject matter in an artistic way. (Easton, 1997, p. 5) The Waldorf school experience is Christian-based and theistically oriented which means it would not be feasible in the public sector. However, a curriculum could be Waldorf- inspired and be a viable public school curriculum. One way that public secondary high school teachers could create meaningful, integrated curriculum is evidenced by the Genetic Robots project at a junior/senior high

101 school in Cincinnati, Ohio (Schramm, 2000). Integrating subject matter at the high school level is usually more difficult than at the elementary level because of the constraints of subject centered, six-, seven- or block period school days. Further, visual art is usually integrated with language arts, social studies, or humanities. "Visual art, drama, music, and physical education are labeled as encore subjects and are deemed subordinate and ancillary to core subjects such as science, mathematics, and language arts" (Schramm, 2000, p. 40). At Madeira Junior/Senior High School an integrated art and science curriculum was achieved as high school art and biology students came together in the Genetic Robotics project (Schramm, 2000). The goal of the project was to stimulate students to become visually and scientifically literate but allow for individual differences in learning. "The aim was to provide all students with access to experiences that enabled them to go beyond memorizing isolated facts and to put issues in context" (Schramm, 2000, p. 41). Students explored the chromosome theory of heredity, specifically, the rules that govern the passage of genetic information within a family. They translated the DNA they "inherited" into a humanoid three-dimensional "genetic robot" sculpture using found objects and art supplies. It was a ten-week project and culminated in student presentations and portfolios along with display of the robots to the entire student body, faculty, and parents (Schramm, 2000). During the course of the project, the teaching team encouraged students to perform many roles—as artists, writers, historians, and scientists. Teachers facilitated the integration of knowledge by helping students pull together their bits and pieces into a whole display. Those involved considered the project a success and a way for students to develop higher-order thinking skills. There were some logistical problems and concerns by parents but "the encore and core teachers expressed that the intellectual growth the students achieved, and the rewards of integrating the subjects, far outweighed the obstacles to learning they encountered" (Schramm, 2000, p. 45). Some have addressed concerns that the arts are shortchanged in integrated curriculum or just viewed as a hand-maiden to core subjects. They fear that the goals of art will not be met and the value of the arts diminished. The Genetic Robots team of teachers felt that it was

102 important to maintain a balance between visual art and biology so that neither curriculum would be shortchanged. The full scope of the project is a follows: The project revolved around the sculpture of 20th century video artist, Nam June Paik, and 19th century biological geneticist, Gregor Mendel. The theme was broad enough to encompass a wide range of disciplines, issues, and materials, including American cultural, political, and social history, art history, aesthetics, criticism, 20th century technology, history of genetic science, perceived boundaries between art and technology, and the recent worldwide ethical debate that surrounds cloning. (Schramm, 2000, p. 45) Another study that paired art with science used descriptive drawing to promote understanding of science concepts (Edens & Potter, 2001). It was noted that verbal language was the primary mode to promote science learning. However, “descriptive pictorial representation should provide a supplemental way to learn about concepts and to communicate scientific thinking” (Edens & Potter, 2001, p. 219). This study was conducted at an elementary school in the southeastern United States with 184 fourth and fifth grade students. Students were randomly divided into three groups: (1) the first group was instructed to read a passage and write about what they learned, (2) the next group was told to read a passage with its accompanying illustration and to copy the illustration, (3) the last group was told to read a passage and draw their own picture or illustration. The science text the students read was about the law of conservation of energy and the information was explained using the dynamics of a roller coaster. Findings from this study suggested that “pictorial representation provides a viable way for students to learn scientific concepts” (Edens & Potter, 2001, p. 227). Drawing led to enhanced performance on items that required higher level thinking skills, i.e., synthesizing concepts. Drawing allowed for elaboration and visual encoding of science information and was not influenced by the level of art ability of the student. The drawing students significantly outperformed the writing students and marginally outperformed the copying students on items measuring conceptual understanding. The authors

103 recommended drawing as an instructional mode because it can contribute directly to learning, especially when it explains processes or working systems. In summary, this section on integrated curriculum tells us that there have been several movements to try to integrate curriculum and move it away from being totally subject centered, beginning with the activity curriculum associated with Dewey. Later attempts at integration have been called by various names, such as, correlated, fused, broad fields, integrated, core, and unified. During the last decade, the attempts at integration and defining it have produced even more terms, such as infusion, parallel, interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, transdisciplinary, thematic, topics-within-disciplines, and synergistic. The SIRS research article cited Fogarty (1991) as developing a continuum of integration with ten levels of curriculum integration. All of the definitions have some common themes, such as, using more than one subject area, emphasizing projects or activities that utilize more than textbooks, and looking for connections between subject matter. The point of integration is to give the learner an experience that will be meaningful and remembered, to create an understanding of concepts and connections between concepts in the learner, to accommodate the way the brain actually works during the learning process, and to make the explosion of knowledge we are experiencing more manageable and relevant. The point of art integration, either within the disciplines of art itself or with another subject, is that it lends itself very well and easily to integration. Burton, Horowitz & Abeles (2000) compiled a list from the literature of arts learning impacts on other subject matter: …enhance creativity, imagination, and ability to think critically…ability to centralize energy, focus perception, engage in reflection…show flexibility by changing directions, explore new possibilities, and elaborate on ideas…integrate divergent points of view, layer relationships, and construct unified wholes or…increase student performance in writing, reading and reading comprehension in elementary age children…improve conceptual understanding in social studies and history…improve cognitive capacities in general among elementary and junior high school students, particularly in their abilities to think speculatively, analytically, critically, and representationally. (p. 229)

104 Polar Versus Holistic (Integrated) Curricula An extensive review of the literature shows that, as Dewey stated (1938), human beings like to describe knowledge and knowing in either-or choices: Mankind [sic] likes to think in terms of extreme opposites. It is given to formulating its beliefs in terms of Either-Ors…The history of educational philosophy is marked by opposition between the idea that education is development from within and that it is formation from without…(p. 17) This is rooted in antiquity as seen in the philosophical debates of metaphysics and epistemology. The crux of the argument was and is the nature of knowledge: external to the learner or internal to be discovered. This debate has continued in various forms down to the 20th century to the beginnings of psychology and learning theories. It continues today through the behaviorist and constructivist arguments. It is reflected in the organization of curriculum as being either subject centered or student centered. The art curriculum, too, has its own brand of either-or: either DBAE or creative growth for the learner. However, there is a third choice. Between this dichotomy of thinking are those who have tried to find a middle ground between two opposing camps. Pragmatists have not wanted to be concerned with the question of ultimate reality and have focused on making a difference now. Biologists study brain research to try to unlock the physical secrets of learning so that the speculation will end. Activity curricula gives students meaningful experiences from which to grow and art students are both taught skills and assigned open-ended projects. Between the extremes of either-or, a continuum can be perceived and accounted for as shown in the model below (J. Doster, 2001). This model is about the nature of knowledge and the knowing process. Knowledge is viewed as either external to the knower, an internal construction of the learner, or a combination of the two. The model includes the following fields that are relevant to this question: philosophy (metaphysics and epistemology), psychology (learning theory), and curriculum organization (general and art, in particular). This chart summarizes the information discovered from the review of literature and shows its interrelationships.

105 The realist, empiricist, behaviorist, subject centered curriculum, and DBAE curriculum are of the same general nature. The same is true for the other end of the continuums: idealist, rationalist, constructivist, student centered curriculum, and creative play model of art. The middle column represents various attempts to work with both ends of the continuums. Between the extremes of either-or, a continuum can be perceived and accounted for as shown. There certainly are positions at either end of the spectrum but there are also positions that can be taken in the middle. These moderate, inclusive positions are conducive to integrated curriculum.

KNOWLEDGE External External/Internal Internal Metaphysics: Realism Unknowable Idealism

Epistemology: Empiricism Pragmatism Rationalism

Learning Theory: Behaviorism Biology Constructivism

Curriculum: Subject Activity Student

Art Curriculum: DBAE Combination Creativity

The literature supports that a shift should occur away from looking at learning as choices of the left or right toward viewing learning as a holistic process. The answer to the puzzle of learning lies on neither side of the continuum. Rather, it is found in a synthesis of the elements on the continuum incorporating each element at its most advantageous time for the learner. The Expert Learning System (H. Doster, 1991) described earlier exemplifies this. For instance, when the learner is at Level I and receiving information on a new topic, the knowledge is being transferred; it is subject centered and factual, and may require drill and recitation to store it into long-term

106 memory. This is behaviorist type of conditioning. When the learner is at Level II and manipulating information, the learner must visualize and examine the new information relative to his or her present cognitions and personalize it. At this point, the learner moves away from strict subjects and toward making connections between subjects. The learner is trying to integrate curriculum. When the learner is at Level III and applying information, the new knowledge is converted into useful skills and attitudes through hands-on experiences. This is the activity curriculum of Dewey which dovetails with the biological functioning of the brain in a multi-modal way. When the learner is at Level IV, the curriculum is student centered as the learner experiences the application of the new knowledge in a way selected by the learner. At this point, knowledge is wholly constructed by the learner. Integrated curriculum and art, in particular, can facilitate the learning process at Levels II, III, and IV. In terms of art education, the student, after acquiring basic skills in art, can successfully complete open-ended projects. A Definition of Integrated Curriculum The literature shows that art integrated with other subject matter can increase learning but there are varying definitions of what this means. Further, the term integrated curriculum is often used interchangeably with the terms interdisciplinary curriculum and correlation of subjects. After reviewing the literature, the following definition will be used for integrated curriculum. Integrated curriculum occurs when one or more subjects are combined and this combination achieves a broader understanding than could be attained through either of the individual subject disciplines alone (J. Doster, 2001). Integrate means to form, coordinate, or blend into a functioning or unified whole; to unite with something else; to incorporate into a larger unit (Merriam-Webster, 1993). The prefix "inter" means, between, among, in the midst (Merriam-Webster, 1993). Interdisciplinary curriculum occurs when the flow of subject matter expands into other areas and content is extracted from more than one area. It goes beyond correlation which means the state in which a phenomenon is parallel and related to another phenomenon (Merriam-Webster, 1993), coordinating and linking subject matter with specific amounts of time allotted to each subject. This idea of correlation is an attempt to start to integrate or "infuse" one subject with another, hence the term infusion. Taking all of this into

107 consideration, I think integration is the most appropriate term to use for describing the holistic combining of two or more subject areas. The integration can occur at different levels or intensities (J. Doster, 2001). The three levels are: 1. Thematic Integration—when a theme, topic, or problem cuts across many disciplines, 2. Integration Within a Discipline—when related sub-disciplines are used to address a single subject, such as using art history and studio production together in the understanding of an art topic, and 3. Integration Between Disciplines—when two disciplines are taught together (a) with each given equal weight and importance or (b) one acting as a vehicle for another. Art and Integration With the above definition, art as integrated curriculum seems to appear most often in the thematic approach. This approach is the least intense of the approaches and the easiest to accommodate, and, perhaps, the most comprehensive and effective in teaching life skills. At this level, a common theme is addressed by two or more teachers of different subject areas. Each subject area brings to the thematic approach its own unique way of knowing the world. This approach works well when the theme involves many subject areas or even a schoolwide project. Art, as we have seen in the Gestalt approach, is a cultural universal in all societies. Because of this, art is easily integrated into any theme that involves human society. The second level of integration, within a discipline, lends itself easily to the study of the disciplines of art—art criticism, art history, aesthetics, and studio art. Studio art provides the hands-on activity to further understanding of art criticism and art history as well as to provide a holistic view of the unit under study. The effect of the integration can be heightened by employing a theme as the emphasis of the unit. The third level of integration is the most intense and requires a lot of planning on the part of the teachers involved. When combining disciplines, teachers have to realize the connections between subject matter before they can guide the student in that direction. An appropriate amount of time for planning is absolutely necessary for this approach to work. The Genetic Robotics project (Schramm, 2000) described earlier employed the third level of integration in the "a" mode by teaching biology combined

108 with art. A topic was used (genetics) to focus the unit; a theme, also, could be employed effectively. This approach is similar to thematic integration but the difference lies in the extent to which the two subjects are integrated; the third level is more intense and often of longer duration. The Reggio Emilia school used the third level of integration in the "b" mode by employing art as a language (graphic symbolic representation). I have now concluded the literature review. The review encompassed the biological, psychological, and philosophical foundations for integrated curriculum; a historical overview of integrated curriculum; models using integrated curriculum; a holistic model of learning that integrates philosophies, theories, and curricula; and a definition of integrated curriculum. The next chapter, Chapter 3, describes the methodology used for this study.

109

CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN

This study examined how a variation of integrated curriculum, called the Co- Study Curriculum, used art in the delivery of American history subject matter. The research questions that guided this study are: Research Question #1: Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions of their understanding of American history? Research Question #2: Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art? Integrated curriculum has become a highly debated topic over the last several years. Personally, I have been encouraged to integrate curriculum during teacher inservice programs for the secondary school level. The reasons for this renewed interest in integrated curriculum are many including ongoing school reform initiatives, the changing nature of society, and the powerful impact of computer technology. There is a growing specialization in many disciplines just when the need for holistic thinking is greatest. The increased information load, the need for highly skilled people in the workplace, and the increasing complexity of the world demand that new curriculum designs be implemented. Because of the sophisticated tools used in brain research and the ever increasing information available we will be propelled toward integrated curriculum, either willingly or unwillingly. The literature review shows that the role of art can be central in integrated curriculum. Art is basic to life because it is a fundamental process of the brain as well as a way humans express themselves emotionally and spiritually. Art plays a unique role in the learning process as a symbolic language, as a way to perceive relationships and patterns, as a method of problem solving, as a way to develop imagination and creativity, as an ability to see the world from an aesthetic point of view, and as a vehicle for

110 expressing the inner self. Two art activities mentioned in the literature that aid in learning are drawing and viewing art images.

My Own Experience with Art and Integration

In my teaching experiences at Rutherford High School in Panama City, Florida, I have used integrated curriculum in all three levels. They are as follows: 1. Thematic Integration The American History and Art Co-Study class sponsored Living History Days for four consecutive years, 1999-2003, at a local state park, St. Andrews State Park. Part of the mission statement of the Florida Park Service is to interpret the cultural resource and the park did this for RHS by setting up historical reenactments which lasted over a two- day period. Approximately forty Rutherford students trained to participate as docents alongside park personnel who are professional reenactors. The types of activities at this event included crafts such as candle making, preparing food and household commodities (cooking pork rinds, mullet smoking, butter and ice cream churning, open campfire cooking, lye soap making), Native American pottery making and dancing, and Civil War military and medical knowledge (including cannon and black powder demonstrations). The audience for these activities was other Rutherford students, consisting of 300 eleventh grade American history students (150 per day), who came to the park for the day to enjoy this interactive event. Before Living History Days occurred, teachers from different subject areas—American history, English literature, health occupations, ROTC, art, and science—who taught juniors in American history aligned their curricula around the Colonial to Civil War time period. This is a good example of several subject areas and one grade level focusing on a common theme. Art students studied Native American designs, engaged in clay building, and made posters for the event. 2. Integration Within a Discipline In my Art in Other Cultures classes, I combined studio art, art history, and art criticism to achieve integration within a discipline. At the beginning of the school year, I asked the students in the class what they wanted to study. They chose from a time period in history, an art movement, or a cultural group. Popular selections over the years were

111 the ancient world (Egypt, Greece, and Rome), medieval Europe, Asia, and Africa. Most units began from an art historical viewpoint, placing the art in a chronological and social context. Next, the students usually viewed slides to participate in art criticism, either orally or written. These activities laid the groundwork for one or more studio projects. At the end of the projects, we shared the finished pieces and talked about them. In this manner, the disciplines of art were integrated and projects were made more meaningful to the students than art for art's sake. 3. Integration Between Disciplines American History and Art Co-Study and World History and Art Co-Study are both examples of the third level of integration. Two teachers, Jean Warren (Social Studies Department) and myself (Art Department) worked together to provide the integrated courses. However, co-study was not team teaching where two teachers presented the same subject matter. Co-Study was not traditional teaching where one teacher presented one subject. Co-study was not correlated where smatterings or more from two different subjects were linked by similarities. Co-Study was a process that was shown to create a higher level of retention within students by more effectively bringing together two bodies of knowledge (Doster & Warren, 1999). In this case, it was the combination of art and history. The Co-Study Curriculum students (a quasi-experimental group) made better mental connections between their thoughts and abstract concepts by using the Co-Study Curriculum (Doster & Warren, 1999). How? Students created visual images of concepts. These art projects stimulated their creative imaginations enough to increase learning over that of a control group (a regular history class). The Co-Study Curriculum process used the natural visual imagery of the brain to clarify thinking. When students drew a map it improved retention; drawing stimulated the recall of names and relative locations. For example, co-study students drew a pre-WWI map and, consequently, on a map test increased their retention by two letter grades over that of the control group's average map test grade (Doster & Warren, 1999). In the Co-Study Curriculum classes between 1998 and 2003, art was used as a process to effectively bring together two bodies of knowledge by such projects as creating visual images of vocabulary words and concepts, using contour drawing to

112 render geographical maps, generating political cartoons, participating in art criticism, viewing art history slides, illustrating historical events, photographing architectural elements, and creating posters. In this manner, many students were able to make better mental connections between their thoughts and history subject matter. The discipline of art was not threatened in the Co-Study Curriculum process. Instead, the role of art in the school curriculum was broadened. Some students who had never taken an art class signed up for co-study. They learned to enjoy expressing themselves and developing concepts in visible form. They often, at year's end, declared their intentions to take an art class the following year having gained confidence from the co-study course. This longitudinal pilot study shows empirical evidence that art enhanced learning outcomes. A narrative of this pilot study of integration between disciplines is the subject of Chapter 4. Because of the enhanced learning outcomes obtained, more research needs to be done on the effectiveness of this model of art education and integrated curriculum.

Overview of the Design of this Study

113 study is thought to expand and enhance the previous quantitative data and qualitative findings of the pilot study. This study addressed whether components of the Co-Study Curriculum process (art skills and exercises, history related studio projects, art criticism, and art history) created positive perceptions of enhanced learning by students taking American History at Rutherford High School during the first semester of the 2003-04 school year. Further, I wanted to know whether using art in this interdisciplinary manner to enhance learning in another subject would enhance or diminish the art learning and/or appreciation for art in the students’ eyes.

Rationale for the Research Methodology

The methodology of the current study is both quantitative and qualitative in perspective. The quantitative component is of the descriptive type which examines a situation as it is and identifies characteristics of the observed phenomena and yields quantitative data such as percentages and frequency counts from which inferences are drawn regarding the population studied (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). The qualitative aspect of the study seeks to describe and explain the phenomenon of the Co-Study Curriculum from the participants’ point of view. Qualitative research occurs within a natural context making it true to life and its findings are presented often in a narrative format. Unlike the quantitative, experimental approach which seeks to explain, predict, and generalize findings to broader populations, the qualitative approach tries to grasp more fully complex situations by exploring them in a holistic manner, interacting with the participants, and building a theory explaining the phenomenon under study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). Eisner (1998) in The Enlightened Eye, characterized qualitative research as interpretive, relying on the researcher’s perceptions, expressive with a point of view, and empathetic. In this manner, the research gives an accurate picture of what the phenomenon was like, in its totality, in the eye and mind of the researcher who paints a reasoned, persuasive picture. Eisner (2002) explored this further in The Arts and the Creation of Mind (2002) and stated, “It seems likely that qualitative studies of practice are an appropriate methodological orientation to the study of teaching” (p. 217).

114 Action Research The particular type of qualitative research here is classroom action research. “Classroom action research typically involves the use of qualitative, interpretive modes of inquiry and data collection by teachers with a view to teachers making judgments about how to improve their own practices” (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000, p. 569). This classroom action research will give teachers a view of the use of the Co-Study Curriculum process in the classroom. Classroom action research focuses on finding a solution to a problem within the classroom setting. This is an important strategy because, according to Sagor (1992), school reform should be dealing with supporting and nurturing teachers in their work. Further, he stated that teaching is different from other professions because teachers, generally, are isolated from their colleagues and are not expected to contribute to their profession’s knowledge base. Also, quality control of the educational process is in the hands of those organizationally separated from the teacher. The teacher is alone in the classroom with little time for professional interaction to discuss ongoing problems or innovative strategies (Sagor, 1992). Further, public school teachers are not expected to lend their knowledge and experience in the classroom to journal publications. Instead, journals disseminate information to the teachers from professors, administrators, and consultants on how to teach. The topics, problems, or issues pursued are significant, but not necessarily helpful to teachers on the front line. The context of the interventions reported or discussed in the education journals compromising our knowledge base may or may not conform to the realities of the public school classroom. In education, the worlds of research and practice are both separate and unequal, for the teacher who ignores research is likely seen as anti-intellectual or unprofessional, whereas the researcher who ignores the classroom bears no such label. (Sagor, 1992, pp. 3-4) Teachers are told often to implement strategies from research in their classrooms without having input into the development of those strategies. Likewise, the standards for quality are set by those who are outside of the classroom and are data driven. School boards and state legislatures analyze data and set the agenda for school improvement with little or no input from the classroom teacher.

115 Action research is a way to overcome the factors mentioned above, specifically teacher isolation, teachers not being expected to contribute to their profession’s knowledge base, and control of the educational process in the hands of those above and apart from teachers (Sagor, 1992). As long as teachers remain isolated, the knowledge base is formed outside the public school classroom, and quality control is apart from the teachers and handed down from above, the teaching profession will be viewed as an assembly line process. Action research can move teachers to the center of the process and allow them to improve it. Sagor defined action research as research “conducted by people who want to do something to improve their own situation” (p. 7). The information learned is used to do something in a better way. Primarily, it is for the action researcher to improve his or her own practices and, secondly, to share with others. According to Kemmis & McTaggart (2000), the key participants in classroom action research are teachers in school settings with prominence given to teachers’ knowledge. A criticism of this type of research is that it gives privileged status to teachers’ knowledge instead of views from outside the classroom, specifically the literature on educational change and the ideas of the community at large.

Researcher’s Qualifications and Role

I am certified by the State of Florida in both Art (K-12) and Social Studies (6-12). For the past eight years, I have taught at Rutherford High School. My present duties include teaching courses within both the Art and Social Studies Departments. Over the past five years I have created, developed, used, and tested an innovative form of integrated curriculum called the Co-Study Curriculum in most of my classes at RHS. These earlier efforts are outlined in the pilot study in Chapter 4. During these years I have involved other teachers in using the Co-Study Curriculum process. They have either taught with me, taught with each other, or taught alone. Jean Warren, a veteran teacher in the Social Studies Department, has collaborated with me the most during the development of the Co-Study Curriculum process. Her present role is that of one of the teachers of the two populations under study.

116 Research Context

The research occurred at Rutherford High School in Panama City, Florida, which is one of four high schools in Bay District Schools. It is the second oldest high school, established in 1961, and the most culturally diverse and economically disadvantaged Bay County high school with 1,750 students of which 37% are minority. It is located two miles east of the old downtown area of Panama City and its neighboring rival, Bay High School, the oldest high school in the county. Rutherford High School, as well as all Bay District Schools, is accredited by the Florida Department of Education and the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Bay District Schools has an enrollment of over 25,000 students: 80% Caucasian, 15% African-American, 1.5% Hispanic, 2% Asian-American, 1% multi-racial, and less than .5% Native American. All classroom teachers have bachelor degrees and over one-third have advanced degrees. Rutherford High School is part of Bay County which is located on the Gulf of Mexico in the panhandle region of northwest Florida and has a population of over 150,000. Of the eight municipalities that comprise Bay County, RHS draws mainly from Callaway, Cedar Grove, Parker, and Tyndall Air Force Base. School choice, however, has had the effect of blurring school zoning. The International Baccalaureate program, in particular, draws many students from all over the Bay District school region to RHS. This study was comprised of two regular American History classes at RHS. Students generally take American History, a required course for graduation, during their eleventh grade year. It is a year-long course and the art intervention activities occurred during the first semester, August through December, 2003. Both of these classes met during fifth period of the day in separate classrooms. Jean Warren taught one of the classes and I taught the other. We planned together and used the same textbook and supplemental materials; both classes completed the same assignments and the same art activities. Our classes were taught separately 90% of the time; we brought our classes together no more than 10% of the time, usually for viewing art images. RHS is on a Block 8 schedule which means that we saw our students every other day for a 90-minute period.

117 Research Population

The study population consisted of 50 students enrolled in American History. These 50 students were in two separate classes with two different teachers, Jean Warren and me, the researcher. Students were either assigned to these classes by the RHS Guidance Department or requested to take American History and Art Co-Study. Both classes met at the same time, fifth period, and were housed next door to each other in the Social Studies wing. Jean Warren’s class consisted of 24 students: 14 Males 58% 14 Caucasian 58% 10 Females 42% 10 African-American 42% Twenty-one of her students were in the eleventh grade (88%); the remaining three were tenth graders (12%). My class consisted of 26 students: 11 Males 42% 17 Caucasian 65% 15 Females 58% 4 African-American 15% 3 Hispanic 12% 2 Asian-American 8% Twenty-four of my students were in the eleventh grade (92%); the remaining two were tenth graders (8%).

Description of the Co-Study Curriculum Art Activities

The art activities developed and used were twelve art activity enhancements linked to the Sunshine State Standards for Social Studies. They included: Title Art Activity Sunshine State Standard 1. Historical Themes Activity Drawing SS.A.1.4.2 2. Visualizing the Technology Theme Art history SS.A.1.4.2 3. Chronology Through Art Images Art history SS.A.1.4.4 4. Illustrated Venn Diagram Drawing SS.A.4.4.1 5. Illustrated Map of the 13 Colonies Drawing SS.A.4.4.2

118 6. Colonial American Images Art history, criticism SS.A.4.4.2 7. Revolutionary War Images Art history, criticism SS.A.4.4.3 8. Naturalistic Drawing Drawing SS.A.4.4.4 9. Paintings, Neoclassical Art history SS.A.4.4.4 Architecture & Sculpture 10. Civil War Visual Vocabulary Drawing SS.A.4.4.6 11. Reconstruction Visual Concept Drawing SS.A.4.4.6 12. Brady’s Photography Art history SS.A.4.4.6 One-half of the art activities used drawing as an enhancement; the other half used viewing art images. Drawing included contour drawing of maps, organizing information graphically, and illustration of ideas and concepts through natural images and cartooning. Art images were viewed and discussed in terms of historical and art historical context. Often, the Anderson Art Criticism Method (1997) was used to introduce the art image to the students. This method allowed students to become fully engaged in the viewing process before placing the image in an historical context. A detailed description of these art intervention activities is found in the following section. Overview of the Treatment Procedure A primary result of engaging in this study was the development of a Co-Study Curriculum Guide. This Co-Study Curriculum Guide is intended to give examples of some approaches for applying in a practical manner the information contained in this study. The art intervention activities are on the high school level but can be modified for lower grade levels. I approached Jean Warren with the idea of collaboration using the following guide. The guide gives step-by-step instructions for implementing the art activities used in this study. Social studies teachers who have no prior art experience may want to collaborate with an art teacher and use activities from this guide. For further details including what might be expected in the way of student responses, consult the Teacher Researcher Observations in Chapter 5. If you decide to collaborate, set aside time for planning because the Co-Study Curriculum process requires a team effort in the development of curriculum, presentation of coursework, and classroom management.

119 My rationale was that collaboration allows teachers to assess the compatibility of their teaching styles as well as the impact on student performance. If you want to collaborate, do the following to get started: (1) decide on when the collaboration will take place, (2) plan and organize the collaborative coursework and activities, and (3) pick a location that will accommodate the collaboration. Make sure during implementation to spend time after each class meeting to process the day’s activities. The following art activities comprise the Co-Study Curriculum Guide used in this study.

CO-STUDY CURRICULUM GUIDE

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.1.4.2 The student identifies and understands themes in history that cross scientific, economic, and cultural boundaries.

Historical Themes Activity Most American history textbooks list and explain themes that run throughout the study of American history. Much of what is taught about American history can be understood more readily if it is viewed as part of a larger pattern; key themes help students to link events across time. The Historical Themes Activity requires students to read the textbook explanation of the themes, write a short summary statement in their own words, and create a small drawing to illustrate the theme. If your textbook does not cover themes then you can use the following: science and technology, economics, cultural diversity and immigration, politics, and geography. Instructions First, have students title their paper “Historical Themes” and define the term in their own words in a sentence below the title. Second, have students draw a line lengthwise down the middle of their drawing paper underneath the title and definition; this line divides the paper in half. Explain that the left hand side of the paper is to be used for naming and defining a theme; the right hand side for illustrating it. Students

120 may use colored pencils to color their illustrations or leave them just as pencil sketches. When finished, discuss the student definitions and share their illustrations. Time needed: 1 class period. Materials Drawing paper, size 12” x 18”; drawing pencils and colored pencils

Visualizing the Technology Theme This art history activity occurs, also, during the Introduction to American History unit. Students view art images within a social context. They are asked to identify a transportation art image, find its time period, and analyze its impact on American society and people who were living at the time of its invention. This activity reinforces one of the key themes in American history: Americans encourage and welcome technological and scientific innovation which in turn shapes American society. Further, advances in technology are readily linked to changes in transportation. Instructions 1. Divide the class into pairs of two or groups of three students. 2. Give each group an art image of some type of transportation used in America past or present. 3. Explain the following instructions: a. Look at the image carefully b. Read the back of the card for information (artist, time period, brief overview) c. Use your textbook or other books for reference d. Discuss the impact of the new technology on Americans’ lives and society e. Prepare a brief presentation for the class 4. Presentation: Each group describes its art image to the class, its time period, and its assessment of the technology impact including advantages and disadvantages. Time needed: 1 class period. Materials Fourteen images from Transportation in America by Gerald P. Wolf (2001) (a set of 44 art images)

121 Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.1.4.4 The student uses chronology, sequencing, patterns, and periodization to examine interpretations of an event.

Chronology Through Art Images This is the last art activity in the Introduction to American History unit and examines the development of transportation in America. This art historical activity uses the remainder of the images (30) in the Transportation in America set not used in the previous activity. The 30 images are divided into five smaller sets of 6 images each. Students who receive a set of 6 images are instructed to place them in the sequence in which they think that form of transportation developed. Thus, the art images are used to help the student understand historical chronology and, concurrently, to begin to notice differences in style among the cards. Instructions 1. Divide students into five groups. 2. Each group selects a leader or one is appointed by the teacher. 3. The leader receives the packet for the group and reads the enclosed instructions. 4. The leader places the 6 images face up in random order and reads the following aloud to the group: You see before you images of transportation in America as it has evolved over our history. Your task is to look at the images, place them in order from oldest to latest. Clues that you will use include prior knowledge you bring to this class, the subject matter in the painting, as well as clues in the pictures themselves. Be aware that all art images are made during a time period; details in them or the style in which they were made will give you information concerning what time period they are representing. 5. Once a group consensus occurs regarding the chronological order, the group leader checks the back of the card for its Time Line Date. 6. If the order is incorrect, the leader challenges the group to try again. This process is used until the correct order is chosen or time is called. 7. Each group gives its choices and reasons for them. 8. Each group’s leader presents to the class a quick description of the images in the set,

122 the group’s chosen order, and reasons for that choice. Time needed: 1 class period. Materials Thirty images from Transportation in America by Gerald P. Wolf (2001) (a set of 44 art images)

TOPIC 2: AMERICAN BEGINNINGS Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.4.4.1 The student understands the economic, social, and political interactions between Native American tribes and European settlers during the Age of Discovery.

Illustrated Venn Diagram This art project is used to illustrate the economic and social interactions between Native Americans and Europeans during the Age of Discovery. I introduce this project with visuals that come with the supplemental materials of various American history textbooks. I use the following overhead transparencies: a world domestication of plants and animals map (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), a map of Native American culture areas in North America (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), an Iroquois quilled buckskin robe (Scholl, 1992), a Navajo sand painting (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Clallum Women Weaving a Blanket by Paul Kane (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Canoe Race Near Sault Ste. Marie by George Catlin (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Portrait of Native Americans by John Wesley Jarvis (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), ancient Greek and Renaissance maps of the world (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), a map showing European knowledge of the world and how it expanded between 950 and 1800 (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Haymaking in the Month of June from a prayer book by Pol de Limbourg (Prentice-Hall, 1991), the cathedral at Reims (exterior and interior views) (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Spanish America in 1785 (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), a three-dimensional Spanish religious image called a bulto (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), and the Spanish Mission San Xavier del Bac in Tucson, Arizona (Scholl, 1992). These images are used to stimulate the students’ imaginations and to show differences between cultures of the Native Americans and Europeans.

123 Students receive a rubric to follow while I explain the project: an illustrated Venn diagram with one circle representing Europeans and the other, Native Americans. The overlapping part of the circles is for illustrating one consequence of these two groups meeting. Inside the circles, pictures are drawn by the students to illustrate various aspects of the social, economic, and political lives of these two groups. The project is titled, “When Worlds Collide”. Instructions Students create and illustrate the Venn diagram using the following rubric:

“When Worlds Collide” Rubric Directions: The following items should be clearly seen in both circles of your Venn diagram drawing for Native American and European cultures circa 1492. Label each circle with the appropriate title, “Native American” or “European”. _____Housing _____Clothing _____Food _____Technology or weapons _____Symbols or letters _____Name of one conquistador and one Native American chief _____In the center of the Venn diagram, the overlapping section, draw one impact or consequence of the meeting of the two cultures Directions for the background: _____Title your work “When Worlds Collide” _____List the causes of European exploration (3 minimum) _____Name 3 Native American civilizations that developed in Central and South America _____Name 2 Native American civilizations that developed in North America _____List 4 European countries that engaged in early exploration _____Name 3 explorers and the country each sailed for _____List 5 items that were part of the Columbian Exchange Time needed: 2 class periods.

124 Materials Drawing paper, size “12 x 18”; drawing pencils, colored pencils and markers; templates for circle shape; visual images that show aspects of Native American and European cultures to use to introduce the project; textbooks, books, or photocopies from books that have pictures showing Native American and European housing, clothing, technology and weapons, symbols and letters, food and animals

TOPIC 3: COLONIAL PERIOD Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.4.4.2 The student understands how religious, social, political, and economic developments shaped the settlement patterns of the North American colonies.

Illustrated Map of the 13 Colonies During the unit on the Colonial Period, students draw and illustrate a map of the original 13 English colonies along the eastern seaboard. Illustrations include political as well as economic realities of the colonies along with other pertinent information. This is the third map that we have our students draw. The previous maps are the world map and the lower forty-eight American states. These maps are used in the introduction of the course for two reasons: (1) to reacquaint students with political boundaries and geographic features of America and the world, and (2) to introduce mapmaking to the students. Students read about contour drawing and complete a blind contour drawing before drawing their first map. By the time students draw this map they are confident in their ability to do so. Instructions 1. Draw the eastern seaboard and the original 13 colonies 2. Give the following information on the colonies: name, year it became a colony 3. Locate the Appalachian Mountains 4. Draw 2 things that represent the economic activity of the three major groups of colonies (New England, Middle, Southern) 5. Locate the following cities: St. Augustine, Jamestown, Plymouth, Boston, Philadelphia

125 6. Locate the following bodies of water: Gulf of Mexico, Great Lakes (name each one), Atlantic Ocean, Mississippi River 7. Use colored pencils to show the New England colonies, the Middle Colonies, the Southern Colonies, Spanish Territory, and French Territory 8. Create a legend (key) for you map showing colonies, territories, and economic activities Time needed: 2 class periods. Materials Drawing paper, size 9” x 12”; drawing pencils and colored pencils; textbook maps, additional books with maps, and wall maps

Colonial American Images This art history activity is, also, in the unit on the Colonial Period and follows the mapmaking project. Its purpose is to help students understand the colonists’ way of life. To start this project, I review previously covered material with visuals that come as supplemental materials to various American history textbooks. I show the following overhead transparencies: an historical map set showing the original 13 colonies as a whole and in three groups—New England, Middle, and Southern colonies (Prentice-Hall, 1991); a map displaying goods exported and imported from the colonies through Atlantic Ocean trade (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995); a pie chart showing ethnic division of the colonial population in 1775 (Prentice-Hall, 1991); and, a political cartoon. These images set the stage to view colonial art through sculpture, painting, and folk art. The sculpture is a set of three images of gravestone styles in the colonies, two from New England and one from the South (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995). The painting is Penn’s Treaty with the Indians by Benjamin West, a historical painting depicting William Penn signing a treaty with Native Americans (Scholl, 1992). There are two examples of folk art: a representation in needlework of the main building at Harvard and a Pennsylvania German fraktur, an ornamental drawing of George and Martha Washington (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995).

126 Instructions First, students view the gravestones and I describe what they see. I note the differences between the New England and Southern gravesites as far as style and ask for discussion. I end the viewing and discussion with students drawing one of the gravestones and labeling it. Second, students view Penn’s Treaty with the Indians. At this point I introduce them to the Anderson Art Criticism Method of reaction, description, interpretation, and evaluation (Anderson, 1997). I use just description and interpretation for this first encounter with art criticism. Anderson’s description has 4 components: “description of obvious thematic and formal qualities, the relationships between forms and figures, intended emotional impact, and the contextual qualities outside the work itself which affect its meaning” (p. 22). Interpretation tries to discover the meaning of the work and follows the description phase. For some of the students, talking about art is a new thought process. During this first introduction to art criticism, I spend the description phase introducing students to art terms and phrases such as, mood, focus, background, foreground, and elements and principles of design. Students in the class who have previous art experience seem to enjoy showing off their knowledge of art terms. For the first encounter with interpretation, I simply ask, “Do you think this is a realistic portrayal of the actual event? Why or why not?” Third, students view the needlework and the fraktur. Discussion centers on the images and their relationship to the lifestyle of the colonists. Students draw either one or the other of the images. Time needed: 1 class period. Materials Drawing paper, size 9” x 12”; drawing pencils and colored pencils; visual images for review of prior knowledge before beginning the project; Colonial Period images to be used for discussion; Anderson Art Criticism Method questions (see below).

127 Anderson Art Criticism Method (Anderson, 1997) Reaction 1. What’s your first response to this work? 2. How does it make you feel? 3. What does it make you think of? 4. What does it remind you of? Description Obvious Thematic, Formal, and Technical Qualities 1. What images do you see? 2. What colors/shapes/textures/etc. are there? 3. Are there any outstanding or unusual features you notice? 4. What else do you see? 5. Are there any dark/light areas? Rough/unusual textures? Large/small shapes? 6. How do you think this work was made? 7. What types of brushstrokes/sculptural finish/photographic technique, etc. do you see? 8. What is the artist’s viewing point? What are your clues? Formal Relationships of Shapes and Images 1. What colors/shapes/textures/lines dominate the image? Why? 2. Are there significant negative areas/spaces in the work? What makes them significant? 3. Is there movement? What elements and/or principles cause it? 4. Do you see contrast? What causes it? 5. Where are the figures looking/pointing? 6. Where does the focus lie in this work? What causes you to look there? Is there a single focus? Why? Why not? What features cause us to see it that way? Formal Characterization 1. What mood is presented? How are we meant to feel in the presence of this piece? Why? What’s the evidence? 2. Why are we meant to focus on where we do? Why is there no central focus or why is there a central focus? 3. Is this realistic? Formalistic? Expressive?

128 4. Is this primitive, slick, aggressive, bold, intellectual, overpowering, timid, monumental, fluid, abstract, cool, static, rhythmic, hot, etc.? How? Why? What’s the evidence? 5. What if the background were a different color? What if it were done realistically instead of in exaggerated forms? What if it had soft edges instead of hard? Contextual Examination 1. Who did the work? 2. What was the artist’s point or intention? 3. What is the title? 4. When and where was the work done? 5. How does it reflect that place and those times? 6. What style is it considered to be? 7. Does it have or has it ever had a functional purpose? What? 8. What influenced its production? 9. What impact has the work had on work that came later or on society in general? 10. What does the work tell us about the people who originally made and used it? Interpretation 1. What do you think this work means? (Think about the subject matter, qualities, character and other responses from the Reaction and Description processes.) 2. If you were inside the work, as a particular character, abstract form or figure, what would you be thinking/feeling? 3. In the case of nonobjective or highly abstract work, what does it make you think of or remind you of? 4. What title would you give this work if you were the artist? Why? Evaluation Personal Experience 1. What was your experience in critiquing this work? 2. Have your perceptions/feelings of it changed since we started? How? 3. Would you like to have it for your own? Why/why not? 4. Do you feel a need to resolve what you found through visual critique versus what you found in the contextual examination? Can this be done? How?

129 Aesthetic Judgment 1. Do you think the work is good in and of itself? Why or why not? What criteria do you base that on? (Answers can be about technique, skill level, expressive power, beauty, and other qualities to be found in the work.) 2. Is the work well made? Does it exhibit a high degree of technical, compositional, and/or conceptual skill? 3. Is it clear? Does it do what it seems to be trying to do? 4. Does the work have any cultural significance? Is it important in society in any way? 5. Does it move you? Does it have the aesthetic power to make you feel something strongly, or think something new, or move you to action in some way? Contextual Judgment 1. Did the work address some significant human problem or need? Did it do it well? Why or why not? Final Judgment 1. Was the work up to the task we have determined that it set for itself? Was it worth making? 2. Ultimately was it worth examining? Why/why not?

TOPIC 4: REVOLUTIONARY WAR PERIOD Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.4.4.3 The student understands the significant military and political events that took place during the American Revolution.

Revolutionary War Images In this art activity, students view art images to help understand significant military events that occurred during the American Revolution. The art images are used to reinforce material already covered in a written format. I start the class with an oral review telling the story of American history up to this point: the American colonies were valuable to England because of their mercantilist economic philosophy but by the mid- 1600s the colonists wanted more economic and political freedom. The colonists were influenced heavily by Enlightenment philosophy in Europe and the Great Awakening in

130 America. Meanwhile, England was embroiled in war with France not only in Europe but in the New World, too. The British response to colonial unrest and its European problems was legislation and taxation that angered the colonists, such as the Stamp Act and Townshend Acts. Tempers flared and resulted in the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the First Continental Congress, and the first skirmish at Lexington and Concord. A second skirmish occurred outside Boston at Bunker Hill. At this point, I am ready to begin the viewing portion of this art activity and using the Anderson Art Criticism Method. Instructions Students view the The Battle of Bunker Hill by John Trumbull (Prentice-Hall, 1991). In order to get students into a viewing and responding mode, I ask students to describe what they see and make general comments or ask questions. Afterwards, I inform the class that they will be doing art criticism. I remind them of the description and interpretation phases learned while viewing images from the Colonial Period. I review the Anderson Art Criticism Method: reaction, description, interpretation, and evaluation. I briefly describe each step of the process, giving examples using the Bunker image (see previous activity for questions to be asked during the four phases). I start the student art criticism with the next image, The Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776 by John Trumbull (Scholl, 1992). I go through the four-step process with this art image. Next, students go through the full four steps again with George Washington Before the Battle of Trenton by John Trenton (Glencoe, 1992). The second time around runs more smoothly because students know what is expected of them and respond accordingly. In the interest of time, students view three more images quickly: George Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze (Scholl, 1992) Capture of the Hessians at Trenton by John Trumbull (Prentice-Hall, 1991) George Washington at Princeton by Charles Wilson Peale (Phelps, 1997) I close the period with an overhead transparency of a map showing major battles between 1776 and 1781 and one showing British, French, and American uniforms (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995). Time needed: 1 class period.

131 Materials Art images from the Revolutionary War Period

TOPIC 5: CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.4.4.4 The student understands the political events that defined the Constitutional Period.

Naturalistic Drawing In order to understand the political events of the Constitutional period, students need to understand the basics of the Constitution which is the organization of our system of government. In order to show the three branches of government, their makeup and functions, students draw a tree as a model (Constitutional Tree Project). The tree has three branches (one for each branch of government), a trunk (a place for the concept of checks and balances), and a root system (a place for significant events leading up to this event). A border around the edges of the paper contains the Bill of Rights. Rectangular boxes on either side of the tree, toward the base, contain the Preamble to the Constitution in one and the topics of Articles 1 through 7 of the Constitution in the other. Students receive a rubric to follow while I explain the project. Instructions Students create and illustrate the Naturalistic Drawing using the following rubric:

The Constitutional Tree Rubric Directions: Check off each of the following items as you complete them. Spelling and neatness count. Sample trees are available. 1. Create a two-inch border on your paper 2. Draw your tree with 3 branches and a root system 3. Label each branch as one of the branches of government: Legislative, Executive, Judicial 4. Give the following information for each branch:

132 a. Who makes up each branch (e.g., Executive branch consists of the President and Vice-President) b. The term in office for the main positions of the branch (How long do they serve?) c. The duty, in general, of each branch 5. In the trunk of your tree write “Checks and Balances” and explain this term. Illustrate the concept of balance. 6. On the roots of your tree write the following: a. The Revolutionary War b. Articles of Confederation c. Shay’s Rebellion 7. In your border: a. Define the Bill of Rights b. List each of these rights c. Illustrate each one 8. Draw a box on each side of the trunk of the tree. Do the following: a. Box #1: Write the Preamble to the Constitution b. Box #2: List the topics dealt with in Articles 1-7 of the Constitution Time needed: 2 class periods. Materials Drawing Paper, size 12” x 18”; drawing pencils, colored pencils, and markers; line drawings and other pictures of trees

Paintings, Neoclassical Architecture & Sculpture This art history and art criticism activity is, as the previous one, in the unit on the Constitutional Period. Students view art images of paintings and neoclassical architecture and sculpture in order to understand better the political events of the period. The purpose of viewing is to help students visualize the people, places, and political events of the Constitutional Period.

133 Instructions First, students view The Sargent Family (Prentice-Hall, 1991), artist unknown, and I use the Anderson Art Criticism Method for discussion. This is followed by two more images, an embroidery titled Liberty in the form of the Goddess of Youth and George Washington Addressing the Constitutional Convention of 1787 by Junius B. Stearns, to view only briefly with description and interpretation (Glencoe, 1992). Second, I explain the term “neoclassical” architecture and Thomas Jefferson’s desire for this style to be adopted as our national architecture. I use overhead transparencies to show students architectural elements—domes, columns, and colonnades. Each student sketches the three orders of Greek columns and labels them. Students then view the rotunda at the University of Virginia at Charlottesville (Scholl, 1992) and the Lincoln Memorial and Parthenon (Prentice-Hall, 1991) simultaneously. Third, students view a sculpture of George Washington by Horatio Greenough (Scholl, 1992). I center the discussion on symbolism in the sculpture and the use of the classical style to portray Washington. Time needed: 1 class period.

TOPIC 6: THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION Sunshine State Standard: SS.A.4.4.6 The student understands the military and economic events of the Civil War and Reconstruction.

Civil War Visual Vocabulary In order to cover a lot of material in a reasonable amount of time and give students an opportunity to make a presentation, we created the project Civil War Visual Vocabulary project. Students select a vocabulary word from the list provided and create a visual that defines and illustrates it. All of the vocabulary words come from the textbook. Then, students present their vocabulary word definitions and illustrations in front of the class. Presentations occur in the same sequence as the words appear in the textbook. Students are graded on their illustration and their presentation. Students receive a rubric to follow while I explain the project.

134 Instructions Students create and illustrate the vocabulary word using the following rubric:

Civil War Visual Vocabulary Rubric 1. Illustration Illustrate the vocabulary word that you have chosen. Use a 12” x 18” sheet of drawing paper. Utilize the entire sheet of paper. You may use pencil, colored pencil, marker, or any combination of these as well as construction paper. You will be graded on: a. how well your illustration explains the vocabulary word b. neatness c. timeliness d. overall effect 2. Presentation Present your illustration to the class. You will be graded on: a. the accuracy of your definition b. your speech and mannerisms while in front of an audience c. timeliness Time needed: 3 class periods. Materials Drawing paper, size 12” x 18”; drawing pencils, colored pencils, and markers; construction paper, scissors and glue sticks

Reconstruction Visual Concept Reconstruction is handled in the same manner as the Civil War material except that the information is more complex. Students are given a choice of concepts to illustrate, such as, Lincoln’s 10% Plan, sharecropping and tenant farming, Radical Republicans, Freedmen’s Bureau. All of the concepts come from the textbook. After selecting a concept, students create a visual that defines and illustrates it. The visual is larger but the presentation format is the same. Then, students present their concept definitions and illustrations in front of the class. Presentations occur in the same

135 sequence as concepts appear in the textbook. Students are graded on their illustration and their presentation. Students receive a rubric to follow while I explain the project. Instructions Students create and illustrate the concept using the following rubric:

Reconstruction Visual Concept Rubric Reconstruction was the time period, 1865-1877, during which the South began to rebuild after the Civil War. It includes the process which the U.S. government used to readmit the defeated Confederate states to the Union. Citizens had to be kept abreast of the many changes taking place during this time. Your job as a graphic illustrator is to inform the public of changes by using the visual arts. Maybe you work for the Government Printing Office and must design the announcement of a new law…or maybe you work for your local newspaper as a political cartoonist and comment on national politics…or maybe you work for your political party and design campaign buttons. Other types of visuals could include pamphlets, advertisements, maps, graphs, diagrams, or postage stamps.

1. Illustration Illustrate the concept that you have chosen. Use one sheet of poster board. Utilize the entire surface. You may use pencil, colored pencil, marker, or any combination of these as well as construction paper. You will be graded on: a. how well your illustration explains the concept b. neatness c. timeliness d. overall effect 2. Presentation Present your illustration to the class. You will be graded on: a. the accuracy of your explanation b. your speech and mannerisms while in front of an audience c. timeliness Time needed: 4 class periods.

136 Materials White poster board; drawing pencils, colored pencils, and markers; construction paper, scissors and glue sticks

Brady’s Photography At the end of the Civil War and Reconstruction unit, I show photography images made by Matthew Brady (Kunhardt & Kunhardt, 1977). The purpose is to show the harsh realities of the aftermath of war: scenes after the fighting ended and before the burial of the dead. I introduce the art history lesson with a reading about Brady (Glencoe, 1996) which portrays him as Lincoln’s cameraman and as one of the most notable Civil War photographers. All of his battle scenes were photographed after a battle ceased. I talk about the invention of the camera by Daguerre, the exposure time needed for early photographs, and Brady’s career. Instructions Students view several overhead transparencies of Brady’s work (Kunhardt & Kunhardt, 1977). The display starts with famous people and places photographed by Brady in his New York City studio. These include photographs of Harriet Beecher Stowe, P. T. Barnum’s Living Skeleton and Siamese Twins, the Capitol dome under construction, the Washington Monument under construction, and the New York City harbor. Next, students view a group of images photographed by Brady when he left New York for Washington to photograph the inauguration of Lincoln and, subsequently, maintained an office there. They cover several pictures of Lincoln, including the one used for the Lincoln penny, and one of John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Lincoln. Last, students view Civil War pictures: Union camps; a Union soldier with his family at an encampment; General Lee at Appomattox Court House; General Grant; a Union ironclad; battles scenes at Fredericksburg, Spotsylvania, St. Petersburg, and Antietam; an embalming surgeon; and Union soldiers in trenches. Time needed: 1 class period.

137 Materials A reading from The Spirit of American Art and Music, Glencoe Social Studies Teaching Aids (1996); overhead transparencies made from Matthew Brady and His World by Kunhardt & Kunhardt (1977)

Resources This section provides teachers with resource locations where additional information can be found that is useful in the planning, development, and delivery of further units of study. Catalogs The following catalogs contain print, video, and technology materials for art history and appreciation and cross-curricular activities: Crizmac Art and Cultural Educational Materials, Inc.: 1-800-913-8555 or www.crizmac.com Crystal Productions: 1-800-255-8629 or www.crystalproductions.com J. Weston Walch Publisher: 1-800-341-6094 or www.walch.com Parent Child Press: 1-814-946-5213 or [email protected] Sax Visual Art Resources Catalog: 1-800-558-6696 or www.saxarts.com Websites The following websites are used often by art educators: www.artsednet.getty.edu (The Getty Education Institute for the Arts) www.nga.gov (The National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.) www.metmuseum.org (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) www.artic.org (The Art Institute of Chicago)

Instruments Used in Data Collection

The methods used in this study included: a post assessment survey of students’ perceptions on the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process and its usefulness in the classroom, a pre and post assessment survey of students’ attitudes toward art, interviews of selected students, and teacher researcher observations. Surveys, as a method, were

138 used to “collect data by asking people who have experienced certain phenomena to reconstruct these phenomena” (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 1992, p. 215). “This method attempts usually to describe a condition or to learn the status of something and, whenever possible, to draw valid general conclusions from the facts discovered (Hillway, 1964, p. 187). Specifically, surveys were used to gather student perceptions regarding the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process and attitudes toward art. The use of the survey in education grew tremendously in the period between the two world wars of the twentieth century and was used to describe the American school system. According to Leedy and Ormrod (2001), survey research captures a moment in time much the same way “a camera takes a single-frame photograph of an ongoing activity” (p. 196). The survey looks closely at the phenomena of the moment and allows the researcher to gain understanding of the present. It examines a situation as it is and allows the researcher to generalize from what is seen. The second method used was interviews of selected students. Interviewing allows the researcher to understand the experience of the participant in the phenomenon under study and what it means to him or her (Seidman, 1998). Seidman (1998) stated: It is a powerful way to gain insight into educational issues through understanding the experience of the individuals whose lives constitute education. As a method of inquiry, interviewing is most consistent with people’s ability to make meaning through language. (p. 7) The third method used was teacher researcher observations. Observations can be made either as an outsider looking in or as a participant observer, known as ethnography. (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). Ethnography involves entering a setting, getting to know the people in it, observing, and writing down those observations and experiences (Emerson, Fretz & Shaw, 1995). As an observer, I jotted down notes and impressions during class and later wrote them into a detailed account, interpreting and making sense of what I saw. These field observations can be an excellent secondary research tool in support of the pre and post assessment surveys and interviews (Anderson, 2000). They give context to those findings.

139 Co-Study Impact Survey The Co-Study Impact Survey (see Appendix A-1) was created by the researcher to measure student perceptions regarding the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process on learning. This instrument consists of twelve belief or attitudinal statements regarding the benefit of the art intervention activity used. This survey was administered primarily to address Research Question #1: Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions of their understanding of American history? The Co-Study Impact Survey consisted of twelve statements. Each statement addressed a specific art intervention activity. Therefore, there is one statement per art activity. Students were asked to respond to each statement by circling the belief or attitude that best expressed their feelings regarding the art activity and how it impacted their learning. Choices of response to the statements were Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. The Co-Study Impact Survey was administered in two parts: the first half at the end of the first six art activities and the second half at the end of the second six art activities. This survey’s administration corresponded with the first and second nine week grading periods. This survey instrument’s content validity was achieved by using a Co-Study Impact Survey Instrument Internal Validity Matrix, a table of specifications constructed by the researcher. This table is a two-dimensional grid that reflects the Sunshine State Standards for American History on one axis and the Co-Study Curriculum components on the other. This insures that the survey’s statements adequately cover these two domains: Sunshine State Standards and the Co-Study Curriculum components. The survey instrument’s reliability was measured by the use of an interrater process. “Interrater reliability is the extent to which two or more individuals evaluating the same product or performance give identical judgements” (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001, p. 99). Jean Warren and two students, one male and one female, in my co-study class were selected to evaluate the survey. Both students and Jean Warren understood the meanings of the statements on the survey as I had intended them. I know this because of their responses to my questions after reading the survey. I feel assured that the Co-Study Impact Survey statements reflected the same meaning throughout the student population.

140 Art Attitude Survey The Art Attitude Survey (see Appendix A-2) is an evaluation about students’ feelings and perceptions related to the value of art. This survey was administered primarily to address Research Question #2: Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art? The Art Attitude Survey was administered at the beginning and end of the study to see if student perceptions changed regarding the value of art after being exposed to the Co-Study Curriculum art activities. The pre and post Art Attitude Survey instrument was developed by surveying ERIC in the field of education. The final instrument was constructed by the researcher selecting various statements from several research documents in the field of art education, including a doctoral dissertation (Milbrandt, 1996), an art education program evaluation report (Thomas, 1992), a graduate paper (Stell, 1981), and a master’s action research project (Tranquilli, 1999). It consists of eighteen belief or attitudinal statements about the value of art to oneself or society. Students were asked to respond to each statement by circling the belief or attitude that best expressed their feelings. Choices of response to the statements were: Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. The Art Attitude Survey’s content validity and reliability have been established by its use. Student Interviews The selection process for selecting those to be interviewed began by summing each student’s responses across all survey questions (Strongly Agreed, +2, to Strongly Disagreed, -2) within the Co-Study Impact Survey. This resulted in each student receiving an averaged response value, which fell between the two end points of Strongly Agreed (+2) to Strongly Disagreed (-2). These response values were arithmetically stacked. The inter-quartile range, which is the middle 50%, was identified. The inter-quartile range is defined as the range from the 25th to the 75th percentile. Those students whose response values fell at the 25th percentile were assigned to one group and those students whose response values fell at the 75th percentile were placed into another group. Using this inter-quartile range allows the researcher to collect feedback unaffected by extreme responses and, thereby, avoiding overly positive or negative attitudes.

141 The students in these two groups were further examined regarding their demographic characteristics: ethnicity and gender. Four students with diverse demographics were selected to be interviewed: two from Doster’s class and two from Warren’s class. One student falling in the 25th percentile and the other falling in the 75th percentile were then selected from each class. Specifically, in Doster’s class, a Caucasian female falling in the 25th percentile and a Caucasian male in the 75th percentile. In Warren’s class, an African-American male falling in the 25th percentile and a Caucasian male falling in the 75th percentile. This selection was representative of the overall composition of both Doster’s and Warren’s classes. Then, these four students were interviewed. An Interview Guide (see Appendix C-1) to frame the interviews was created from the students’ responses on the Co-Study Impact Survey and observations made by the teacher researcher. The interviews were conducted in three parts during three separate time periods. Interviews were conducted and responses recorded on a handheld tape recorder with each student interviewee and the researcher focused on expanding student descriptions and perceptions of the Co- Study Curriculum process as reflected by the Interview Guide. Responses were grouped into common themes based on students’ descriptions of their experiences regarding the Co-Study Curriculum process and described in narrative form. The interviews were conducted to add context and depth to the results of the Co- Study Impact Survey. Also, they were used to situate the findings in their circumstances, thus adding more depth of meaning to those results. The interviews occurred at the end of the study during the third nine weeks of school. The interviews were based on the Seidman (1998) method of interviewing, the three-interview series, which consisted of: interview one, focused life history to provide context; interview two, the details of experience; interview three, reflection on the meaning of the experience. The first interview puts the interviewee in context with general background information. The second interview concerns the participant in the Co-Study Curriculum experience and, the third, his or her reflections on the meaning of that experience.

142 Teacher Researcher Observations I conducted field observations throughout the study by jotting down notes of my observations and impressions during class and later writing them into a detailed account, interpreting and making sense of what I saw (see Chapter 5). According to Anderson (2000), these observations are an excellent secondary research tool, again for the purpose of adding situational context to the other findings, thus increasing the understanding of meanings. I used the following Observation Pattern: 1. Count the number of students in class. 2. State the unit or topic under study, including Sunshine State Standard. 3. State the Co-Study Curriculum intervention (art activity) being used. 4. Evaluate the climate or mood of the classroom. 5. Observe student reaction and involvement (on task or off task). 6. Target students who are on task and off task. 7. Jot down behaviors observed and comments of target students. These notes of observation were written into a narrative account with additional commentary by me.

Administration of Study

All consent and permission forms required in this study were submitted to and approved by the Human Subjects Committee (see approval memorandum and consent forms in Appendix D). Further, the study has been approved by Bay District Schools (see Appendix D-4). The first half of the Co-Study Impact Survey was administered at the end of the first nine weeks of school and the second half was administered at the end of the study. The Art Attitude Survey was administered at the beginning of the school year, August 2003, which was the beginning of the study; it was administered again at the end of the study, December 2003. Selected one-on-one interviews occurred at the end of the study during the third nine weeks of school. Teacher researcher observations were made continually throughout the study.

143 Data Analysis and Display

This classroom action research gathered quantitative data from two survey instruments, and qualitative data from student interviews and teacher researcher observations. Addressing, first, the surveys: The Co-Study Impact Survey used a 5-point Likert scale to determine the students’ perceptions on the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process in learning American history. The ordinal data gathered from this post assessment was placed within a Response Value Matrix so that further analysis could be made relative to the distribution of Likert scale responses to each survey statement (see Figure 4, p. 202), the value each curriculum component had to the students (see Figure 5, p. 205), and the contribution of each of the Co-Study Curriculum components in achieving a Sunshine State Standard (see Table 3, pp. 251-252). Post assessment data from the Co-Study Impact Survey were displayed in three charts: 1. Percentage Distributions of Student Responses by Survey Statement This is a percentage bar chart that shows the groupings of students, by percentage, that SA, A, N, D, or SD to each statement (see Figure 4, p. 202). It shows the distribution of student responses to each statement. 2. Student Responses by Survey Statement This is a line graph showing the relative value of each curriculum component to the students (see Figure 5, p. 205). Coding student responses assigned them a value that was summed to obtain a net value for each statement. It shows the degree of satisfaction (positive number) or dissatisfaction (negative number) that students had toward each curriculum component (art intervention). 3. Curriculum Component(s) Contribution to Achieving Sunshine State Standards This chart displays the extent to which each curriculum component (art intervention) actually contributed to achieving a Sunshine State Standard (see Table 3, pp. 251-252). It shows the percentage of students who SA or A to each statement and its corresponding Sunshine State Standard. In total, this analysis bundling will describe

144 perceptions of enhanced learning and achievement of specific Sunshine State Standards due to the Co-Study Curriculum process. The Art Attitude Survey used a 5-point Likert scale to determine students’ attitudes toward art. The ordinal data gathered from these pre and post assessments were used to indicate any shifts that occurred in attitude toward art due to the Co-Study Curriculum process. The ordinal pre/post assessment data from the Art Attitude Survey were displayed in Tables 1 and 2 (see pp. 209-210). The supporting strategies gathered qualitative data from two sources: student interviews and teacher researcher observations. 1. Student Interviews Student interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim (see Appendix C). Specifically, each interview was examined relative to specific characteristics unique to each interviewee’s perceptions of the Co-Study process or art attitude. Further, common threads, such as, perceptions regarding the Co-Study process, attitudes toward art, lifestyle, and art background, were identified. The researcher then used various excerpts from each interview as descriptive evidence to support the research questions and as explanations, interpretations, and implications within this study. 2. Teacher Researcher Observations An Observation Pattern was developed for use during teacher research observations (see Observation Pattern, p.190). Observations were used to describe how well students received, manipulated, applied, and explored history information while using the Co-Study Curriculum process. The teacher researcher jotted down notes while observing students during art intervention activities. Notes were then written into a narrative format that detailed each observation. The researcher then used various excerpts from each observation as descriptive evidence to support the research questions and as explanations, interpretations, and implications within this study.

145 Testing of the Research Questions

Research Question #1 Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions of their understanding of American history? This research question is resolved by the Co-Study Impact Survey. Two criteria were used for affirming this research question. The first is based on data from Figure 4 (see p. 202). The second is based on data from Figure 5 (see p. 205). For data in Figure 4, the research question is accepted if 51% or more of the responses across all the survey statements are at least “Agree” in the Percentage Distributions of Student Responses by Survey Statement chart. For data in Figure 5, the research question is accepted if the average ranking across all survey statements, in both classes, is a positive number. Research Question #2 Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art? This research question is resolved by the Art Attitude Survey. “Agree” and “Strongly Agree” responses were considered to be indicative that a change occurred in the students’ attitudes toward art. This research question is affirmed if the average response shift between the pre and post assessment surveys across all statements is a positive percentage. Student interviews and teacher researcher observations were accepted as supporting the research questions based on the degree to which credible and dependable evidence confirmed students’ perceptions of enhanced learning and positive attitudes toward art. This data was used for discussion. The information in the Curriculum Component(s) Contribution to Achieving Sunshine State Standards chart (Table 3, see pp. 251-252) specified the extent to which each Co-Study Curriculum component was effective. If 51% or more of the students circled SA or A to a statement and its corresponding Sunshine State Standard, then it was taken as evidence that the art intervention helped to achieve the standard. This data was also used for discussion.

146 Supporting Documentation Support for the research questions came, also, from the pilot study. Chapter 4, Pilot Study, as well as teacher and student interviews conducted during the pilot study (see Appendix B) form the basis of this documentation. Chapter 4 includes a narrative account, The Co-Study Story, of the pilot study. This narrative covers the inception of the Co-Study Curriculum, its implementation at Rutherford High School, results of quantitative research regarding the Co-Study Curriculum process during its first two years of implementation, and interviews of teachers and selected students involved in the pilot study. This data was used for discussion.

Summary

This chapter explained the methods used in this quantitative and qualitative study to determine student perceptions of the Co-Study Curriculum process. The research questions are: (1) Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions of their understanding of American history? And (2) Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art? Chapter 4 provides a narrative account of the pilot study which gave impetus to the present study. Chapter 5 presents the results obtained with these methods and answers these research questions.

147

CHAPTER IV PILOT STUDY

This chapter provides the reader with an overview of the pilot study that was conducted from 1998 through the end of the school year 2002-03. It is not meant to be an exhaustive, detailed account but rather it relates the highlights of the study. It is told in a narrative format to facilitate reading and begins with some background information regarding the researcher.

The Co-Study Story

I began my public school teaching career in a small elementary school in the community of West Bay, Florida. West Bay is a fishing community with no particular landmarks at that time except for a bridge spanning an arm of the bay and a small, local general store at the foot of the bridge. West Bay Elementary School was the only public building and served as a community center as well as a school. A few houses and trailers around the school were evidence of the population of West Bay but the rest of the dwellings were out of sight. The community was located in pine forests owned by St. Joe Paper Company. The students, approximately 280 of them, were mostly local residents but a few were bussed in from the small towns comprising the west end of the Panama City beaches. They were sweet, unassuming children, all white except for five of color (three African-Americans and two Vietnamese). Many were related to one another and spoke in their own peculiar dialect in which certain consonants were dropped, i.e., not spoken. When I had trouble understanding what children were saying others, who could bridge the gap, would voluntarily translate for me. I was hired as the part-time art teacher to teach K-5 students for two days per week. It was an unexpected turn of events when I was offered the job because I was finishing my degree in Social Studies Education. My husband and I had closed our retail

148 store after nearly twenty years in business and started on new career paths. My earlier degrees (bachelor’s and master’s) had been in international affairs with minors in art and art history. Social studies education seemed the right spot for me and I began working on a second bachelor's degree in that field offered at the Panama City campus of The Florida State University. So, in a quirk of fate, I was hired as an art teacher! During the second semester of my first year of part-time teaching art at West Bay Elementary School I was, concurrently, doing my student teaching in world history at Rutherford High School. Each school week I spent two days at West Bay and three days at Rutherford. I was in a position of bridging two worlds—elementary school and high school, art curriculum and world history curriculum. The point of this story is to lay the foundation for the beginnings and practical application of the Co-Study Curriculum. The thought of integrated curriculum was not new to me having worked with my husband in a group that advocated and planned to implement an interdisciplinary curriculum within an entertainment setting. However, applying integrated curriculum in the classroom was novel for me. When I was rehired the second year as a full-time art teacher at West Bay, I was given the opportunity to integrate curriculum as I saw fit—art and world history—with only one constraint from the principal. She thought that I must see every student every day in order for my program to be successful. Two-hundred-eighty students per day filed through my old wooden portable on a rotational basis of a class every 30 minutes. The Co-Study Curriculum started with ancient Egypt, which I could not get to until October, and finished with the Middle Ages by the end of the school year. The established elementary art curriculum was full of holiday, safety, and school events projects that had to be sandwiched into my World History and Art Co-Study curriculum. Throughout the year I wondered if the Co-Study Curriculum was having an impact on the students. During our unit on Ancient Egypt, I talked of its history, showed filmstrips, viewed slides of King Tut’s treasures, and had the children draw from replicas of Egyptian sculpture on loan from a collection housed at the Bay District School's office. The answer to the question I was pondering came in May toward the end of the school year. Jessica, a shy first-grader, was always a good student in class. Her blonde ringlets cascaded over the table as she diligently worked on her art. She always seemed to enjoy

149 art class and worked hard; even though she did not say much, she smiled frequently. A sweet angelic face. One early Monday morning in May, she stopped me on the sidewalk to show me her new shoes. Over the weekend her mother had taken her shopping for summer clothes and Jessica had picked out a pair of sandals that were meaningful to her. "Mrs. Doster, look at my Egyptian sandals!" As I looked down, there they were—gold, thong-strap sandals encrusted with colorful, plastic jewels. They looked very similar to the ones we had viewed on King Tut's mummy in the filmstrip. I realized then what an impact the Co-Study Curriculum had on Jessica. The visual image of the sandals she viewed in October stayed with her until May when she went shopping for her summer wardrobe. The following year I moved to Rutherford High School to teach in the Social Studies Department. The first year I saw little opportunity for the development of the Co-Study Curriculum, as I was hurriedly crafting lesson plans for teaching economics, law studies, and psychology. An exception was when my psychology students would draw the brain when we got to Chapter 3 on physiology. The following year, I picked up American History and study skills for ninth graders. In both of those classes I started introducing art projects. The following year I moved to the Art Department at Rutherford. My Art in Other Cultures class allowed me to integrate curriculum within a discipline. I taught art history, art criticism and studio art together as the students traveled through different time periods and cultures. Studio art provided hands-on activity to further understanding of art history and art criticism as well as to provide a holistic view of the unit under study. Most units began from an art historical viewpoint, placing the art in a chronological and social context. Next, the students usually viewed slides to do their art criticism, which may have been oral or written. These activities laid the groundwork for one or more studio projects. At the end of the projects, we shared the finished pieces and talked about them. In this manner, the disciplines of art were integrated and projects were more meaningful to the students than art for art's sake alone. Art was viewed, discussed, and made within a cultural context. The thought of integration between academic disciplines, however, was still a goal. When I was in the Social Studies Department, I missed art; when I moved to the Art Department, I missed social studies. Neither felt complete without the other.

150 Another teacher in the Social Studies Department, Jean Warren, with whom I had shared American history projects, agreed that we should collaborate. We had discovered that beginning with the school year of 1994-95 and through the school year of 1997-98, Rutherford High School had 39% of its students who took American History receive a "D" or "F": 19% of those failed. This signaled to us there was a need to try to get more students passing American History; Jean and I began collaborating during the second semester of 1998. During February of 1998, we collaborated on the World War I unit. We brought together our eighth period classes for the collaboration: Regular American History and Art in Other Cultures students. While the curriculum content normally taught by the Social Studies Department remained the same, various art projects supplemented the teaching of American History by providing a variety of hands-on experiences. Specific projects included drawing a labyrinth model to aid in understanding the causes of World War I; contour drawing, coloring, and labeling a map of pre-World War I Europe; and producing, within a cooperative group activity, a World War I newspaper with content and artwork depicting the major events, machinery, and impacts of the war. We gave Jean's American History students two tests: a map test on pre-World War I Europe and an objective test on the causes of World War I. Her other American History classes took the same two tests but they had no art while learning. They did have photocopied maps; students colored their maps but did not draw them. The test results were phenomenal; average test scores in the Co-Study Curriculum class were over 17 points (2 letter grades) higher than in the traditionally taught American History classes! Fourteen out of 18 students in Jean's American History class responded on an anonymous, written exit survey at the end of collaboration. Twelve of the 14 (86%) said that they felt their history grade would improve if they studied art and history together as a yearlong course. Ten of the 14 (71%) agreed that they remembered their history better because of the art projects completed during the collaboration; 43% said they understood the history better. When asked what would be the advantages of American History and Art Co-Study over a traditional history class some of the responses were (Co-Study Program Report, 1999, p. 51): “Art makes the history you learn become more visible.”

151 “It is more interesting and makes students want to learn and pay attention.” “It teaches people who are slow at recognizing things.” “People who like to learn by looking at visual drawings can take advantage of this class.” “It helps you to understand history better.” “It's a lot more fun and easier to understand.” “Good for visual learners.” Given our success with this collaboration, Jean and I felt emboldened to approach the Guidance Department about a yearlong American History and Art Co-Study course for the following year. We felt that it exemplified the type of curriculum that would meet the new curriculum standards of the State of Florida. Our teacher inservice training program for the 1997-98 school year was Connections:A System for Restructuring Teaching and Learning. The purpose of the Connections training was to help teachers understand the relationship between curriculum, instruction, assessment and the Sunshine State Standards. Module Three of the training explored the implications of Gardner’s intelligences theory in student learning and Module Six explored the implications of using integrated curriculum approaches in the classroom. We felt that the Co-Study Curriculum met the needs of diverse learners and, also, made content more relevant to the learner because it showed connections between disciplines. We approached the Assistant Principal for Guidance with our data and the idea that the Co-Study Curriculum was not team teaching—where two teachers present the same subject matter. It was not traditional teaching—where one teacher presents one subject. It was not what is typically called "integrated" curriculum—where smatterings or more from two different subjects are linked by similarities. The Co-Study Curriculum was a process that created a higher level of retention within students by more effectively bringing together two bodies of knowledge. We had the test scores to substantiate this assertion. Further, the Co-Study Curriculum process was supportive of the Connections training we had received at the beginning of the year. We were granted a yearlong American History and Art Co-Study class for the 1998-99 school year.

152 Profile of Jean Warren At this point, I would like to describe Jean Warren in more depth. Jean is the teacher in the Social Studies Department who has collaborated with me the most during the development of the Co-Study Curriculum process. The following are excerpts from an interview (Appendix B-1a) conducted during October of 2002. For the full three- series interview see Appendix B-1a, B-2a, and B-3a). JEAN: You would ask me where I was born and when I was born. I was born in, actually, Foxworth, Mississippi, July 2, 1949…very country. That’s in southern Mississippi about 90 miles north of New Orleans. JENNY: What size town was it? JEAN: We had, when I left …we had about 1,700 in Columbia, Mississippi, but that doesn’t include Foxworth which was the outskirts. Yeah, Columbia was where… Columbia was the county seat. So, we were on the outskirts of Columbia…which means country. Yeah, a lot of little communities …there was no main street. These were just little communities where people lived and everybody did their shopping in Columbia. Farming communities, that’s what they were because everybody had their little farms. JENNY: How many people lived in that town? JEAN: I don’t know what the population of Foxworth was but let’s say it couldn’t have been more than 500. JENNY: So everybody knew everybody? JEAN: Absolutely, everybody knew everybody. JENNY: Were there any jobs around there? JEAN: It was paper mill, small-time, small-scale farming. And that was about it. My grandfather was a farmer. He used all of the grandchildren for slave labor (laughing). He had cotton; he had corn; he had beans and okra and peas. And then my mother had a garden. We picked cotton not only for my grandfather but some of the other farmers in the area. They would come out in the mornings and they would load us up on the trucks. They would give us dinner. We didn't have anything to do anyway. My family, though, if you went off and worked anywhere you brought the money home. And then if Mom wanted to give you some of it she would give you some of it…but it wasn't your money.

153 JENNY: Interesting. Well, that was the next question…I was going to ask you to describe your hometown. Is there anything you want to add? JEAN: I just can remember we went to town usually every Saturday afternoon because my dad worked Saturday morning cutting yards. So, we would load up and do the grocery shopping … JENNY: That would be Columbia? JEAN: Yeah, we just went to town on Saturday afternoon, went to church on Sunday, and school during the week and that was it. No trips. Occasionally we would go to visit my mom’s brother who lived in Picayune, Mississippi, which was about 60 or so miles from us and…occasionally we would go to New Orleans to visit a cousin down there. But that was like once every ten years or so. We led a very quiet life. JENNY: Did ya'll have a TV? JEAN: We didn't get a TV until we moved…I grew up in a two-room shotgun house as they would call it now. We moved into a new house in '59, too. That was '59, too. So, we did have a TV in grandmother's house. I remember when we got it because all the grandkids and my aunt across the hill had 10 kids and my uncle down the way from us had seven and when we wanted to watch TV we went to grandmother's house. Grandmother had the TV; grandmother had the phone; grandmother had the running water because she had a pump and we didn't because they owned the land. When their children got ready to get married and if they wanted land, they ended up buying it from my grandfather. He wasn't giving anything away. My dad bought 13 acres from him. JENNY: What were your first memories of school? JEAN: Getting on the bus…I remember my dad was the bus driver when I started school and every morning…for some reason the bus was over at my grandmother’s and we would go over there and eat breakfast. She would fix breakfast for us every morning. And it was syrup, biscuits, and homemade butter and salt meat or bacon or something like that. And we would do that every morning and, then, we would be off to school. He would take us to school…take a load of kids to school and then he would go by an aunt of his that lived in the area until school got out. And then I got into the habit in first grade of just staying with Dad all day and almost flunked (laugh). The school was not in Foxworth. It was in a little….another little settlement called Little Rock which was

154 about, I would say, about thirty miles. The name of that school was Piney Woods and, so, it was a very small school. We couldn’t have had any more than 100 kids enrolled. JENNY: Inclusive of first through twelfth? JEAN: Yeah, first through twelfth. I can remember it now, a white building and we had another little building to the side. I can remember the wood heater and the cafeteria because the lady in the cafeteria—Miss Hoffman, I remember her name now—cooked, ah…the best food. But anyway…I can remember the room. We had it divided, partitioned, so that we had different grade levels and I can remember the hallway and I know the principal’s office was over there on the left and there must have been three or four classrooms on either side of the hallway. And those classrooms were partitioned. JENNY: How many kids would be in your partitioned area? And was it by grade level? JEAN: Grade level, yeah, and it couldn’t have been anymore than 20. So, we were small. JENNY: So, how far did you go in that school? What grade? JEAN: It went from first through twelfth. All right there. JENNY: And you went there the whole twelve years? JEAN: Oh, no, because we were growing, you see, we were expanding, In 1959, they built a new school. And we consolidated all the little schools into one black school for the county. And that was East Marion and the name doesn’t even exist anymore. But, anyway, we all went to the new school. JENNY: Was it nice? JEAN: Oh, well, I thought I was in hog heaven. So big and so new and the paint was still fresh. The halls were so shiny and I got lost on the first day. JENNY: What grade were you in by then? JEAN: Fifth grade…fifth grade…and, so, I finally found my way to the area and it was …oh....just seemed like so many people. Well, because you are coming from that small environment. It was change… JENNY: Life was changing? 1959, things were starting to change? JEAN: Yeah, we had Brown (Brown v. Board of Education) in ’54 but we weren’t affected by Brown at all. It wouldn’t be until 1966 that we would begin the process of …(integration)..

155 JENNY: Did you have a favorite teacher or subject? JEAN: I remember some teachers that stood out. Miss Ella Laflore was a history teacher of mine in the eighth grade. And I just thought she was so smart and she had us actually doing some things instead of just sitting in the desk. JENNY: What was your favorite subject? JEAN: The only thing I can remember was sitting in the little desk, taking tests, and listening to the teacher. School was not really very enjoyable because it was all teacher focused. So the only fun activities we had were when we went out to recess or to a football game. The classroom itself was not fun. I remember having a geography teacher when I was in seventh grade. The thing I remember most about her was that she was dressed everyday. We had to draw our maps. JENNY: You did? JEAN: Yeah, she wanted every little curly cue…you don't do the contour, you have to go in and show those little details. Because we didn't have paper that we would just have maps printed out on. If you wanted to do geography, you drew your maps and labeled them. She was very big on that. I guess that kind of helped me develop an idea for detail. JENNY: Who encouraged your studies and who influenced you the most? JEAN: I think my grandfather did a lot because he would always say, "Study hard." I think he expected all of the grandkids to go on and go to college after high school. And then when I went to college, he and my grandmother, every time I would come home, would give me a little piece of money. And my parents they expected…they expected great things. "You have no excuse; this is what you are here to do." I know one time…we would get off the bus and stay with my grandparents until my parents came home. And one day I left my book out on the hill and it rained that night and I went through the whole year without it. And that meant money, too, and we didn't have that much money to be paying for a book that I should have brought home. They had great expectations. JENNY: That is the expectancy…the Pygmalion effect. If you expect your child or your student to do well that idea will get into their head and they will live up to your

156 expectation. Even though you were growing up in this rural community in the segregated South, you knew you were going to college? JEAN: There was never any question "if" you were going…maybe "where" you were going. JENNY: So, how did you decide which university to go to? JEAN: In high school, I started looking around at guys and so there was this tall guy that played basketball that lived in the area and, so…my thing at that time was I'm not talking to anybody shorter than me. My emphasis was on the tall ones, so I knew the family…as I said they were in the area, and he went to Jackson State when he left to go off to school. My mother said, "You will never get anywhere close to Jackson State." (laughing) "I'm going to put you as close to me as I can." USM is only forty miles away and they were into their second year of integration at USM so I applied and was accepted and she said, "That is where you will go; you will go to Hattiesburg." JENNY: So, USM is the University of Southern Mississippi? JEAN: Yes, and that was 1967. That was my first year. JENNY: Were you prepared coming from your small school to the university? JEAN: It is amazing because by having very little by way of dedicated teachers…I can remember in the sixth grade, the English teacher, if you missed a word on the spelling test you got beat. I can remember learning my times tables. If we were doing 7s on any given day and you missed one, you got a lick for every one that you missed. So, I'm talking about discipline. And you had to go into the bathroom and clean the stalls when somebody wrote on them. We didn't have in house…we had people come and do the halls but every teacher was responsible for their own room as far as keeping it clean. Discipline probably stands out the most for me but one of the things our principal always reminded us was that the white students kept their schools so clean. And we want to do the same thing. So when the county people would come in we would have to really spruce up the place. And I didn't know any better until I went to college and we would walk down the hall and say "Oh, my goodness, we have been lied to all these years." It was just their way of trying to keep us in place. JENNY: So your school experience in the small town you grew up in was adequate for university work?

157 JEAN: Not in math (laugh)…I was, like, praying, “Lord, let me get a ‘D’, please, please.” There were some areas where I was very deficient and math was one of them. Other than that, anything that just generally involved reading I could handle. But the math, you know, like algebra…I had had algebra something in the eighth grade and had not seen it since. JENNY: So you ended up with a certification in secondary education with a focus in history? You graduated and then what happened? JEAN: They were doing interviews…actually I graduated the second quarter of my senior year because I went to summer school…why I don't know…anyway, which meant I was out early. Wondering what to do, no car and so I did some sub work but they were interviewing for jobs and they were sending people from the county office… JENNY: You mean our county here? JEAN: Yeah, Bay County. Their Director of Personnel would go out to various colleges and interview and recruit. So Mr. Pribbenow, at the time, was at USM. I went in and interviewed and he offered me a job, just like that. One of the teachers…it was for Bay High…one of the teachers there when they shifted around when they integrated was not happy and they needed a replacement to keep the quota up. And so they were just looking for…and so Dad said, “I don't care where it is, just go." JENNY: What did your mom say? JEAN: "Ooh" because this is, like, Florida; it is so far away. Florida is what they see on TV, the palm trees. So I went to Hattiesburg, Mississippi, and got on a bus and it took me 13 hours to get here by bus. And I didn't know a single person here. And I had to come here for an interview as well. So I came here for the interview and met people like Hattie Burch, who is a longtime...she was probably there when you were there…and some others. They offered me the job and I took it. Still, when I came down here, I didn't have a car. I worked until Thanksgiving, got back on the bus and went home and said, "Dad, I have to have transportation." So he put the down payment on a car for me. My first car was a Camaro. It was so cute. A gold Camaro. Rented a room from one of the Bowers over there on Lincoln Drive, where the drivers range is at Bay High. It was close to school and, sometimes, I walked. I could take a bus downtown. The next summer I got married.

158 JENNY: First, I would like to make the comment that you have an extraordinary story coming from the rural Mississippi area, segregated South, going to a major university and getting a degree. That is really a phenomenal story. You have a lot of teaching experience. So what significant things have you learned about teaching others? JEAN: They (students) are all different. There is no one way to teach. What you have to do is decide what works best for any given group even if it’s the same subject. What you do in one class might not work in another class. A lot of patience…a lot of patience. JENNY: What have you learned about yourself from teaching? JEAN: I can be patient (laughing). Flexibility, I think. I don't think there are too many things that upset me anymore because I know that this, too, shall pass. And I just wait for the next wave to come through. But…I think flexibility and patience. At some level I really enjoy what I do, at some level. I just haven't discovered what level that is yet. But if I could just teach and not worry about the paperwork that goes along with all this and the forms. If I could just teach, it would really be a great occupation. JENNY: Well, do you think that your university experience, the classes you took to get ready for teaching helped you or were you surprised when you started teaching? JEAN: I was surprised how little I knew. Even though you major in a subject you really don't start learning it until you teach it. JENNY: So, the teacher is the learner? JEAN: Absolutely, absolutely. I interned in middle school…just having to prepare…I know I took that class but I didn't learn enough to try to teach it to somebody. Even the classes you take on how to teach…you have to get out there and learn it, basically, on a lot of trial and error. I guess there were some good things that came out of those classes but, for the most part, you learn by doing. JENNY: What has been the most frustrating thing for you as a teacher? JEAN: I think having students come in with preconceived ideas of "I cannot do this" and won't even try…"My mother had trouble with history and she understands why I don't do well" and "I can't learn this" and "I can't, I can't, I can't." That just drives me up the wall. So, I think that's the most frustrating; those students who won't put forth the effort. Not realizing that this is nothing but a story...American history is and world history is…but a story. If you watch a story on TV, you can learn American history.

159 JENNY: Would you recommend teaching to other people? JEAN: I think it would have to be something…first of all, you have to have a personality if you are going to be effective…somebody who really enjoys this type of interacting with students on a daily basis. If you don't like people, this is not the job for you. Would I recommend it? If you're not looking for a lot of money, you have good hours and have nice vacations and you get a challenge every single day. And there is always growth. Because every time I teach I learn something that I didn't know before. If you're looking for something like that then this is a good spot. JENNY: True, I agree with that. I am always learning. Tell me what classes you are teaching this year and what a typical day might be for you? JEAN: I'm just doing world history and American history this year. A typical day like today is all American history. I have one honors and three regulars. It is just a matter of reviewing content and introducing new content and reviewing what you have just covered. A typical day is making sure that those people who are out are recorded as school leave or…it is the record keeping that drives me up the wall and making sure that this form is signed and that form is signed…ah. So a typical day is some teaching and a lot of paperwork. JENNY: What kinds of skills or concepts do you want your students to learn? And how do you motivate them? JEAN: My first thought is that I tell them if they don't do it they get a zero (laugh). That works for some. I think the opportunity to improve themselves as individuals, to give them a greater knowledge base to work from. Until they have that knowledge base, they can't compare and contrast, draw conclusions, synthesize and all those other great and wonderful skills we want them to develop. The writing skills are awful. I don't think we practice anything like memory skills anymore. JENNY: Is there anything you push with them? JEAN: I think being responsible for what they do, be it bringing a pen and a piece of paper to class or knowing what I expect of them even though I may not be in the room. That internalizing of expectations, for some that takes a year or two…for those who repeat it. The next year they come back and I repeat it, “I expect you to bring a pen, a pencil, paper to class everyday. I've had you before. This should not be anything

160 different.” Interpersonal skills, just dealing with other people. Knowing that people may not always agree with you but knowing there is a way you can always talk to people, express your opinion without resorting to vulgarity every other word. JENNY: Do you think it is more important in your American history content to teach breadth or depth? Do you get to decide that or are you told what to teach through standards or from the district? How are all these decisions made? JEAN: Well, I'm waffling back and forth with that. Should I go breadth or should I go depth? And I think what I have concluded at this point is that there are some areas for going with breadth and some areas for going with depth. And there is no general consensus in the department as to where these two should take place. Right now, it is just a personal decision. They expect us to get to a certain point at a certain time but what we do in-between is left up to the individual teacher. JENNY: So there are no department-wide semester exams for American history or anything like that? JEAN: There is no master exam, no master plan, really except that you must get from point A to point B. JENNY: What about the Sunshine State Standards? How do they figure in? JEAN: They figure in… in that in some shape, form, or fashion you are supposed to touch on those as you go through from point A to point B. JENNY: So they are not real defined or strict? They are more conceptual? JEAN: Yeah, and the ways things are going now, the next year or the year after, social studies will be a part of the FCAT. So, with that in mind, I am sure we will need to have a little bit more structure to what we do. Right now, it is kind of loosey-goosey. JENNY: How do you grade your students and what do you think is important about grading? JEAN: You know, we have gone to this whole business of assessment, trying to vary the assessment tools we use and so what we were told is that there are many pictures you can take of Johnny. And that applies to assessment as well. One picture does not tell all what Johnny can do or who Johnny is and, so, as far as assessment goes we try to use not only just the pen and pencil but actual projects, presentations, and, of course, there is always the homework and the class work, quizzes. So the attempt is to vary the assessment to

161 the point where if he doesn't do well on a pen and pencil, he may do exceptionally well when he has to give a presentation to the class. Anything we can do to make sure that most of the bases are covered so we can get a better picture of what he is able to do or she is able to do, Johnny or Jeanette (laugh). JENNY: What do you think the most important thing is that you teach? JEAN: Oh, that's a hard one. Oh, my goodness. As I listen to them come and go, I think that one of the most important things I try to get across is respect for other people and their ideas. You may not agree with them but because we are in America they are entitled to express their opinion. When the kid gives me the paper and we've been talking about slavery and he wrote "nigger" everywhere he is supposed to write…he could write slave, as a teacher I try to encourage political correctness. I think that respect and responsibility which will follow them throughout their lives no matter where they go, which kind of people they come in contact with. JENNY: So, what kinds of trends do you see in teaching over the years? JEAN: What goes around (laugh), comes around. I don't really see anything new that hasn't been tried before. If Johnny can't read it won't matter what kind of program you institute. Sooner or later, you have got to get back to the basics and that is what we have been trying to do for the thirty years I have been teaching. They try to get back to the basics and they call it a new thing but it is the same thing: How do we get Johnny to read and understand? So, the new trends...we have alternative assessment, standardized tests we are trying to get kids to pass and so forth but it all gets back to what happens the first couple of years at school. In my opinion, they are not putting enough emphasis on those first couple of years. Otherwise you would not have 25-30 students in them. Otherwise, we are going to continue having the same problems. I don't know why, they have been doing this for so long. I don't understand why…it is the reading, writing, arithmetic. JENNY: Kindergarten through third, fourth, and fifth grade sets you up for the rest of the time, doesn't it? JEAN: I think when I got to college, because I had come from a segregated environment, it was a culture shock for me because there was so much I had not been exposed to. And that is why it is so difficult for me to understand kids who have so much by way of things they could use to learn…so much on TV, so many movies. We didn't have any of that

162 stuff when I was growing up. And we still don't get it. You know, they have all of that and they still don't get it. And, I think maybe technology has been a wonderful thing for us on the one hand but has caused kids to just become brain dead. Because everything is right there in front of them and there is no imagination. JENNY: Did ya'll have a library in your school? JEAN: No, no library. JENNY: Did you do much reading? JEAN: Actually, I didn't. But I read magazines because my mom worked for a lady who subscribed to a lot of magazines…some of them were romance. JENNY: I think I read a few of those, too. JEAN: I read a lot. We went to the library. I know we had reading assignments. I don't remember checking out a lot of books and doing a lot of reading in that regard. JENNY: You have to wonder why so many people who have so many advantages and opportunities, do so much less with it. You were growing up with, I would say, a minimum of supplies, opportunities, and experiences and were able to maximize. JEAN: And we were talking the other day…I don't remember when I learned to read, when I learned to break words down. We did a lot of that when I was growing up. It was part of vocabulary. You had to know the root word, be able to add the prefixes and suffixes and all that that forms larger words. And somewhere along the line we missed the basics. Jean’s extensive background in teaching, the circumstances of her formative years, and her insight and enthusiasm have come together to make her an invaluable partner in developing the Co-Study Curriculum for American history. After our successful World War I collaboration, we were anxious to begin our first full year of American History and Art Co-Study. 1998-1999 School Year For the 1998-99 school year, Jean and I were given two periods for American History and Art Co-Study: Students were enrolled in art (seventh period) and American History (eighth period). This meant that we would see our students everyday. On the Block 8 schedule at RHS, students attend their odd periods (first, third, fifth, and seventh) on odd days and their even periods (second, fourth, sixth, and eighth) on even days. We

163 were blessed with a total of 41 students in the eighth period American History class. Guidance had agreed to help us but only to a point. The seventh period art class had only 21 students. In other words, not all of our history students were also taking art; twenty of them were history only. The ideal situation would have been no division between art and history—where the class could flow back and forth between the two subjects at any time. However, in this arrangement art was taught during seventh period and American history during eighth period. The seventh period art class approached the ideal, as we would discuss history while doing art. Although this arrangement was not totally ideal, it did provide a built-in control group. We compared test scores between our history-only students and our Co-Study Curriculum students. The year started with several projects. During the first nine weeks, students illustrated a Venn diagram titled “When Worlds Collide”, contour drew a map of the original 13 colonies, created a Colonial Period booklet, constructed a labyrinth to highlight the causes of the Civil War, and participated in a field trip to Westville (a working 1850s town) in Lumpkin, Georgia. These art activities included drawing, photography, art history, and art criticism. During the second nine weeks, students illustrated a Civil War timeline, played Pictionary to review history content, made oral presentations with visual components, created a Plains Indians project, and engaged in oral and written art criticism. The third nine weeks continued with the same types of activities—illustration, map making, art criticism, and art history—with the addition of drawing political cartoons. At the end of the third nine weeks, we compared scores from 10 objective tests between the two groups, history-only and Co-Study Curriculum. The averaged grade shift was a positive 7.93 points; Co-Study Curriculum students averaged a letter grade higher than their history-only counterparts. The history content for all of the students was identical because they were all in the eighth period American History class. The intervening variable was the art for those enrolled in the seventh period art class. The Co-Study Curriculum program covered three nine week segments. The averaged test scores of these three nine week periods show a significant trend. The first nine weeks shows little improvement (.98 point) over the control group, the second nine weeks shows a substantial improvement (6.15 points), and the third nine weeks shows a

164 remarkable improvement (11.77 points). This dramatic trend in improved student performance probably can be attributed to the students learning how to combine different subject matter. Specifically, they had to learn how to let the art help them learn history.

AMERICAN HISTORY & ART CO-STUDY

GRADE POINT IMPROVEMENT BY NINE WEEK PERIODS

15 • +11.77

• +6.15

0 •+.98 st nd rd Improvement Point Grade 1 2 3 Nine Week Grading Periods

Figure 2: American History & Art Co-Study Grade Improvement

At the end of the study, we distributed an anonymous, written exit survey to the Co-Study Curriculum students and twelve responded. Ten (83%) felt that their grade improved because of the Co-Study Curriculum and twelve (100%) unanimously agreed that it helped them to remember better and to understand better their history. They listed advantages of the Co-Study Curriculum as (Co-Study Program Report, 1999, pp. 17-18): "The Co-Study helped me to remember things visually and it really gave me two opportunities to go over what I was learning." "We got more in depth in the topic." "Because of drawing maps, I can now locate countries. Before, I didn't even know where Asia was." “The art projects made it possible for me to pass the test without reading the entire chapter five minutes before the test.” "There is more time to go over things and study. We can make picture associations with our work."

165 "In Co-Study you understand more of the history than in traditional history class. The art pictures help me understand more and help me a lot on tests and chapters." "The artwork we do goes with the history to help us better understand. If I don't understand something in history, it helps me to draw it." “We cover more background information. We embed the history lectures more.” “Coloring and drawing. You get sneak peeks at the coming chapters. You understand what is going on more.” "The class was fun and interesting. If I could, I'd come back." Jean and I compared our observations of the three nine week periods. We both agreed that map making remarkably improved Co-Study Curriculum student map test scores over history-only students. On the World War I map test, Co-Study Curriculum map test scores were an average of 19.04 points higher than the control group’s. Clearly, map making improved student retention of geography facts. We both disliked the artificial division of classes—art during seventh period and history during eighth period. We felt it caused a lack of continuity and flow back and forth between subjects, at least during eighth period when we had history-only students. This was a change from the collaboration of the previous year when history was immediately reinforced with an art activity. We found that many students believed that art was an easy course which required little work to pass and they had to adjust their thinking regarding the workload needed in the art class. We agreed, also, students had to realize that art projects would not replace their efforts in studying history; art would help them in studying history. As the year progressed, improved test scores indicated that students had adjusted their perceptions and internalized our expectations regarding how art could help them retain and understand history better. We noticed this shift from their comments and increased quality of art portfolio work. Finally, we found that the Co-Study Curriculum created a nurturing environment which reduced the negative effects of factors that can interfere with learning, such as, low self-esteem, lack of self-control (too talkative, inability starting or staying on task), lack of enthusiasm, expectations of failure, and feelings of anxiety.

166 We wondered if our two groups—Co-Study Curriculum group and history-only group—were roughly equal in overall student performance. According to student GPAs in both groups, the Co-Study Curriculum group was performing on an average of one- half letter grade below the control group (history-only). Taking that into consideration, the experimental group actually increased their average test grade by 1 ½ letter grades instead of one letter grade. We always had plans to expand the Co-Study Curriculum into other arenas. I collaborated with a world history teacher during February of 1999 on the Renaissance. We brought my Art in Other Cultures class and his regular World History class together during second period. Students learned the technique of art criticism while viewing slides of Renaissance painting and sculpture; the skill of contour drawing to make a map of Renaissance Italy; and, one-point perspective. One of Mr. S’s other regular World History classes was used as a control group; they saw no slides nor received any art instruction on the Renaissance. The assessment used was an objective test on the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance periods and a map test on Renaissance Italy. The Late Middles Ages portion of the test was used as a control measure between the two groups because no collaboration occurred on that time period. Therefore, the Late Middle Ages portion of the test was used to measure the performance level of each group. Averaged objective test scores showed a one-letter grade (8 point) increase for the Co-Study Curriculum group. This was achieved by adding the 4.41 positive grade shift (of the Co-Study Curriculum group as compared to the control group) to the 3.58 control measure. The experimental group performed more poorly on the Late Middle Ages portion of the test and the +3.58 points compensated for the deficiency. The improvement in test scores of the experimental group over the control group occurred despite the fact that some of the students were quite adamant about not wanting to change the format of instruction after years of teacher centered classes. They did not want to deviate from their set learning pattern which was defined by text reading, use of worksheets, and instructor lecturing. Some of the students had difficulty adjusting to the idea that two subjects could be taught together and had trouble understanding the linkages and connections between subjects. Also, some of them were worried about their World History class getting

167 behind other classes in subject matter covered because the art consumed more time. Mr. S was a charismatic personality in the classroom and some of his students resented my intrusion into their class. In anonymous, written exit surveys, students cited the disadvantages of the Co-Study Curriculum (Co-Study Program Report, 1999, p. 35): "Maybe more people would be interested if they understood what this is all about." “It put us behind.” "Boring." "Hard." "Confusing." "Everything." However, not all of the students were dissatisfied. Several listed the advantages of the Co-Study Curriculum (Co-Study Program Report, 1999, p. 34): “It was fun because you didn’t have to listen to someone talk all the time.” “It would help people to understand history by using visual arts.” “It teaches you how to draw history.” “Because it teaches more than only history.” “It’s good for visual learners, instead of learning from a book.” “I remembered more.” “I really enjoyed this. It was fun.” “It is two classes in one, so that helps. I think people would rather draw or paint than do bookwork all the time.” “It might help some people understand better.” With results and test scores like these from both the American History and Art Co-Study course and the World History and Art Co-Study collaboration, Jean and I decided to share the information with everyone. At the end of the 1998-99 school year, we made a presentation of our findings not only to our principal, assistant principals, and faculty but also to some district office personnel and one school board member. We shared our results, showed how it exemplified Connections training, and laid out a future course for the Co-Study Curriculum program. It was set for another year, or so we thought.

168 1999-2000 School Year During the 1999-2000 school year, American History and Art Co-Study was changed; Jean and I both were assigned American History classes. The most that Guidance was willing to do was to schedule us in adjoining classrooms during the same time. We both were scheduled for the same period, seventh period, so that we could bring our classes together if we wished, and we did. The reason given to us was that we had not been carrying our full teaching load the previous year and the school could not afford to continue that arrangement. We saw our students every other day during seventh period; they were registered for American History only and earned credit only in American History. Whereas, last year's American History and Art Co-Study class met everyday and earned two credits: one credit in art and one credit in American History. Contact hours were reduced by 50% and this meant that the Co-Study Curriculum students would have less time for the art to reinforce American history content than the previous year's students. The question was—would we get comparable results to last year's Co-Study Curriculum group with less time for art projects to reinforce history content? Jean reflected (Interview, 2002) on the first American History and Art Co-Study class and the changes coming for the second year: I remember the advantage was that you could do an art activity and follow it up immediately with content so that they could readily see the connection…and since we saw them everyday, we would constantly reinforce them. Well, I think having been able to see them everyday also meant that we could move faster. But then with the every other day, it meant that we don’t have them for the art and the history, we just have them for the history and we are trying to include the art in there. We had to squeeze whatever art we wanted in there and still cover what was required in the curriculum as well. That was very difficult. We moved forward in developing the most effective Co-Study Curriculum and delivery techniques but had great concern regarding whether or not one class period every other day would be enough time for the art to improve student grade performance in history. We used Jean's other American history classes—three classes—as control groups against which to compare Co-Study Curriculum test scores. Many of our hands-

169 on projects remained the same but a few from the previous year, deemed too lengthy, were discarded. A few new projects were added. Of particular interest to the additions was the beginning of Living History Days, a thematic integration activity. The American History and Art Co-Study class sponsored Living History Days which were held each year, for four consecutive years, at a local state park. Part of the mission statement of the Florida Park Service was to interpret the cultural resource of the park; St. Andrews State Park did this for RHS by setting up historical reenactments that lasted over a two-day period. Approximately forty Rutherford students were trained to participate as docents alongside park personnel who are professional reenactors. Another thirty Rutherford students helped develop and maintain three of the historical reenactment stations with the help of their teachers. The types of activities at this event included crafts such as candle making, preparing food and household commodities (cooking pork rinds, mullet smoking, butter and ice cream churning, open campfire cooking, lye soap making), Native American pottery making and dancing, and Civil War military and medical knowledge. The audience for these activities was other Rutherford students, consisting of 300 American History students (150 per day), who came to the park for the day to enjoy this interactive event. Before Living History Days occurred, teachers from different subject areas—American history, English literature, health occupations, ROTC, art, and science—who taught juniors aligned their curricula around the Colonial to Civil War time period. Art students studied American Indian designs, engaged in clay building, and made posters for the upcoming event. This was a good example of several subject areas and one grade level focusing on a common theme (thematic integration). Jean rated the learning experience of Living History Days in this manner (Interview, 2002): Well, I think the hands-on, and actually seeing…because some of them had never seen some of the things that were used in the homes…making butter…and they didn’t know what a cracklin’ was (laugh). They do now! And cooking food on an open fire, that sort of thing…just being my age, I guess I just assumed if you grew up you knew about those kinds of things. But their range is such that unless they see it on TV, they would never see it. But even at Westville, we didn’t have

170 all of the park reenactors. They had a chance to walk through but here they actually got a chance to see them churning the butter. And, we had the fire, the grease was in the pot, and we were doing the cracklin’. Alecia, a student who participated in one American History and Art Co-Study class and two Living History Days, summed up her experience this way (Interview, 2003): “It taught many of the students things they never would have learned in a classroom. The hands-on experience gave knowledge of what came before and a better understanding of what we have now.” The first Living History Days occurred in October during the first nine weeks of school. By the end of the third nine weeks and several projects later, we were ready to compare our data. We compared the averaged grade performance of the Co-Study Curriculum group with the averaged grade performance of the control group, Jean’s other American history classes. It was disappointing at first glance. The Co-Study Curriculum group’s averaged test scores were below the control groups' averaged test scores. Jean had noted during the year that this year's experimental group had many within it who seemed to be at the basic skill level, i.e., below average, not up to high schoolwork, short attention span, poor reading comprehension, and difficulty staying on task. We looked at their GPAs: Co-Study Curriculum group’s average GPA was 2.183; control group’s average GPA was 2.646. The experimental group’s was definitely lower than the control group’s; the difference equaled .463 or approximately ½ letter grade. Then we noticed the same improvement in test scores that we had seen in the previous year’s American History and Art Co-Study class. The Co-Study Curriculum group’s performance increased as the year progressed. They improved their averaged test scores by 11½ points—one and one-half letter grades—over the three nine-week period. The control groups’ averaged test scores did not increase over the same time period. The Co- Study Curriculum students increased performance, almost the same amount of improved test performance as last year’s, while the control group did not. Students expressed their feelings about the Co-Study Curriculum in anonymous, written exit surveys (Co-Study Program Report, 2000, pp. 11-12): "I remember patterns and pictures before I remember numbers and dates."

171 "The projects keep me interested with the information." "Drawing pictures helps me to remember." "Well, me being an art lover, it allowed me to be creative and actually have fun learning while improving my artistic ability." "It helped me to express myself more and get better at art." “We actually get to draw.” “Not as stressful…you are not always just reading.” “The art gets you into the history more…the other way was boring.” “I am able to understand better with the art that we do…it is like a visual aid.” A few students expressed their dissatisfaction (Co-Study Program Report, 2000, p. 12): “I felt I didn’t have the drawing talent to do this class.” “You don’t cover as much traditional information.” “We didn’t get to go through everything because we did the artwork.” “Too much work.” Jean and I agreed that despite the fact that the Co-Study Curriculum was taught during only one class period, the art projects still significantly enhanced learning in American history. On the anonymous, written exit surveys, 88% of the students said that art projects helped them to remember history better and 96% said art projects helped them to understand history better. Further, Jean and I concurred that the students exhibited growth in ways not shown by objective testing. Growth occurred in students’ art skills, presentation skills, abilities to focus their in-class attention on subject matter, openness to suggestions, willingness to try new things, greater independence in study habits, greater self-motivation, and willingness to openly discuss their opinions. The experimental and control students were compared to see if their average attendance differed. The month of February was used for this comparison. The data below reflects that the Co-Study Curriculum students’ average attendance was twice as good as the control students’ average attendance—absenteeism was cut in half. Jean and I were pleased with another successful year of American History and Art Co-Study. However, we noticed something else occurring—in Jean. Her teaching style was changing from repeated exposure to the Co-Study Curriculum. During the first year

172 of American History and Art Co-Study, it was easy for her to separate the new teaching techniques from her traditional classes. As we moved through the second year, it was

ATTENDANCE FOR FEBRUARY 2000 (10 Class Periods)

Experimental Group Control Group

7th Period 1st 5th 6th Periods

Number of Absences 16 13 22 28

% Absent 4.71 5.65 10.00 14.74

Average % Absent 4.71 10.13

Figure 3: Attendance Comparison increasingly difficult for Jean not to use Co-Study Curriculum techniques in her other American History classes. Some of the techniques inadvertently filtered into the control groups. She remembered it this way (Interview, 2002): And now every time I’m looking at content I’m thinking, “What can we do to bring some visualization to this so that it will make more sense?” I changed, of course, yeah. I started to introduce something visual to the content so that it will stick with them better. Introduction of art has really helped me to expand what I do in the classroom. Students love it. Just give them a chance to draw something, even if it looks bad. Just the idea that they could sit down and do something other than write words. We decided that for the next school year we would have to find another teacher who could act as a control for our experimental group. That proved to be very difficult as will be shown in the following section on the 2000-01 school year. Karen Collins and Myra Crews Jen and I were anxious to get others interested in Co-Study. Between 1998 and 2000, the Co-Study Program centered on two collaborations and two courses taught in the

173 Social Studies Department. Our data was showing significant improvement in student grade performance. We wondered if this increased grade performance could be transferred to other disciplinary areas. We found willing teachers: Karen Collins from the Art Department and Myra Crews from the Science Department. Karen is an experienced high school art teacher and described her career in an interview with the researcher during May of 2003 (See Appendix B-4a). The following are excerpts from this interview; please refer to the appendix for the entire interview. JENNY: Where did you go to college? KAREN: Valdosta State College in Valdosta, Georgia. JENNY: What was your major? KAREN: I have a BFA in art education. JENNY: Where was your first teaching job? KAREN: Cairo High School, Cairo, Georgia. JENNY: So, you’ve been teaching in high school all along? KAREN: Yes, I’ve not taught in lower grades. JENNY: What significant things have you learned about teaching others? KAREN: I think the older I’ve gotten I’ve realized that different kids learn by different learning styles. I’ve become more aware of it especially by being at Rutherford and being with other teachers. We have to motivate them and they all learn differently and so I’ve tried to come up with different ways to help them that have certain learning styles…to focus in on their learning style…you know to help them prepare and learn things differently. JENNY: What have you learned about yourself from teaching? How has teaching changed you as a person? KAREN: I’ve developed more patience. I am really a perfectionist and I’ve really had to be patient with my students because they’re learning and I try to focus on their learning and not so much on being so perfect. And a lot of times they want to just do enough to get by and I won’t accept that. Some of them get mad at me because of that. I try to have patience with them because I don’t want them to give up and because I don’t want to give up either on them. And it’s just kind of a balance between the two. JENNY: Describe the classes that you teach this year and the structure of a typical day.

174 KAREN: I teach three: two Art 2-D classes and a drawing class every day. I really enjoy my Art 2-D classes and I enjoy the upper class that I have in the drawing which ends the day. I like teaching the lower classes like the ninth graders, but I like the mixed classes, and that is what is in 2-D. In 2-D, a lot of times they’re anxious…to be there and to learn about art. JENNY: They have anxiety about being in art class? KAREN: Some of them really do…especially those who are not artistically inclined at all. But, even so, I’ve got a student now…she can’t even color within lines. She is very stressed at times and I try to make her feel more comfortable, you know. But she is very artistically challenged. JENNY: How do you motivate your students? KAREN: That’s a tough one. I try to pick things, projects, that they have an interest in. If not the project, I try to convert it to a subject they may be interested in. Like in a grid drawing, they like to draw cars…but they got a choice of what to draw. And a lot of times I do give them choices of subject matter and they tend to gravitate toward things they like. That is the most common way I motivate them…by letting them have a responsible choice in what they are doing. JENNY: What is the most important thing you teach? KAREN: I think color is important. But in drawing, I think learning how to shade realistically is an important concept because everybody wants to do something realistic. And when you’ve got shading and tones down and they can do something realistically, they become proud of themselves and they want to continue. I really think drawing is something important that I teach. Karen concluded that she enjoys teaching her two subjects, Art 2-D and Drawing, and “even though I teach the same subjects I am constantly changing the units and what I teach in each one so it does not get monotonous by any means” (Interview, 2003). Karen’s collaborator, Myra, is an experienced teacher, too, having taught in Missouri before moving to Panama City. In an interview conducted in January 2003, Myra revealed some of her background and teaching experiences. The following are excerpts from this interview (see Appendix B-5a). Please refer to the appendix for the entire interview.

175 JENNY: So, how in the world did you end up at Rutherford High School from Missouri? MYRA: Well, my husband took a job in Panama City and that is why we came here in 1991. JENNY: So, you came from Missouri to here? Was it hard to leave your land of rearing? MYRA: Not really, I was ready to go. JENNY: Did you like the water and the beaches? MYRA: Oh, I thought that was fabulous, yes. JENNY: Had you ever seen it? MYRA: Yes, we used to come to Florida when I was a child. My dad…his family lived in southern Florida during the Depression. They had sold their farm in Kansas to buy prime farmland in southern Florida that turned out to be a swamp. And so, the Depression hit and they lost everything and they stayed down in southern Florida until the Depression was over. So anyway, my dad, then…that was his boyhood home and he had to see the beaches every summer. So we used to come… JENNY: Where did you go to college? MYRA: I went to a small college, very small, state college. It’s called Southeast Missouri State College. Cape Girardo, Missouri. It’s right on the Mississippi River. JENNY: What is your certification in? MYRA: Science. Bachelor of Science degree with a major in biology and a minor in chemistry. JENNY: What significant things have you learned about teaching others? MYRA: I think that a turning point came when I…believe it or not…I guess my “how to teach science classes” in college were just dish it out, just, you know, just be a lecturer. Just lecture and if they get it, they get it and who cares…you know…whatever. And I was bored and I thought, “There is something missing here.” When Missouri started their rendition of the FCAT, we had our goals that we had to satisfy. And as I started to do that and see what I had to get the kids to come up with and learn, I just started changing the way I was teaching and do a little bit more…well, just tried to make it more interesting, I guess. Because I knew they had to remember this stuff because they were going to be tested in May about it. And, plus, I had the opportunity to go to the NSTA, which is the National Science Teachers meeting, and that really opened the door to the

176 fact that everybody else was doing the same thing. They were exploring science as an interesting subject rather than just memorize, regurgitate, memorize, regurgitate. And I think I was ready to change. I saw that the way I had been taught…you know, teaching high school like you teach college…is just ridiculous. It is just not going to motivate the kids. JENNY: What have you learned about yourself from teaching? MYRA: Well, I never had thought I was a creative person…never, you know…but I think I developed that part of myself. I think, in the old days, creativity was “Can you draw something that looks like it is supposed to look?” And now, it’s like…it’s more just…I don’t know…putting together parts to make the whole issue come together. JENNY: So, how has teaching changed you as a person? MYRA: I think probably the biggest change that has taken place…since my own kids…(well, they are out of the public schools now but…they graduated last year)…is having more compassion for the kids. Seeing how their teachers could get them so confused (they didn’t go to school here), it made me realize that you’ve got to make it simple. You’ve got to make it step by step. You’ve got to make it where they can take it away and come back, not the next day, but two days later and still be able to start it up again. Just making it more simple and logical to them, I guess. JENNY: Tell me what you are teaching this year and how your day is structured. MYRA: I have one Chemistry II class and two average Chemistry I classes, two Honors Chemistry I classes and a Biology class…an average Biology class. JENNY: What skills or concepts do you want your students to learn? MYRA: I think that the whole realm of physical sciences, the physical world, is…has a tendency to be…abstract. And I want them to go away with more of an understanding of the world of matter. We are living in a physical world and when you talk about the atomic level it does get abstract. The general population just doesn’t have very much knowledge of how things operate. JENNY: How do you motivate your students to get interested in this? MYRA: Well, I try to bring in lots and lots of activities. We are…the world of science and science teachers…I tell the kids this and they laugh…we chemistry teachers are very organized. We are a very organized group. We get together and we have conventions

177 and people bring the best of the best. We share our ideas and I think this is where I pick up lots of ideas on how to motivate, lots of activities… JENNY: A hands-on approach? MYRA: Very much. You can talk all day but until you show somebody something they are just halfway understanding it. Karen and Myra wanted to bring together their eighth period classes—Karen’s Drawing II class and Myra’s Chemistry I class—in order to try a co-study collaboration between science and art. They decided to use Myra’s first and second period Chemistry I classes, which did not receive art instruction, as a control group. The chemistry students had previously studied the effects of pressure exerted by gases. This lesson was extended further by studying the effects of pressure exerted by liquids on an object. The Co-Study Curriculum students illustrated the dynamic effects of pressure due to temperature change by drawing a sequence of events. A drawing of four stages—“empty” can, can heated on a hot plate, can placed into water, crushed can—showed the effects of water pressure on an empty soda can whose gaseous contents had been dispersed through the addition of heat. Students learned the skills of perspective, shading, and pointillism. Perspective and shading were used to realistically and accurately draw the soda can and its details, such as lettering and logos. Pointillism was used to show the molecular activity from the liquid water, the gases of the air, and the water vapor. All of Myra’s Chemistry I students were given the same quiz on the process and the Co-Study Curriculum group had a phenomenal 29 point grade increase (four letter grades) over the control groups. Myra said (Co-Study Program Report, 2000, p. 40) she saw “for the first time how an art teacher’s teaching techniques are different from her own yet very complimentary to the learning process.” She said that the Co-Study Curriculum students gave much better written explanations of the observed scientific process than those in the control group. Myra expressed her frustration at teaching this unit in previous years (Interview, 2003): I remember the frustration, believe it or not, of “This is the most fantastic section…I absolutely love to teach this section” but I always came away with the

178 kids not being able to explain anything that they saw. They had fun doing all the activities but they couldn’t express themselves as to why it all happened. That was my frustration. We picked this activity to do and I was just blown over with my control group compared to my experimental group. The experimental group actually being students who were much lower academically but after it was all over their knowledge and being able to express themselves and explain on paper and verbally what was going on was just head and shoulders above my control group. It all had to do with drawing invisible…invisible to the naked eye of course…atoms. And that is where Karen came in. She showed them how to draw and how to make force lines and, evidently, just drawing and putting in what you couldn’t see made it all click with them. Well, I thought, “This has some merit. This is something we need to start shouting from the rooftops…that this works.” Both teachers saw the students in a different light. Myra saw art talent that she did not know her students possessed contribute to their learning. She expressed it this way (Interview, 2003): Now these students that I had in this experimental group were kind of a rough group…behaviorally. They were not highly motivated academically. But I saw them being able to draw things. I mean I saw this artsy side of them that I had never seen before. They drew things and could color to make it look like it was supposed to look. We allowed her (Karen’s) art students, many of whom had never had chemistry—in fact, I think it was, I’m thinking, probably 100% that had never had chemistry—we brought them to the chemistry lab and I saw my students kind of step up to the plate and take these students who had not had chemistry, make sure they followed all the safety rules and…just had the proper behavior. They really stepped up. They were real concerned that these other students did everything correctly. It made me really proud of them. Karen saw art talent that needed to be developed through art classes. In an interview (2003) she said:

179 I was really interested in how it (the collaboration) affected my students. I didn’t really think that they would like being there but they did because they got to participate in the actual lab, too. Then it challenged them because they tried to draw better than her students. So it was funny to watch them trying to outshine in their drawing abilities over hers. I really saw a lot of potential drawers as I taught this and I would persuade them to take drawing classes. Both teachers saw the art students, many of whom had never taken a chemistry class, become active participants in the learning process by enthusiastically joining with the chemistry students in the scientific experiment. Karen summed up her feelings this way: Planning with a colleague, Myra, who taught a different subject area, Chemistry I, was quite a different experience. I was very apprehensive with the Co-Study initially because I did not believe my Drawing II students would be challenged sufficiently. However, we were very much in tune from the beginning stages of planning with recognizing and meeting the needs of all the students involved. Even though the performance-based assessment project would be centered around what her chemistry students needed to know and reinforce, a drawing project would, also, meet the needs and even challenge my students as well. A subject was chosen which appealed to all students…a soda can! A detailed soda can would be drawn, complete with logos, color, and details, both before and after a lab experiment. The results of the drawings were awesome! The chemistry students who did the drawing assignment were able to remember and retain what was learned better than a control group who did not do the drawing. Both Myra and I were extremely pleased with the results of the Co-Study even though it took quite a bit of planning. (Co-Study Program Report, 2000, p. 41) In a subsequent interview (2003), Karen elaborated further: I really enjoyed working with another teacher. So many times I am working alone or I’m getting feedback off of other art teachers but it’s never with a teacher of a different subject. And that was an experience because I never really co- taught or team taught a class. That experience was totally new. Myra and I worked together really well. We played off of each other and sometimes I’d fill

180 in certain sentences for her and she would me. Even though I’m not a chemistry teacher but I have had chemistry…and I just think we worked really well together. I have never in my teaching career…and that’s 27 years…worked with another teacher. I really liked doing that. Like I said, Myra and I worked together and came up with this one assignment. We keep saying we are going to get back together and it’s hard. Jean and I ended the school year with another presentation to RHS faculty and administrators and Bay District Schools office personnel of the results and highlights of the Co-Study Program—our own American History and Art Co-Study Course and Karen and Myra’s Chemistry and Art Co-Study Collaboration. We asked Guidance to give us a World History and Art Co-Study class for the next school year as well as to maintain our American History and Art Co-Study class. 2000-2001 School Year The year began with Jean and I looking for another social studies teacher whose American history students could act as a control group against our American History and Art Co-Study class. Mr. T became our control. However, it proved very difficult to coordinate with him and the data we eventually collected was insufficient to draw any conclusions. Guidance gave us a World History and Art Co-Study class consisting of the ninth grade Acceleration Academy students. The Acceleration Academy was for students who had scored low on the FCAT in the eighth grade and were kept together as a group in the ninth grade for remediation. They were labeled dropout prevention students. During the tenth grade, they were mainstreamed into all classes except for English and World History and Art Co-Study. We used Mr. D's world history classes as a control to compare but it was like comparing apples and oranges. Our students were performing way below his classes. However, we noticed the same thing we did earlier with our first two American History and Art Co-Study classes. The Co-Study Curriculum group’s averaged test scores improved over the three nine week periods whereas Mr. D's students averaged test scores, the control group, stayed the same over three nine week periods.

181 2001-2002 School Year The 2001-02 school year brought us our fourth class of American History and Art Co-Study class and our second class of World History and Art Co-Study. We, again, inherited the Acceleration Academy dropout prevention students for the world history class. There were no suitable control groups for either Co-Study Curriculum group so we were unable to accumulate objective data on student performance. Instead, I interviewed some of the students. Alecia and Crystal were interviewed from the American History and Art Co-Study class and Kellie, Christina, and Elizabeth were interviewed from the World History and Art Co-Study class. These interviews occurred during the spring of the year after the students participated in the Co-Study Curriculum courses. Plenty of time had passed for them to reflect on the meaning of the curriculum and its impact on them. Below are excerpts from these pilot study interviews; please see Appendix B for the full interviews. Alecia, who had been in American History and Art Co-Study during her junior year, thought that Co-Study improved her grade in history and increased her art skills. The following are excerpts from her interview; the full interview is in Appendix B-7. MRS. DOSTER: Alecia, how would you characterize yourself as a student? ALECIA: Well, I guess I would call myself a band nerd. MRS. DOSTER: What do you play in the band? ALECIA: Everything…well, just about. But I actually have a seat for a bassoon. Well, in concert band, which is the band I’m in…I’m the only one. But there is a band higher than mine and there are two in there so, technically, I’m third chair in band. But, I play first part. MRS. DOSTER: Your interests are band, primarily…anything else? ALECIA: I like to read. MRS. DOSTER: What are your favorite subjects? ALECIA: Well, besides band, I like math and science. MRS. DOSTER: So, you were American History and Art Co-Study last year, which would be the 2001-2002 school year. And Mrs. Warren and I were teaching that together, correct? ALECIA: Yes…in the big room…

182 MRS. DOSTER: The room with the collapsible wall… ALECIA: The room that was specifically made for Co-Study. MRS. DOSTER: What do you remember most about the course? ALECIA: The art… MRS DOSTER: The art? ALECIA: Obviously… MRS. DOSTER: Not the history? ALECIA: Well, I remember the history because of the art. MRS. DOSTER: Could you elaborate a little more? ALECIA: Like the posters that we did…and the oral projects…like, about…the one I did was the 1920s and the 1930s project. It was on poster and we could bring people in if we wanted to for a live performance and I did jazz…jazz music of the 1920s. MRS. DOSTER: So, who is the Co-Study slanted toward? ALECIA: Well, obviously it is slanted more toward the people who like visual challenges…and art class. But it gives that challenge to visual…it gives that visual orientation that you wouldn’t get in some other classes. Well, the other thing they need to realize is that it’s not only art. They should also make the students aware there is textbook stuff. Alecia further elaborated on the effect of the Co-Study Curriculum process and how it affected her study habits. She expressed her thoughts in this manner (Interview, 2003): Well, to be honest, I never studied in school before and I got into this class and with the artwork and stuff, the discussions and everything, people were saying stuff that I really didn’t know about. So, I’d go and I’d actually go study it…and it actually caused me to get into other types of literature. The visual orientation caused me to want to study for once in my life. Some people…I’m not the first person to say this…it’s been studied…but some people are more challenged by being given visual orientation than they are by sitting there and listening to people. I came away with more knowledge and better art skills. It made it more enjoyable. It was fun because of the art. It helps. It helps you remember things.

183 Drawing helped me remember things more. In some ways it did help me understand better… Crystal was another student in Alecia’s class of American History and Art Co- Study. They sat on opposite sides of the room and did not particularly interact with one another on a daily basis. The following are excerpts from Crystal’s interview. The full interview is in Appendix B-10. I started by asking her to characterize herself as a student. CRYSTAL: I’m really committed and organized. I work hard at what I do…my work and stuff. I get my work done…on time or ahead of time. I like to read…Stephen King books…and Harry Potter. I like anime. I like to write and play video games. MRS. DOSTER: What are your favorite subjects? CRYSTAL: English, mythology, art and that is about it. MRS. DOSTER: Do you have any least favorite? CRYSTAL: Math and gym. History and science are neutral…neither good nor bad. Crystal said that while she was taking American History and Art Co-Study she was concurrently taking a class in World History taught in the traditional manner. She said that she remembered more of her American history content than her world history content. In her own words (Interview, 2003): CRYSTAL: Yes, I remember most of it. I remember more than in world history which I was taking at the same time…except for World War I and II when both classes were studying the same thing. MRS. DOSTER: Can you give me an example? CRYSTAL: I remember, like, studying the presidents and we had to do Hoover’s plan, and like the different plans for how they handled the economic depression and stuff. Each one had their own plan. I remember doing a tornado thing for, I think, it was Hoover. MRS. DOSTER: The funnel approach. I think we were doing a pop-up book on the 1930s, weren’t we? CRYSTAL: Yeah, I couldn’t remember what we called it but it was a tornado. I remember it was a tornado. Yeah, we were doing a pop-up book of that and the FDR stuff.

184 MRS. DOSTER: Was Co-Study helpful to you? CRYSTAL: Yeah, because like the funnel approach shows how it starts from the top and goes down. They help you remember better because when you see the funnel you see the funnel approach. When you see the tornado and, then, you put the little things in there it helps you to understand it. MRS. DOSTER: So, it’s almost like a diagram of something. CRYSTAL: Yeah. Crystal’s summarizing remarks concerning the American History and Art Co- Study class included the following (Interview 2003): …it helped me remember the information a lot better. I understand by reading; the Co-Study helped me remember. …the whole class improved my grade. My other friends had other teachers and their grades were bad. Many people wanted to get into the Co- Study. Art would help them do better. Three of the students in the World History and Art Co-Study class voiced similar sentiments during their interviews. When I interviewed these students they were, at the time of the interview, taking a traditional American History class the following year. It was the year after their World History and Art Co-Study class and Jean and I were not given an American History and Art Co-Study class that year so they were placed in another teacher’s class. The three students were Kellie, Christina, and Elizabeth. Kellie and Christina are sisters and Elizabeth is their friend. Kellie was very positive about her learning experience in World History and Art Co-Study. She said that she learned a whole lot because the Co-Study Curriculum was hands-on. In her own words, “It was very organized. I learned a whole lot. We could see what we were doing. I learned geography.” (Interview, 2003). She described the class as a mixture of activities including drawing, movies, and bookwork. The following are excerpts from her interview; the full text is in Appendix B-13. MRS. DOSTER: Kellie, characterize yourself as a student. KELLIE: I’m responsible. I do my work on time and I enjoy going to school. MRS. DOSTER: What are your favorite subjects? KELLIE: Art, history, and science.

185 MRS. DOSTER: What are your least favorite? KELLIE: Math, English and all them…like that. Kellie remembered having fun in class. I asked her if she remembered the history. She responded (Interview, 2003): Yeah, because it was hands-on and now when my teachers quote something I remember it. Co-Study was not just hearing but doing things…making it come alive. It has helped me a lot this year. I can answer history questions this year. I usually was not able to do that…in the past. That was an interesting statement; the Co-Study Curriculum had a residual effect for this particular student. It improved her ability to handle history content the next year in her American history class. She, also, found working in groups helpful: If you didn’t understand something then your friend understood and could help you. In my classes now, if you help each other they think you are cheating. But, then, you guys walked around and you helped us, too, so we weren’t cheating. We were always talking about it. And when we got ready for midterms and stuff, we would have a big study group. We would go to my friend’s house and make little cards and stuff. She, further, credited the Co-Study Curriculum with helping her to pass the FCAT: My FCAT grade this year was awesome. I didn’t have to retake it at all. I passed it the first time. People who don’t usually like reading out loud, you’d encourage them to read out loud. Usually, when I take FCAT, I hate reading. You know how you have to read that long thing and answer all the questions. It just helped me to read. I read at home normally now. This particular student prospered in a social learning context of working in groups on projects and participating in reading aloud. However, she lamented that her grades had fallen during her junior year as compared to her first two years in high school. Christina, Kellie’s sister, had strong memories, also, of the World History and Art Co-Study curriculum. Christina’s interview is found in Appendix B-9. She characterized herself as a good student, one who likes to do her work. She said that history was her

186 favorite subject and science, too, but that she hated math. Christina remembers the following about the class (Interview, 2003): Egypt. I remember studying Egypt. That was my favorite. I still have my drawings and my notebook from that class. It helped me to, you know, understand it…to have hands-on activities…to learn it more. I like to learn from actually doing it…than just hearing a lecture, actually seeing it on slides and stuff like that. It gave me hands-on study material. I took that class (World History) in middle school and I didn’t even realize how much was actually in the course until I got into high school and took it again with the art. Co-Study actually taught me stuff instead of just learning reading and lecturing and stuff like that. You actually look at the stuff and see the art and understand the people more. You get into what was in the people’s minds and how they were drawing. I can still remember sitting in class and drawing from the slides and the overhead. It was fun. I learn better by seeing something than, just, you know, just listening to it and not understanding it…until I actually see it. Everyone I talked to liked the Co-Study class and I wanted to take it this year. They didn’t let us have that course this year. It was just a great, great, great course…awesome. I still have my notebook and I always look at it and remember things I did in that class. Elizabeth, friend to sisters Kellie and Christina, was the third student interviewed regarding her experience in World History and Art Co-Study. Her complete interview is in Appendix B-11. She described herself as “average”, “responsible”, “trying to work hard” and listed art and science as her favorite classes. She felt, also, that the curriculum helped her with reading. She said, “It helped with the reading. I was more interested in it…in reading by the time the Co-Study was over with” (Interview, 2003). When asked about the FCAT she responded, “Oh, I passed. The first time I took it, I passed.” The following are excerpts from Elizabeth’s interview (2003): MRS. DOSTER: What do you remember most about the course? ELIZABETH: How much I learned and how easy it was to remember things because we drew so much and were so involved with the subject.

187 MRS. DOSTER: Did you find the Co-Study Curriculum helpful? ELIZABETH: Oh, yeah, because I know I wouldn’t have remembered if it wasn’t for the art portion of the subject. MRS. DOSTER: Did it help you to understand? ELIZABETH: A lot, yeah. MRS. DOSTER: Do you think it improved your grade? ELIZABETH: Oh, yeah. It got me more involved with it because if I hadn’t had it then I wouldn’t have been so in tune with what was going on. MRS. DOSTER: Was there a favorite project you did or a favorite type of art that you did? ELIZABETH: The lettering…the lettering…was my favorite part. MRS. DOSTER: When did we do lettering? ELIZABETH: When we were studying the…I can’t even remember now…the Egyptians…the hieroglyphics. She felt the following type of student would benefit from the Co-Study Curriculum: The kind of student who is, maybe, not slow per se but it’s kind of harder for them to learn…unless you are doing hands-on activities. I’m the type of student where it’s hard for me to learn unless I’m involved with the subject. With results like these Jean and I did not think the future of the Co-Study Program was in jeopardy. However, Guidance did not schedule us to teach together for the 2002-03 school year. 2002-2003 School Year Jean was scheduled to teach all American History classes except for one World History class. I received two World History classes. My World History classes did not share the same time slot or location as in previous years. This was the first year since we started the Co-Study Program that we would not be teaching together. Despite our not being able to teach together, it did not really stop either of us from teaching with Co- Study Curriculum methods. I asked Jean to reflect on her experience as a teacher using Co-Study Curriculum methods. I wondered to what extent it had influenced her teaching

188 style, even when I’m not in the classroom with her. She responded in an interview (2002): Having reflected on this quite heavily, I think I am different. I am different in that the planning I do for units, now, always includes graphics or visuals. Visuals may be used to introduce, to support, to summarize unit content. At some point in the study of a unit, the production of a visual by each student has become a requirement. I have really changed. Before I began working with you, visuals were randomly included. That change for me has been positive. I believe the change for my students has been positive as well because the production of a visual that supports the content provides them with another assessment tool. I asked her if our time spent together in the whole Co-Study Curriculum experience would affect how she would teach in the future without me in the classroom with her. She answered me this way: I think what I am doing right now is just looking for visuals, things I can use to hone in on the content and revising some of the old ones. I look back now and say I could have done this, this, and this…so it’s a matter of introducing new ones…because I haven’t done this with every unit. But the intent is to do that... fine-tuning and introducing new visuals to support the content. On the first day of class with my world history students, I told them that they were in World History and Art Co-Study. They would receive the same credit as their friends in other world history classes, use the same textbooks, cover the same history material but that my teaching methods were different. They would be doing art. I had decided that since they had not requested this class, I needed for them to know right from the beginning what it was all about. On that first day they were doing contour drawings of their hands and shoes. On the second day of class, they were doing a contour drawing of the world map. I quickly explained the research angle to them and handed them a survey to complete, asking only for their gender as identification. My fifth and sixth period World History and Art Co-Study classes were typical tenth grade regular world history classes. One had 28 students, the other 29. They followed the demographics of Rutherford High School fairly closely: approximately one- half male and one-half female, two-thirds white and one-third minority, although sixth

189 period has a few more minority students. When I handed both classes the survey, the students had completed our Introductory Unit and taken a test on it but had not yet received their test scores. The first question on the survey asked them how much they thought studying art and history together would help their history grade. The combined results of both classes showed that 54% thought it would help a lot or a whole lot and 39% thought it would help a little. In other words, a total of 93% of the students thought that art would help their history grade in some fashion. Only 7% thought it would have no effect. Also, 69% of the students in the two classes combined thought that drawing the world map helped them to remember better the locations of the items on the map test and to understand better the world map. At this point, I felt they were willing to work with me and the Co-Study Curriculum. After a month of classes, it was determined at Rutherford that enrollment had increased, new teachers must be hired, and classes leveled. Some of my students were shifted to another world history class. Francine was one of them but did not want to leave. She told me a few weeks after the transfer that she felt a little frustrated. She said, “I miss the art because the art helped me understand the history.” She said the other class was boring because it was only lecture and worksheets and her grade had dropped by one letter. Toward the end of the first semester, the students and I were getting to know each other quite well. They seemed to enjoy the class and there were few failures. Most failures were due to non-attendance. I saw them grow with their art. Looking back over the semester, I was pleased. I, especially, remembered our unit on the Prehistoric Period because it had a lot of "firsts." It was the first time for looking at slides. Students enjoyed looking at and drawing the paintings on the walls of Lascaux and Altamira caves. It was our first "talk about art", our first art criticism of early prehistoric sculptures. It was our first studio experience; students created a cover for their unit notebooks. As we progressed to the next unit, I noticed that some students were having trouble trusting their drawing sense. After learning about Sumerian society and its art, I announced that their activity was to draw a Sumerian, a cylinder seal, or a monster in the middle of the paper. After that, they were to label the top of the page "Accomplishments

190 of the Sumerians" and place, around their drawing, things that this ancient civilization had accomplished. Most of the students jumped right into drawing. Solomon, however, was busily tracing a Sumerian man. I asked him why and said, "You can draw that…I know you can." I told him to leave the tracing on the paper but to add something else that he drew. I walked away and returned a few minutes later. Solomon had drawn a very good monster and seemed very pleased with himself. Some students, though, were difficult to reach. Jackson was one of them. He was bright but did not apply himself. I asked him why and he responded, "I listen, usually always, but don't always do the work. I listen to the art but don't do the projects. But I see others who are benefiting from the art" (Interview, 2003). I feared I had an audio learning style student stuck in a visual teaching style class. In an interview, conducted toward the end of the school year, Jackson explained further his feelings (Interview, 2003): MRS. DOSTER: Did you find the Co-Study Curriculum helpful? JACKSON: In some ways…I mean…I learned locations on a map. Not the drawing of the map…the looking at the map. I don’t like drawing. It’s just not fun to draw. MRS. DOSTER: So you don’t like to draw. Did you find the drawing helping you to understand the subject matter any better, even though you didn’t like it? JACKSON: Maybe a little bit…parts of it…especially locations. MRS. DOSTER: Did you see any students that you felt benefited from the Co-Study Curriculum? JACKSON: Yes, that girl that just walked in the door. MRS. DOSTER: And what type of students are those? JACKSON: People who look like her and stuff…with papers hanging out of her book bag. I saw others who were benefiting and enjoying the art…those who learn by doing more. He characterized himself as a student who made “normal grades”, that is, “Cs”, and favored “anything involving computers...and math.” He said, “I am unwilling in some classes, namely history, art, English.” The following are more excerpts from his interview; his complete interview is in B-12. MRS. DOSTER: What type of student benefits from Co-Study?

191 JACKSON: A person who likes art, obviously. A person who likes to do things by hand…who doesn’t like computers. MRS. DOSTER: You think you can’t do both…you can’t do art and computers? JACKSON: I think it is possible but a lot of people are either…very…they like it one way or the other. They are very organized…either that or they like art. Charles, on the other hand, seemed to be extremely visual and receptive to doing art. He was the second student interviewed regarding the World History and Art Co- Study curriculum. The following are excerpts from his interview toward the end of the school year; the full interview is in Appendix B-8. MRS. DOSTER: What do you remember about World History and Art Co-Study? CHARLES: I remember drawing a lot of maps…and I think that helped me a lot because it gave me a better understanding of the area…and it gave me, like, visual pictures of the area so that when I was reading in the book and it said people moved to certain places I could understand by looking back in my head at the map. MRS. DOSTER: So you had a visual image in your head going on when you were reading? You could locate it visually? CHARLES: Yeah, kind of like making a movie. MRS. DOSTER: Do you remember any other type of art besides making maps? CHARLES: Oh, yeah, we did a lot of buildings from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and the caves…I remember that. MRS. DOSTER: Do you remember the content of the course? By that I mean the history part of it and not just the art. CHARLES: I remember the history because the art helped me out a lot. I remember way back to Egypt and before…to the Neanderthals and the Cro-Magnon people…and all the way up to where we are now in the Middle Ages. MRS. DOSTER: Was Co-Study helpful to you? CHARLES: Yeah, it was very helpful. Not only did it help in history, it helped in other subjects, too…like in science because we were studying about the first humans in science and I remembered it from the history class. MRS. DOSTER: That’s interesting. You are actually linking different classes together, connecting different classes together. Has that ever happened before?

192 CHARLES: Yep, you can do it in science and math, too. They kind of link together. MRS. DOSTER: Do you like to do that? CHARLES: Yep. MRS. DOSTER: Does it make more sense to you when you can link knowledge? CHARLES: Yeah, it’s easier because you don’t have to isolate different information to different subjects…when you can use one piece of information for different subjects. MRS. DOSTER: Did Co-Study help you understand better the subject matter? CHARLES: Yes, it did because…I could understand how people lived by looking at how they wrote and what kind of weapons they had developed, inventions they made, how their land was laid out, and how their cities were built...and the castles were built…and how they had trade skills according to where they lived. MRS. DOSTER: And, then, to follow that…did it help you remember it better? CHARLES: Yes, see, I’m a visual person so that anything I draw I can remember, anything I write down I can remember…and all the bookwork and definitions help me remember too because if I write it down I get like a picture memory in my head…and then I take a test and it’s like “Look, there’s number 3”. It is like looking on a sheet of paper in your head. MRS. DOSTER: That’s interesting because that is the way I study, too. That is, I write it down, to study. Some people do this verbally and others do it visually. So, evidently, you are a visual learner. Did you ever know that before? CHARLES: No…not before… MRS. DOSTER: Did you figure it out this year? CHARLES: Yes, this year I figured it out. He described himself this way: CHARLES: I’m a hardworking student that occasionally likes to talk. I do most of my work at school and I like to study a lot. I’m interested in a lot of things. I want to be a geography teacher or a history teacher or I want to be a doctor. Get up in college and go for a long time. MRS. DOSTER: What are your favorite subjects? CHARLES: Math, science, English, history, and lunch.

193 I conducted two more interviews of my World History and Art Co-Study students towards the end of the school year. One was with Michael and the other was with Samantha. Michael stated that he both understood more history and increased his art ability during the year (Interview, 2003): It helped me understand a lot better than the normal classes that are not like the Co-Study. The Co-Study helped a lot. I’m not a very great drawer; I can’t do art. But it has helped me to learn how to and how to practice doing it. Because before, I would be lucky if I could draw a stick person and now I can actually draw…somewhat of a person with two dimensions. In the following excerpts, Michael describes himself and elaborates on his Co- Study curriculum experiences. His full interview is in Appendix B-14. MICHAEL: Hard-worker. I try my best and I don’t sit there and play around too much. I try to get down and get the work done. I’m kind of interested in technology and engineering and stuff. I also like to be a kid outside and play basketball, baseball, and all sports. Favorite subjects…I kind of like math…a little…I kind of struggle sometimes. I like history, a lot, sometimes. Then, I also like my technology class because that’s a fun class. MRS. DOSTER: What is it that you remember most about the course? MICHAEL: That we didn’t just study out of the book. We drew pictures and we discussed it in class. We drew the pictures of the people and the things in the place we were actually studying about. MRS. DOSTER: Was Co-Study helpful to you? MICHAEL: Actually, it was because it helped me understand what we were studying about instead of reading it out of the book and trying to imagine it. We actually had to draw it. We went over it in the class instead of me doing it by myself. It was like a whole group activity thing. MRS. DOSTER: When you went to take a test, did it help you remember it better for the test? MICHAEL: Basically, it did. Even though I didn’t study for most of the tests, it did help me remember it…

194 MRS. DOSTER: You didn’t what? (laughing) MICHAEL: Yeah, it helped me remember it. MRS. DOSTER: So, you didn’t have to study? Is that what you are telling me? MICHAEL: No, that is not what I’m saying. I’ve never been one to study for a test but the Co-Study helped me remember it better. When I did look over it before the test, I basically remembered everything that I knew. MRS. DOSTER: Do you think it improved your grade? MICHAEL: Yeah, it did. In all my other history classes I’ve had in the past I always had a low C in the classes and I have a B average in the Co-Study class. My grade has improved a lot. Samantha, the last student to be interviewed and one of my better students grade wise, was very interested in art. She told me that her dad was teaching her how to paint and described the picture she was working on at home. I asked if the Co-Study Curriculum helped her to understand the history better and she responded (Interview, 2003), “Yeah, I really enjoyed it. The art was wonderful and it helped me understand so much.” I was really surprised when we she said, “I’ve always been really bad in history and this year I’ve been doing really good.” Samantha characterized herself as “generally a good student” that “works hard”. Her interests included art, reading, and sports and her favorite subjects were English, art, and mythology; she did not like math. In the following excerpts, she delved deeper into her views on the Co-Study curriculum process. Samantha’s full interview is in Appendix B-15. MRS. DOSTER: In what way was Co-Study helpful to you? SAMANTHA: The art and especially the maps helped me to understand the projects we had to do. MRS. DOSTER: So it helped you get a fix on your location in the world. Did it help you understand the subject matter any better? SAMANTHA: Yes, a little…by looking at the art I could understand their culture more. MRS. DOSTER: When it came time to take a test, did it help you remember any of the subject matter better?

195 SAMANTHA: Oh, definitely. I have a pictographic memory and looking at pictures is easier than reading it out. MRS. DOSTER: Would you call yourself a visual learner? SAMANTHA: Yes. MRS. DOSTER: And you remember pictures rather than words? SAMANTHA: Yes. This sort of class definitely helps visual learners. I usually hate history but I’ve never had really good teachers. You know, like it’s history out of the book. You know, “Just read out of the book and your test is on so and so date.” This helps me understand it better. MRS. DOSTER: So what type of student benefits from Co-Study? SAMANTHA: A visual learner. People who are very visual and like hands-on activities. MRS. DOSTER: What do you think a visual learner is? What does that mean to you? SAMANTHA: A visual learner learns best from hands-on activities, looking at something instead of just reading it from a book. MRS. DOSTER: When teachers are lecturing, do you have a problem understanding what they are saying? SAMANTHA: Yeah, I’m not a very good audio learner. I tend to zone out a lot unless, you know, I’m doing something right that moment. MRS. DOSTER: Your attention wanders? SAMANTHA: Yes, I think most teenagers do. We have, technically, the attention span of a gnat. MRS. DOSTER: Is there anything else you would like to say about Co-Study? SAMANTHA: I think it is really great and we should have it more often. We should have it year after year. A lot of students would benefit from it. On anonymous, written exit surveys of both classes combined, 81.76% of the students said that the art projects helped them to remember the history better and 62.35% said it helped them to understand it better. Four out of five students remembered more; two out of three students understood more. Art was not held at a disadvantage as shown by student remarks concerning the advantages of the Co-Study Curriculum: “You learn how to draw and learn (history) at the same time.” “You learn more about history and its art.”

196 “Getting to draw at the same time.” “Because looking at pics helps me see what it is and then I understand more.” “Art tells what they did and how they acted.” For five years, beginning with the first collaboration in February of 1998, through four years of teaching the Co-study Curriculum methods with Jean Warren as a partner, while watching others implement the methods, and finally, teaching by myself, I have watched students benefit from using the Co-Study Curriculum. Jean summed it up this way after I asked her is she had seen any changes in students who had been through a Co- Study Curriculum course (Interview, 2002): You know, I was thinking about that and I think, because you mentioned you talked to some we had last year…it takes a while for this to soak in. This is something different and it can be beneficial and not just what we do with American and world history but in other areas as well. So, I think it’s like being at home with your parents, you don’t appreciate it too much then but, when you leave, you kind of see where they were trying to get you to and that may be the case with some of those I’ve had. Unlike you, I haven’t had that many who’ve come back and said “oooh” except for Joey. Every time I see Joey he asks about that Co-Study class. I think it takes a while for them to realize the impact it could have if it were expanded to other classes…how wonderful it could be. I thought back to Joey and a picture came to mind of an enthusiastic young man who really enjoyed and applied himself in American History and Art Co-Study even though he was not a particularly good student in terms of objective testing. I asked Jean if that was her recollection. She responded, “Yeah, yeah. He works at Wal-Mart now. I would see him at Wal-Mart. I think he works there at night. He often comments it was the class that allowed him to graduate.” “If we did it for one, that is good enough,” I said. She replied, “If we saved one starfish (laughing)…” I felt that the Co-Study story needed to be told. During the second semester of the 2002-03 school year, we approached the principal with the request that we be able to teach together an American History and Art Co-Study class during the 2003-04 school year so that I could conduct this present study. The principal agreed and Jean and I both

197 received a class of American History students scheduled at the same time next door to each other. I conducted this research during the first semester of the 2003-04 school year. The results of the research, conclusions, and implications for practice and further research are presented in Chapter 5.

198

CHAPTER V RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND FURTHER RESEARCH

This study examined how a variation of integrated curriculum, called the Co- Study Curriculum, used art in the delivery of American history subject matter. The study’s research questions are: 1. Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions of their understanding of American history? 2. Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art? The research methods used in this study, outlined in Chapter 3, are both quantitative and qualitative in perspective. The quantitative approach is of the descriptive type yielding quantitative data such as percentages and frequency counts. The qualitative aspect describes and explains the phenomenon through the participants’ point of view. The Co-Study Impact Survey was administered to gather students’ perceptions of the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process and its usefulness in the classroom. Interviews of selected students and teacher researcher observations gave information and insight into student viewpoints concerning the Co-Study Curriculum. Pre and post assessment of students’ attitudes toward art indicated any shift in student viewpoints due to the Co-Study Curriculum process. The research type is consistent with classroom action research which is applied research in the classroom. The study was conducted in two classes of American History at Rutherford High School in Panama City, FL, between August and December, 2003. I taught one class and Jean Warren taught the other one. We planned together and used the same textbook and supplemental materials; both classes completed the same assignments and the same art activities. Our classes were taught separately 90% of the time; they

199 were combined approximately 10% of the time for viewing art images. The following major sections of this chapter present the results obtained for each research question, summarize the results, and discuss their implications. The results are organized in terms of two specific research questions posed in Chapter 1.

Research Questions

Research Question #1 Will the Co-Study Curriculum process enhance students’ perceptions of their understanding of American history? This research question is answered by the Co-Study Impact Survey. Two criteria were used for affirming this research question. The first is based on data from Figure 4 (see p. 202), Percentage Distributions of Student Responses by Survey Statement. The second is based on data from Figure 5 (see p. 205), Student Responses by Survey Statement. For data in Figure 4, the research question is affirmed if 51% or more of the responses across all the survey statements is at least “Agree”. For data in Figure 5, the research question is affirmed if the average ranking across all survey statements, in both classes, is a positive number. Research Question #2 Does the Co-Study Curriculum process of integrating art and American history have an effect on students’ attitudes toward art? This research question is resolved by the Art Attitude Survey. Data from this survey is separated by class, Doster and Warren, and displayed in Tables 1 and 2 (see pp. 209-210), Pre/Post-assessment Shifts in Attitudes Toward Art. This research question is affirmed if the average response shift between the pre/post-assessment across all questions is a positive percentage.

Research Results of Quantitative Data

Research Question #1 Research Question #1 is answered in the affirmative. Data from Figure 4, Percentage Distributions of Student Responses by Survey Statement, show that an average of 71.17% of the respondents “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” across all the survey

200 statements. Data from Figure 5, Student Responses by Survey Statement, explained later, show that the average ranking across all survey statements is a positive number for both classes. Figure 4 below shows the results of the Co-Study Impact Survey (see Appendix A-1). This survey was created by the researcher to measure student perceptions regarding the impact of the Co-Study Curriculum process on learning. Each of the Survey Statements expressed a belief or attitude the students could have formed about the Co-Study Curriculum process. Each Survey Statement addressed one of the twelve art activities used. Students were directed to indicate on a 5-point Likert scale to what extent they agreed with each Survey Statement. Figure 4 can be interpreted in the following manner. Survey Statements are charted along the horizontal axis, numbers 1 through 12. Each vertical column displays the student responses, arithmetically stacked, from Strongly Agree (+2) to Strongly Disagree (-2) corresponding to each of the twelve Survey Statements. The vertical axis converts these arithmetically stacked column displays to percentage distributions for each Survey Statement. For example, column 1 shows the arithmetically stacked responses of all students to that Survey Statement and the vertical axis shows its percentage. In totality, the dark grey area in Figure 4 shows the percentage of students who Strongly Agreed (+2) and Agreed (+1) to each Survey Statement. The light grey area represents students who were neutral (0) about Survey Statement. The white area represents students who Disagreed (-1) and Strongly Disagreed (-2). The horizontal line at 50% represents the acceptance point for Research Question #1. Affirmation for Research Question #1 was defined as, “if 51% or more of all responses across all survey statements is ‘Agree or Strongly Agree’ Research Question #1 is affirmed”. Below are the percentages by Survey Statement: SURVEY STATEMENTS % AGREED/STRONGLY AGREED 1. Illustrating the historical themes (for example, politics) 80% helped me to understand them. 2. The pictures of transportation helped me to understand 74% the effects of technological changes on American life.

201

Figure 4: Co-Study Impact Survey Percentage Distributions of Student Responses by Survey Statement (Cumulative Date from Doster”s & Warren’s Classes)

202 3. Arranging the transportation pictures from the oldest to 68% the newest helped me to realize the historic sequence of inventions in American history. 4. The Venn diagram helped me to understand the 74% economic and social interactions between the Native Americans and the Europeans. 5. Drawing and illustrating my map of the 13 colonies 82% helped me to understand the economic and social differences among the colonies. 6. Viewing Colonial American pictures helped me to 78% understand the colonists’ way of life. 7. Viewing Revolutionary War pictures helped me to 70% understand the military events of the war. 8. Drawing the Constitutional Tree project helped me to 74% understand the formation and organization of our government. 9. Paintings, neoclassical architecture & sculpture helped 70% me to visualize the people, places, and the political events of the Constitutional period. 10. Completing the Civil War Visual Vocabulary project helped 66% me to understand military and economic events of the war. 11. Completing the Reconstruction Visual Concept project helped 56% me to understand military and economic events of Reconstruction. 12. Brady’s photography helped me to understand the death 62% and destruction of Civil War battles. Figure 5, below, further shows the results of the Co-Study Impact Survey (see Appendix A-1). Again, Survey Statements are charted along the horizontal axis, numbers 1 through 12. However, each Survey Statement is viewed in a different manner. Rather than showing the arithmetically stacked responses and their corresponding percentages, Figure 5 summed all responses for each Survey Statement and reflects its net value. This

203 presents a weighted value of responses rather than a percentage. For example, if a Survey Statement received a large number of Agrees (+1) it could have supported the acceptance of Research Question #1 in Figure 4. However, in Figure 5, what is being determined is the degree of positiveness or negativeness associated with the responses to each Survey Statement. Specifically, several “Strongly Disagrees” (-2) could weaken or even offset the “Agrees” (+1) even though the “Agrees” represented a majority of the responses. In other words, the researcher looked at the same data through a different lens. Figure 4 examined the percentage of responses and Figure 5 the weighting or quality (net value) of the responses. The vertical axis in Figure 5 displays the Aggregated Response Values, which is the net sum of all student responses. For example, Survey Statement 1 received an 80% “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” student response in Figure 4. In Figure 5 it received a net or Aggregated Response Value of +22 for Doster’s Co-Study Class and +24 for Warren’s Co-Study Class. Each Survey Statement has a point value on its vertical line. Each point value is the sum of all the positive and negative responses by all the students to each Survey Statement. These points are connected by a different graph line for each class. The solid line represents the responses from Doster’s Co-Study Class and the dotted line represents the responses from Warren’s Co-Study Class. The horizontal line at “0” in Figure 5 represents the affirmation point for Research Question #1. Affirmation for Research Question #1 was defined as “if the average ranking across all survey statements, in both classes, is a positive number Research Question #1 is affirmed.” The data produced an average sum of all student responses to all Survey Statements for Doster’s class of +19.75 and for Warren’s class +18.83. Therefore, Research Question #1 was affirmed. The data reflected in Figure 5 further strengthens the support for affirming Research Question #1 because the amount of negative responses within each survey statement did not significantly weaken its Aggregated Response Value.

204

Figure 5: Co-Study Impact Survey Student Responses by Survey Statement

205 Research Question #2 Upon reviewing the Art Attitude Survey’s pre and post assessment shifts shown in the data of Tables 1 and 2, student responses to the eighteen statements produced an average positive percentage shift in both Warren’s class (+5.17%) and Doster’s class (+3.28%). Tables 1 and 2 display the percentage of those students who “Strongly Agreed” or “Agreed” during the pre and post assessments to each of the eighteen survey statements. For example, in Doster’s class, Table 1, 22 students (85%) “Agreed” or “Strongly Agreed” that art is important in society today, whereas in the post assessment 23 students (88%) did likewise. This is a positive 3% shift in the students’ perception relative to this statement. The researcher summed all of the shifts between the pre and post assessments within each class to obtain an average perceptual shift for each class. Based on these findings, Research Question #2 is affirmed (if the average response shift between the pre and post assessments across all questions is a positive percentage). Each survey statement was intended to elicit a student’s attitude toward a different facet of art. A student’s positive pre/post-assessment shift (perception) is indicated in some statements as a positive response but in others as a negative response. The following explains the intent of each statement on the Art Attitude Survey: 1. Art is important in society today. (Positive response shows positive perception.) This statement delves into the emotional and factual basis upon which a student views art as a meaningful part of today’s culture. 2. Art is mainly for decoration. (Negative response shows positive perception.) This statement causes the student to evaluate how art is used in a society, whether it is purely decorative or has deeper meaning and is reflective of the culture. 3. Art is easy. There’s not much thinking involved. (Negative response shows positive perception.) This statement reflects student thinking regarding how much effort and thought are required in the creation of artwork. 4. Art teaches us about other people. (Positive response shows positive perception.) Response to this statement gives insight into whether the student can make a connection between artwork and the culture in which it was produced.

206 5. Art asks us to think about problems in society and the environment. (Positive response shows positive perception.) This statement questions whether social issues and environmental issues can be legitimate subject matter for artwork. 6. Art is mainly for fun. (Negative response shows positive perception.) This statement describes the primary reason for creating art as having fun as opposed to things like creating meaning, portraying emotions, or telling a story. 7. The best artwork makes people think about, or look at things in a new way. (Positive response shows positive perception.) This statement calls for an evaluation of the impact of art on the viewer, whether or not the viewer interacts with the artwork as opposed to just viewing it in a detached manner. 8. Art should be on display in public places. (Positive response shows positive perception.) Responses to this statement reveal students’ views on the value of art to the society, whether or not artwork is a valuable tool for the dissemination of information or values of the culture. 9. Artists make different kinds of art because they have different beliefs or reasons for creating art. (Positive response shows positive perception.) This statement causes the student to discern the reasons why people create art, such as functional considerations, religion, politics, education, aesthetics, and human creativity. 10. I feel good when I am creating something in art. (Positive response shows positive perception.) This statement reveals the student’s general attitude toward participating in art activities. A positive response shows that it gives him(er) pleasure to create artwork. 11. I practice art activities in my free time. (Positive response shows positive perception.) Students who respond positively to this statement acknowledge that they value the act of creating artwork.

207 12. I find the artwork of other people to be interesting. (Positive response shows positive perception.) Students who respond positively to this statement exhibit a tendency to be open to and aware of the creativity of others. 13. I think art lessons help me in other schoolwork. (Positive response shows positive perception.) A positive response to this statement is evidence that the student is aware of the nature of art that allows it to integrate easily and successfully with other subject matter to increase learning and understanding. 14. I think I do art well. (Positive response shows positive perception.) A positive response to this statement demonstrates a student’s self-confidence in his or her own artwork. 15. Doing art gives me pleasure. (Positive response shows positive perception.) This statement is the same as #10 and reveals the student’s general attitude toward participating in art activities. A positive response shows that it gives him(er) pleasure to create artwork. 16. I can draw well. (Positive response shows positive perception.) This statement is similar to #14 in that a positive response to this statement demonstrates a student’s self-confidence in his or her own drawing ability. 17. I usually like my artwork. (Positive response shows positive perception.) Students who respond favorably to this statement take pride in the creation of their own art. 18. I do not feel good when I am doing something in art. (Negative response shows positive perception.) This statement is the opposite of statement #10 and reveals the student’s general attitude toward participating in art activities. A positive response shows a dislike for creating artwork.

208 Table 1: Art Attitude Survey Pre/Post-assessment Shifts in Attitudes Toward Art Doster’s Co-Study Class

PRE POST

STATEMENT SA/A SA/A

1. Art is important in society today. 85% (22) 88% (23)

2. Art is mainly for decoration. 23% (6) 16% (4) 3. Art is easy. There's not much thinking involved. 15% (4) 20% (5) 4. Art teaches us about other people. 77% (20) 69% (18) 5. Art asks us to think about problems in society and the environment. 38% (10) 50% (13) 6. Art is mainly for fun. 42% (11) 46% (12) 7. The best artwork makes people think about, or look at things in a new way. 77% (20) 92% (24)

8. Art should be on display in public places. 85% (22) 88% (23) 9. Artists make different kinds of art because they have different beliefs or reasons for creating art. 96% (25) 80% (21) 10. I feel good when I am creating something in art. 50% (13) 62% (16) 11. I practice art activities in my free time. 39% (10) 58% (15)

12. I find the artwork of other people to be interesting. 65% (17) 70% (20)

13. I think art lessons help me in other schoolwork. 43% (11) 62% (16)

14. I think I do art well. 50% (13) 54% (14)

15. Doing art gives me pleasure. 54% (14) 54% (14)

16. I can draw well. 31% (8) 31% (8)

17. I usually like my artwork. 46% (12) 50% (13) 18. I do not feel good when I am doing something in art. 4% (1) 15% (4)

N = 26

Data shows both the percent of total cases and number of cases

209 Table 2: Art Attitude Survey Pre/Post-assessment Shifts in Attitudes Toward Art Warren’s Co-Study Class

PRE POST

STATEMENT SA/A SA/A

1. Art is important in society today. 71% (17) 67% (16)

2. Art is mainly for decoration. 42% (10) 33% (8)

3. Art is easy. There's not much thinking involved. 21% (5) 21% (5) 4. Art teaches us about other people. 63% (15) 83% (20) 5. Art asks us to think about problems in society and the environment. 33% (8) 46% (11) 6. Art is mainly for fun. 54% (13) 25% (6) 7. The best artwork makes people think about, or look at things in a new way. 79% (19) 67% (16)

8. Art should be on display in public places. 75% (18) 67% (16) 9. Artists make different kinds of art because they have different beliefs or reasons . 92% (22) 75% (18) 10. I feel good when I am creating something in art. 58% (14) 42% (10) 11. I practice art activities in my free time. 38% (9) 46% (11) 12. I find the artwork of other people to be interesting. 71% (17) 71% (17) 13. I think art lessons help me in other schoolwork. 21% (5) 38% (9)

14. I think I do art well. 21% (5) 38% (9)

15. Doing art gives me pleasure. 33% (8) 42% (10)

16. I can draw well. 13% (3) 21% (5)

17. I usually like my artwork. 17% (4) 29% (7)

18. I do not feel good when I am doing something in art. 25% (6) 17% (4)

N = 24

Data shows both the percent of total cases and number of cases

210 Research Results of Qualitative Data

Student Interviews Interviews provide meaning and context to the research questions. Four students were interviewed for the present study: Anna, David, Ernest, and James. The selection process for these four students was discussed in Chapter 3. Excerpts from these interviews are used in discussion in the sections that follow. Please see Appendix C for the full text of the interviews. Relevant Student Responses to Research Question #1 All four of the interviewees responded that the Co-Study Curriculum helped them to understand American history content better. Anna, a student in my class, described herself as an average student that tried “to do good work” and pass her classes (Interview, 2004). Her favorite subjects are art and sign language and her least favorite is math. She does not participate in any extracurricular school activities but she does have a part-time job, working 18-20 hours per week in a local restaurant. Her parents play a very supportive role in her life. Anna expressed it this way in the following excerpts from her interview. The full text of her interview is in Appendix C-2. MRS. DOSTER: Who encourages you to do well in school? ANNA: My parents. MRS. DOSTER: Who has influenced you the most? ANNA: My mom. MRS. DOSTER: What does Mom do? ANNA: She really wants me to do good. She talks to me about it and sets examples and tries to talk to me about it and get involved with things that I am doing. Then I asked about her experiences in school and with art classes taken in school. MRS. DOSTER: Have you had any favorite teachers? ANNA: Yeah, I’ve had a couple. One of my teachers this year teaches sign language. She is real fun to be around. I’ve had one or two…in elementary school. We just had a lot of activities to do and a lot of field trips and fun stuff. MRS. DOSTER: Have you enjoyed school? ANNA: I don’t really enjoy it but it hasn’t been nothing horrible for me.

211 MRS. DOSTER: Have you taken any art classes? ANNA: The Art 3-D is the only one. MRS. DOSTER: Did you have any art in elementary school? ANNA: Other than basic art you have in classrooms…not nothing extra. MRS. DOSTER: So you did not have an art teacher come by your room. Your classroom teacher maybe did some art with you. ANNA: Yeah, that was about it. MRS. DOSTER: Were you in Port St. Joe then or Panama City? ANNA: Port St. Joe. MRS. DOSTER: Did you have any art in middle school? ANNA: No. MRS. DOSTER: And you’ve had one class in high school…the one you are taking now? ANNA: Yes. I was curious why she had decided to register for the American History and Art Co-Study class and, then, we discussed the class. ANNA: Well, I haven’t took any type of class where, you know, it combined art with it and I didn’t know anyone else that did it too and it just seemed interesting. MRS. DOSTER: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you? ANNA: Yes, I think so. MRS. DOSTER: In what way? ANNA: Some of the artwork you have shown us has helped me to remember it and just different examples, different activities we have done. It gets you the idea about how it was in that time era. So I think it helps. MRS. DOSTER: Do the art activities help you to understand the history better? ANNA: Yeah…I think so. MRS. DOSTER: Which activity stands out in your mind? ANNA: I think most definitely the art pieces you brought in for us to look at helped a lot. MRS. DOSTER: I showed the slides or the overheads and we used the art criticism method. And, I think what you’re saying is that it helped you more than the drawing. ANNA: Yeah, definitely, because we talk about it more and we look at someone else’s instead of trying to make our own.

212 MRS. DOSTER: So, you feel like the Co-Study Curriculum is more effective when you are looking at art of the time period rather than when you are creating it yourself. Do you like or dislike the class? ANNA: I like the class. I like that we do more activities instead of just reading straight out of the book and doing worksheets like most history classes. We get to do more activities and more drawing and stuff like that. MRS. DOSTER: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional history class? ANNA: Well, I think with all of the maps and pictures and stuff you brought in, I think it makes the work a lot clearer and easier to work on…easier to understand than just from the book. James was also a student in my class. For James, remembering and understanding were intertwined. He explains in the excerpts below. The full interview is in Appendix C-5. JAMES: Um…just all the art and stuff we do helps me to learn it a lot better. MRS. DOSTER: Do you know why? JAMES: Yeah…like normally when I see something…um…it just helps me to learn it. If I like read it, I’m not going to know what I am reading…or I can’t get a picture of it in my head and I don’t know what it looks like. MRS. DOSTER: So, the art activities help you to remember the history better? JAMES: Yes. MRS. DOSTER: Do they help you understand it better? JAMES: At a point. There are sometimes…like…I don’t know what I am doing…no matter what. But most of the activities, they help me. James characterized himself as an “average person” and one who does “what most kids do as a student” (Interview, 2004). His favorite subject is science and his least favorite subjects are English and math. He, also, has a part-time job, twenty-five hours per week, at Pizza Hut. He credits an aunt with instilling a good work ethic in him by being a good role model in her working life. Because his father is in the Air Force, James has moved around a lot in his life. MRS. DOSTER: Where have you lived?

213 JAMES: Here…and Japan…Washington, that’s about it. MRS. DOSTER: Washington State? JAMES: Yeah, State. MRS. DOSTER: I guess you are military…Air Force? JAMES: Yes. I was curious about his varied schooling experiences and art classes. MRS. DOSTER: Have you enjoyed school? JAMES: Yeah, I’m not one of those people that hate school. I like going to school every day. There is every now and then… I don’t want to come…but yeah. MRS. DOSTER: Have you enjoyed it all along, as in elementary, middle school, and high school? JAMES: I didn’t really like middle school that much. Elementary and high school are pretty good. I don’t know why I didn’t like middle school; I just didn’t. MRS. DOSTER: Have you taken any art classes? JAMES: Yeah, I’m taking one right now. MRS. DOSTER: Oh, that’s right. You are in my Art 3-D class. Have you taken any other art classes during high school? JAMES: No, I haven’t. I took some in elementary. MRS. DOSTER: How often did you see the art teacher? JAMES: Every day. They made us go every day. MRS. DOSTER: Did you take art in middle school? JAMES: No. I wanted to know which art activities in the Co-Study Curriculum James enjoyed or learned from the most. MRS. DOSTER: Which activity we did this year stands out in your mind? JAMES: I think the one that really stands out is the one where we had to make a tree with the branches. MRS. DOSTER: I remember your Constitutional Tree. JAMES: Yes, my tree was excellent. MRS. DOSTER: Tell me what you like about the class.

214 JAMES: I like how we get to discuss everything. We look at stuff on the overhead and, then, everybody gets to put in their opinion on what they think it is. Yeah, I liked that where we made the path leading to Civil War. MRS. DOSTER: The Road to War…yeah, that we visualized in a timeline and a path with vocabulary words and illustrations. JAMES: Since we had to visualize it, it made me want to do it. So it made me learn a lot more. MRS. DOSTER: You said that you enjoyed looking at “stuff on the overhead” and talking about it. I wasn’t sure what you were referring to in that remark. Could you clarify that for me? JAMES: Um…yes…I was talking about when you, like, put a picture on the overhead and everybody gets to guess what it was or say what they think it is. MRS. DOSTER: So, when we were doing art criticism…reacting, describing, interpreting, and judging. You enjoyed that? You found it helpful? JAMES: Yeah, because...I don’t know…a lot of times if I just look at it I’m not going to know what it is and when everybody is saying what they think it is I get better ideas. The other two students interviewed were in Jean’s class: David and Ernest. David describes himself this way in the following excerpts. See Appendix C-3 for his entire interview. DAVID: I was born in Sacramento, California. I’ve lived in California and I’ve lived in Florida. Well, I lived in Alabama for, like, for three months but…you know…I’m a good student. You know, I behave well. I have average grades. MRS. DOSTER: What are your favorite subjects? DAVID: I like art; I like history; and, I like science. MRS. DOSTER: What are your least favorite subjects? DAVID: I do not like drafting; I hate math; and, that’s about it. MRS. DOSTER: Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special talents? DAVID: I can…I can draw pretty well and I put together the little plastic model kits, you know…yeah. MRS. DOSTER: Of what? DAVID: Of cars.

215 MRS. DOSTER: Have you enjoyed school? DAVID: Yeah. MRS. DOSTER: Have you taken any art classes? DAVID: I’ve taken Art 2-D; I’ve taken Art 3-D; taken Drawing I; taken Painting. MRS. DOSTER: You’ve taken a lot. You have taken a lot of what we have to offer here. Did you take any art in elementary school? DAVID: All the art classes I took was down here. It was at Southport Elementary. MRS. DOSTER: How often did you see an art teacher? DAVID: I think it was every two days or something. MRS. DOSTER: Did you take any art in middle school? DAVID: Nope. I don’t think they have any. MRS. DOSTER: Did you elect to take American History and Art Co-Study or were you placed in the class? DAVID: Well, the first year, World History and Art Co-Study, I was placed in it and then, in the second year, I signed up for it. MRS. DOSTER: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you? DAVID: Well, it’s…you know…the art…well, see, I can draw…so when I draw I learn stuff. So, we did the Battle of Something or Other, I forgot what it was, but we drew and…I still remember it, so… MRS. DOSTER: But you don’t remember the name of the battle! DAVID: Shiloh…it was Shiloh. MRS. DOSTER: Do the art activities help you to remember the history better? DAVID: Yeah. MRS. DOSTER: Do they help you understand it better? DAVID: I guess…I mean…I don’t know what you mean by that. MRS. DOSTER: Well, recall for a test—to remember a name or a place or a date for a test—is one thing; to understand a concept is another. For instance, when we were doing the Civil War Visual Vocabulary and the Reconstruction Visual Concept you had to illustrate that you understood the meaning of the word or concept. DAVID: Oh, yeah…okay…yeah, yeah, it does. MRS. DOSTER: Did the art help you then?

216 DAVID: Yeah, it did…I mean ‘cause it helps you get the concept. MRS. DOSTER: I have noticed that some of the people in my class have trouble thinking of pictures to illustrate concepts with. So you don’t have any problem with that? DAVID: No. MRS. DOSTER: Which activity that we did stands out in your mind? DAVID: Um…well, we’re doing one now about how America isolated themselves. You know, when we first started out…isolating ourselves and…you know, the Monroe Doctrine and all that mess. We just…we just, you know, did that and…the Battle of Shiloh. MRS. DOSTER: So, the foreign policy visual that we’re now completing stands out for you and the Civil War Visual Vocabulary project. What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional history class? DAVID: Well, instead of like listening to somebody talk, you know, give a lecture on history, or just reading out of the book you are taking part in…in the lesson, you know. Ernest, a classmate of David’s in Jean’s class, was the fourth student to be interviewed for the present study. Ernest is a Panama City native, born and bred. He characterized himself as a “good” student, a little above average, well-rounded in all subjects, and has “good habits” (Interview, 2004). Below are excerpts from his interview, the full text of which is in Appendix C-4. ERNEST: Even though I’m struggling, geometry is my favorite subject. MRS. DOSTER: Do you work outside of school? ERNEST: Yeah. MRS. DOSTER: Where do you work? ERNEST: In the mall at Burlington Shoes. MRS. DOSTER: How many hours a week do you work? ERNEST: A little over twenty. Ernest said that he has enjoyed school, in general, and high school, in particular. I asked about his art education throughout his school years. MRS. DOSTER: Have you taken any art classes? ERNEST: This year I have. MRS. DOSTER: What are you taking?

217 ERNEST: Art 2-D. MRS. DOSTER: Did you have art in elementary school? ERNEST: I guess that was art. MRS. DOSTER: Did you have someone called an art teacher who came by or was it just with your classroom teacher? ERNEST: It was an art teacher. We had to paint and stuff like that. MRS. DOSTER: Do you remember how often you did that? ERNEST: I think it was like once every week. MRS. DOSTER: What about middle school? ERNEST: I didn’t have any art in middle school. I asked Ernest why he registered for American History and Art Co-Study. ERNEST: Because I like pictures. I like seeing stuff in pictures. MRS. DOSTER: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you? ERNEST: Yes. MRS. DOSTER: In what way? ERNEST: It like just helps me see what’s going on instead of just having to think it in my mind. It gives me a better picture. MRS. DOSTER: Do the art activities help you to remember the history better? ERNEST: Yes. MRS. DOSTER: Do the art activities help you to understand the history better? ERNEST: Yeah, a little more...than usual. I can…I can remember what the picture looks like then and…then…so I just adapt to what it is saying…like what the questions are saying. MRS. DOSTER: Of the art activities we did first semester, which one stands out in your mind? ERNEST: The one where we had to look at the picture and we had to summarize what the picture was about. MRS. DOSTER: …“summarizing what the picture was about.” Do you mean the art criticism that we did? ERNEST: Yeah, I believe that was it…right there…the art criticism.

218 MRS. DOSTER: Half of the projects we did required drawing and the other half required viewing art. So, you enjoyed the viewing activities better than the drawing projects? ERNEST: Yes m’am. I like looking at the art. It was very nice. MRS. DOSTER: You would rather look that do? ERNEST: Yeah. MRS. DOSTER: Do you like or dislike the class? ERNEST: I like it. It’s challenging…interesting. MRS. DOSTER: Tell me what you like about it. ERNEST: I like mainly…I guess ‘cause I like looking at pictures. I guess that’s one reason why I like it. Because I like seeing stuff more than having to picture it in my mind. MRS. DOSTER: Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade? ERNEST: Yeah, it improved it a whole lot. MRS. DOSTER: Why do you think that? ERNEST: Because like before when I was taking history I wasn’t really doing too good. I had like a “C” average but now this year I have a “B” average. MRS. DOSTER: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional history class? ERNEST: Um…it gives you a better idea of where the history comes from. You can actually see what’s going on in the history instead of just having to think it. MRS. DOSTER: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum? ERNEST: Um…a student that, you know, does better learning with a visual than just hearing about something…well, that likes to see what’s going on instead of just hearing. MRS. DOSTER: When did you figure out that you learn better that way? ERNEST: When I got a “B”. In summary, all four of the students interviewed considered themselves to be good, average students. All generally liked school throughout their elementary, middle and high school years; middle school years were their least favorite. No one disliked school even though Anna was somewhat non-committal and neutral about it. They each had differing favorite subjects but all, except Ernest, disliked math. Everyone but Anna had received art instruction from an art teacher during his or her elementary years. No

219 one took an art class during middle school; it seems that they weren’t offered. David was the only student who had taken more than one art class in high school. In other words, the students had art at the elementary level if they attended a Bay District School, received no art instruction in middle school, and three of the four students had taken one art course in high school. They were not students who had a lot of exposure to art. However, they all thought that the Co-Study Curriculum enhanced their learning of American history. They were split on whether making art or viewing art was more helpful. Anna and Ernest preferred viewing art while David liked drawing, and James enjoyed both drawing and viewing. Pilot Study Student Responses Related to Research Question #1 American History and Art Co-Study students, Alecia and Crystal, from the pilot study had similar feelings regarding the enhancement of the history content by art activities. This became apparent during an interview (2003) that I had with Alecia. When I asked her what she remembered, she responded: ALECIA: All the maps we got to draw…I liked drawing maps. Videos…I liked the videos. It made it more enjoyable. It was fun because of the art. It helps. It helps you remember things. Drawing helped me remember things more. MRS. DOSTER: Did we draw many maps in class? ALECIA: Gosh, people wouldn’t stop complaining about drawing maps. MRS. DOSTER: Did they help you remember the geography? ALECIA: Yes, especially when we had to color like when we did World War I. We had the Allies and the other guys, Germany and Austria and such. We had to do it in different colors and we had to do neutral countries in another color so we could tell who was on what side and that really helped out. MRS. DOSTER: So, it helped you to remember better. Did it help you understand better? ALECIA: In some ways it did help me understand better but there is also other art that we did, like the posters that also helped. But I also think discussions that we had like when we presented the artwork and stuff…the discussions that went along with it were also helpful because they helped to create understanding. Discussions were really helpful for understanding.

220 MRS. DOSTER: So, every time you had to give a presentation you had a visual? ALECIA: Yes. MRS. DOSTER: So, there were no presentations without visuals. Do you think being in the Co-Study class improved your grade? ALECIA: Yes, I think it improved my grade. Crystal, in her interview (2003), concurred: CRYSTAL: Yeah, it helped me remember the information a lot better. I understand by reading; the Co-Study helped me remember. I could retain it more because we did so many things over and over instead of, like, just doing questions and then taking a test. But we did these packets and we did things like projects and it helped me remember it better than just doing book questions and taking a test. MRS. DOSTER: Is there anything in particular you remember? CRYSTAL: The packets. MRS. DOSTER: What was in the packets? CRYSTAL: There was just a bunch of questions and activities, things to match up, fill- in-the-blanks and stuff. I can’t really remember very much but I remember they helped me a lot more because I’d just do my work, get the answers and stuff, and then I’d remember them on the test. MRS. DOSTER: Were there any art activities in the packet? CRYSTAL: Yeah, there were a bunch of them. MRS. DOSTER: Can you remember what types? CRYSTAL: Some of them were where we did things from the overhead, and we’d color some, and we did posters one time and we made a world map one time. We did a lot of different stuff—cut-out, draw, color. MRS. DOSTER: All of those activities, did they help you understand the subject matter better? CRYSTAL: Yeah, because if you would have just given us a diagram, I wouldn’t have hardly, probably, looked over it as much but I would have looked over it. But actually having to fill it in myself, it helps me remember it because I had to fill it in myself. MRS. DOSTER: Draw it yourself. CRYSTAL: Draw it myself. That helped me.

221 MRS. DOSTER: Do you think it improved your grade? CRYSTAL: Yeah, the whole class improved my grade. My other friends had other teachers and their grades were bad. Many people wanted to get into the Co-Study. Art would help them do better. Lecturing and worksheets don’t work well for me. However, Crystal did not think that art criticism particularly helped her. I asked her if she remembered art criticism and what she thought it was. CRYSTAL: Art criticism is where you take a piece of art and you evaluate it and you give your opinion and use…I think it is properties or principles…and you evaluate it on the elements and principles and see how well it was crafted and stuff like that. MRS. DOSTER: Do you think that related to the history? Or was that just extra, when we would do that? (No response) I remember when we looked at one painting by an artist who had done a painting of a group of immigrants in New York City. At that point in time, we were studying the effects of immigration during the early 1900s and there were a lot of social problems given industrialization, immigration, World War I—all of the changes that had happened in American society—and in that unit we were looking at an overview of all these problems. When we viewed this painting of an immigrant area in New York City, we talked about it in terms of the elements and principles but we also talked about it in terms of what it showed about American society. Do you remember that and was it helpful? CRYSTAL: No, not looking at artwork like that. It doesn’t help me remember history very much. I’m not a visual learner like that. I don’t look at art and remember it for a time period, like that. I remember the carpetbaggers, though. I remember the artwork for that because it was funny. MRS. DOSTER: That was a political cartoon. CRYSTAL: I can remember them. But I can’t remember someone going and making a painting…like the guy who did the Spanish Rebellion…what’s his name? MRS. DOSTER: Goya? CRYSTAL: And he did that…and I remember that but I don’t remember, like, a lot of it because I don’t like looking at it and remembering it came from this and it represented this.

222 MRS. DOSTER: So what you remember more, and what is more helpful to you is the illustrating or diagramming of the knowledge. CRYSTAL: Yeah, like actually doing work and projects and stuff helps…like doing them yourself. Both Alecia and Crystal preferred drawing as the art intervention method to improve their understanding of American history. They believed that their recall was better and that their grade improved because of the Co-Study Curriculum process. Relevant Student Responses to Research Question #2 All four of the interviewees responded that the Co-Study Curriculum had a positive affect on their attitude toward art. However, the change was not the same for any of them. For James, it was increased appreciation. He elaborated on this in his interview (2004): MRS. DOSTER: Did the Co-Study Curriculum change you as a student? JAMES: Um…no, not really. MRS. DOSTER: Did it make you do anything differently in the way you study, or how you study, or how you look at things? JAMES: Well, it made me want to do more of the projects and stuff. And, every time we got one of those I felt like…I don’t know…I felt better…like happier. I don’t know…I got excited. MRS. DOSTER: Well, good! So, it felt good to complete a project? JAMES: Yeah, because we don’t really do many of those in high school. MRS. DOSTER: So, in most of your classes you’re not doing many projects? JAMES: Yeah, we just do textbook stuff and after a while that gets boring…like the same old thing everyday. MRS. DOSTER: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum? JAMES: Um…probably the student that actually likes to see things. I know there are some students…they don’t…they don’t care for art and they would rather do everything out of the book. It’s easier to them. Some people like to actually see it. I guess those students. MRS. DOSTER: You know, there is a name for that. It is called a learning style, a preference for learning. Some people prefer just to read a book and others prefer to see

223 it… visual learning. Has your attitude toward art changed because of the Co-Study Curriculum? JAMES: Well, it made me appreciate it a lot more because I didn’t know it could be used to teach. I knew people did art and stuff and sometimes I draw pictures but I never knew it would like help or anything. MRS. DOSTER: You never knew it could be useful in other ways? JAMES: Yeah, I didn’t know it helped a lot in history and probably in other classes but they don’t ever use it. Anna increased her ability to look critically at artwork. The following are excerpts from her interview (2004): MRS. DOSTER: Has your attitude toward art changed because of American History and Art Co-Study? ANNA: I think so. I think I criticize it more and look at it more deeper than I would normally. And…I think so…yeah. MRS. DOSTER: So, by criticism you mean the art criticism method that we did? ANNA: Yeah. MRS. DOSTER: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future? ANNA: Yeah, I hope so. David was beginning to link and connect information because of art. I asked him if the Co-Study Curriculum had any affect on how he looks at art. He expressed it this way (Interview, 2004): Yeah, like I can just notice…like, yeah, we were doing something with people from way back when and they had big eyes. And they believed the eyes were the windows of the soul or something like that. I just look at stuff and I think of history, you know. Because I look at some of the Japanese drawings, Japanese anime, right, and the eyes are huge and I think of the Sumerians. I probed his thoughts regarding how the art activities had affected others in his history class. MRS. DOSTER: Have you noticed any others in your class having anxiety about drawing?

224 DAVID: Only like people who can’t draw. They don’t like doing it because they can’t draw, you know? MRS. DOSTER: Do you think they just say they can’t draw and they can draw okay or they really can’t draw? DAVID: Yeah, they say they can’t draw just so they don’t have to do the work. MRS. DOSTER: As you look around do you see their finished products? DAVID: Yeah, they are creative. They’re not good looking but they’re creative. Later in a follow-up interview, I asked the same question, phrased a little bit differently, about the effect of the Co-Study Curriculum on how he views art. MRS. DOSTER: Does it make you look at things any differently or think differently? DAVID: Yeah, I mean like we’re doing Edgar Allen Poe in English class. And, you know, like some of his stories are kind of insane. You can’t really get a good idea of what it was like so some pictures would help in there. You know, just little stuff. MRS. DOSTER: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum? DAVID: I guess those that like to express themselves or something, you know. MRS. DOSTER: Has your attitude toward art changed because of the Co-Study Curriculum? DAVID: Well, no. I mean, not really, you know. MRS. DOSTER: So you came in with a positive attitude toward art and it remains positive. DAVID: Yeah. MRS. DOSTER: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future? DAVID: Yeah, I do. I just can’t take anymore at this school because I’ve taken all of them. When I asked Ernest if his attitude toward art hand changed because of the Co- Study Curriculum he said, “I’ve always liked art and this, like, made me see…it made me realize how important art is…to everyone” (Interview, 2004). MRS. DOSTER: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future? ERNEST: Um…I don’t think so because like my career…it doesn’t really have anything to do with art. But I still like to look at art. I’m not a good art person. I like to look. I’m a spectator.

225 All four of the students interviewed for the pilot study were impacted by the Co- Study Curriculum in their attitudes toward art. James learned to appreciate the potential role of art in other classes and how it could be used to help teach other material. David started making cross-curricular connections and agreed with James about art’s usefulness in other disciplinary areas. Anna began to look at art more deeply and, therefore, increased her awareness. Ernest, too, enjoyed being a “spectator” of art and realized how important art is to culture. All four want to maintain a link to art, either by making art or viewing art. Pilot Study Student Responses Related to Research Question #2 The interview guide that I used in the pilot study did not specifically ask a question regarding student attitudes toward art due to the Co-Study Curriculum. However, Alecia straightforwardly remarked during her interview, “I came away with more knowledge and better art skills.” (Interview, 2003). She feels that the class improved her skills for making art. Crystal had a different approach toward the art activities as seen in the following excerpt (Interview, 2003). MRS. DOSTER: Do you have to like art to do Co-Study? CRYSTAL: No, because I didn’t really want to do art. MRS. DOSTER: But you did it anyway? CRYSTAL: That’s what you have to do. The response sounded Machiavellian and emotionally detached. I could not discern her true feelings but, overall, she appreciated the fact that the art activities helped her to do well in American history. Teacher Researcher Observations It was difficult to teach, help students, and observe at the same time. Sketchy notes were jotted down quickly in class and typed up later into narrative accounts with additional commentary by me. Below is the narrative generated from the notes taken during class sessions.

226 TEACHER RESEARCHER OBSERVATIONS OF THE CO-STUDY CURRICULUM COMPONENTS 1. Historical Themes Activity In the Introduction Unit to the study of American history, students were made aware of themes that run throughout our nation’s history (SS.A.1.4.2). The Historical Themes Activity required students to read the textbook explanation of five themes— science and technology, economics, cultural diversity and immigration, politics, and geography—and write a short summary statement in their own words as well as illustrate the theme. This activity occurred during the first full week of school and all of my students were present and attentive. All students were on task at the beginning of the project. Most worked alone; some worked with others. Three of the students did not complete the project. After receiving instructions and reading the textbook, many of my students were not sure how to get started. Comments such as “I don’t know how to put this in my own words” and “What could you use as a picture to show politics?” made me realize that I would have to walk them through it with an example. I got the attention of the class and we worked through the science and technology theme, how it could be worded, and what could be used to illustrate it. My example of a light bulb as a representation for the science and technology theme was accepted because I noticed it on several students’ papers; these students received my example but did not manipulate it any further. After noticing that, I was careful not to give too many examples to students. I wanted them to start visualizing and developing their own symbols. I overheard students asking each other “What are you going to use for economics?” or “This is what I used for geography.” Once students had an example to follow, either from me or a neighbor, they seemed to catch on quickly. Students developed their own phrasing and pictures. Illustrations tended toward single, simplified images rather than complex drawings. Most were pencil sketches without the addition of color. People were portrayed as stick figures. The following images were used by students for illustrating the historical themes: Science and technology: light bulb, computer, television, telephone, cell phone Economics: roadside stand, coins and bills, a factory, a retail store, tree and bulldozer,

227 stock market Cultural diversity and immigration: people or flags in boats coming to America, people holding hands, national flags, a “melting” pot, religious symbols Politics: flags, people giving speeches or shaking hands, political buttons and signs, the Constitution, weapons of war, people seated around a rectangular table Geography: globes, world maps, maps of the United States, maps of states Jean observed that a lot of her students struggled with the concept behind the theme. For example, most of her students did not have a clue about the theme of economics. They understood “money” but did not really understand the concept of economics from reading what was written in the text. Politics and geography, also, gave her students trouble. She felt her students were not used to visualizing or imagining and creating. They were interested in having an idea given to them so that they could give it back as the answer. 2. Visualizing the Technology Theme This art history activity occurred, also, during the Introduction Unit of the first full week of school and centered around the same Sunshine State Standard on historical themes (SS.A.1.4.2). Students were paired and given an image of a painting of some type of transportation invented in America. Information on the back of the picture as well as from their textbook was used to develop a short presentation. Each pair of students had to describe the image to the class, its time period, and tell what effect this new technology had on the lives of Americans. All of my students were present and participated in the activity. My students had great difficulty in understanding the directions and needed help in their small groups. It appeared to me that what I was asking them to do was something they had never done before; it seemed like a new thought for them. The activity had several steps they had to do in sequence: first, identify the image, place it in a time period, assess the impact this invention had on people living during that time period, develop a short (2-3 minute) presentation, and then present to the class. Some students had difficulty identifying the image, especially those portraying inventions made prior to the twentieth century. I heard “What is this?” more than once. I, also, heard several

228 times, “Now what is it that you want us to do?” I decided to work with each group individually. As I went from group to group, I made them tell me what they knew and then I told them what they needed to find out. After all groups were ready, the students seemed to enjoy making their own presentations and listening to the other students present. Audience members would ask questions of student presenters; they began simultaneously applauding or making positive comments as a group would finish its presentation. The atmosphere in the room was one of interest and exchange of ideas. Jean’s students, as a whole, were less mature as a group in handling this activity. They, too, needed help with the directions and images. However, some in her class had trouble standing at the front of the room and speaking. Some of the boys would play to their peers in the audience and their friends would respond by laughing at their efforts and making rude comments. One girl was terrified to get up in front of the class but did so and gave an excellent presentation. Regardless, they all seemed to enjoy talking about the artwork as evidenced by their giving good descriptions full of details. For example, “This is a picture of horses and wagons that delivered milk to houses. This is in New York City by a bridge and those are motor buses down by the water. This picture takes place in the 1920s and 30s” (Under the Bridge by Raphael Soyer) (Wolf, 2001 ). Another example, “This is a picture of some guys going down a river on a raft and they’re just chillin’ and playing cards. The guy sitting down over here had too much to drink” (Raftsmen Playing Cards by George Caleb) (Wolf, 2001). Or my favorite, “This is an 18 wheeler and that red on the front of the truck is blood splattered from the roadkill” (Tractor-Trailer by Guy Billout) (Wolf, 2001). They were less sure of themselves when speaking about the impact of the transportation unless it was something more recent, such as, the space shuttle. 3. Chronology Through Art Images This was the last art activity in the Introduction Unit. The goal of this activity was to help students in using chronology, sequencing, and periodization to understand an event (SS.A.1.4.4). Students were divided into groups of five or six. Each group was given a packet of six transportation images. These images were similar to the ones used for the previous activity but there were no duplications. A group leader put the images face up in random order. The rest of the group had to place the pictures in order

229 chronologically from the oldest to the newest. Once the group was happy with its decision, the group leader would check the back of the pictures for dates. If the order was incorrect, the group was told by the leader to try again. This was the second week of school and, still, no one was absent. All were attentive and involved. My students seemed to really enjoy this quick, challenging activity. All students were involved and out of their seats. There was interaction among group members and debate. “What is this?” “Where do you think this one goes?” “Is the airplane after this truck?” For most groups, this was a 10-minute activity. Two groups made no mistakes; one group made one mistake; two groups needed several tries to get the sequence chronologically correct. The group leaders seemed to enjoy their role as gatekeeper; especially one girl, Petra, who was a taskmaster and would not stop until her group got the order right. Her group was one that needed several tries to get the sequence correct. Jean’s class had similar results and equally enjoyed the activity. The groups were proud of their expertise in figuring out the timeline. I heard comments such as, “Our group did it right the first time” and “That was easy for us” and “I knew where they should all go”. The groups that needed more than two tries learned from their mistakes and by the process of elimination arrived at the correct answer. The images of older transportation, such as a steam engine, gave students the most trouble. 4. Illustrated Venn Diagram This art project was used to illustrate the economic and social interactions between Native Americans and Europeans during the Age of Discovery (SS.A.4.4.1). It occurred during the unit on American Beginnings. I introduced the project by showing several overhead transparencies: a world domestication of plants and animals map (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), a map of Native American culture areas in North America (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), an Iroquois quilled buckskin robe (Scholl, 1992), a Navajo sand painting (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Clallum Women Weaving a Blanket by Paul Kane (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Canoe Race Near Sault Ste. Marie by George Catlin (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Portrait of Native Americans by John Wesley Jarvis (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), ancient Greek and Renaissance maps of the world (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), a map showing European knowledge of the world and how it expanded between 950 and 1800 (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Haymaking in the Month of June

230 from a prayer book by Pol de Limbourg (Prentice-Hall, 1991), exterior and interior views of the cathedral at Reims (Prentice-Hall, 1991), Spanish America in 1785 (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), a three-dimensional Spanish religious image called a bulto (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995), and the Spanish Mission San Xavier del Bac in Tucson, Arizona (Scholl, 1992). These images were used to stimulate students’ imaginations and show differences between cultures before I gave them a rubric to follow while I explained the project: a Venn diagram with one circle representing Europeans and the other circle, Native Americans. The overlapping part of the circles was to be used for illustrating one consequence of these two groups meeting. Inside the circles, pictures would be drawn by the students to illustrate various aspects of the social, economic, and political lives of these two groups. The project was titled, “When Worlds Collide”. We began this project at the end of the third week of school. By that time the newness of the school year had worn off and student behavior patterns were beginning to emerge. As a whole, my class was well-behaved and attentive with a few notable exceptions. I had two very talkative, loud, extroverted people and one that chimed in with them regularly. It was a challenge to keep these three males on task. Also, students were beginning to be absent. The project lasted two days; two people were absent during the first day while four were absent on the second day. The students appeared interested in the project as evidenced by no one saying, “I don’t want to do this” or “Why are we doing this?” In fact, just the opposite, they seemed eager to get started. They indicated they were tired of my instructions and ready to begin. Although the students appeared interested in getting started, their enthusiasm did not spill over to reading and following the rubric. One of our school improvement goals at RHS was to enhance student reading. Many teachers, including Jean and I, developed rubrics for students to follow. The rubric acted as a guide and a checklist for students to follow while doing a project. Although I had read through the rubric with them once, my students did not want to read and use the rubric. Instead, they wanted to be told what to do. I repeatedly referred them back to it and to examples of student work from previous years. After ten to fifteen minutes, I was no longer asked questions about the rubric. The students used images from the textbook as well as from handouts provided by the teacher. As with all art projects, a few students finished very quickly—the first day—

231 doing the minimum required. One boy put his head down on the desk to sleep. When asked about this, I received the response, “I’ve done everything on the rubric.” I mentioned that he could use color or shading to embellish the project. “Why?” he asked. My response, “Because it will improve your grade. Don’t you remember the 10 points allotted to aesthetic quality—appearance—of the project?” Others, at the other end of the spectrum, wanted to do something very elaborate and would have worked on this project for a week. I did not hear any of the “I can’t draw” statements. In fact, drawing had improved dramatically from the last drawing project; there were no stick people! Almost all of the students wanted to use color and were encouraged to do so. Color, in this class, is limited to colored pens and pencils and markers. Also, almost all of the students did not plan to do anything with the negative space in the picture—the background, the space outside of the circles. There was one exception, James, who put a raging fire around his Venn circles. He said the fire represented what happened when these two groups of people came together. When I showed this to the class, others decided to add something in the background, mostly light coloring to subdue the bright white of the paper or a pattern to fill space. Jean noticed the same type of lack of concern for the negative space with her students. We decided at the next class to add some activities for the negative space. These activities were not drawing but adding information from the text. The following are the types of drawings found in the Venn diagram: Native American Circle Housing: pueblo, Navajo hogan, Eskimo igloo, Seminole chickee, tipi, earthen lodge, Apache brush lodge Clothing: loin cloth, deer skin clothing, animal skin, tropical forest clothing, headdress, snowshoe Food: peppers, pineapple, avocado, tomato, peanut, potato, pumpkin, corn, squash, yams, manioc Technology/Weapons: bow and arrow, hatchet, arrow head, pump drill, spear, spear point, blow gun Symbols/Letters: eye mark, broken arrow, buffalo tracks, rain clouds, eagle, battle scar

232 European Circle Housing: castle, wooden two-story house, Italian villa Clothing: suit or armor, ladies dress, helmet, Italian Renaissance male attire, peasant clothing Food: grapes, bananas, citrus fruits, coffee bean, olives, beef, horses, wheat Technology/Weapons: mace, shield, sword, battle axe, one bladed halberd, long bow Symbols/Letters: shield with design, Gothic letters Venn Diagram Overlap R.I.P., tombstone, skull and crossbones, grim reaper (black robe and sickle), Indian burial mound, Thanksgiving turkey or horn of plenty, foods in the Columbian exchange, American flag All of my students finished the project and turned it in. Although the projects were graded primarily on completion, I had 10 points that I could use to judge aesthetic quality. The quality of the projects ranged from excellent to fair, with the overwhelming majority of them good to excellent as evidenced by careful drawing, use of perspective or shading, good lettering, use of color, planned placement of items, overall appearance, and neatness. It was obvious that these students put time and thought into their creation. Their efforts looked like high school level work. Two were “fair”; both belonged to students who hurriedly finished their projects. Items were hastily sketched and diminutive in size with no regard for placement. There was minimal use of color. Jean’s students had an all together lower level of work; it ranged from poor to excellent. In general, the drawing and use of color was not as sophisticated; there were few backgrounds. Three of the projects were on a fifth or sixth grade level of art. These students had trouble forming basic shapes. Lettering was not carefully executed. There was little attention to detail. Jean had remarked to me that she felt as though she were teaching a “basic” class (below average). In years past, students had been placed in basic, average, or honors history classes. The basic classes had been discontinued many years ago; the below average students were mainstreamed into average classes. She had some behavior problems starting to manifest, namely a group of 4-5 males who were loud, rowdy, talkative, and very immature. Their short periods of concentration were

233 broken by talking, joking, getting out of their seats and walking around. They would periodically involve one or two girls in their shenanigans. 5. Illustrated Map of the 13 Colonies During the unit on the Colonial Period, students drew and illustrated a map of the original 13 English colonies along the eastern seaboard. Illustrations included political as well as economic realities of the colonies along with other pertinent information (SS.A.4.4.2). This was the third map that the students had drawn this semester and we were in the fifth week of school. The previous maps drawn were the world map and the lower forty-eight American states. These maps were used in the Introduction unit of the course for two reasons: (1) to reacquaint students with political boundaries and geographic features of America and the world, and (2) to introduce mapmaking to the students. Students read about contour drawing and completed a blind contour drawing of their hands before drawing their first map at the beginning of the year. This project lasted two class periods. One person was absent the first day and three were absent the second day. Again, I gave instructions following a rubric that was handed out to students. The mood in the classroom was quiet and focused. All of my students were on task and I did not hear the comment “I can’t draw” or “I’ll never be able to do this” as I did previously when they had worked on the first two maps. Evidently, students accepted as fact that they could draw this map and started immediately to do so. Even my two male students who do the minimum amount of work were busy and seemed to be enjoying the process. This time the students followed the map rubric more closely and would ask questions for clarification. On previous maps, the quality of the maps varied greatly. For this project, the maps were more consistently the same and more technically correct. Everyone completed the map and did an acceptable job. There are those who naturally go for details and others who don’t; this time was no exception. Students enjoyed looking at their neighbors’ maps and comparing them to their own. There was no ridicule, however, of another person’s work as there had been in the first mapmaking experience. 6. Colonial American Images This art history activity was, also, in the unit on the Colonial Period and followed the mapmaking project. Its purpose was to help students understand the colonists’ way of

234 life (SS.A.4.4.2). We were in the sixth week of school, two of my students were absent, and there was an air of anticipation in the classroom. Absent students were given the overhead transparencies later to view. Students were always glad to see the overhead projector or slide projector turned on and ready to go. Two or three asked, “Are we going to draw today?” Jean’s students joined us to view the images and the students were excited about our bringing the two classes together. I reviewed previously covered material with some overhead transparencies: a historical map set showing the original 13 colonies as a whole and in three groups—New England, Middle, and Southern colonies (Prentice-Hall, 1991); a map displaying goods exported and imported from the colonies through Atlantic Ocean trade (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995); a pie chart showing ethnic division of the colonial population in 1775 (Prentice-Hall, 1991); and, a political cartoon. These images set the stage to view colonial art through sculpture, painting, and folk art. The sculpture was a set of three images of gravestone styles in the colonies, two from New England and one from the South (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995). The painting was Penn’s Treaty with the Indians by Benjamin West (Scholl, 1992), a historical painting depicting William Penn signing a treaty with Native Americans. There were two examples of folk art: a representation in needlework of the main building at Harvard and a Pennsylvania German fraktur, an ornamental drawing of George and Martha Washington (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995). All but two or three of my students and two or three of Jean’s were engaged in viewing. For those few, the darkness of the room had prompted them to put their heads down on their desks. My students enjoyed the sculpture on the gravestones, trying to read the inscriptions, and noting differences between the styles. I had them pick one to draw and describe in writing on their own paper. With the painting, I introduced them to the process of art criticism. I used the Anderson Art Criticism Method of reaction, description, interpretation, and evaluation (Anderson, 1997). This first time, I used just description and interpretation. Students saw the name of the painting and the artist on the overhead transparency so they understood that it was a historical painting. I asked them to really look at the painting and describe what they saw. Students were willing to and enjoyed doing so, especially if I prompted them. Time was spent orienting them to art terms and phrases, such as mood, focus, background, foreground, and the elements and

235 principles of design. For many of the students, talking about art was a new thought process. For those who had taken an art class, it was much easier and they seemed to enjoy showing off their knowledge of art terms. Most of the students seemed to be engaged in the process. For interpretation, I asked the students if they thought the scene was a realistic portrayal of the actual event. This was a more difficult question for them and I received only a few responses. I talked to them about realism and romanticism. One student blurted out her burning question, “Do you want us to draw this?” They all seem relieved when I said “no”. I used the piece of needlework to talk about education, in general, and for young women, in particular, in the colonies. They did a quick sketch of the building at Harvard. With the fraktur, I talked about stylization of figures. Although stylized, several students guessed immediately that it was a drawing of our First President and the First Lady. Most seemed to enjoy drawing either one or the other of the figures even though I heard a few “I can’t draw that” comments. I thought it was important to have students draw while viewing because it appeared to keep them focused and more involved with the artwork. 7. Revolutionary War Images In this art activity, students viewed art images to help understand significant military events that occurred during the American Revolution (SS.A.4.4.3). We started the American Revolution unit at the end of September. By the time we used this art activity, it was at the end of the unit and corresponded to the beginning of the second nine weeks of the first semester. The art images were used as reinforcement for material already covered in a written format. All of my students were present. Jean’s students joined us to view the overhead transparencies. The group was large—there were no absentees—and noisy. There was excitement among the students because they were able to interact with others from the other class. I started the class with a review, telling the story of American history up to this point: the American colonies were valuable to England because of their mercantilist economic philosophy but by the mid-1600s the colonists wanted more economic and political freedom. The colonists were influenced heavily by Enlightenment philosophy in Europe and the Great Awakening in America. Meanwhile, England was embroiled in war with France not only in Europe but also in the New World. The British response to

236 colonial unrest and its European problems was legislation and taxation that angered the colonists, such as the Stamp Act and Townshend Acts. Tempers flared and resulted in the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the First Continental Congress, and the first skirmish at Lexington and Concord. A second skirmish occurred outside Boston at Bunker Hill. At this point, the students viewed The Battle of Bunker Hill by John Trumbull (Prentice-Hall, 1991). I asked students to describe what they saw, identify uniforms and flags of the opposing sides, and make general comments or ask questions. I used this to get them into a viewing and responding mode. At this point I told the class that I wanted them to participate in art criticism using the Anderson Art Criticism Method (Anderson, 1997). They remembered that I had told them about it when we were viewing the colonial images. I explained to them the process: reaction, description, interpretation, and evaluation. I briefly described each step of the process and gave examples using the Bunker image. I started the student art criticism with the next image, The Declaration of Independence, July4, 1776 by John Trumbull (Scholl, 1992). I asked students to describe what they saw. The first comments were “no black dudes in the picture” and “a bunch of rich white guys” amidst a lot of laughter. I felt that they were performing for their peers, said things for the effect they would have, and did not take seriously the idea of description. So, I prodded and asked what else did they see and eventually got some good description, such as all white men in a room, white wigs on their heads, all looking at something on a table, red and blue colors, dark and somber atmosphere, no windows open, curtains drawn, doors closed, very serious atmosphere. A few of the students wanted to interpret the scene along with describing it. They had trouble understanding the difference between description and interpretation. One girl became very argumentative and wanted to know why she could not interpret right now. Her question, “How come my interpretation is not good? That is how I feel about it.” I explained that her interpretation was just fine but that we needed to follow the process because it calls for giving everyone a chance to really look at the image before we try to figure out what it is all about. Students enjoyed the interpretation part. To those who ventured that it was the signing of the Declaration, I responded, “Well, let’s wait and see.” After they had

237 finished their interpretation, I gave them the background on the painting, starting with the artist, the desire to record the major events and people of the day, identifying well known patriots in the painting, and asking them to tell me the occasion. By then, the majority of students confirmed it was the signing of the Declaration of Independence. The students seemed to enjoy hearing about the details because they got very quiet to listen. Afterwards, some enjoyed adding comments of their own, were more serious about their comments, added details of observation that had not been mentioned, and seemed to thoroughly engage in the process. I closed the discussion by asking them to evaluate the painting and they deemed it successful in conveying meaning and significance and was worth spending time to view and discuss. What started out as a pretty rough process with this group ended pretty smoothly and on a high note. Feeling confident, we used the Anderson Art Criticism Method on the next image, George Washington Before the Battle of Trenton by John Trumbull (Glencoe, 1992) and this time the process went more smoothly. The students knew what was expected at each stage and responded accordingly. After that, the students quickly viewed: George Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze (Scholl, 1992), Capture of the Hessians at Trenton by John Trumbull (Prentice-Hall, 1991), and George Washington at Princeton by Charles Wilson Peale (Phelps, 1997). After discussing the diagonal lines in the Delaware picture and asking them to look for shape in its composition, I asked them if they thought the picture was an accurate portrayal of events as they transpired. There was a mixed response. Some said nothing while some of the guys thought that Washington looked awfully vulnerable standing near the bow of the boat. The comments opened the door for a discussion of symbolism and how it was used in this painting. The class period was getting shorter so the students briefly looked for symbolism in the last two pictures. The young men particularly liked talking about the horses and hardware of the soldiers in the Trenton and Princeton pictures. I closed the period with an overhead transparency of a map showing major battles between 1776 and 1781 and one showing British, French, and American uniforms (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1995). Later that day, Jean and I discussed the morning’s class. She and I both felt that the majority of students in both classes were immature for their

238 age, an opinion we had discussed earlier in the year. She commented on the student predilection for wanting “just the facts”—not wanting extra information or discussion— to regurgitate later on a test. She lamented, “We can’t open their heads and pour it in.” She regretted that some of the students had not requested this class but had been placed in it unaware of the art component. We both decided that the students did better at discussing the images when they had to draw while watching. 8. Naturalistic Drawing The goal for the next unit of study was that students understand the political events of the Constitutional period (SS.A.4.4.4). To achieve this, students needed to understand the basics of the Constitution—the organization of our system of government. In order to show the three branches of government, their makeup and functions, students drew a tree as a model (Constitutional Tree Project). The tree had three branches (one for each branch of government), a trunk (a place for the concept of checks and balances), and a root system (a place for significant events leading up to this event). It was placed in the center of the paper with a two-inch border around the edges. The border was to contain the Bill of Rights: listed, defined, and illustrated. On either side of the tree, toward the base, students drew a rectangular box. Box #1 was for the Preamble to the Constitution; box #2 was for the topics of Articles 1 through 7 of the Constitution. We began this project during the second week of October immediately after finishing the unit on the Revolutionary War. Students were handed a rubric, given verbal instructions, and shown student samples regarding the project. They were given one class period and part of another to complete it. All students were present either one or both days of the project, received instructions if absent the first day, and helped in class if needed. However, two of my students never fully completed the project even though they started it. One, a girl, took it home and never brought it back to class. The other, a boy, had trouble all semester finishing projects. He, also, was frequently absent on test days. The rest of the students did an excellent job and received full credit for their project with the exception of five who received less than full credit because they failed to complete one or more components of the rubric. No one who completed the project and turned it made less than a “C”.

239 The students seemed excited about this project as evidenced by their questions, getting up out of their desks to get the art paper, grabbing their American history textbook, and generally, getting underway after my presentation and examples. They did not seem to ask as many questions as they did for previous projects. There were no moans and groans or “Do we have to?” questions. However, I did hear “I can’t draw a tree.” I assured them any kind of tree was okay, including “lollipop trees”, palm trees with fronds substituting for branches, or any tree that had three branches. I supplied some sample trees from a drawing book for those who wanted a realistic tree such as an oak or hickory. At first, the students had trouble getting focused to start drawing. One boy stood at the board and copied my hastily sketched tree rendered in Expo marker! Then, it got real quiet as they focused on their drawing. About halfway through the period, once the trees were sketched, the students realized that they needed to understand fully the rubric. They had not read it for comprehension; drawing was not a problem but following directions was. I read aloud and discussed the rubric with them. Some discussion arose regarding how to add the content into the tree sketch. The second day on the project also began very quietly. The last half of the period was spent reviewing content to make sure that it was accurate and understood by the students. It was their time to read what they had written, ask questions, and make adjustments. The finished student projects could be described this way: neat, accurate American history content, somewhat colorful, unsophisticated tree drawings. There were exceptions. One boy proudly showed me his tree that a “Canadian was lighting with a match”. Flames were consuming the trunk of the tree in a riot of color; American history content displayed in colorful geometric shapes. A second boy, not to be outdone, rendered his lollipop tree in bright, neon color. A girl wanted to show me her illustration of the right to bear arms: a dripping squirt gun. Jean said that some of her students did not want to follow the rubric because it was involved and detailed. She questioned showing them previous student work because some of her students wanted just to copy what others had done. One girl spent the whole time coloring her “beautiful tree”. Jean commented that she had not put any information on her branches. In fact, she colored so hard that she could not write any content on the branch. Jean helped her cut out rectangles of white paper to place on the branch so that

240 she could write in her content. This student was so involved in her drawing and coloring that she forgot the purpose for the drawing. 9. Paintings, Neoclassical Architecture & Sculpture This art history activity was, as the previous one, in the unit on the Constitutional period. Students viewed art images of paintings and neoclassical architecture and sculpture in order to understand better the political events of the period (SS.A.4.4.4). The purpose of viewing the overhead transparencies was to help students visualize the people, places, and political events of the Constitutional period. No one was absent and Jean’s class joined us to view the slides. I decided to try the Anderson Art Criticism Method once more. This time the process worked much better because the students were more serious about their comments and made more contributions to the discussion. The first image was The Sargent Family, artist unknown (Prentice-Hall, 1991). I began the reaction phase by asking, “How does this make you feel?” Answers included “like being with my family”, “confused”, “it’s comforting”, “calm”, “happy”, “ordinary”, “busy”, “plain”, and simply “wow”. One student said, “It is extremely gay, as in happy.” I was pleasantly surprised with the responses; I had anticipated having to focus the students’ attention and calm them down. However, their attention was focused on the image and their comments sounded sincere, if not revealing. Their interest continued with the description phase. Students one by one announced items they saw: two birds in cages, wallpaper, a family, a dog, a ball of yarn, an open window, trees in the window, an open door, chairs, a mom, a dad, mostly girls— three girls—for children, a baby, a floor rug made of black and white squares like a checkerboard. One boy piped up, “The lady has a medieval do-rag.” The comment evoked laughter. Another said, “There are too many kids.” “The mother looks stressed,” said one. A girl said simply, “I see green and red.” A boy responded, “I see black and white clothing.” Another girl said, “I first saw the floor—the black and white swirls”. We ended description with one boy’s observation, “I see a man wearing pantyhose.” At this point, I thought it was time to turn our attention to interpretation. Asking them “What do you think is going on?” initiated interpretation. One boy said it looked like the girl was going to get a whipping. “The mother is mad,” agreed

241 another. Others disagreed and said the family looked happy. One person thought it was an American school. One boy told the class the following scenario: “This is a guy coming home and being greeted. The mom is angry because the baby has been fussy and she has been sitting all day.” The open door was a puzzle. Was someone entering or leaving? “I think the man is coming to get the kids because it is his weekend to have them,” said one girl. I replied that people did not divorce as much during that time period as they do now so that probably wasn’t the case. Then, speculation began about the man doing drugs or stopping by to get friendly with the lady and the door left open for a quick escape in case the husband came home. The next remark was, “Dad is happy because he is having an affair.” “Yeah,” chimed in another boy, “Dad has been out all night.” What started out as a good discussion was beginning to deteriorate. These remarks were not serious (or were they?) but said to get attention—which they did. I ended the discussion by talking about the painting being a typical portrait of a colonial family, much like a casual family photograph. Because these people did not have cameras they used other means to capture the family’s likenesses. Itinerant self-taught artists painted these charming, informal portraits while painting other things in the town they were visiting, such as business signs. We moved on to judgment and the students agreed that the artist had done a good job portraying a family feeling, worthy of their time and attention. Wanting to end on a high note with art criticism, I showed the next images only briefly: an embroidery titled Liberty in the form of the Goddess of Youth and George Washington Addressing the Constitutional Convention of 1787 by Junius B. Stearns (Glencoe, 1992). We spent a few minutes on each with description and interpretation and then turned our attention to architecture. I explained the term “neoclassical” architecture and Thomas Jefferson’s desire for this style to be adopted as our national architecture. I used overhead transparencies to show students architectural elements—domes, columns, and colonnades. Each student quickly sketched the three orders of Greek columns and labeled them. I kept the overhead on but also made available hard copies. Approximately one-half of the students wanted a hard copy, also, while they were drawing. We viewed the rotunda at the University of Virginia at Charlottesville (Scholl, 1992) and then the Lincoln Memorial

242 and Parthenon (Prentice-Hall, 1991) simultaneously. The last image was a sculpture of George Washington by Horatio Greenough (Scholl, 1992). The buildings were interesting to the students as evidenced by their questions and attentiveness. Although two or three students found neoclassical architecture “boring”, the vast majority thought the style was appropriate for federal buildings. However, many were not pleased with the Greenough sculpture. They enjoyed the discussion about the symbolism but did not like the upper torso nudity of Washington. We took a vote, with a show of hands, and a majority of the students did not like the Greenough sculpture. Those who favored the sculpture cited the following reasons: Washington looked “kinda like Zeus”, majestic-looking, nudity was an unexpected look and different from a uniform, Washington is putting the sword away because we won, the details in the sculpture, and the fact that “it makes you step outside your comfort zone.” The two- thirds majority who did not like the sculpture defended their decision with the following comments: “looking like Zeus is retarded”, “it belongs to Greece not now”, “Washington thinks he is better than everybody…sitting there”, “too sexy”, and “very sexual.” 10. Civil War Visual Vocabulary Up to this point in the semester, our students had not made any presentations in class. It was the second week of November and Jean and I decided that it was time for students to make oral presentations. This project as well as the next two dealt with Sunshine State Standard SS.A. 4.4.6 that required students to understand “the military and economic events of the Civil War and Reconstruction.” We named the project “Civil War Visual Vocabulary” and students were instructed to select a vocabulary word from the list provided, define it, and create a visual that would illustrate it. All of the vocabulary words came from the textbook. These vocabulary words would be presented in pairs—one student from her class and one student from my class. Each pair of students was presenting the same word. They would receive a grade for the visual component (75 points) as well as for the presentation (25 points). Students in the audience would hear the vocabulary word defined twice, see two visuals, and be able to supplement their own vocabulary notes. Our classes worked separately until the day the presentations started.

243 I recommended the following to my students: that the visual have a clear and easily read title; that any information written be in the form of phrases, not sentences, large enough to be seen from the back of the room; and, that the visual should help explain the meaning of the vocabulary word. I told them to try to condense the information they read in their textbook into the 5 Ws—who, what, why, when, where. After I gave instructions, students started looking up their vocabulary words in the text. After a few minutes, the questions regarding the meaning of their vocabulary word began. After questioning the students, I realized that they had not read the three or four paragraphs surrounding their vocabulary word. They had picked the word out of one sentence and ignored its larger context. I redirected them to go back and read the surrounding material and then we would discuss what they thought it meant. On a hunch, I took a quick survey—a show of hands—of how many students read for pleasure. Reading for pleasure could encompass any type of written text, such as newspaper, magazines, or novels. “Does a car magazine count?” asked one boy. I said “Sure” and noted that approximately one-half raised their hands to affirm that they read for pleasure. I encouraged the rest to start doing so. I began working with students, one on one, regarding their visual. I asked them to tell me what ideas they had for an illustration. Some of the students had trouble condensing the information they read to “bullets.” One girl said, “I understand what I read but I don’t know how to condense it down to fewer words.” I interrupted the class and used her vocabulary word as an example of how to condense. After reading the text aloud, we condensed the information together and listed the bullets on the board. I, then, asked her what type of picture she could draw to help explain the meaning of the word. Her response was tentative so others in the class elaborated on it. Not everyone in the class was listening, however, because some were deep into their project from the very beginning and needed no direction. I recall three students having much difficulty grasping the main ideas in their reading passage. I continued around the room discussing words and visuals with students. One girl had her mind set regarding her visual and said, “I’m not going to do anymore than that.” She added, “I don’t know how to do anymore than that.” I told her that her visual was good, just add color. One boy said, “I don’t see a picture.” I threw out a few ideas and

244 he was happy and needed no more help. Later in the class period, he showed me his visual which was well underway, springing off one of my ideas. I had to directly assist five students with generating ideas for their visual. Even if I helped them with the initial idea, they were able to add some of their own thoughts to their art once they got started. The majority of the class had an idea but needed to talk it over with me to refine it further or just to get my approval. During the course of the project, many would bring their work to me to show their progress and what they were doing. For example, “I decided to make the picture of Lincoln a silhouette profile and put it in the middle of the page and place the words on either side of his head. Do you think that will look good? Do you have any black construction paper?” asked one girl. Another boy, “I’m going to make a big outline of Tennessee and put a star where Shiloh was. Then I’ll put all of the information inside the state.” The boy doing the Battle of Vicksburg saw what his neighbor was doing and decided to do the same for Mississippi but he added a drawing of a shoe and a rat, part of the diet of the starving Confederate soldiers, as well as a knife to symbolize cutting the Mississippi River supply line of the Confederacy. Making a presentation was not easy for some of my students; they felt uncomfortable in front of Jean’s class because they saw them only rarely. In fact, three of them would not present in front of both classes but did present at a later date in front of their own class only. One student would not present at all, in front of anybody. 11. Reconstruction Visual Concept Jean and I decided to use the same format for studying Reconstruction that we had employed for the Civil War. Students were given a choice of concepts to illustrate and the project was named “Reconstruction Visual Concept.” The difference between this and the previous activity was that the word was a concept and more complex (e.g., Lincoln’s 10% Plan, sharecropping and tenant farming, Radical Republicans) and the visual was larger (one-half sheet of poster board). Students would receive 100 points for a completed and accurate visual and 50 points for presenting it. We used the same format for presentation by the students. We started this project the Monday after Thanksgiving and it covered the same Sunshine State Standard as did the previous project, SS.A.4.4.6. Only one student was absent for the beginning of the project but his girlfriend signed him up for a topic and he started working on it at home before the next class meeting.

245 The class got off to a rough start; it was hard to get some of the students working. In fact, three boys were disturbing a dozen other students so about one-half of the class was having trouble focusing on the task at hand. One boy was not doing any work, did not bring his textbook to class, announced that he was going to Haney (vocational- technical school) second semester, and was talking loudly at a non-stop pace to his neighbors. Another boy did not bring his textbook, was doing no work, and kept wandering around the room to talk to others. A third boy would not quit talking to his neighbors and get started. Seventy-five percent of the students were attempting to work and the others were not; one-third had not brought their textbooks to class. The classroom was loud. I commented on the sorry state of affairs and got the following response, “You are forgetting something—you are asking us to put forth effort. This is a public school and we don’t do that in public school.” He succeeded in getting me angry and I threatened to send him to the office. He calmed down and said, “I don’t want to get into trouble. I want to leave this school on good terms.” Two of the students were very quiet because they were sleeping. Five days off from school and three weeks until Christmas vacation had transformed my class. The first day on the project was not real productive for many of my students. The following class period was just the opposite. The students were quiet and working. However, I did have the same problem with not wanting to read as noted earlier in the Civil War project. One boy said, “What can I draw for sharecropping and tenant farming?” I asked him to explain them to me. He said, “I don’t know.” I told him to read about them first and then we would discuss them and develop a visual. Then he made an excuse, “Well, I didn’t read the whole page because I thought the words meant the same thing. Why do I have to do two words?” I explained that he was working on a concept, these words were very similar but a little bit different. Then he said the boy seated next to him was distracting him which was true. Eventually, we did discuss the two terms and he developed a visual similar to the one in the textbook. Another boy read and understood about the Black Codes but drew a blank in how to represent them. After some discussion he was on his way to completing his project. Two other boys said they were ready to get started drawing but were having trouble coming up with ideas. However, when I asked them to explain their concept to me, as

246 best they could, or show me their notes, they had nothing to offer. Again, I told them to read the book and then we would discuss the concept and its visual representation. One girl, having read the material, did not understand it; another girl having read the material did understand but could not think of a picture. Another girl had a great idea and needed only reinforcement from me. The others were working independently asking for supplies such as rulers and markers. Eventually, by the end of the class period, everyone appeared to be on track. Students seemed to like working on the poster board because no one complained about its larger size. The presentations this time were much better and the students who would not present previously did so this time with the exception of one. However, four students never completed or presented a project. 12. Brady’s Photography At the end of the Civil War and Reconstruction unit, right before Christmas break, I showed photography images made by Matthew Brady (Kunhardt & Kunhardt, 1977). This art history activity was the third activity for SS.A.4.4.6. Four of my students were absent so they viewed the images upon return from break. I started with a reading about Matthew Brady which portrayed him as Lincoln’s cameraman and as one of the most notable Civil War photographers (Glencoe, 1996). All of his battle scenes were photographed after a battle ceased. We talked about the invention of the camera by Daguerre, the exposure time needed for early photographs, and Brady’s career. After that, students viewed several overhead transparencies of Brady’s work. The display started with famous people and places photographed by Brady while living in New York City. These included photographs of Harriet Beecher Stowe, P. T. Barnum’s Living Skeleton and Siamese Twins, the Capitol dome under construction, the Washington Monument under construction, and the New York City harbor. The next group of images was photographed when Brady left New York for Washington to photograph the inauguration of Lincoln and, subsequently, maintained a studio there. They included several pictures of Lincoln, including the one used for the Lincoln penny, and one of John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Lincoln. The last group of pictures was of the Civil War: Union camps; a Union soldier with his family at an encampment; General Lee at Appomattox Court House; General Grant; a Union ironclad; battles scenes at

247 Fredericksburg, Spotsylvania, St. Petersburg, and Antietam; an embalming surgeon; and Union soldiers in trenches. The students listened quietly as I went through the images. They were amazed at the human oddity pictures. When seeing the embalming surgeon with the dead soldier, one girl asked, “Is he really dead?” I assured her that these were authentic pictures. Then another girl volunteered the “fact” that “white folks have to be buried quicker than we do.” “Why?” I asked. “Because you start turning black and blue and purple. You have to be put in the ground in just a few days.” Students commented on the stiffness and awkward positions of the dead soldiers’ bodies on the battlefields. I told them the photographer just documented what was there. He neither staged nor set any of the scenes. The camera could not capture action shots and these were the aftermath of battles. Perhaps these soldiers died of blasts of gunshots or cannon fire to account for their awkward positions in death. The photographer’s role was to capture the scene as it was, after the fighting ended and before burial of the dead. They were harsh but factual representations of the aftermath of war. At the end of viewing the images, the students asked for more. I heard “Can we see some more pictures?” and “We want to see more.” I told them I had no more to show them and the period was over anyway. No one had watched the clock on that day. Relevant Observations Related to Research Question #1 Observations can provide insights relevant to the findings of the study. As a whole, I feel students moved from receiving information only to learning how to manipulate and apply it. During the Historical Themes Activity in August, many students seemed clueless about what I was asking for in the art activity. Many could not conceptualize nor readily illustrate the themes that run throughout American history. The project was completed with much prompting, by giving examples and direct help, on the part of the teachers (Jean experienced the same phenomenon). By the time the students created their Civil War Visual Vocabulary projects, fewer students required my direct assistance in understanding their vocabulary word. Only three students failed to grasp the definition of their vocabulary word without my direct intervention. During the Reconstruction Visual Concept, once everyone read their material, only one student did not understand its meaning. In both projects, a handful of people had to be given some

248 ideas for their illustration; the majority, by far, just wanted me to approve their ideas. This shows growth in understanding by students of what is expected of them and in their abilities to conceptualize history content Further, there was an increase in students’ abilities to imaginatively create artistic outcomes to tasks assigned. Overall, students grew and matured over the course of the study and were able to handle more difficult and complex assignments, such as the Civil War Vocabulary and Reconstruction Visual Concept. Pilot Study Teacher Observations Related to Research Question #1 In the findings and summary section of the Co-Study Report (1999), Jean and I noted the same sort of trend after our first full yearlong American History and Art Co- Study course. Many students started the course believing that art requires little work. They adjusted their perceptions, internalized our expectations, and grew into the task. Further, few students had seen other teachers connect material that came from different disciplines. At first they did not understand that this could happen and were confused about it. As time passed, students adjusted and “caught on” to what we were doing. Student test scores improved over the three nine week period. There was definitely a learning curve associated with how students functioned in an interdisciplinary environment. Also, the Co-Study Curriculum created a nurturing environment that helped students grow into the task. The atmosphere in the classroom was very open and, perhaps, more socially interactive than other classroom settings. Relevant Observations Related to Research Question #2 Teacher researcher observations confirm a positive shift in attitude toward art. Students always seemed eager to get started on art projects. This had been the case from very early in the semester. I recall no one ever saying “I don’t want to do this.” I do recall hearing, a few times, “I can’t draw.” By the end of the semester, I never heard, “I can’t draw.” I did hear, “How do I draw…?” Those that doubted their drawing ability were a very small minority, two to three students. It seemed to be more of a question of understanding what I wanted them to do than a questioning of their ability to do it. As the semester progressed, they seemed to improve at generating their own ideas; by the end of the semester, the vast majority wanted only to bounce their ideas off of me.

249 Pertaining to art criticism, there was a student learning curve regarding how to engage in talking about art. There was some confusion in the beginning about the difference between description and interpretation. This was frustrating to some students. However, by the end of the semester, students were easily and readily engaged in art criticism and seemed to enjoy it very much as evidenced by their behavior: (1) excited questioning when entering the classroom and seeing the overhead projector or slide projector in place, and (2) attentive listening and ready responses during the art criticism process. Pilot Study Teacher Observations Related to Research Question #2 Karen noted in her Chemistry and Art Co-Study Collaboration that Myra’s Chemistry students were positively impacted in their attitudes toward art. She commented (Interview, 2003): I would just get comments that they liked doing that, learning shading and they used colored pencils and I showed them how to shade shiny metal because they were drawing the soda cans but I had never heard whether they had had another art class or not. They liked what they were doing and it really showed in their artwork. I asked if there was any in the group that just could not draw, or refused to draw, or would not even try. She said, “No, everyone tried and I don’t recall any one of them fussing about having to do the assignment. Not any one of them.” Co-Study Curriculum Support of Sunshine State Standards Table 3 displays the extent to which each Co-Study Curriculum component (art intervention) actually contributed to achieving, in the perceptions of the students, a specific Sunshine State Standard. It shows the percentage of students who “Strongly Agree” or “Agree” to each statement and its corresponding Sunshine State Standard. It indicates how important each art activity was to the students and what type of art activity they prefer to enhance learning. The top three preferred activities for enhancing student learning of American history were the Illustrated Map of the 13 Colonies (82%), Historical Themes Activity (80%), and Colonial Art Images (78%). The first two were drawing activities and the third one was viewing art images. The least favorite of the art activities were Civil War

250

251 Table 3  continued

FLORIDA CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK Sunshine State Standards: Social Studies, 1996

SS.A.1.4.2 The student identifies and understands themes in history that cross scientific, economic, and cultural boundaries.

SS.A.1.4.4 The student uses chronology, sequencing, patterns, and periodization to examine interpretations of an event.

SS.A.4.4.1 The student understands the economic, social, and political interactions between Native American tribes and European settlers during the Age of Discovery.

SS.A.4.4.2 The student understands how religious, social, political, and economic developments shaped the settlement patterns of the North American colonies.

SS.A.4.4.3 The student understands the significant military and political events that took place during the American Revolution.

SS.A.4.4.4 The student understands the political events that defined the Constitutional Period.

SS.A.4.4.6 The student understands the military and economic events of the Civil War and Reconstruction.

Visual Vocabulary (66%), Brady’s Photography (62%), and Reconstruction Visual Concept (56%). Again, there were two drawing activities and one viewing art images activity. The top three preferred art activities indicate that students prefer drawing over viewing in a 2 to 1 ratio. However, because the 2 to 1 ratio exists for the least preferred activities, the nature of the activity itself is more important than whether it is a drawing or viewing activity. Interpretation of the Findings After doing research on the Co-Study Curriculum beginning in 1998 and through the end of this present study, it appears to me that the importance of visual learning at the high school level is being overlooked in many classrooms. I have learned firsthand that many students are visually oriented in their preference for learning. I have noticed that

252 not only art but variety in instructional delivery techniques—videos, discussions, group activities, presentations—is welcome by students. Not creating diverse learning activities in the secondary school classroom may be keeping many students from getting excited about learning. The following is an overview of the meaning of the present and pilot studies regarding the Co-Study Curriculum. Overview of Perceived Learning Through Visual Arts Enhancement of Social Studies Student perceptions of the Co-Study Curriculum are that it enhances learning. The Co-Study Impact Survey of the present study supported across all questions that the Co-Study Curriculum process created a significant positive learning experience for the students (71.17% “Agreed” or “Strongly Agreed”). In pilot study exit surveys of American History and Art Co-Study students, they confirmed their support of the Co- Study Curriculum in the following manner: Co-Study Pilot Course Year Student Perceptions 1998-1999 100% responded, “Co-Study helped me to remember and understand American history content better” 1999-2000 88% responded, “Co-Study helped me to remember American history content better” and 96% responded, “Co-Study helped me to understand American history content better”

In pilot study interviews and interviews conducted in this present study, students overwhelmingly stated that art helped them to remember and understand better their history content. Art activities allowed many of the students to make visual images in their mind to recall later during a test (remember) or to link information together (understand). Many said that they must see or make a visual representation in order to understand information. For these students, the visual component is necessary for remembering and understanding, or learning.

253 Overview of Attitudinal Shifts Toward Art Due to the Co-Study Curriculum Student attitudes within the present study toward art were positively impacted by the Co-Study Curriculum. The Art Attitude Survey in the present study showed that the Co-Study Curriculum positively shifted student perceptions regarding art relative to personal value and societal importance. The average percentage shift in Warren’s was +5.17% and in Doster’s class +3.28%. In previous discussions (see Chapters 4 and 5), open response questions in both the pilot study surveys and interviews, along with present study interviews and teacher observations, noted that the majority of students enjoyed doing the art activities. Most of the students were eager to participate and anxious to get started when an art activity was announced according to teacher observations. For many, the art activities “grabbed” the students’ attention and maintained their interest in the instructional material. Performance Overview The Co-Study Curriculum enhanced learning outcomes as shown by grade improvement. The first two and one-half years of the pilot study showed increased student performance on objective tests for those students in the Co-Study Curriculum as compared to those who were not. The Co-Study Curriculum program covered three nine week segments of the 1998-99 school year. The averaged test scores of these three nine week periods show a significant trend. The first nine weeks shows little improvement (.98 point) over the control group, the second nine weeks shows a substantial improvement (6.15 points), and the third nine weeks shows a remarkable improvement (11.77 points). This dramatic trend in improved student performance probably can be attributed to students learning how to combine different subject matter. Specifically, they had to learn how to let the art help them learn history. During the 1999-2000 school year, the Co-Study Curriculum group’s performance increased as the year progressed. They improved their averaged test scores by 11½ points—one and one-half letter grades—over the three nine week periods. The control groups’ averaged test scores did not increase over the same time period. The Co-Study Curriculum students increased performance, almost the same amount of improved test performance as the previous year’s class, while the control group did not.

254 Reflective Overview by the Researcher Literature discussed in this research supports that concrete concepts are best learned visually as opposed to through only spoken or written words. Therefore, concrete concepts may be learned best through strong visual cues called arguments. Further, the strength of the visual cue, value and meaning to the observer, impacts the quality of the visual argument. In other words, when strong visual cues are created, cognitive processing is stimulated and students learn quicker, easier, and retain information longer (Preston, 1996). The Co-Study Curriculum process is a combination of visual learning plus Dewian-type curriculum activity. The underlying premise of the Co-Study Curriculum process is that visual cognitive processing is enhanced by the student participating in creating a visual related to the subject matter. In the Co-Study Curriculum, the Dewian- type activities end in a visual product created by the student. As suggested by this study, the result is a quality impact on the learner. The creation of an art product is at the “synthesis” level of Bloom’s taxonomy of higher order thinking skills (FL DOE, 1997) and the “manipulation level” of H. Doster’s Expert Learning System (Doster, 1991). The Co-Study Curriculum process allows students to find additional meaning and value in the information being taught. Consequently, that information is manipulated easier and stored better. Art helps to embed knowledge and, therefore, should have an expanded role in education far beyond its status as a discipline. Implications for Art Educators As stated in the review of literature, there are many visions for the aims of art education. Art educators debate what the role of art should be while shrinking budgets in schools and mandated standardized testing is squeezing art out of the curriculum. Few seem to be noticing this trend except for art teachers and those sympathetic to the arts. Three of the four students interviewed in the present study had little exposure to art prior to their enrollment in the American History and Art Co-Study class. Yet, all of them elected to take it and displayed positive feelings about art during the class. I believe we are missing an opportunity to engage more students in art instruction; it is as though art educators are hiding their collective light under the proverbial bushel basket. Art education might want to consider broadening its concept and expanding its

255 educational role by not only offering art courses within its discipline but also by encouraging teachers of other subject matter to collaborate and integrate art into the presentation of their curriculum. This study supports three main reasons why art educators should broaden the use of art in other disciplines: 1. Art accommodates visual learners. Increasing art’s role in the learning process will serve better the estimated 30% of students who are visual learners and prefer to take in and give out information in a visual manner (Miller, 2001). School mandates and standardized testing are geared to student performance. Students’ performance will increase as we accommodate their abilities and interests (learning style). As instructional content and delivery accommodate how the brain works, students will move toward maximizing their learning experience. 2. Art stimulates interest in learning. Many students, in this study, were motivated by the Co-Study Curriculum process. Moreover, findings support that they were more often bored and unproductive in other traditionally taught courses. This comes at a time when we can ill afford to have our students enter the workforce less prepared than needed. Not only national needs but also the global economy is exerting pressure on the educational system to maximize student preparation. 3. Art acts as a language to convey information. Teachers can convey better to students our era’s increased information by using art within interdisciplinary collaborations. By using art as part of the instructional format, teachers are able to explain subject matter more clearly and students are better able to understand and store that information. This makes subject material more meaningful, increases understanding of concepts, and helps to manage the explosion of knowledge we are experiencing. However, during my research, I discovered a reality regarding implementation. Using the above reasons for implementing art’s increased role in education does not reside singularly in the hands of teachers. More importantly, it resides in the hands of school and district administrators. In order for any school based systemic change to take

256 root and grow, school administrators must be role models in both encouraging and supporting such change. As Jean stated (Interview, 2002): Now, you know, as I think back I know that when we first introduced the program, they came to the meetings...talking about our administrators and Guidance staff…and I think that was about it. As far as administrators, probably, the greatest help we got was from Dr. K. He was willing to shell out some money and construct a wall for us we could open to allow us more space. But then, on the other hand, Guidance got to a point where they were not willing to schedule us in the same room to use the $15,000.00 wall (laugh) that we had put in. But… I think it is a lack of vision and I know the Bible says, “Those who will perish for a lack of vision.” And, we have apparently some people who are not able to think outside the box. If it is a program that can be self-contained and have people in that program run that program without interfering with the established order, it’s okay! We’re not trying to run an IB program; we don’t have a segregated school within a school; we don’t have a special grant that allows us to staff our people and we didn’t really need additional staff. All we really needed was a Guidance who was willing to be flexible enough to allow us to have our schedules essentially the same for the classes we were teaching…and look for those students who were visual learners, channel them toward this particular program. Fundamentally, support is needed from university art education departments for the idea of integrating art into other subject areas. Art education departments need to teach that it is okay for art teachers to collaborate and work with teachers of other disciplines. University courses need to be developed that show new art teachers how to integrate curricula. At the secondary school level, collaborations between art teachers and teachers from other subject areas have been a good way to get started. Art teachers are a plentiful resource for enhancing the content delivery of other disciplines. This research does not support that art will get lost or damaged by expanding its role in education. In fact, just the opposite is supported. As students became more aware and appreciative of the world of art, it became a more significant factor in their positive perceptions of learning and attitudes toward art.

257 Developing a Co-Study Curriculum collaboration requires time management. Additional front time is needed to develop a collaborative unit. As Karen said (Interview, 2003), “It is just a lot of planning that goes into a unit like this. Although it is tremendously beneficial, it just takes a lot of planning.” Suggestions for Additional Research Generally, more data needs to be gathered on the learning impacts created by the Co-Study Curriculum process. Specifically, to what extent does the use of art in the delivery of other subject matter improve student performance? Other specific inquires, which would explore and support the implications within this research are: 1. How does the expanded role of art in the educational process impact art’s standing and value in various school curricula? 2. How do students, after experiencing the Co-Study Curriculum, within populations not covered by this research view art’s role as a learning process? 3. How does implementation of the Co-Study Curriculum process change teaching styles? Further, action research needs to be conducted regarding how the Co-Study Curriculum could be implemented at the secondary level relative to district personnel and school administrators’ support. This research needs to be replicated within other educational environments to determine if its findings can be generalized to broader populations. Finally, a clearinghouse process needs to be established that allows the collection, cataloging, and dissemination of a burgeoning body of knowledge. There were a few areas in the findings that raise questions and could be topics for further research. Figure 5 showed that students in Doster’s and Warren’s classes responded quite differently to Survey Statements #6, 7, 9 and 12. All four of the art activities corresponding to these statements were viewing art images. I was responsible for showing the images to both classes together. I think that combing the two classes to show the art images created a dynamic that can account for this difference. Some students became uncomfortable having to share their classroom with other students they did not know. Their familiar classroom became unfamiliar; students were no longer in their comfort zone.

258

APPENDIX A

SURVEY INSTRUMENTS

259 APPENDIX A-1a

Date: ______Name: ______

Grading Period: First Nine Weeks

Co-Study Impact Survey

Directions: Please write the date and your name in the spaces at the top. Each of the following statements expresses a belief or attitude you have formed about Co-Study. Indicate on the 5-point scale the statement that best represents your personal beliefs. Draw a circle around the letter (to the right of each question or statement) that best expresses your belief or attitude. Your choices are:

SA (Strongly Agree) A (Agree) U (Undecided) D (Disagree) SD (Strongly Disagree)

1. Illustrating the historical themes (for example, politics) SA A U D SD

helped me to understand them.

2. The pictures of transportation helped me to understand SA A U D SD the effects of technological changes on American life.

3. Arranging the transportation pictures from the oldest to SA A U D SD

the newest helped me to realize the historical sequence of inventions in American history.

4. The Venn diagram project helped me to understand the SA A U D SD

economic and social interactions between the Native Americans and the Europeans.

5. Drawing and illustrating my map of the 13 colonies SA A U D SD

helped me to understand the economic and social differences among the colonies.

6. Viewing Colonial American pictures helped me to SA A U D SD

understand the colonists’ way of life.

260 APPENDIX A-1b

Date: ______Name: ______Grading Period: Second Nine Weeks

Co-Study Impact Survey

SA (Strongly Agree) A (Agree) U (Undecided) D (Disagree) SD (Strongly Disagree)

7. Viewing Revolutionary War pictures helped me to SA A U D SD understand the military events of the war.

8. Drawing the Constitutional Tree project helped me to SA A U D SD understand the formation and organization of our government.

9. Paintings, neoclassical architecture and sculpture helped SA A U D SD helped me to visualize the people, places, and the political events of the Constitutional period.

10. Completing the Civil War Visual Vocabulary project help me SA A U D SD to understand military and economic events of the war.

11. Completing the Reconstruction Visual Concept project help me SA A U D SD to understand military and economic events of Reconstruction.

12. Brady’s photography helped me to understand the death and SA A U D SD destruction of Civil War battles.

261 APPENDIX A-2

ART ATTITUDE SURVEY

Directions: Please write the date and your name in the spaces at the top. Each of the following statements expresses a belief or attitude about art. Indicate on the 5-point scale the statement that best represents your personal beliefs. Draw a circle around the letter (to the right of each question or statement) that best expresses your belief or attitude. Your choices are: SA (Strongly Agree) A (Agree) U (Undecided) D (Disagree) SA (Strongly Disagree)

1. Art is important in society today. SA A U D SD

2. Art is mainly for decoration. SA A U D SD

3. Art is easy. There’s not much thinking involved. SA A U D SD

4. Art teaches us about other people. SA A U D SD

5. Art asks us to think about problems in society and the environment. SA A U D SD

6. Art is mainly for fun. SA A U D SD

7. The best artwork makes people think about, or look at things in a new way. SA A U D SD

8. Art should be on display in public places. SA A U D SD

9. Artists make different kinds of art because they have different beliefs or reasons for creating art. SA A U D SD

10. I feel good when I am creating something in art. SA A U D SD

11. I practice art activities in my free time. SA A U D SD

12. I find the artwork of other people to be interesting. SA A U D SD

13. I think art lessons help me in other schoolwork. SA A U D SD

14. I think I do well in art. SA A U D SD

15. Doing art gives me pleasure. SA A U D SD

16. I can draw well. SA A U D SD

17. I usually like my artwork. SA A U D SD

18. I do not feel good when I am doing something in art. SA A U D SD

262

APPENDIX B

PILOT STUDY INTERVIEWS

263 APPENDIX B-1

GUIDE FOR INTERVIEW #1: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY Jean Warren, Social Studies Department, Rutherford High School October 30, 2002

Where and when were you born?

Where did you grow up? Describe your hometown.

What are your first memories of school?

What are your most vivid memories of school?

Did you have a favorite teacher or subject?

Compare your different schooling experiences: elementary, middle, and high school.

Who encouraged your studies? Who influenced you the most?

How did you end up at the university?

How and why did you decide to become a teacher?

What kind of certification do you have?

What was your first teaching job? Others?

How did you arrive at Rutherford High School? What year?

What significant things have you learned about teaching others?

What have you learned about yourself from teaching? How has teaching changed you as a person?

Did your university work prepare you well for teaching?

Have you enjoyed teaching? Explain the most rewarding or satisfying thing about being a teacher. Explain the most frustrating thing about being a teacher.

Would you recommend it as a career to others? Why or why not?

Describe the classes that you are teaching this school year and the structure of a typical day. Is it what you want to teach?

264 What would be your ideal arrangement of classes? Daydream about your ideal situation—class size, budget, facilities, subjects, and anything else.

What skills/concepts do you want your students to learn? How do you motivate them? Is breadth or depth more important to teach? Who decides that (state standards, district, school, or self) and what you will teach?

How do you grade your students? What is important about grading?

What is the most important thing you teach?

Do you want to share anything else about your philosophy of teaching? Or your experiences?

Do you remember any particular students? Anyone special?

How well are you supported by school administrators? By your department head? By other teachers? By parents?

What kind of trends do you see in teaching over the years?

Would you do it all over again?

Is there anything else you would like to add?

265 APPENDIX B-1a

INTERVIEW #1: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY An Interview between Jean Warren, Social Studies Department and Jennifer (Jenny) Doster, Art Department, Rutherford High School October 30, 2002

JENNY: Jean, where are you from? Where and when were you born?

JEAN: You would ask me where I was born and when I was born. I was born in, actually, Foxworth, Mississippi, July 2, 1949…very country.

JENNY: What part of the state is that in?

JEAN: That’s in southern Mississippi about 90 miles north of New Orleans.

JENNY: So, you could go down to the city occasionally?

JEAN: Well, could have but didn’t. (laughing) We were country poor.

JENNY: What size town was it?

JEAN: We had, when I left …we had about 1,700 in Columbia, Mississippi, but that doesn’t include Foxworth which was the outskirts. Yeah, Columbia was where…Columbia was the county seat. So, we were on the outskirts of Columbia…which means country.

JENNY: How many people lived in that town? What’s it called again?

JEAN: Foxworth. F—O—X—W-O-R-T-H. I don’t know what the population of Foxworth was but let’s say it couldn’t have been more than 500.

JENNY: Oh, really? A small, small town.

JEAN: Yeah, a small town.

JENNY: So everybody knew everybody?

JEAN: Absolutely, everybody knew everybody.

JENNY: Were there any jobs around there?

JEAN: It was paper mill, small-time, small-scale farming. And that was about it.

JENNY: Interesting. Well, that was the next question…I was going to ask you to describe your hometown. Is there anything you want to add?

266 JEAN: I just can remember we went to town usually every Saturday afternoon because my Dad worked Saturday morning cutting yards. So, we would load up and do the grocery shopping …

JENNY: That would be Columbia?

JEAN: Yeah, we just went to town on Saturday afternoon, went to church on Sunday, and school during the week and that was it. No trips. Occasionally we would go to visit my Mom’s brother who lived in Picayune, Mississippi, which was about 60 or so miles from us and…occasionally we would go to New Orleans to visit a cousin down there. But that was like once every ten years or so. We led a very quiet life.

JENNY: Were you overwhelmed when you went to the city? When you saw it? Did you feel comfortable going to the city?

JEAN: By the time I went to the city, New Orleans that is, I was in high school. Yeah, so, we’re not talking every other trip. So, and the next large city to us was Hattiesburg, Mississippi, and that was a rare occasion unless you had to go to another doctor or something like that.

JENNY: And you had brothers and sisters at home with you?

JEAN: I’m the oldest and I have two brothers. We were all two years apart.

JENNY: So, you are close in years?

JEAN: Yeah, not too close now but close then.

JENNY: What were your first memories of school?

JEAN: Getting on the bus…I remember my Dad was the bus driver when I started school and every morning…for some reason the bus was over at my grandmother’s and we would go over there and eat breakfast. She would fix breakfast for us every morning. And it was syrup, biscuits, and homemade butter and salt meat or bacon or something like that. And we would do that every morning and, then, we would be off to school. He would take us to school…take a load of kids to school and then he would go by an aunt of his that lived in the area until school got out. And then I got into the habit in first grade of just staying with Dad all day and almost flunked. (laughing)

JENNY: What did he do for a living?

JEAN: He…that was it! He was just driving the bus. He wasn’t into farming like my grandfather was and so, I think, sometime before that he had been injured and after that he started driving the bus. Ever since I have known Dad he has had that limp. He started driving the bus and I guess he drove the bus four or five years.

267 JENNY: Was the school at Foxworth or was it at Columbia?

JEAN: The school was not in Foxworth. It was in a little….another little settlement called Little Rock which was about, I would say, about thirty miles.

JENNY: These are interesting names, Foxworth, Little Rock.

JEAN: The name of that school was Piney Woods and, so, it was a very small school. We couldn’t have had any more than 100 kids enrolled.

JENNY: Inclusive of first through twelfth?

JEAN: Yeah, first through twelfth. I can remember it now, a white building, and we had another little building to the side. I can remember the wood heater and the cafeteria because the lady in the cafeteria—Miss Hoffman, I remember her name now—cooked, ah!, the best food. But anyway…

JENNY: So you ate well at school?

JEAN: Oh, yeah, and I fell in love in my elementary years because I left him some of my lunch money on his desk everyday.

JENNY: Do you remember his name?

JEAN: Junior Moore. (laughing)

JENNY: Have you ever wondered where Junior is now?

JEAN: I often think about Junior. “Junior, where are you?” I often wonder where Junior is but I don’t know what happened to Junior because he didn’t stay. The family moved away. And there went my first love.

JENNY: Was that first grade first love?

JEAN: That was first grade.

JENNY: How many teachers were there in your small school? What were your teachers like?

JEAN: I can remember the room. We had it divided, partitioned, so that we had different grade levels and I can remember the hallway and I know the principal’s office was over there on the left and there must have been three or four classrooms on either side of the hallway. And those classrooms were partitioned. And I can remember in the fourth grade, the teacher got…I guess, upset with us and she said, after lunch, nobody was going to go to the restroom. A girl that rode our bus took her to heart. She had to go do a #2 (laughing) and she would not ask the teacher to let her go. And she sat right there and did

268 it in her desk. A friend and I kind of snickered a little bit and she made us take the desk to the bathroom (laughing)…and wash it down. Oh, Lord…and she rode home with us on the bus. You didn’t have parents who could bring clothes out for change, so she kept those clothes on.

JENNY: I guess she learned something then?

JEAN: I guess I learned something then…to keep your mouth shut because it could be you. But, the plan was the order of the day. You just didn’t question a teacher and if she said something, it was the law. That’s it.

JENNY: How many kids would be in your partitioned area? And was it by grade level?

JEAN: Grade level, yeah, and it couldn’t have been anymore than 20. So, we were small.

JENNY: So, how far did you go in that school? What grade?

JEAN: It went from first through twelfth. All right there.

JENNY: And you went there the whole twelve years?

JEAN: Oh, no, because we were growing, you see, we were expanding. In 1959, they built a new school. And we consolidated all the little schools into one black school for the county. And that was East Marion and the name doesn’t even exist anymore. But, anyway, we all went to the new school.

JENNY: Was it nice?

JEAN: Oh, well, I thought I was in hog heaven. So big and so new and the paint was still fresh. The halls were so shiny and I got lost on the first day.

JENNY: What grade were you in by then?

JEAN: Fifth grade…fifth grade…and, so, I finally found my way to the area and it was …oh....just seemed like so many people. Well, because you are coming from that small environment. It was change…

JENNY: Life was changing? 1959, things were starting to change?

JEAN: Yeah, we had Brown (Brown v. Board of Education) in ’54 but we weren’t affected by Brown at all. It wouldn’t be until 1966 that we would begin the process of …(integration)…

269 JENNY: I think that was pretty typical in this area, too, of northwest Florida. It took that many years for it to have an effect. So, your most vivid memories of school would be discipline…

JEAN: Discipline, discipline, discipline.

JENNY: Did you like school?

JEAN: I liked recess. (laughing) What was it about school that I enjoyed?

JENNY: Did you have a favorite teacher or subject?

JEAN: I remember some teachers that stood out. Miss Ella Laflore was a history teacher of mine in the eighth grade. And I just thought she was so smart and she had us actually doing some things instead of just sitting in the desk. And I remember she assigned us a paper one time and…at that Christmas I had gotten a typewriter. I just thought I was in hog heaven. Oh, and I tell you, and the first day I dropped it. But I typed this paper for her and I thought I had done a marvelous job. I mean, nobody typed their papers and so she looked at it and the red just began to flow and I think the bottom line was if you are going to type there are some rules regarding typing. (laughing) And so it was just like a reality check. And she coached girl’s basketball and she was just very…

JENNY: Did you play basketball?

JEAN: Tried to. I went out for basketball in my ninth grade year, I think, and in the tenth grade. Both times, I ended up twisting an ankle so, by the second time, Dad said just forget it because he had to come and pick me up from work, you know, limping with a swollen ankle and da-de-da-de-da. I never really played basketball.

JENNY: What was your favorite subject? Do you remember having one?

JEAN: The only thing I can remember was sitting in the little desk, taking tests, and listening to the teacher. School was not really very enjoyable because it was all teacher focused. So the only fun activities we had were when we went out to recess or to a football game. The classroom itself was not fun. I remember having a geography teacher when I was in seventh grade. The thing I remember most about her was that she was dressed everyday. We had to draw our maps.

JENNY: You did?

JEAN: Yeah, she wanted every little curly cue…you don't do the contour (drawing), you have to go in and show those little details. Because we didn't have paper that we would just have maps printed out on. If you wanted to do geography, you drew your maps and labeled them. She was very big on that. I guess that kind of helped me develop an idea for detail.

270 JENNY: Can you compare between elementary, middle, and high school? You moved from a smaller rural school to a larger?

JEAN: From the country to a larger school.

JENNY: Is that larger school in Columbia?

JEAN: It is in what we call Rampton.

JENNY: Sounds like a lot of small towns.

JEAN: Yeah, a lot of little communities …there was no main street. These were just little communities where people lived and everybody did their shopping in Columbia. Farming communities, that’s what they were because everybody had their little farms.

JENNY: So, you're a farmer and I didn't know it?

JEAN: No, my grandfather was a farmer. He used all of the grandchildren for slave labor. (laughing) He had cotton; he had corn; he had beans and okra and peas. And then my mother had a garden. We picked cotton not only for my grandfather but some of the other farmers in the area. They would come out in the mornings and they would load us up on the trucks. They would give us dinner. We didn't have anything to do anyway. My family, though, if you went off and worked anywhere you brought the money home. And then if Mom wanted to give you some of it she would give you some of it…but it wasn't your money.

JENNY: Did ya'll have a TV?

JEAN: We didn't get a TV until we moved. I grew up in a two-room shotgun house as they would call it now. We moved into a new house in '59, too. That was '59, too. So, we did have a TV in grandmother's house. I remember when we got it because all the grandkids and my aunt across the hill had 10 kids and my uncle down the way from us had seven and when we wanted to watch TV we went to grandmother's house. Grandmother had the TV; grandmother had the phone; grandmother had the running water because she had a pump and we didn't because they owned the land. When their children got ready to get married and if they wanted land, they ended up buying it from my grandfather. He wasn't giving anything away. My dad bought 13 acres from him.

JENNY: So, he owned a lot of land?

JEAN: My grandfather? Yeah, oh yeah. He could keep a dollar until it started to crinkle. He wasn't giving up anything. When we got on his truck to go to Sunday school on Sunday, you would have to pay. (laughing) If you needed a ride to the store, you'd have to pay. And when he died, of course, it all went to his wife who did pretty much what she wanted to with it. But, he was very strict on the money honey. You didn't ride in grandpa's truck for free.

271 JENNY: I'm sure he wouldn't approve of all this plastic money—credit cards—we have today. Who encouraged your studies and who influenced you the most?

JEAN: I think my grandfather did a lot because he would always say, "Study hard." I think he expected all of the grandkids to go on and go to college after high school. And then when I went to college, he and my grandmother, every time I would come home, would give me a little piece of money. And my parents they expected …they expected great things. "You have no excuse; this is what you are here to do." I know one time…we would get off the bus and stay with my grandparents until my parents came home. And one day I left my book out on the hill and it rained that night and I went through the whole year without it. And that meant money, too, and we didn't have that much money to be paying for a book that I should have brought home. They had great expectations.

JENNY: That is the expectancy…the Pygmalion effect. If you expect your child or your student to do well that idea will get into their head and they will live up to your expectation. Even though you are growing up in this rural community in the segregated South, you knew you were going to college?

JEAN: There was never any question "if" you were going…maybe "where" you were going.

JENNY: So, how did you decide which university to go to?

JEAN: In high school, I started looking around at guys and so there was this tall guy that played basketball that lived in the area and, so…my thing at that time was, “I'm not talking to anybody shorter than me.” My emphasis was on the tall ones, so I knew the family…as I said they were in the area, and he went to Jackson State when he left to go off to school. My mother said, "You will never get anywhere close to Jackson State." (laughing) "I'm going to put you as close to me as I can." USM is only forty miles away and they were into their second year of integration at USM so I applied and was accepted and she said, "That is where you will go; you will go to Hattiesburg."

JENNY: So, USM is the University of Southern Mississippi?

JEAN: Yes, and that was 1967. That was my first year.

JENNY: Tell me how you decided to get your degree in secondary education?

JEAN: With a minor in history. At that time you majored in either elementary or secondary. I think the determining factor there was having to take a foreign language and taking a language in college is very different from taking it in high school and the first quarter I took it I got a "C" and the second quarter I took it I got a "C" and I needed three quarters of it for my major because I was going into sociology. That was the intent…oh, social worker, that would be great. After two quarters, I decided that maybe I should change my major.

272 JENNY: So you ended up with a certification in secondary education and a focus in history? You graduated and then what happened?

JEAN: They were doing interviews…actually I graduated the second quarter of my senior year because I went to summer school…why I don't know…anyway, which meant I was out early. Wondering what to do, no car, and so I did some sub work but they were interviewing for jobs and they were sending people from the county office…

JENNY: You mean our county here?

JEAN: Yeah, Bay County. Their Director of Personnel would go out to various colleges and interview and recruit. So Mr. Pribbenow, at the time, was at USM. I went in and interviewed and he offered me a job, just like that. One of the teachers…it was for Bay High…one of the teachers there, when they shifted around when they integrated, was not happy and they needed a replacement to keep the quota up. And so they were just looking for…and so Dad said, “I don't care where it is; just go."

JENNY: What did your mom say?

JEAN: "Ooh" because this is like Florida; it is so far away. Florida is what they see on TV, the palm trees. So I went to Hattiesburg, Mississippi, and got on a bus and it took me 13 hours to get here by bus. And I didn't know a single person here. And I had to come here for an interview as well. So I came here for the interview and met people like Hattie Burch, who is a longtime...she was probably there when you were there…and some others. They offered me the job and I took it. Still when I came down here I didn't have a car. I worked until Thanksgiving, got back on the bus and went home and said "Dad, I have to have transportation." So he put the down payment on a car for me. My first car was a Camaro. It was so cute. A gold Camaro. Rented a room from one of the Bowers over there on Lincoln Drive, where the drivers range is at Bay High. It was close to school and, sometimes, I walked. I could take a bus downtown. The next summer I got married. I forgot my internship. I interned in Natchez, Mississippi. Sure did and, of course, that was where Warren (future husband) was. I had to get to Natchez, right?

JENNY: Did Warren go to school with you?

JEAN: We went to high school together.

JENNY: Was he the tall, basketball player?

JEAN: Yeah, so he had been teaching in Natchez for a while…for two years…because he is only three years older than me. When we got married, the thing was, am I going to leave here and go to Natchez or what?

JENNY: Or was he going to come here?

273 JEAN: Yeah, they needed a science teacher at Bay High and so I had been rehired…if I wanted the job. So he came down here and started working in the science department. Unknown to us they had a rule…a school board policy…that said husbands and wives cannot work at the same school. So, here they are…I guess Joe Ovca knew about the policy but hired us anyway. Come to find out we were on the school board agenda. A month of school has gone by and now we are on the school board agenda because somebody has brought it to the school board's attention that a husband and wife are at the same school. And, so they needed a science teacher more than they needed a history teacher and they let me go. And so they offered me a spot at the county office working with JTPA, I think it was something like that. I stayed out there for a year picking up time slips from kids who were working at various jobs. There was a teacher there who knew the department head here at Rutherford and, you know, like, "She's a good one; you could use her." And so Betty Sue Evans hired me over here…or recommended me for hiring over here and that was in 1973. And I've been here ever since. (laughing) Teaching has been my only job. No…I did do a little work on the beach but I didn't get paid for it.

JENNY: You have a lot of teaching experience. First, I would like to make the comment that you have an extraordinary story coming from the rural Mississippi area, segregated South, going to a major university and getting a degree. This is really a phenomenal story.

JEAN: And it didn't take me five years or six years or seven years like my child.

JENNY: Were you prepared coming from your small school to the university?

JEAN: It is amazing because by having very little by way of dedicated teachers…I can remember in the sixth grade, the English teacher, if you missed a word on the spelling test you got beat. I can remember learning my times tables. If we were doing 7s on any given day and you missed one, you got a lick for every one that you missed. So, I'm talking about discipline. And you had to go into the bathroom and clean the stalls when somebody wrote on them. We didn't have in house…we had people come and do the halls but every teacher was responsible for their own room as far as keeping it clean. Discipline probably stands out the most for me but one of the things our principal always reminded us was that the white students kept their schools so clean. And we want to do the same thing. So when the county people would come in we would have to really spruce up the place. And I didn't know any better until I went to college and we would walk down the hall and say "Oh, my goodness, we have been lied to all these years."

JENNY: You thought it would be antiseptic and it wasn't.

JEAN: Absolutely, absolutely. It was just their way of trying to keep us in place.

JENNY: When you decided to go into teaching after sociology wasn't looking so promising, was there any reason why? Was it just because it was available? Do you remember that decision point?

274 JEAN: By way of careers, I didn't really see that many people doing that many different things. When I was in high school, I saw teachers. They tell me at one time there were a couple of black doctors but I had never seen any. Since I didn't have a guidance counselor, whatever was decided was based on my experience to date. I just didn't see anybody doing great and wonderful things except for teaching. And they were good, everyday people. I didn't know they made so little money. (laugh) And then when I came down here, Florida was offering $6,500 or something like that and Mississippi was only offering $4,000. I thought I was in hog heaven. Let me go to Florida.

JENNY: So what significant things have you learned about teaching others?

JEAN: They are all different. There is no one way to teach. What you have to do is decide what works best for any given group even if it’s the same subject. What you do in one class might not work in another class. A lot of patience…a lot of patience.

JENNY: What have you learned about yourself from teaching?

JEAN: I can be patient. (laugh) Flexibility, I think. I don't think there are too many things that upset me anymore because I know that this, too, shall pass. And I just wait for the next wave to come through. But…I think flexibility and patience. At some level I really enjoy what I do, at some level. I just haven't discovered what level that is yet. But if I could just teach and not worry about the paperwork that goes along with all this and the forms…if I could just teach, it would really be a great occupation.

JENNY: Well, do you think that your university experience, the classes you took to get ready for teaching, helped you or were you surprised when you started teaching?

JEAN: I was surprised how little I knew. Even though you major in a subject, you really don't start learning it until you teach it.

JENNY: So, the teacher is the learner?

JEAN: Absolutely, absolutely. I interned in middle school…just having to prepare…I know I took that class but I didn't learn enough to try to teach it to somebody. Even the classes you take on how to teach…you have to get out there and learn it, basically, on a lot of trial and error. I guess there were some good things that came out of those classes but, for the most part, you learn by doing.

JENNY: Have you enjoyed teaching overall? If you had a scale, how would you weigh this thing out?

JEAN: Since I still have some hair and a reasonable portion of my health and strength…on a scale of 1 to 10, I would say 8 or 9. Except for the cussin' outs and the not too nice messages left on desks…stuff like that…I think, overall, not bad.

275 JENNY: What would you say has been the most satisfying or rewarding thing? Can you pinpoint any one thing?

JEAN: I think, probably, as I go to WalMart and meet former students and they tell me, "Mrs. Warren, you were so hard." (laugh) I think I would rather hear that than to hear someone say, "We didn't do anything in her class." I've had students who have left notes and said how great and wonderful and da-de-da-de-da but I think, overall I think, is the fact that they come away with more than what they came in with…a little bit more than what they came in with.

JENNY: And on the flip side of that, what has been the most frustrating thing for you as a teacher?

JEAN: I think having students come in with preconceived ideas of "I cannot do this" and won't even try. "My mother had trouble with history and she understands why I don't do well" and "I can't learn this" and "I can't; I can't; I can't." That just drives me up the wall. So, I think that's the most frustrating; those students who won't put forth the effort. Not realizing that this is nothing but a story...American history is and world history is but a story. If you watch a story on TV, you can learn American history.

JENNY: Would you recommend teaching to other people?

JEAN: I think it would have to be something…first of all, you have to have a personality if you are going to be effective—somebody who really enjoys this type of interacting with students on a daily basis. If you don't like people, this is not the job for you. Would I recommend it? If you're not looking for a lot of money, you have good hours and have nice vacations and you get a challenge every single day. And there is always growth. Because every time I teach I learn something that I didn't know before. If you're looking for something like that then this is a good spot.

JENNY: True, I agree with that. I am always learning. Tell me what classes you are teaching this year and what a typical day might be for you.

JEAN: I'm just doing world history and American history this year. A typical day like today is all American history. I have one honors and three regulars. It is just a matter of reviewing content and introducing new content and reviewing what you have just covered. A typical day is making sure that those people who are out are recorded as school leave or…it is the record keeping that drives me up the wall and making sure that this form is signed and that form is signed…ah. So a typical day is some teaching and a lot of paperwork.

JENNY: Are these the classes you want to be teaching?

JEAN: I would rather be doing just all American history. But because we try to be fair in the department and not give one person five preparations and another one, I ended up with three which is not bad.

276 JENNY: If you could have the ideal situation, could you give me a class size, a budget, subjects, whatever….your dream teaching job.

JEAN: OK, I would say probably no more than 20 students. I want a classroom large enough where I could have a teaching area and a hands-on area because we do manipulate the content. I would like a wide-screen TV, something that kids could see from the back of the room. We wouldn't have to break out the binoculars. (laugh) I would like to have a computer for each of my students in the room so that we could have some online work. I would like to have a sink area, built-in cabinets, a lot of room for storage. I would like…what else…monies for field trips, for consumables, and the opportunity to collaborate with more teachers across the curriculum. When I do the wars, I would love to have the ROTC come over and do their little spiel because that is what they specialize in, military stuff. So, we just haven't had a chance to and now that the Co-Study program is a dead duck…

JENNY: What kinds of skills or concepts do you want your students to learn? And how do you motivate them?

JEAN: My first thought is that I tell them if they don't do it they get a zero. (laugh) That works for some. I think the opportunity to improve themselves as individuals, to give them a greater knowledge base to work from. Until they have that knowledge base, they can't compare and contrast, draw conclusions, synthesize and all those other great and wonderful skills we want them to develop. The writing skills are awful. I don't think we practice anything like memory skills anymore.

JENNY: Is there anything you push with them?

JEAN: I think being responsible for what they do, be it bringing a pen and a piece of paper to class or knowing what I expect of them even though I may not be in the room…that internalizing of expectations, for some that takes a year or two for those who repeat it. The next year they come back and I repeat it; I expect you to bring a pen, a pencil, paper to class everyday. I've had you before. This should not be anything different. Interpersonal skills, just dealing with other people. Knowing that people may not always agree with you but knowing there is a way you can always talk to people, express your opinion without resorting to vulgarity every other word.

JENNY: Do you think it is more important in your American history content to teach breadth or depth? Do you get to decide that or are you told what to teach through standards or from the district? How are all these decisions made?

JEAN: Well, I'm waffling back and forth with that. Should I go breadth or should I go depth? And I think what I have concluded at this point is that there are some areas for going with breadth and some areas for going with depth. And there is no general consensus in the department as to where these two should take place. Right now, it is just a personal decision. They expect us to get to a certain point at a certain time but what we do in-between is left up to the individual teacher.

277 JENNY: So there are no department-wide semester exams for American history or anything like that?

JEAN: There is no master exam, no master plan really except that you must get from point A to point B.

JENNY: What about the Sunshine State Standards? How do they figure in?

JEAN: They figure in…in that in some shape, form, or fashion you are supposed to touch on those as you go through from point A to point B.

JENNY: So they are not real defined or strict? They are more conceptual?

JEAN: Yeah, and the way things are going now, the next year or the year after, social studies will be a part of the FCAT. So, with that in mind, I am sure we will need to have a little bit more structure to what we do. Right now, it is kind of loosey-goosey.

JENNY: How do you grade your students and what do you think is important about grading?

JEAN: You know, we have gone to this whole business of assessment, trying to vary the assessment tools we use and so what we were told is that there are many pictures you can take of Johnny. And that applies to assessment as well. One picture does not tell all what Johnny can do or who Johnny is and, so, as far as assessment goes we try to use not only just the pen and pencil but actual projects, presentations, and, of course, there is always the homework and the class work, quizzes. So the attempt is to vary the assessment to the point where, if he doesn't do well on a pen and pencil, he may do exceptionally well when he has to give a presentation to the class. Anything we can do to make sure that most of the bases are covered so we can get a better picture of what he is able to do or she is able to do, Johnny or Jeanette. (laugh)

JENNY: What do you think is the most important thing you teach?

JEAN: Oh, that's a hard one. Oh, my goodness. As I listen to them come and go, I think that one of the most important things I try to get across is respect, for other people and their ideas. You may not agree with them but because we are in America they are entitled to express their opinion. When the kid gives me the paper and we've been talking about slavery and he wrote "nigger" everywhere he is supposed to write…he could write slave, as a teacher I try to encourage political correctness. I think that respect and responsibility which will follow them throughout their lives no matter where they go, which kind of people they come in contact with.

JENNY: Are there any particular students you remember? Anyone special you have taught? Anyone that comes to mind?

278 JEAN: Some of the smart ones. (laugh) Some of the very, very bad ones. Ones in- between I tend to kind of lose track of. I don't think there are any that I would say, "Oh, what a wonderful, wonderful, wonderful person." I've had some really good students along the way.

JENNY: Do they ever come back to visit?

JEAN: I've had some e-mails, actually, in the last five years or so. Now I'm getting the parents; I'm getting the children of the parents I taught. And, so I get some visitations in that regard…conferences…"You taught me. You're still here?" “'Fraid so!” But there is where I am right now. Not so much the visitations but a lot of these people I see in the mall or at Wally World and they say, "Are you still teaching?" Some of the ones who graduate and then go off to college want to come back the first couple of years to see what is going on but, then, after that they are into their own little worlds so we don't see them that much. We have some who come back and teach here. I've got one now that I taught several years ago and she is subbing here. I don't know what she is doing in- between. I just don't want to see any on the street and they give me the finger! (laugh) I was driving down the parkway one day and this guy is hanging out the car and he is going (gesture). I thought, "Oh, you!"

JENNY: Did you recognize him?

JEAN: Oh, yes I did. I know why you're doing that. (laugh) I didn't like you either! Sometimes there are personality clashes. There are some people who just rub you the wrong way and the part as a professional that you always have to keep in mind is that you have to treat…even though you know they are cussin' you under their breath every time…you have to come in everyday and say I am going to try again. Perseverance…I know.

JENNY: How well are you supported by administration including from the top down to department heads, other teachers, by parents? Do you feel as a teacher you are supported?

JEAN: Well, currently or over the years…well, changes have taken place. I think it has been a roller coaster as far as administrative support. When I first got here, Mr. M was principal. Mr. M was a former Marine. When Mr. M laid down the law, you followed the law or he was at your door. So, he had us signing in; I think everybody in the county was doing that. If you didn't sign in on time, you were called into the office. If during semester exams he said "I don't want to see any students out on the sidewalk" and if somebody was out there floating around, he would bring that person to your classroom door for an explanation. So Mr. M was very strict. I remember one year I had goofed up some on the final grade because it was like last minute rush, rush, rush. And so Mr. M, by way of one of his assistants, made me come in and re-average all of my grades. (laugh) Just to make sure there are no other errors, you know. Well, stupid me, I had a calculator that the battery was about to go out on and I should have put the new one in before I started averaging grades. Right? I have learned from my mistakes. Then after

279 that we kind of waffled back and forth and I think some of the principals we have had who have come up from middle school are not as strict or consistent about enforcing the policy. Some of the middle school people have been somewhat loosey-goosey. They are more concerned about keeping parents quiet than what goes on in the classroom. So, on that regard, I have never…the only situation that I had that really ticked me off about an administrator was the time I had a child stand up in class and cuss me out. I mean really. His explanation was the child is experiencing some problems and da-de-da and I think he did one day in in-school (in-school suspension) and went on about his happy business. For me that was just...you know…I don't care what kind of problems you are having, you don't take them out on me when I'm not responsible for them. And he is back in middle school now, though; the principal is. So that may have been the place for him. And he did serve as superintendent one time, Mr. H. As far as administrators go, I haven't had that many dealings with them. But, like I said, I found that the middle schoolers tend to be a lot less consistent about enforcing the policy. That's the thing…if you have a policy, enforce it or throw it out. And don't expect teachers to do what you are not willing to do.

JENNY: So, what kinds of trends have you seen in teaching over the years?

JEAN: What goes around, comes around. (laugh) I don't really see anything new that hasn't been tried before. If Johnny can't read it won't matter what kind of program you institute. Sooner or later, you have got to get back to the basics and that is what we have been trying to do for the thirty years I have been teaching. They try to get back to the basics and they call it a new thing but it is the same thing: How do we get Johnny to read and understand? So, the new trends...we have alternative assessment, standardized tests we are trying to get kids to pass and so forth but it all gets back to what happens the first couple of years at school. In my opinion, they are not putting enough emphasis on those first couple of years. Otherwise you would not have 25-30 students in them. Otherwise, we are going to continue having the same problems. I don't know why, they have been doing this for so long. I don't understand why…it is the reading, writing, arithmetic.

JENNY: Kindergarten through third, fourth and fifth grade sets you up for the rest of the time, doesn't it? Would you do this all over again?

JEAN: Probably not. (laugh) If I had it to do all over again, I would probably try to find some counselor who could advise me as to what my options were and I just didn't pursue that. That's why I ended up teaching. I would not change it but if I had been given more of a choice I probably would not have chosen teaching. I wouldn't go back and start over and try something else. Once I retire…I'll be out there with my little garden, with my peas, my corn, my beans.

JENNY: Don't forget the cotton!

JEAN: No, no cotton. (laugh)

JENNY: Is there anything else you would like to share about your philosophy of teaching or your experiences?

280 JEAN: Philosophy or experiences…philosophy or experiences…No. (laugh)

JENNY: Is there anything else you would like to add? Anything at all?

JEAN: I think when I got to college, because I had come from a segregated environment, it was a culture shock for me because there was so much I had not been exposed to. And that is why it is so difficult for me to understand kids who have so much by way of things they could use to learn…so much on TV, so many movies. We didn't have any of that stuff when I was growing up. And we still don't get it. You know, they have all of that and they still don't get it. And, I think maybe technology has been a wonderful thing for us on the one hand but has caused kids to just become brain dead because everything is right there in front of them and there is no imagination.

JENNY: Did ya'll have a library in your school?

JEAN: No, no library.

JENNY: Did you do much reading?

JEAN: Actually, I didn't. But I read magazines because my mom worked for a lady who subscribed to a lot of magazines…some of them were romance.

JENNY: I think I read a few of those, too.

JEAN: I read a lot. We went to the library. I know we had reading assignments. I don't remember checking out a lot of books and doing a lot of reading in that regard.

JENNY: You have to wonder why so many people who have so many advantages and opportunities, do so much less with it. You were growing up with, I would say, a minimum of supplies, opportunities, and experiences and were able to maximize.

JEAN: And we were talking the other day…I don't remember when I learned to read, when I learned to break words down…we did a lot of that when I was growing up. It was part of vocabulary. You had to know the root word, be able to add the prefixes and suffixes and all that…that forms larger words. And somewhere along the line we missed the basics.

JENNY: Well, this has certainly been interesting and I have enjoyed it. Is there anything else you would like to say?

JEAN: I don't think so.

JENNY: Well, thank you very much.

281 APPENDIX B-2

GUIDE FOR INTERVIEW #2: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE Jean Warren, Social Studies Department, Rutherford High School November 6, 2002

During our first interview you mentioned that you attended the University of Southern Mississippi when it first became integrated. Could you elaborate on that experience?

Think back to your first few years of teaching. How would you characterize them? Teacher-oriented or student-oriented? Did you use extracurricular materials or go just by the textbook? What kind of relationship did you have with your students?

As the years passed, did your teaching style change? If so, what were those changes?

During February of 1998, you and I had our first American History and Art Co-Study collaboration. Art was used to help students remember, manipulate, and understand their history content better. We brought our two classes (my art and your American history) together for a collaborative effort on World War I. What do you remember most about that initial collaboration?

The following year (1998-99) we were able to have a yearlong course of American History and Art Co-Study. That year we were fortunate because the students were enrolled in your history class and my art class. We saw our students everyday. The students were earning credit in both history and art. Art curriculum expanded to include art history and art criticism as well as hands-on art experiences. What do you remember most about that first year of Co-Study?

The following year brought a change (that lasted for three years) in that we both were teaching American history. Our class sizes increased and we no longer saw our students everyday. Students were earning history credit only. We combined our classes to teach the Co-Study method. What do you remember most about those three years of Co- Study? Did it affect the way you taught your other history classes that were not Co- Study?

During the 2000-2001, we expanded to teaching World History and Art Co-Study. We were given the ninth grade Acceleration Academy students. Those students were low- achieving eighth graders who were placed in an academy during their ninth grade year. They were kept together as a group during the tenth grade just for our history class and English class. What do you remember most about those two years of teaching at risk students using the Co-Study method?

Now, our Guidance Department in its "no frills" approach to scheduling this year (2002- 2003 school year) has removed Co-Study (as well as other innovative programs) from its course listings. What we do with the Co-Study method we do separately in our own classrooms. Are you using any Co-Study methods presently in your American or world

282 history classes? If so, what specifically do you do? What do you not do because I am no longer teaching with you?

283 APPENDIX B-2a

INTERVIEW #2: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE An Interview between Jean Warren, Social Studies Department and Jennifer (Jenny) Doster, Art Department, Rutherford High School November 7, 2002

JENNY: Jean, during our last interview about a week ago, we were discussing your background and you mentioned that you attended the University of Southern Mississippi when it first became integrated. I found it fascinating that you lived through such an historical experience. I was wondering if you had anything you wanted to add about that experience of going to a newly integrated Southern university in the late 60s and what that was like now that you look back on it.

JEAN: Well, actually, it was not an extraordinary event. I don't remember any incidents like the ones you might see on TV. There was nobody standing in the door saying, "No, you can’t come in" and that sort of thing—just a few occasions where a few students were not very kind. But overall the professors were extremely nice and accommodating and I had no problems with them. You cannot control some of their thinking but it was not reflected in the grading at all. So, otherwise, I remember just being in classes where, at the time, I was the only one (African-American) there. It was either you get it or you don't get it because there was nobody you could go to get notes from. As I tell my children, it made me become a very independent kind of person…to my husband's regret, probably (laughing) too independent. But I worked on campus after my freshman year in the library and did that for the duration of my college years—work-study program—and attended very few social functions on campus. I think I went to one football game and I may have gone to, about, one basketball game. But in the 60s, see, when you went to a football game in the South you dressed. These people weren't into blue jeans then. These people were dressing with the minks and da-de-da-de-da. I think we felt a little out of place. One football game and that was about it. We did have….I remember the local churches, black churches in town, were especially kind because they would send cars out some Sunday morning if we wanted to come to church and they would fix dinner. There was one church that would fix dinner for us every Sunday. That was nice, very nice, and I’ve often been tempted to send a donation in memory of. Then there were some recreational areas for young people in town that we had access to. One was run by the Catholics, I believe, and they had little dances on Friday night and if we wanted to go to one of those we could. As far as doing things on campus…other than that, that was about it.

JENNY: So, you lived on campus?

JEAN: I lived on campus.

JENNY: In campus housing dorms?

284 JEAN: In the dorm, yeah. We had the dorm whatever-person-that-was-in-charge and they had the room inspections every Saturday.

JENNY: Wow, college has changed.

JEAN: Yeah, college has changed a bit. That was about it. We didn't have any major shopping centers at the time. We had a store that came into town; it must have been when I was about a sophomore—Roses. It is kind of like a Kmart. But that was big. It was so close we could walk to it if we wanted to. Nothing like it is now. I go over there now and it's like "whoa". (laugh) Other than that life was very simple, really.

JENNY: So your school experience in the small town you grew up in was adequate for university work?

JEAN: Not in math. (laugh) I was like praying, “Lord, let me get a ‘D’, please, please.” There were some areas where I was very deficient and math was one of them. Other than that, anything that just generally involved reading I could handle. But the math, you know, like algebra…I had had algebra something in the eighth grade and had not seen it since. You know, and you can imagine. And the first course I took was something algebra. That may be another reason I changed my major.

JENNY: But anything to do with reading, language arts, you were fine?

JEAN: Yeah, yeah.

JENNY: You lived through history, through an historical moment in time.

JEAN: I can remember the night that Martin Luther King was shot. They did not cancel classes. And the question was, were we going to go out and protest in front of the president. (laugh) Some of us were saying, "My momma will kill me if I get kicked out of school. I can't go home." (laugh) So there were many of us who did go on to class and there were some who gathered together and lit the candles and that sort of thing.

JENNY: How many black students were there that first year you were there?

JEAN: We only had twelve out of about 8,000.

JENNY: Male and female?

JEAN: Yeah. No, let me take that back. There were twelve that lived on campus. There were some city people who just came to class.

JENNY: That's interesting. Well, okay, now think back to your first few years of teaching. I would like for you to give me a picture of how you would characterize your first years and how you were teaching. What style? Was it teacher-oriented or student- oriented? Did you use extracurricular materials from the library or magazines or did you

285 go just by the textbook? What kind of relationship did you have with your students? That sort of thing. Just try to give me a picture of what your first few years were like as a teacher.

JEAN: Well, I think the first few years were scared years because, you know, you go through these college classes but you don't learn enough to really teach anybody. You have to actually get out there and jump into the water, so to speak, before you actually learn anything. The first ten years is when you learn the curriculum. You can sit through all kinds of college classes and regurgitate for the professor but when you try to explain it to a class you have to break it down to their level. You have to bring in other stuff. It is those first ten years that you get really comfortable with what you are doing. So, the first ten years, I wasn't comfortable. (laugh) So, I know many of the students I taught would say, "She is such a witch." (laugh) But I think a lot of that has to do with insecurity. Anytime a teacher out there exerts tremendous control over a class, they are somewhat insecure about what they are doing—unless the class are little demons out of hell. But sometimes that is just a defense mechanism. I can remember my first year at Bay High and I had a tenth grade world history class and I had some wonderful people in that class. I remember at the end of that first year, we were talking about “What are you going to do over the summer?” Somehow or other, birthdays came up and so I said, "I have never had a birthday party." That Friday after school was out, the florist truck pulls up…and a bouquet of flowers—roses from these three girls who were in that world history class. I was remembering one of the names and I was trying to remember the other ones. Her name was Helen and she died a couple of years ago. She was from here. A local. I've had some others...Renee...she taught PE for years. That first year class I really remember. The first class I did in Natchez, Mississippi, I couldn't give you a name if had to. That class really…that was a good year. But, like I said, there was a lot of fear and intimidation: Please don't ask me a question I don't know; please let me go read first. But not being married …not having any other responsibilities other than teaching, I had a lot of time to prepare.

JENNY: What about how you handled the classes in terms of teaching style and your materials. Was it more lecture-type? Did they do research?

JEAN: I can't remember taking them to the library. I can't remember that much by way of audiovisuals, like movies or anything like that. I don't think we had that much. I know it was a teacher centered classroom. That is what we were then. We had not decided to let students have a voice. You just came in and did your little work and we just talked a little bit, reinforced with other activities, so I don't think I was out there away from the majority. I was pretty much following the norm. So we are looking at teacher centered classrooms.

JENNY: I think that is the same type of relationship we had when we were in school. As the years passed, did your teaching style change?

JEAN: I did gather…the more I taught the more relaxed I became. Well, you know, I think we kept that idea going that teachers were here to just give out information and they

286 would take it all in and then just give it back at some point…until about 10 years ago. And then we decided that we could vary the way we taught, have them do more simulations…and group cooperative learning came along and that is what…so now I really hate to lecture. I want them to do as much as they can. I am definitely more student centered now. Well, let’s say, in some classes.

JENNY: During February of 1998, you and I had our first American History and Art Co- Study collaboration. In that collaboration, art was used to help students remember, manipulate, and understand their history content better. So, what we did was bring our two classes—my art class and your American history class—together to study World War I. Now, I know this has been a while but what do you remember most about that initial collaboration going on almost five years ago?

JEAN: You know, I thought it was rather interesting and we used the labyrinth. And we have never used it since.

JENNY: Yeah, it was time consuming.

JEAN: It was interesting to me because you could put your finger at one point and follow the sequencing of events to get to another point. We probably should have gone back and used it. That was interesting to me and the contour drawing was, really, because I never learned how to draw. And just the idea of somebody starting from nothing and being able to create something was interesting to me. So, just learning some of the artistic techniques was interesting to me because I had never been exposed to them.

JENNY: So, in your schooling experience as a child you had no art.

JEAN: No art .

JENNY: Did you have any music?

JEAN: A little bit of music. Had to do a class in musical something—theory—in college. I did a little something with music in high school but very basic. No art at all.

JENNY: Do you remember any of the students or their reactions to what we were doing?

JEAN: Well, there was the good, the bad, and the ugly. (laugh) "Why do we have to do this?” and “I thought this was American history class." And there were others who were saying, "Bring out the crayons." "Let's bring out the colored pencils, yes!" "This is different." And for some it was difficult making the connection between what they were drawing and the content. The idea was to connect the drawing to the content.

JENNY: They were having fun drawing but it didn't mean anything yet.

JEAN: Making that connection was a little difficult for some. Some caught on right away and then there were others who just wanted to make it pretty.

287 JENNY: I remember that. I remember that we saw some improvement in their test scores compared to your other classes.

JEAN: Yeah.

JENNY: Since this was a new idea, we were comparing your other American history classes to our collaborative class. We did see there was improvement. So there was more retention. I wonder if there was more depth of understanding. Do you have any thoughts on that?

JEAN: I really can't say. All I could base that on was looking at the test scores and the test scores improved.

JENNY: So the following year we talked Guidance into letting us run a full blown yearlong course of American History and Art Co-Study. And we were very fortunate that year because we saw our students everyday. Rutherford is on the Block 8 (even-odd) schedule where you have half your students on one day and the other half on the next. So we had students who were enrolled in seventh period art class and eighth period American history. And we met everyday with them. The art curriculum expanded beyond contour drawing of maps and graphic illustrations to include art history and art criticism. Do you remember much about that first year and those first students?

JEAN: I remember the advantage was that you could do an art activity and follow it up immediately with content so that they could readily see the connection. And since we saw them everyday, we would constantly reinforce them. So you didn't have to relegate one day for art and one day for history. You could just flow into the other and it was truly integrated. But now…

JENNY: During the next two, three, and four years of Co-Study, we brought our classes together, on a regular schedule, every other day. We used our collapsible wall and were able to teach together. What do you remember about those years, those three years in a row…after our ideal year of seeing our students every day whittled down to seeing our students every other day?

JEAN: Well, I think having been able to see them everyday also meant that we could move faster. But then with the every other day, it meant that we don't have them for the art and the history we just have them for the history and we are trying to include the art in there.

JENNY: That's a good point. They were earning credit for art and for history the first year and for years two, three, and four they just earned history credit and nothing for the art. It was a tool.

JEAN: Right, and we had to squeeze whatever art we wanted to in there and still cover what was required in the curriculum as well. That was very difficult.

288 JENNY: But we did notice that the scores were still higher than when compared with your other history classes taught in the traditional manner. What started happening with your teaching over time?

JEAN: Well, Mrs. Doster, as you know (laugh)…I can remember my intern year we had to do bulletin boards there and I think underneath I have always been a visual person. It is just that I haven't had the skills to take it and apply it. I can draw a line and that is about it.

JENNY: No, you did a contour drawing of that shoe and it was great.

JEAN: I did that, I did do that, and now every time I look at something I’m looking at it from an artistic point of view. And I can see the lines…but, anyway, so I think I have always had that visual bent, tint, whatever but I haven't had a chance to really bring it out. And now every time I'm looking at content I’m thinking, "What can we do to bring some visualization to this so that it will make more sense?" I changed, of course, yeah, I started to introduce something visual to the content so that it will stick with them better. Introduction of the art has really helped me to expand what I do in the classroom. Students love it…just give them a chance to draw something, even if it looks bad. Just the idea that they could sit down and do something other than write words.

JENNY: They can express themselves in a different way. Yeah, didn't you mention in the last interview, when you were in elementary school, maybe it was high school, you had to draw your maps…in your school because your school could not afford maps? Did you know you were doing Co-Study?

JEAN: (Laugh) No, my geography teacher just said we are going to draw this and we would draw it accurately as well. You never questioned what the teacher said to do, you just went on and did it.

JENNY: Do you feel as a student back then that it helped you remember the map better?

JEAN: I don't know because I can barely remember what the geography entailed…but I just know that I have an eye for detail and, so maybe, had we had an art class, I may have been able to do very well. But I have a creative side to me anyway.

JENNY: Well, absolutely.

JEAN: I like to sew and now that we have computers I like to create stuff there.

JENNY: Yeah, you do a lot with graphics on the computer.

JEAN: Maybe when I retire I will take an art class.

JENNY: Now, this year we have a different situation because we have fallen out of favor with Guidance and there were problems with school enrollment and American History

289 and Art Co-Study was put aside for a year. However, we both have been given world history courses to teach…well, before we get into that…wait, I've got to back up. Second or third year of teaching American History and Art Co-Study we were handed by Guidance a World History and Art Co-Study class…only it was a bit unusual. World History is a class that is taken in the tenth grade and we were given a class of students who had been in the ninth grade Acceleration Academy. It was one large class of 40+ students. Low achieving eighth graders were placed in this academy during their ninth grade year to help them do better in the transition from middle school to high school. They were kept together during the tenth grade for our history class and for an English class. We did that for two years. What do you remember most about that… for those two years of teaching at risk students with the Co-Study method?

JEAN: I don't think I really noticed that much difference between them and the regular American history classes that we had been working with and who knows where they came from. (laugh) I don't know. Guidance may have also given us the low achievers in those when you look at the ones we had over the years. But I guess with each class you can see the "bells"—the bell shaped curve in grading. Some of them were very good. In that class, we had a mix. We had the Academy folks but some others were just thrown in during scheduling. I was thinking of the one who got pregnant. She was good, very good. And there were others who were very good . Anyway, I think it sometimes depends on the expectations. You expect them to do well and you keep pushing them and they will come up to those levels of expectations. If you don't expect very much, you don't get very much. I don't think we reduced or, what's the word I'm looking for, watered down the curriculum just because they were from that program.

JENNY: No, not at all. We didn't at all.

JEAN: And so, when we looked at grades, we had As, Bs, Cs, Ds, and Fs…for those who did not do at all. I didn't really notice any difference in behavior. And the production was similar to what we would find in a regular history class.

JENNY: Seems like some of them were a little noisier at the first of the year than our others…especially that first group we had.

JEAN: Yeah, and this group we had last year, our little girls here. (pointing)

JENNY: Noisier.

JEAN: No, I meant I think they were a little bit better.

JENNY: This year is a little bit different for us. Guidance has a no frills approach to scheduling this year which means that anything innovative or creative has been chopped out. It is just the meat and potatoes. Of course, we consider ours as meat and potatoes for visual students but Guidance has not quite understood that in their great wisdom.

290 JEAN: Let me just go back…this year I've seen some of those students we had last year in the hallway, and they have said, "Well, why didn't we get that course?" "What happened?"

JENNY: I know; I get the same thing.

JEAN: And I'm wondering if some of them had mentioned it in Guidance and, hence, the reason for encouraging us for going ahead and trying to get it going again for next year. But I think there were those who really benefited from it because they were able to do the visual. And some of those from several years ago, like Joey (who said), “If it had not been for Co-Study, I never would have passed American history…if it had not been for the introduction of the art into the content.” I'm happy with the results. I think I just wish at this point the staff would have been more supportive in allowing it to grow. Our vision was to see it cross into other areas and not just stay in the social studies. And so right now we are almost, as far as growth, where we started.

JENNY: Yes, we're back to square one.

JEAN: Because we did do the collaboration with chemistry, was it? Science? Unless you have leaders who have a vision, you know, sometimes things don't get off the floor.

JENNY: Absolutely, and another thing that we created was our Living History Days, thematic integration across the whole school, which is going…and next week we will be out in the park again with Living History Days. So, there have been a lot of good spin- offs. For this year, I'm teaching two sections of world, you're teaching two sections of world and four of American, and we're not together except in passing in the hallways and exchanging materials back and forth. This question is, since I'm not here breathing down your neck…are you using any of our Co-Study methods presently in your American or world history classes?

JEAN: I've got notebooks to show. (laugh)

JENNY: Specifically, what are you doing?

JEAN: We are using illustrated timelines still. We are coming up with visuals to represent concepts. We are, of course, still doing our maps. We haven't exactly drawn but one—the world map. But this is American history, so…but when we get to World War I and II, we'll have to go back and draw Europe, yeah. Absolutely. And as we do our oral presentations we still use the visuals to enhance those presentations. They are given every opportunity…

JENNY: Is this a notebook I see here? (picking us a student notebook)

JEAN: Yes, they are at this point turning in notebooks for extra credit. The requirement is that they must have a cover sheet with a visual on it before they can even turn it in. They need to pull out something that is associated with the unit that we just finished.

291 JENNY: What kinds of things are you not doing because I'm not in the classroom with you, as an art teacher?

JEAN: Well, the only thing that I can say that I am not doing as much is drawing every map. But as far as the other visuals we used, I'm still doing the Venn diagram, the visuals that go along with some of the vocabulary, so I can't think of …other than just the map…everything else is carried over.

JENNY: What about in world history…because there I use some slides?

JEAN: No, I don't do slides (laugh), no….don't do the slides.

JENNY: Is it because you don't have them?

JEAN: No, it's because I not artistically knowledgeable enough to run the slides, especially on Greece and Rome. I can see the statue of David. I know that that's it but as far as getting some background information on it I would have to have a script in hand.

JENNY: So, a valuable teaching tool for a teacher who would like to try this sort of thing would be a script to go along with art.

JEAN: That would certainly help.

JENNY: A format for talking about art and a format for talking about the significance of that particular artwork's place in history.

JEAN: Absolutely, absolutely…and when you did it you would also include technique. I can remember something called perspective and that kind of thing. I would have to have a little blurb sheet on art. So, that is why I'm not using it right now. We haven't, actually, seen any slides since the ones you came in showed us of the cave paintings.

JENNY: Yeah, the Lascaux and Altamira cave paintings. Well, maybe, I'll just have to come back.

JEAN: Well, maybe so. (laugh)

JENNY: Well, let's see. We're getting toward the end of my questions. As I said earlier, this interview is dealing with our experience, what we actually did together with the Co- Study. Do you have any more thoughts about Co-Study, how it impacted your teaching, how it impacted students…just general thoughts.

JEAN: I am thinking along the lines of conferences we had over the years with students who were in the Co-Study program. When we explained what we were trying to do to parents they were just "agah". They were just thrilled because they thought it was just such a natural connection to try to use art to try to connect to a content. And I just have difficulty understanding people who are knowledgeable about curriculum and how kids

292 learn …that they would not have been more supportive. When you have people in leadership positions...I was thinking…students should be given every opportunity to learn, no matter what their learning style is. Unfortunately, economics plays a very large part in deciding these issues. And that is what is, apparently, the deciding factor here.

JENNY: Of course, we can make a note that our principal has asked us to generate a list of students, if we want to, who would be interested in American History and Art Co- Study for next year. It will at least be put on the course offerings for next year. Well, if you have nothing else to say…

JEAN: I guess not.

JENNY: Then we can just look forward to our next interview. Thank you very much.

293 APPENDIX B-3

GUIDE FOR INTERVIEW #3: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING Jean Warren, Social Studies Department, Rutherford High School November 20, 2002

I would like for you to reflect on your experience as a teacher with Co-Study. Are you different now, as a teacher, than you were before Co-Study? Have you changed for the better? If so, how? Have you changed for the worse? If so, how?

Will it affect how you teach in the future?

Have you seen any changes in students who have been through Co-Study? If so, what? What kinds of students should enroll for Co-Study?

We have taught courses together, American and world history, as well as created a schoolwide thematic, integrated project, Living History Days. What are your favorite memories? We just finished our fourth Living History Days last week. What have been the highlights for you regarding these Living History Days projects?

Describe how you feel about the support or lack of support we have received from administrators or other teachers regarding Co-Study, either courses or the schoolwide project.

294 APPENDIX B-3a

INTERVIEW #3: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING An Interview between Jean Warren, Social Studies Department and Jennifer (Jenny) Doster, Art Department, Rutherford High School November 22, 2002

JENNY: Jean, this is our final interview. I think I'm going to miss doing this. What do you think?

JEAN: I don't think I will miss it. (laugh) You know I'm only doing it because…because of you.

JENNY: Oh, thank you. I would like for you to reflect on your experience as a teacher with Co-Study. Things like, are you different now as a teacher than you were before Co- Study? Have you changed for the better? If so, how? Have you changed for the worse? If so, how?

JEAN: Having reflected on this quite heavily, I think I am different. I am different in that the planning I do for units, now, always includes graphics or visuals. Visuals may be used to introduce, to support, to summarize unit content. At some point in the study of a unit, the production of a visual by each student has become a requirement. I have really changed. Before I began working with you, visuals were randomly included. That change for me has been positive. I believe the change for my students has been positive as well because the production of a visual that supports the content provides them with another assessment tool…an easy grade. Students who are struggling with a pen and paper test are finding they are able to achieve long-term retention of concepts—such as cause and effect relationships. So, I've just finished the unit on industrialization and they had to do the visual to support the causes or factors for industrialization. So, everybody who did it following the rubric got a 100 on it. That was a real easy grade. The crunch will come when I test them next week, to see if it carries over to the pen and paper.

JENNY: So you are talking about our recipe…our Industrial Revolution Recipe Card?

JEAN: Yeah, they had that option or they could create for themselves some other thing. We ended up with a pizza, a sub sandwich, a parfait with the layers (hand gesture), so there are all kinds of variations of that. We had a salad in one class. Salad, recipe, desserts, all came out of that.

JENNY: They (students) are food oriented, aren't they? Anything for the worse? Have you been damaged?

JEAN: No, I haven't seen any blood or anything like that. No, no, nothing for the worse. I think all of it has been for the better.

295 JENNY: Maybe you have already answered this…how will it affect how you teach in the future? You said you already incorporate it in your planning. Is there anything else you may or may not change?

JEAN: I think what I am doing right now is just looking for visuals, things I can use to hone in on the content and revising some of the old ones. I look back now and say I could have done this, this, and this…so it's a matter of introducing new ones…because I haven't done this with every unit. But the intent is to do that…fine-tuning and introducing new visuals to support the content.

JENNY: Are you still using a graphic organizer at the beginning of a unit or chapter?

JEAN: I'm doing that but there, too, I still do not have one for each unit and that’s the goal.

JENNY: You do great ones. I've always admired them.

JEAN: Thank you. Well, it is a work in progress.

JENNY: Have you seen any changes in students who have been through Co-Study?

JEAN: You know, I was thinking about that and I think, because you mentioned you talked to some we had last year, it takes a while for this to soak in. This is something different and it can be beneficial and not just what we do with American and world history but in other areas as well. So, I think it's like being at home with your parents, you don't appreciate it too much then but, when you leave, you kind of see where they were trying to get you to and that may be the case with some of those I've had. Unlike you, I haven't had that many who've come back and said "oooh" except for Joey. Every time I see Joey he asks about that Co-Study class. I think it takes a while for them to realize the impact it could have if it were expanded to other classes…how wonderful it could be. We didn't have anybody who actually cried "murder" or anything like that because they were put in the class. That is a whole other story as well. The intent was to have people who were truly interested and not because Guidance couldn't put them anywhere else.

JENNY: The unwilling were not the kind needed in Co-Study. A couple of questions here: Joey, if I remember correctly, was the student who may not have passed American history if it weren't for Co-Study. He really enjoyed the class and he applied himself but he wasn't a particularly good student. Was that your recollection?

JEAN: Yeah, yeah. He works at WalMart now. I would see him at WalMart. I think he works there at night. He often comments it was the class that allowed him to graduate.

JENNY: If we did it for one, that is good enough.

JEAN: If we saved one starfish (laughing)…

296 JENNY: Well, what kind of student should enroll, do you think, for Co-Study?

JEAN: Well, I think it would have to be a student who, although he may not or she may not have had experience in art…somebody who is flexible. Students who come in and, number one, they hate the course, they hate doing anything different, they hate working with other folks, they hate talking (laughing), they hate being in school…I think we are looking for somebody who is flexible and who is willing to try another way to learn. Once we tap into that…some of the students don’t really realize that they are visual learners yet. And, so once they do, that really makes the difference.

JENNY: Well, we’ve taught a lot of courses together—American history and world history, both Co-Studies—and created our schoolwide thematic project, Living History Days. Over the last four years, I would say that we have done quite a bit together. What are your favorite memories? What do you remember? What do you remember the most?

JEAN: I think I remember the most getting ready, the challenge of offering a different course. And…not knowing how things were going to turn out. It was just the challenge of it. And, then also, the struggles that we had to go through just to get it up and running…and, then, the backstabbing. (laugh) It was the challenge and the struggle in getting the course up and running and, then, the one or two students that we could really see a difference that offering such a course made, in their grades. I guess it was sort of like a light that came on for them, like “Well, I can perhaps do this.” That to me was exciting. Well, and as far as the Living History Days, I think what I will remember the most is the time the park staff people put into doing what they did. And just the hope that our students appreciated a little bit of what they were doing for us because they didn’t have to do it.

JENNY: It is an amazing thought that there were probably 30-40 park people involved in Living History Days, 30-40 students on our side acting as docents and reenactors, to pull this off for these 150 to go each day. It really was quite extraordinary.

JEAN: Yeah, and we did have some teachers who hung in with us, really, there from the beginning…who year after year continued to participate and give up their time, work with their students to get them ready to go out there as opposed to some teachers who wouldn’t even let their students go…showed no interest in it.

JENNY: Because they were behind in their textbook, they didn’t want their students to miss a day in class. How would you rate the learning experience for students who did go?

JEAN: Well, I think the hands-on, and actually seeing...because some of them had never seen some of the things that were used in the homes…making butter… and they didn’t know what a cracklin’ was (laugh). They do now! And cooking food on an open fire, that sort of thing…just being my age, I guess I just assumed if you grew up you knew about those kinds of things. But their range is such that unless they see it on TV they would never see it.

297 JENNY: And, you know, I was thinking back that before the Living History Days we had the field trip to Westville (1850s working town in Lumpkin, Georgia). And that got replaced with the Living History Days.

JEAN: But even at Westville, we didn’t have all of the park reenactors. They had a chance to walk through but here they actually got a chance to see them churning the butter. And, we had the fire, the grease was in the pot and we were doing the cracklin’.

JENNY: You didn’t see as many craftsmen...crafts people at Westville, although I think at other times of the year there were. But as far as the buildings and the structures, they were certainly there…but not the people and not as hands-on. You could walk around it and through it but there was not as much for you to do yourself.

JEAN: The only thing I remember at Westville we did was the guy was there who was doing…what was it…nails?

JENNY: Oh, the blacksmith!

JEAN: The blacksmith, and the pottery guy. He wasn’t fired up; he just had some on display.

JENNY: Describe how you feel about the support or lack of support we have received from administrators or other teachers regarding Co-Study, either courses or the schoolwide project.

JEAN: Now, you know, as I think back I know that when we first introduced the program, they came to the meetings...talking about our administrators and Guidance staff…and I think that was about it. As far as administrators, probably, the greatest help we got was from Dr. K. He was willing to shell out some money and construct a wall for us we could open to allow us more space. But then, on the other hand, Guidance got to a point where they were not willing to schedule us in the same room to use the $15,000.00 wall (laugh) that we had put in. But…I think it is a lack of vision and I know the Bible says, “Those who will perish for a lack of vision.” And, we have apparently some people who are not able to think outside the box. If it is a program that can be self-contained and have people in that program run that program without interfering with the established order, it’s okay! We’re not trying to run an IB program; we don’t have a segregated school within a school; we don’t have a special grant that allows us to staff our people and we didn’t really need additional staff. All we really needed was a Guidance who was willing to be flexible enough to allow us to have our schedules essentially the same for the classes we were teaching…and look for those students who were visual learners, channel them toward this particular program.

JENNY: The idea about testing for learning styles was brought up continuously. Perhaps, Guidance in their initial testing for entering the school would throw in a learning style test and channel visual learners toward Co-Study.

298 JEAN: But nothing came of that and I think, at one point, we ended up being told, “You need to go out and recruit your own.”

JENNY: Absolutely, if you want to teach this way, you go out and find students who want to take your class and bring us a list.

JEAN: Then, we may or may not give you those and then we may chunk some other people in there as well…which became a problem. So, overall, I have not been very happy with Guidance with its ability to be flexible and work with us on this. And at one point I thought we should just leave here and go somewhere else. (laughing) Somebody else might be more appreciative of what we are trying to do. But, in the end, the idea was to simply offer students, the average students—because we have something for the upper folks, we have something for the lower folks—those folks in the mid-range, just offer them another way to learn. That’s all it was. Nothing special, nothing that would require a whole bunch of folks moving around, cleaning out wings to provide for programs, nothing like that. Unfortunately, these are people who are locked inside the box. And it’s as if “Don’t disturb me, I have my established way of doing things and if it causes me to have to stay past 2:30 then I’m not going to do it.”

JENNY: Or if it causes me to communicate with the faculty and explain myself, then I’m not going to do it.

JEAN: Or just communicate with the people who are trying to start a program such as ours and we found that very difficult. Unless we scheduled an appointment with them we never…I don’t think we were invited in to discuss anything about the program.

JENNY: We invited them to our discussions and presentations of our data. They were never inquiring of us as to how our program was going, what were we doing, what would we like except for Dr. K. We asked him and he responded. But the Guidance Department never really asked if they could help in any way, shape, or form. Yet, we had data showing it improved student performance. So, you have to wonder what is the goal of education in the Guidance Department?

JEAN: Well, let’s just say that when it made the school look good, as far as going to meetings and talking about the programs at your school, then we were used as being innovative.

JENNY: Yes, we were, because I remember the Guidance head coming by and getting from me brochures and information concerning Co-Study and the Living History Days.

JEAN: But, I don’t know…then we got to a point where, this past year, at the end of school year 2001-02, it was just taken off the curriculum with no explanation. It just will not be offered and from what we heard, Guidance said that… well, the administrator in charge of Guidance said that… she would talk to us and has anything been said to you as of date? This is now November 2002. No, not a word, not a word. Let’s just say, one of

299 the problems we’ve had around here for some time now has, simply, been a lack of communication. And that continues to this day.

JENNY: And that has not changed. There is still a lack of communication. Well, do you feel that all of these efforts have been worth it?

JEAN: Well, I think the effort has been worth it because I think we have helped some students. And as it looks now there is an effort afoot to re-introduce the Co-Study program and I just wonder about the motives behind that. Did we, perhaps, have somebody from the County office inquire as why the program was not offered? Students who may have gone to Guidance to inquire as to why the program wasn’t offered? Because in the conferences I had with parents, whenever we brought the Co-Study up, they were always thrilled with the idea that we could use something to support the content. For people who have been educated and have been trained and should know that there are varying learning styles, I am still just dumbfounded as to why Guidance has been such a stick in the mud when it comes to a program like this. It would not really impact the school as far as having a whole bunch of folks being moved and shifted…la- di-dah…I’m at a loss, I just don’t understand it. Maybe, Jenny, you should, interview somebody up there to find out, “What was your thinking about this program when we came to you?” (laugh)

JENNY: I do remember us having conversations with Guidance concerning the program in the past and there were answers given…in the past when we asked these questions…answers given that had to be challenged because of our information. It was like coming down from on high—“Well, you know we have to have X amount of students in the classroom or we can’t run it,” or “We can’t put a student in a class that they did not select,” or “We cannot put someone in a Co-Study unless he asks for the Co- Study.” But why are they put in other classes they are not asking for? “We don’t do that.” And then, of course, students tell you all of the time they are.

JEAN: What Guidance never really understood and the only difference is you are introducing visuals as a part of the tools you use to teach students. They always felt it was a separate class, something different. Students are required to take history; they are required to take American History. So, that’s the wall we kept running up against. They think it is a different class, that it needs a different course number, and da-de-da-de-da.

JENNY: It is American history or World history geared toward a person with a visual learning style who would benefit from seeing rather than just hearing or reading...and benefit from doing…seeing visual images, making drawings and graphic illustrations and organizers.

JEAN: So, what did you do your inservice on this week Mrs. Doster? (laugh)

JENNY: Graphic organizers that looked like something a kindergartner would have done compared to the ones you have been generating for years. So, as I sat there for an hour and a half, this wheel has been invented and rolling for a long time but let’s not go there.

300 The deaf ear of bureaucracy. OK, well, Jean I appreciate…I appreciate you. I appreciate everything you have done in support of Co-Study, all the teaching we have done together, and hanging in there.

JEAN: This is like piling the dirt, after the corpse and coffin are in the ground. (laugh) I think there is one thing about teachers, cause we did some collaborations…yeah, and what was interesting is that some teachers were very excited about it and other teachers were quite hesitant about it and I think a lot of that has to do…you know ,we have some teachers who have been teaching for years but are still in that box. “Hey, if it doesn’t follow my old lesson plan then I don’t have time for it or want to do it because it is something different.” And I cannot understand how some people can teach for umpteen years and do the same thing year in and year out. It would drive me crazy.

JENNY: I remember we ran into a problem the first year or two, where you were your own control and experimental group. You were teaching Co-Study with me and teaching the other way with your other classes to look at the difference. That was quite extraordinary. But as time wore on, your teaching style changed because of the Co-Study and we had to look outside to other American history classes to compare. And it was difficult to get other teachers to try a unit to compare. I guess they didn’t want to look bad if theirs did not do as well as ours. But the point is, as I told one of them, if we show this works then we could ask for an art teacher to be assigned to social studies to help everybody with art and social studies classes. Of course that’s money; that is a teaching unit. I think what is misunderstood and overlooked is that the person who fails history and has to repeat it is a waste of resources, too. They are not coming out any better that way…maybe slowing down the student’s progress through the school system.

JEAN: And then you get some of these same students sitting in your class the next year, taking up space that could be relegated to someone else. Or you may end up with smaller classes if they pass the first time and then they won’t be sitting there the second time. Either way we end up paying—we pay now or we pay later.

JENNY: That’s right. Pay now or pay later. Well, it looks like we are maybe on track for American History and Art Co-Study next year. I guess we’ll be providing Guidance with a list and we’ll see what happens. Thank you so much. Any last comments?

JEAN: It’s been nice.

JENNY: It’s been fun.

JEAN: It’s been fun. (laughing) Actually, I found it easier because I did not have to do it by myself everyday. You know, that is an advantage. You do the art one day and I can kind of slack off and work on some other stuff for the next class. But this every day… (laugh)

JENNY: When you were lecturing or talking, I would be grading papers. And when I was doing art, you would be planning and doing. It gives you time to plan. It takes time

301 to plan but Co-Study gives you some time in the day when the classes are together. OK…thank you again.

JEAN: Okay…

302 APPENDIX B-4

INTERVIEW GUIDE Karen Collins, Art Department, Rutherford High School April 29, 2003

How and why did you decide to become a teacher? What kind of certification do you have? How did you arrive at Rutherford High School? What year?

What significant things have you learned about teaching others?

What have you learned about yourself from teaching? How has teaching changed you as a person?

Describe the classes that you teach this school year and the structure of a typical day. Is it what you want to teach?

What skills/concepts do you want your students to learn? How do you motivate them?

What is the most important thing you teach?

During April of 2000, you and Myra Crews, a science teacher, participated in a Chemistry and Art Co-Study Collaboration. You brought your Drawing II class to Myra’s Chemistry I class. Myra taught both classes about the effects of pressure exerted by liquids on an object. You taught them how to illustrate the dynamic effects of pressure due to temperature change. What do you remember most about that collaboration?

What were the advantages of working with a science teacher? Disadvantages?

Did you find it easy or difficult to combine art with science? Would you recommend it? Why or why not?

Do you think other teachers in the Art Department would be interested in doing a Co- Study collaboration or course?

If you were in charge, how would you structure it?

303 APPENDIX B-4a

INTERVIEW WITH KAREN COLLINS Art Department, Rutherford High School May 7, 2003

JENNY: How are you this afternoon?

KAREN: Great!

JENNY: How and why did you decide to become a teacher?

KAREN: Well, I had worked in an office before and I just didn’t like being in that kind of setting. When I went off to college I really didn’t know what I wanted to do but I knew I didn’t want to do anything in an office. I didn’t like the closed-in feeling. So… some of my friends were going to be teachers so I just decided maybe that’s what I would like to do. So that is kind of how I got into teaching. I didn’t really anticipate being a teacher.

JENNY: Where did you go to college?

KAREN: Valdosta State College in Valdosta, Georgia.

JENNY: What was your major?

KAREN: I have a BFA in art education.

JENNY: Where was your first teaching job?

KAREN: Cairo High School, Cairo, Georgia.

JENNY: So, you’ve been teaching at high school all along.

KAREN: Yes, I’ve not taught in lower grades.

JENNY: How many years did you teach in Cairo?

KAREN: Twelve.

JENNY: How did you arrive at Rutherford High School? What year?

KAREN: Well, our house burned in ’88 and we had a beach house at Mexico Beach that we had gotten in ’77 and so we had just come down all the time and decided when our house burned to move down. So I applied in Bay County and Gulf County and got an opening in Wewa in Gulf County. And so we moved. I got the teaching job there, taught there for three years, and then I met Mr. Spiva and started talking with him and he hired

304 me in ’91 for the ’91-’92 school year. So I ended up here at Rutherford. An art teacher had left so I just kind of stepped in but I didn’t teach just art when I first came here. I taught math, a basic math class, and a couple of art classes every day. And the math classes were horrible.

JENNY: So what kind of certifications do you have now?

KAREN: I still just have the BFA in art education.

JENNY: Certified by the State of Florida and, I guess, Georgia.

KAREN: I was but I let my teaching certificate expire in Georgia.

JENNY: What significant things have you learned about teaching others?

KAREN: I think the older I’ve gotten I’ve realized that different kids learn by different learning styles. I’ve become more aware of it especially by being at Rutherford and being with other teachers. We have to motivate them and they all learn differently and so I’ve tried to come up with different ways to help them that have certain learning styles…to focus in on their learning style…you know to help them prepare and learn things differently. It’s hard at times when you have a lot of different kids in the classroom but I have found, especially with ESE kids…I’ve had quite a few in my classes…I’ve really had to focus on what they’re able to do better and easier and try to come up with ways they can pass. And it hasn’t been necessarily the same as the rest of the class.

JENNY: What have you learned about yourself from teaching? How has teaching changed you as a person?

KAREN: I’ve developed more patience. I am really a perfectionist and I’ve really had to be patient with my students because they’re learning and I try to focus on their learning and not so much on being so perfect. I know my students may not think that because I really push them for the best out of them but I really have to hold back because I think I’m, maybe, overbearing or pushing them a little too hard.

JENNY: That’s funny because I feel the same way.

KAREN: I want them to do their very best.

JENNY: You want them to stretch and grow.

KAREN: Right. And a lot of times they want to just do enough to get by and I won’t accept that. Some of them get mad at me because of that. I try to have patience with them because I don’t want them to give up and because I don’t want to give up either on them. And it’s just kind of a balance between the two.

305 JENNY: Describe the classes that you teach this year and the structure of a typical day. And is it what you want to teach?

KAREN: I teach three: two Art 2-D classes and a drawing class every day. I really enjoy my Art 2-D classes and I enjoy the upper class that I have in the drawing which ends the day. I like teaching the lower classes like the ninth graders, but I like the mixed classes, and that is what is in 2-D. In 2-D, a lot of times they’re anxious…to be there and to learn about art.

JENNY: They have anxiety about being in art class?

KAREN: Some of them really do.

JENNY: I think so, too.

KAREN: Especially those who are not artistically inclined at all. But, even so, I’ve got a student now…she can’t even color within lines. She is very stressed at times and I try to make her feel more comfortable, you know. But she is very artistically challenged.

JENNY: Are you happy with what you are teaching or would you like to teach something else in art?

KAREN: No, I really like teaching Art 2-D and the drawing classes. I’ve kind of settled in with them, with those two subjects. Even though I teach the same subjects, I am constantly changing the units and what I teach in each one so it does not get monotonous by any means.

JENNY: What skills or concepts do you want your students to learn?

KAREN: In Art 2-D, I definitely want them to learn color and color mixing. I think that is important. Even as they graduate I tell them about a time when I went to have a color of paint mixed and if I hadn’t known specifically about color mixing then I would have gotten the wrong color. So I think it is important even when they decorate their home. I just think color is a very important concept they need to know about.

JENNY: How do you motivate your students?

KAREN: That’s a tough one. I try to pick things, projects, that they have an interest in. If not the project, I try to convert it to a subject they may be interested in. Like in a grid drawing, they like to draw cars… but they got a choice of what to draw. And a lot of times I do give them choices of subject matter and they tend to gravitate toward things they like. That is the most common way I motivate them…by letting them have a responsible choice in what they are doing.

JENNY: What is the most important thing you teach?

306 KAREN: I think color is important. But in drawing, I think learning how to shade realistically is an important concept because everybody wants to do something realistic. And when you’ve got shading and tones down and they can do something realistically, they become proud of themselves and they want to continue. I really think drawing is something important that I teach.

JENNY: During April of 2000, you and Myra Crews, a science teacher, participated in a Chemistry and Art Co-Study Collaboration. You brought your Drawing II class to her Chemistry I class. Myra taught both classes about the effects of pressure exerted by liquids on an object. You taught them how to illustrate the dynamic effects of pressure due to temperature change. What do you remember most about that collaboration?

KAREN: I really enjoyed working with another teacher. So many times I am working alone or I’m getting feedback off of other art teachers but it’s never with a teacher of a different subject. And that was an experience because I never really co-taught or team taught a class. That experience was totally new. Myra and I worked together really well. We played off of each other and sometimes I’d fill in certain sentences for her and she would me. Even though I’m not a chemistry teacher but I have had chemistry…and I just think we worked really well together. I was really interested in how it affected my students. I didn’t really think that they would like being there but they did because they got to participate in the actual lab, too. Then it challenged them because they tried to draw better than her students. So it was funny to watch them trying to outshine in their drawing abilities over hers. I really saw a lot of potential drawers as I taught this and I would persuade them to take drawing classes.

JENNY: So you were recruiting?

KAREN: I was! I really think it helped her classes a lot…in talking with her later and seeing their artwork was just amazing to me. They liked the team teaching too…the art projects. From what I understand her classes retained more of the information.

JENNY: Yes, they definitely did. What are the advantages of working with a science teacher? I guess you’ve answered part of that by your comment about working with another teacher.

KAREN: I have never in my teaching career…and that’s 27 years…worked with another teacher.

JENNY: And when you think about it, how many people work by themselves as teachers do?

KAREN: I really liked doing that. Like I said, Myra and I worked together and came up with this one assignment. We keep saying we are going to get back together and it’s hard.

307 JENNY: It is hard to find the time. And also you said you saw things in your students that you had never seen before and saw things in her Chemistry students, students you had never seen on campus before, who had never taken an art class.

KAREN: Right and I certainly hadn’t had some of her students in Art 2-D to have an idea that they even were interested in art. Most of them had not had art.

JENNY: I wonder why they had never taken an art class.

KAREN: Well, they might have but I didn’t have them. They could have taken it under Judy.

JENNY: Did you feel like the chemistry students were so busy with their academic classes that they did not have time to squeeze in an art class?

KAREN: No, I would just get comments that they liked doing that, learning shading and they used colored pencils and I showed them how to shade shiny metal because they were drawing the soda cans but I had never heard whether they had had another art class or not. They liked what they were doing and it really showed in their artwork.

JENNY: What were the disadvantages of working with another teacher?

KAREN: I think it wasn’t so much working with her as trying to find the time to get together to plan out the unit. That was the biggest problem and probably why we haven’t done it since then. She’s busy with her classes and I’m busy with mine and it’s just hard to plan because this takes planning and you just can’t wing it and go in there. We have to talk about what she is planning on doing and how I am going to teach her students. It is just a lot of planning that goes into a unit like this. Although it is tremendously beneficial, it just takes a lot of planning.

JENNY: I would agree with that. Did you find it easy or difficult to combine art with science? Once you picked your topic, could you think of things to do in art?

KAREN: Oh, right off. As soon as she started describing what she was going to do, I could picture what I could do.

JENNY: You had a visual image of what you could do.

KAREN: Yeah, and I think it was easier to do with my drawing class doing this instead of an Art 2-D class. This involved more of a drawing type art activity.

JENNY: More advanced.

KAREN: More advanced, yeah.

308 JENNY: I think your 2-D would have been able to do it but it wouldn’t have looked as good.

KAREN: And I think my drawing students even inspired the chemistry students because they could see…and it was almost like a competition between the two on their drawings.

JENNY: Did you notice that your drawing students just performed much better than the chemistry students or did you have some latent closet drawers in there? (laughing)

KAREN: I think there were quite a few in the chemistry class…like I said, I was trying to recruit some of them…who were really good drawers.

JENNY: Was there anyone who just couldn’t draw, or refused to draw, or just wouldn’t even try?

KAREN: No, everyone tried and I don’t recall any one of them fussing about having to do the assignment. Not any of them.

JENNY: Would you recommend other teachers try Co-Study?

KAREN: Definitely. And even if it’s not but once a year, I think the benefits far outweigh anything because this is for the student…because it certainly takes the time for the teachers to do it, in planning.

JENNY: Do you think other teachers in the Art Department would be interested in doing a Co-Study collaboration?

KAREN: I think so. I believe that Judy has done one…with another teacher.

JENNY: So, art teachers…there are only three in our department…but if you look at the three of us we are open to trying new things, using art in new and different ways. Well, that leads to a question: Do you feel like art is lessened because it is helping another subject? The students were learning some art in its own right but in a sense art was just a handmaiden to or helping to get the chemistry idea across. Does that lessen art?

KAREN: I think my students learned from the experience. I wouldn’t want my students just to go from, say, history to chemistry to just draw those experiences. If they were just taking chemistry it would be okay. I don’t want to focus my drawing program around different subjects.

JENNY: I think what you’re saying is that art can stand alone or art can be a helper for other subject matter. An art teacher could be (1) an art teacher teaching art subject matter or and art teacher could be (2) an art teacher helping other teachers teach their subject through art.

309 KAREN: Exactly. I think without a doubt it helps the subject…it enhances it in everyway. Like chemistry or history or just anything…I think the students retain the information more. Most students when they have a hands-on experience…they can remember what they have done more so than just reading it and taking a test over it. I definitely think it enhances it.

JENNY: So if you were in charge of an art department and you had unlimited funds…imagine that…unlimited art teachers and you could set up art to be what you wanted, would you integrate Co-Study in any way and how would you do it?

KAREN: I think it…yes, I definitely would want to do a Co-Study with another subject. I think at least once or twice a year would help out, would benefit the students in the subjects as well as introducing new subjects to the art students.

JENNY: Do you think it is fair to say that some of her chemistry students were introduced to art for the first time at the high school level and found something they might want to take and some of your art students were introduced to chemistry and might want to take that?

KAREN: Most definitely. My students were even commenting about how they were amazed at doing the experiment, at the outcome of the experiment. I don’t know if any went on later to take chemistry and I don’t know if any of her students went into the art…I don’t remember exactly who they are…but I think they all benefited from the whole experience. It was…like I said, I have never done this before but I would like to definitely do it again.

JENNY: Is there anything else you would like to add?

KAREN: No.

JENNY: Well, thank you very much.

KAREN: Thank you, Jenny.

310 APPENDIX B-5

INTERVIEW GUIDE Myra Crews, Science Department, Rutherford High School January 23, 2003

How and why did you decide to become a teacher? What kind of certification do you have? How did you arrive at Rutherford High School? What year?

What significant things have you learned about teaching others?

What have you learned about yourself from teaching? How has teaching changed you as a person?

Describe the classes that you teach this school year and the structure of a typical day. Is it what you want to teach?

What skills/concepts do you want your students to learn? How do you motivate them?

What is the most important thing you teach?

During April of 2000, you and Karen Collins, an art teacher, participated in a Chemistry and Art Co-Study Collaboration. Karen brought her Drawing II class to your Chemistry I class. You taught both classes about the effects of pressure exerted by liquids on an object. Karen taught them how to illustrate the dynamic effects of pressure due to temperature change. What do you remember most about that collaboration?

What were the advantages of working with an art teacher? Disadvantages?

Did you find it easy or difficult to combine your subject matter with art? Would you recommend it? Why or why not?

Do you think other teachers in the Science Department would be interested in doing a Co-Study collaboration or course?

If you were in charge, how would you structure it?

You have been involved in Living History Days for the past two years (2001 and 2002). I would like for you to tell me how you got interested in it and about your students that were involved.

What do you remember most about Living History Days?

Do you think your students benefited from involvement in a schoolwide thematic, integrated project? Why or why not?

311 APPENDIX B-5a

INTERVIEW WITH MYRA CREWS Science Department, Rutherford High School January 23, 2003

JENNY: Good morning, Myra.

MYRA: Good morning.

JENNY: How did you decide to become a teacher?

MYRA: Well, I don’t have any lofty answer for that. I came from a very conservative community and at that time in history, believe it or not, this was the accepted job for a woman. You could be a nurse; you could be a teacher; you could be a secretary. The world of computers hadn’t really bloomed yet…and a very agricultural community, where I was from, so…

JENNY: Where is that community?

MYRA: Southeast Missouri.

JENNY: Kind of farmland?

MYRA: Oh, yes.

JENNY: A conservative area and these were your options?

MYRA: Right.

JENNY: It is surprising you knew you even wanted to work outside the home.

MYRA: That’s true. Now that had kind of bloomed a little bit...but those positions were very conservative, very traditional.

JENNY: What is your certification in?

MYRA: Science. Bachelor of Science degree with a major in biology and a minor in chemistry.

JENNY: How did you decide to major in science in college?

MYRA: Well, I really liked science. I just liked it. I liked that field.

JENNY: It was a favorite subject?

312 MYRA: Yeah, it was a favorite subject.

JENNY: So, how in the world did you end up at Rutherford High School from Missouri?

MYRA: Well, my husband took a job in Panama City and that is why we came here in 1991.

JENNY: So, you came from Missouri to here? Was it hard to leave your land of rearing?

MYRA: Not really, I was ready to go.

JENNY: Did you like the water and the beaches?

MYRA: Oh, I thought that was fabulous, yes.

JENNY: Had you ever seen it?

MYRA: Yes, we used to come to Florida when I was a child. My dad…his family lived in southern Florida during the Depression. They had sold their farm in Kansas to buy prime farmland in southern Florida that turned out to be a swamp. And so, the Depression hit and they lost everything and they stayed down in southern Florida until the Depression was over. So anyway, my dad, then…that was his boyhood home and he had to see the beaches every summer. So we used to come…

JENNY: You were not unfamiliar with Florida?

MYRA: No, not unfamiliar.

JENNY: Where did you go to college?

MYRA: I went to a small college, very small, state college. It’s called Southeast Missouri State College. Cape Girardo, Missouri. It’s right on the Mississippi River.

JENNY: You know…I remember taking a trip…I think it was 1970…and we had to cross the Mississippi and it was not near a town and we actually got on a barge-type conveyance to cross. There was a landing where you went to cross the river. I wonder if that sort of thing still exists?

MYRA: Yes, we did that this summer. My mother was going to celebrate her 80th birthday in September…so, during the summer when all the kids were out of school, we got together and went over to this really good restaurant in Kentucky and we ferried…

JENNY: That’s it, a ferry!

MYRA: We did this to let the kids have some fun and cross on the ferry instead of the bridge.

313 JENNY: So, you’ve been here since 1991?

MYRA: Yes.

JENNY: How long have you been teaching? Did you teach in Missouri?

MYRA: Yes, I taught in Missouri, also.

JENNY: So, you’ve been teaching how many years?

MYRA: A long time. Oh, I don’t even want to count.

JENNY: At least ten, maybe closer to twenty.

MYRA: Yes.

JENNY: What significant things have you learned about teaching others?

MYRA: I think that a turning point came when I…believe it or not…I guess my “how to teach science classes” in college were just dish it out, just, you know, just be a lecturer. Just lecture and if they get it, they get it and who cares…you know…whatever. And I was bored and I thought, “There is something missing here.” When Missouri started their rendition of the FCAT, we had our goals that we had to satisfy. And as I started to do that and see what I had to get the kids to come up with and learn, I just started changing the way I was teaching and do a little bit more…well, just tried to make it more interesting, I guess. Because I knew they had to remember this stuff because they were going to be tested in May about it. And, plus, I had the opportunity to go to the NSTA, which is the National Science Teachers meeting, and that really opened the door to the fact that everybody else was doing the same thing. They were exploring science as an interesting subject rather than just memorize, regurgitate, memorize, regurgitate.

JENNY: It is hard to believe an inservice or a mandated testing forced you or allowed you to change your teaching style.

MYRA: And I think I was ready to change. I saw that the way I had been taught…you know, teaching high school like you teach college is just ridiculous. It is just not going to motivate the kids. And I think kids have changed.

JENNY: Yes, I would agree with that. We sat there like little ramrods in the chairs and took whatever was dished out at us. What have you learned about yourself from teaching?

MYRA: Well, I never had thought I was a creative person…never, you know…but I think I developed that part of myself.

314 JENNY: Great, that’s wonderful. You know I have students who think they are not creative. And I say, “What do you mean? Everybody is creative. Maybe we haven’t got it going in you yet but it is there.” That is wonderful to hear. As an art teacher I think that is fabulous.

MYRA: I think, in the old days, creativity was “Can you draw something that looks like it is supposed to look?” And now, it’s like…it’s more just…I don’t know…putting together parts to make the whole issue come together.

JENNY: Exactly, it’s arrangement of space and thoughts and ideas within it. So, how has teaching changed you as a person?

MYRA: I think probably the biggest change that has taken place…since my own kids…(well, they are out of the public schools now but…they graduated last year)…is having more compassion for the kids. Seeing how their teachers could get them so confused (they didn’t go to school here), it made me realize that you’ve got to make it simple. You’ve got to make it step-by-step. You’ve got to make it where they can take it away and come back, not the next day, but two days later and still be able to start it up again. Just making it more simple and logical to them, I guess.

JENNY: So they will remember it. They might get it right then but if they can’t retain it for any length of time…

MYRA: I saw my own kids take classes and then when they tried to do their homework, they would be so confused about what the teacher talked about and…I didn’t want to repeat that. And I’m sure I have.

JENNY: I’m sure we all have. Tell me what you are teaching this year and how your day is structured.

MYRA: I have one Chem II class and two average Chem I classes, two Honors Chem I classes and Biology class…an average Biology class.

JENNY: Your Chem II is what year, generally?

MYRA: Those are eleventh and twelfth graders. Chem I is tenth through twelfth.

JENNY: The earliest would be tenth graders? And Biology is reserved mainly for ninth graders?

MYRA: Well, no, actually I have…they have changed that a bit in the last couple of years…I said 10-12 because I have some dropout IB students that are tenth graders who took Biology last year so now they are ready for Chemistry. I have one student who is taking both Biology and Chemistry.

JENNY: Does the average Rutherford student take Biology and Chemistry?

315 MYRA: Now, they all have to take…who are not IB or HOSA…take their Biology in the tenth grade.

JENNY: But, then, they do not have to take Chemistry?

MYRA: Unfortunately, they don’t.

JENNY: So, that is a problem. When I was in school, you took Biology in the tenth grade and then Chemistry in the eleventh grade. Is this what you want to teach? Or would you like to teach all Chemistry?

MYRA: This is my twelfth year here at Rutherford and our Chemistry load has dwindled down to nothing, practically. We had 18 sections of Chemistry in 1992 and now we have 13…half the amount.

JENNY: Is there anything else besides Chemistry you would like to teach?

MYRA: No, that is what I want to teach.

JENNY: You were department head at one time, weren’t you?

MYRA: Yes, I had one little year of experience with that.

JENNY: Do you want to do that again?

MYRA: No.

JENNY: What skills or concepts do you want your students to learn?

MYRA: I think that the whole realm of physical sciences, the physical world, is…has a tendency to be abstract. And I want them to go away with more of an understanding of the world of matter. We are living in a physical world and when you talk about the atomic level it does get abstract. The general population just doesn’t have very much knowledge of how things operate.

JENNY: I’d agree. I’d agree with that because when I took those courses I came away with the notion that science was “out there.” It wasn’t the dirt under my feet or the water coming out of the tap. It was something out there. It was rather abstract. I’m not a real science person and I really don’t understand a lot of the basic processes we live with and depend on, on a daily basis. So, I understand your quest, here. How do you motivate your students to get interested in this?

MYRA: Well, I try to bring in lots and lots of activities. We are…the world of science and science teachers…I tell the kids this and they laugh…we Chemistry teachers are very organized. We are a very organized group. We get together and we have conventions

316 and people bring the best of the best. We share our ideas and I think this is where I pick up lots of ideas on how to motivate, lots of activities…

JENNY: A hands-on approach?

MYRA: Very much. You can talk all day but until you show somebody something they are just halfway understanding it.

JENNY: Like the Chinese saying, “Tell them and they hear, show them and they start to grasp it, let them do and then they understand.” What is the most important thing you teach?

MYRA: What I find is…what I hear myself saying a lot of times to my students is that they knew more than they thought they did. They just kind of want to dance across the top. If you ask them something difficult or ask them to do something difficult, they just collapse on you. But if you can make them know they know more than they think they do and that they can pull it all together and have confidence in what they know.

JENNY: During April of 2000, you and Karen Collins, one of our other art teachers at Rutherford, participated in a Chemistry and Art Co-Study collaboration. Karen brought her Drawing II class to your Chem I class. You taught both classes about the effects of pressure exerted by liquids on an object. And then Karen taught them how to illustrate this dynamic effect of pressure due to a temperature change. What do you remember most about that collaboration?

MYRA: I remember the frustration, believe it or not, of “This is the most fantastic section...I absolutely love to teach this section” but I always came away with the kids not being able to explain anything that they saw. They had fun doing all of the activities but they couldn’t express themselves as to why it all happened. That was my frustration. We picked this activity to do and I was just blown over with my control group compared to my experimental group. The experimental group actually being students who were much lower academically but after it was all over their knowledge and being able to express themselves and explain on paper and verbally what was going on was just head and shoulders above my control group.

JENNY: So, your control group was actually your higher performing group?

MYRA: They were.

JENNY: And that was another Chem I class.

MYRA: Yes. For some reason…who knows how all those kids got in there together…they were just a better…they had a better GPA overall.

317 JENNY: After this collaboration, you compared test scores…both groups took the same test and the experimental group who had had the Co-Study intervention outperformed the control group.

MYRA: Oh, head and shoulders above the control group.

JENNY: What exactly did ya’ll do to make them get the ideas you wanted?

MYRA: It all had to do with drawing invisible…invisible to the naked eye, of course…atoms. And that is where Karen came in. She showed them how to draw and how to make force lines and, evidently, just drawing and putting in what you couldn’t see made it all click with them.

JENNY: So they had to visualize the concept you were trying to get across?

MYRA: Right.

JENNY: And when they could visualize it, or illustrate it, then it helped their retention, at least for the test.

MYRA: Absolutely.

JENNY: What did you think after all that?

MYRA: Well, I thought, “This has some merit. This is something we need to start shouting from the rooftops…that this works.”

JENNY: So the advantage of working with an art teacher is that she could show them how to illustrate the abstract concepts.

MYRA: Right. And I don’t know if this is the right time to bring this up or not but I saw a different side of my students. Now these students that I had in this experimental group were kind of a rough group…behaviorally. They were not highly motivated academically. But I saw them being able to draw things. I mean I saw this artsy side of them that I had never seen before. They drew things and could color to make it look like it was supposed to look.

JENNY: I remember you showing me those. They were beautiful. That’s so true. We see only one dimension or one part of our students. And that’s how they act, and how they behave, and how they perform in our class. We don’t see the total person. You were getting another glimpse of them through their “art” side, through their art dimension.

MYRA: I was. We allowed her art students, many of whom had never had chemistry— in fact, I think it was, I’m thinking, probably 100% that had never had chemistry—we brought them to the chemistry lab and I saw my students kind of step up to the plate and

318 take these students who had not had chemistry, make sure they followed all the safety rules and…just had the proper behavior. They really stepped up.

JENNY: They were teaching.

MYRA: They were; they were. They were real concerned that these other students did everything correctly. It made me really proud of them.

JENNY: That’s great; that’s interesting. Were there any disadvantages to doing this?

MYRA: Well, for those people that just…well, one thing—I don’t consider this a disadvantage for me—but if you’re a bean counter, we spent a lot more time on this concept than I would have normally. Because it took time for her to teach them how to draw and for them to actually do the drawing, and the coloring, and illustrating. And, then, she had twice as many students as…and I had twice as many students as…we would normally have. We had two classes together. So, we took, maybe, three days extra.

JENNY: So, it gets back to the argument of breadth or depth…

MYRA: That’s right.

JENNY: …which is a continuous problem when you are designing curriculum. Should we spend more time and go deeper or survey it and go broadly? Do you have any thoughts about that?

MYRA: Well, it was a great opportunity and it just opened my eyes. I thought it would work. You know, I went into it very positively. I wanted it to work. But, it was just better than…I saw things I didn’t expect.

JENNY: That’s always nice.

MYRA: Yes.

JENNY: Did you find it easy or difficult to combine your subject matter with art?

MYRA: Actually, it was very easy although I was the one who picked the topic and I picked something I thought would…well, I picked something that had failed in the past, something that was dealing with the invisible.

JENNY: So, you set yourself up for a difficult thing to solve. It wasn’t one of your easier things to teach.

MYRA: Right, but it had a real high interest lab that went along with it. So, in that, I knew that all the students would be captivated by the lab. But my problem was that nobody ever understood well enough to explain it.

319 JENNY: They enjoyed it but they weren’t sure what they saw, and they weren’t sure what happened.

MYRA: Right. And, really…this…this…this clenched it.

JENNY: Would you recommend to other teachers that they try Co-Study?

MYRA: Yes, after this was over it just seemed like my mind opened up to, “Well, you know, we could work with this and we could work with this,” and there is just no limit to the number of Co-Studies that could happen.

JENNY: So, you think other teachers in the Science Department would be interested in doing a collaboration or even a full course?

MYRA: You know, I don’t know whether there are any science teachers that…I don’t want to say care…but …I did this for one reason just because I saw that there was a problem and this was a way of solving it. And I don’t know that there are any science teachers that would want to get into that much depth.

JENNY: Okay, that is an interesting observation. Let’s say you did have some teachers…let’s say that you were head of the department again and you did have some teachers that were interested in this, how would you structure it in a department? Or how would you even start? A lot of times, things are pragmatic and you figure them out as you go along, so how would you start, departmentwide or a few teachers who are interested in it?

MYRA: Well, I think it…well, it would always work if you could just have your little pull-out times. For instance, Karen had a drawing class at the same time I had a Chem I class so it worked out perfectly. We could have pulled out many times during the year...we could have.

JENNY: Rather than a full blown course, there were times when you could have used an art teacher in helping you to teach. You know, I’ve often thought it would be nice if you could have an art teacher in each department, to help the whole department visualize what they are doing, to help the students visualize what they are trying to learn. Also, you have been involved in Living History Days for the past two years, last year and this year. Tell me how you got interested in it and how you got your students involved and why.

MYRA: Well, first of all, probably I got interested in it because of you, Jenny, just because, you know, hearing you talk about it. Had we not been friends here at Rutherford, I would never have put my foot over the line. (laughing)

JENNY: Ventured out.

320 MYRA: Yes, because it is…it is…moving away from my curriculum. And that is what I tell the students, because they always want to know, “Why are we doing this?” I said, “Number one,…

JENNY: And this is a chemistry class?

MYRA: Yes, it is a Chem II class and I’ve taught it for about 7 or 8 years now. When I first had the opportunity to teach it, I tried to teach it on a continuation of Chem I…you know, stick with the book and…

JENNY: Just more chapters.

MYRA: Yes, more, more, and more chapters. Get through that book, right. And I found the students were not going to buy into that. They had been really good students. They bought into that whole idea, you know, just very classical, traditional chemistry. My version of traditional, classical chemistry in their Chem I but they didn’t want to do any more of that. They did not want to do any more of traditional chemistry even the way I presented it.

JENNY: Even with your activities?

MYRA: Yes, they were tired of it. They just weren’t going to do it. But they were great kids; they had a lot on the ball. And in going to my national science teachers conferences—and then I’ve gotten involved with this conference that comes every other year called Chemical Education or Chem Ed and this is just chemistry teachers that get together—there is just a whole mushrooming effect of taking chemistry to the general population. Take it out to the mall, take it to the elementary school, take it out...you know, get it out of the classroom. So, I kind of tied in with those people, using their ideas at first and let my Chem II students start doing programs at the elementary school and this really was fantastic. It has really sold the program. Well, anyway, letting these students be teachers…it just kind of meshed into allowing them to be the docents for the different stations at the Living History.

JENNY: So if you had not been going out to the elementary school with these Chem II students that would probably been too big of a leap?

MYRA: I wouldn’t have understood why, why do we have to do this. Now, I understand and since it comes in the fall it is like a preview of what’s to come. “You’re going to have to stand up in front of people and tell your story.”

JENNY: Or talk about a chemical process. There are a lot of chemical processes happening at Living History Days—lye soap making…

MYRA: We had our still, the whiskey still, the turpentine still, the salt production…reclaiming the salt. All of these students have taken history and this probably would have meshed better with a history class.

321 JENNY: That could be…and, yet, the knowledge is in an historical context.

MYRA: These are really the right people…the right students to do this work.

JENNY: The chemical knowledge is in an historical context so the chemistry students were learning the knowledge where it sprang from, where it came from…whereas the history student may have known the context but not understood the process. So what do you remember most about Living History Days?

MYRA: I just remember the enthusiasm of the students and this year—I saw the students who are now seniors and were in the program last year—came back and demanded, “I want a piece of this; I want a part; I want to be in this again.”

JENNY: That’s great.

MYRA: Yes, it is. It really is.

JENNY: So, you think your students benefited from their involvement in a schoolwide, thematic, integrated project?

MYRA: I really do. They benefited. I had them write about this. Some of them said things like, “This is the best thing I’ve ever done at Rutherford High School.” Wow! We’ve got to save this paper! All in all, many of them were hesitant about getting involved, but as we…this was just like the beginning of their little quest with me because as the year goes on this is what we do, we go out to the elementary schools. Every time they have class we’re at a different elementary school putting on a different program. Toward the end of the year we’ll do this. So I’ve seen a lot of these kids grow. I’ve had students who were just paralyzed with fear at Living History who by April and May were just doing great with their teaching at the elementary school.

JENNY: Who knows…they might become teachers.

MYRA: They might. And whatever they do…and this is something else I say to them…they will…no matter what kind of job they have—whether they are a public school teacher or an accountant—they are always going to be in a position to teach somebody. I think getting their thoughts together…and I make them have visuals and reviews…

JENNY: You need an art teacher right there to get those visuals together!

MYRA: They will always be called on, no matter what their job is, to teach somebody something because they’ll have verbal skills.

JENNY: Absolutely. Well, is there anything else you would like to say about the Co- Study collaboration or Living History Days?

322 MYRA: I think those are two projects that haven’t been fully investigated by the district, by the educational system in general. I think it’s something. I’ve talked to people who…well, we had a writing conference here and writing was one of my big problems that I had with my students…so, in talking with this writing consultant, I showed her and told her of the Co-Study (we had just finished it) and I gave her some of the work. She was just blown away with it. She took it back to Kentucky and said we’ve been looking for some way to mesh art…here it is, here it is. It’s a natural. It really is.

JENNY: That’s interesting. Well, we haven’t heard from her yet. (laughing) There is always hope, huh?

MYRA: She probably took it and put her name on it.

JENNY: Well, that could happen. Well, Myra, thank you so much and I appreciate all you’ve done with the Co-Study collaboration and with Living History Days. You are an integral part of it and I appreciate it.

323 APPENDIX B-6

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR CO-STUDY CURRICULUM STUDENTS

PILOT STUDY

1. Characterize yourself as a student. What year are you? What is your GPA?

What are your interests? What is your favorite subject(s)?

2. Which Co-Study Curriculum class did you take? When?

3. What do you remember about the course?

4. Do you remember the content of the course?

5. Was the Co-Study Curriculum helpful to you? In what way? Did it help you to

understand the subject matter? To remember it better? Do you think it improved your

grade?

6. What was a problem for you in the Co-Study Curriculum?

7. How could the Co-Study Curriculum be improved?

8. What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?

324 APPENDIX B-7

INTERVIEW WITH ALECIA February 11, 2003

Mrs. Doster: Alecia, how would you characterize yourself as a student?

Alecia: Well, I guess I would call myself a band nerd.

Mrs. Doster: What do you play in the band?

Alecia: Everything…well, just about. But I actually have a seat for a bassoon.

Mrs. Doster: First chair?

Alecia: No.

Mrs. Doster: How many bassoons in your band?

Alecia: Well, in concert band, which is the band I’m in…I’m the only one. But there is a band higher than mine and there are two in there so, technically, I’m third chair in band. But, I play first part.

Mrs. Doster: Isn’t that quite a few bassoons in a band?

Alecia: Usually, there are two in every band. There is actually less in our band than there should be.

Mrs. Doster: What year are you now?

Alecia: I am a senior this year.

Mrs. Doster: Senior…graduating…that’s great. What is your GPA?

Alecia: About 2.7.

Mrs. Doster: Okay, good student…and your interests are band, primarily…anything else?

Alecia: I like to read.

Mrs. Doster: You like to read, that’s good. What are your favorite subjects?

Alecia: Well, besides band, I like math and science.

Mrs. Doster: Math and science…that’s unusual. Usually people don’t like those.

325 Alecia: Well, you have to have math to write music.

Mrs. Doster: True. Now, you are a former Co-Study student. Which class did you take?

Alecia: American History and Art Co-Study.

Mrs. Doster: So, you were American History and Art Co-Study last year, which would be the 2001-2002 school year. And Mrs. Warren and I were teaching that together, correct?

Alecia: Yes. in the big room…

Mrs. Doster: The room with the collapsible wall…

Alecia: The room that was specifically made for Co-Study.

Mrs. Doster: What do you remember most about the course?

Alecia: The art…

Mrs. Doster: The art?

Alecia: Obviously…

Mrs. Doster: Not the history?

Alecia: Well, I remember the history because of the art.

Mrs. Doster: Could you elaborate a little more?

Alecia: Like the posters that we did…and the oral projects…like, about…the one I did was the 1920s and the 1930s project. It was on poster and we could bring people in if we wanted to for a live performance and I did jazz…jazz music of the 1920s.

Mrs. Doster: You brought someone in, didn’t you…I just remembered that. Who was that?

Alecia: Clayton Andrews, he is a sophomore this year.

Mrs. Doster: And, what was he playing?

Alecia: Trumpet, I don’t remember the song. But I know that it was a song …played by someone famous…I can’t remember the name.

Mrs. Doster: So you remember the large projects, presentations covering time periods. Anything else you remember?

326 Alecia: All the maps we got to draw…I liked drawing maps. Videos…I liked the videos.

Mrs. Doster: Watching videos?

Alecia: Yes

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember the history content?

Alecia: Yeah, we did the Civil War discussions and we talked about the different sides, and we would have, basically, debates on the different reasons for why they would have broken away from the Union. I remember the stock market game and discussions.

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember working mostly in groups or by yourself…or…what do you remember as the style or was it a mix?

Alecia: It was a mix but it was basically by choice. For most things, we weren’t required to work in groups but we could if we wanted to. So, I tended to work by myself most of the time because it tended to make work get done a lot faster. For some of our projects, we had to work in groups. It’s just that if somebody did something and they were gone the next time, you didn’t have that part of the work that you had done.

Mrs. Doster: That’s right…but you’re still responsible. Did you find that Co-Study was helpful for you?

Alecia: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: In what way?

Alecia: It made it more enjoyable. It was fun because of the art. It helps. It helps you remember things. Drawing helped me remember things more.

Mrs. Doster: Did we draw many maps in class?

Alecia: Gosh, people wouldn’t stop complaining about drawing maps.

Mrs. Doster: Did they help you remember the geography?

Alecia: Yes, especially when we had to color like when we did World War I; we had the Allies and the other guys, Germany and Austria and such. We had to do it in different colors and we had to do neutral countries in another color so we could tell who was on what side and that really helped out.

Mrs. Doster: So, it helped you to remember better. Did it help you understand better?

Alecia: In some ways it did help me understand better but there is also other art that we did, like the posters; that also helped. But I also think discussions that we had like when

327 we presented the artwork and stuff…the discussions that went along with it were also helpful because they helped to create understanding. Discussions were really helpful for understanding.

Mrs. Doster: So, every time you had to give a presentation you had a visual?

Alecia: Yes

Mrs. Doster: So, there were no presentations without visuals?

Alecia: Well, there were some presentations that were without visuals like when we had to do a talk rather than have actual artwork with us but it was still more of a discussion panel than anything. You put one person up in center stage and asked them all the questions about stuff they should know.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think being in the Co-Study class improved your grade?

Alecia: Yes. I think it improved my grade.

Mrs. Doster: Why do you say that?

Alecia: Well, to be honest, I never studied in school before and I got into this class and with the artwork and stuff, the discussions and everything, people were saying stuff that I really didn’t know about. So, I’d go and I’d actually go study it…and it actually caused me to get into other types of literature. The visual orientation caused me to want to study for once in my life.

Mrs. Doster: So, you felt a little competition, huh? That’s interesting…I have not thought of it from that angle.

Alecia: Like I said, it caused me to get into other types of literature.

Mrs. Doster: That’s wonderful. And you don’t feel you would have done that just in a textbook type of course?

Alecia: I would have done what I usually do. He hands worksheets out; we do worksheets, turn them in, end of story. It would have been boring. I actually felt challenged by this class which is something I haven’t felt in a long time in school.

Mrs. Doster: Great. Now you’ve painted a nice picture, but what about problems. There are always problem areas or things you don’t like.

Alecia: Well, some of the students, as I said…the people complained about the maps. There are other things. It’s like they didn’t even want to be there. It was obviously people who didn’t like school. They were not involved; they were talking…cutting up…complaining.

328 Mrs. Doster: Maybe, it wasn’t just the class in particular, but the attitude in general about school and learning.

Alecia: That’s exactly what it was.

Mrs. Doster: Now, I wonder if they gave it a chance if they wouldn’t change their mind about learning…if they had really participated more.

Alecia: Well, half of them were asleep most of the class anyway and, as I understand it, there were several people that failed.

Mrs. Doster: Some did. It’s one of those classes where you are either going to work or you’re not. And if you’re not, you are not going to slide by. Because when you stand up to give a presentation you have to say something, don’t you?

Alecia: There were too many students that weren’t involved.

Mrs. Doster: What do you think makes them like that?

Alecia: I don’t know…maybe boring classes from previous years because most of us in there were juniors.

Mrs. Doster: You think they act that way in all classes or just the Co-Study class?

Alecia: Well, some of them that I know that are in other classes with me act the same way in the other classes as well. They sleep and stuff. It’s pointless.

Mrs. Doster: So, they are just turned off to education?

Alecia: Exactly. It’s maybe where they didn’t get attention from their parents when they were little and they didn’t do good in school or they had a really bad teacher here in high school. I don’t know, I just know that’s the way they are. Some of them just didn’t understand it and don’t like doing any artwork and so didn’t do that part and just tried to do the textbook and they didn’t get it with just the textbook.

Mrs. Doster: So, it should definitely be only for people that want to be in there.

Alecia: Yes, I really feel it should only be offered to students who want to take it…like western civ, you don’t have to take it in high school but you can.

Mrs. Doster: Well, what about this in terms of being an alternative to taking the lecture/worksheet class? Should students be told by Guidance, you have a choice here, you can sit in a class in the traditional manner and hear lectures and take a few notes and do a lot of worksheets or you may sign up for the other way of presenting history with artwork included and more hands-on and discussion.

329 Alecia: Well, the other thing they need to realize is that it’s not only art. They should also make the students aware there is textbook stuff. And the other thing on that is that not all the other classes are just worksheets. There are other classes where it is purely discussion, where you ask a lot of questions and get answers and you do not do that much in worksheets. And you take tests on what you have discussed rather than using the textbook. You also have to make sure they’re aware of teachers who do it like that. Because it all depends on how the student is oriented best.

Mrs. Doster: True, so you are really talking about a learning style, how the student learns best.

Alecia: Some people…I’m not the first person to say this…it’s been studied…but some people are more challenged by being given visual orientation than they are by sitting there and listening to people. And some become more intelligent by asking…by being able to be part of a discussion panel and asking the questions and getting the answers that they want.

Mrs. Doster: So, who is the Co-Study slanted toward?

Alecia: Well, obviously it is slanted more toward the people who like visual challenges…and art class.

Mrs. Doster: Well, predominantly it is a history class with art as a teaching method.

Alecia: But it gives that challenge to visual…it gives that visual orientation that you wouldn’t get in some of the other classes.

Mrs. Doster: How would you improve Co-Study? If you wanted to take another class, assuming you weren’t graduating…which I’m glad you are…congratulations…moving on…assuming you weren’t and you wanted to take another one, how would you improve it?

Alecia: Well, as I said, I would offer it to students who wanted to take it…would be my first step. And I would try to see if there were any books out there that were ‘specially made for a class like that rather than using the traditional history book as well…because there are books that have that, that where they can do art projects along with what they are talking about and it is not just out-of-the-air projects…like some of the stuff we did.

Mrs. Doster: Such as what? Can you tell me one?

Alecia: Well, I…well, for one…the research…the 1920s jazz that I did…it was nowhere in our textbook.

Mrs. Doster: That’s right…you had to go pull that out of other sources.

330 Alecia: We went to the library for some things…internet and stuff. It was all on our own. It was completely individualized work and everything. It was just out there.

Mrs. Doster: But don’t you think that is a valuable thing to know how to do in an information society?

Alecia: It’s good to do stuff like that but…like, we did the maps. We had to draw the maps rather than use them. But some books have it where they tell you what it looks like and you can draw it from your imagination. So there’s that…you could get a different textbook that’s more visually oriented.

Mrs. Doster: You know, I haven’t seen one yet.

Alecia: Well, it’s almost like an art book…’cause I know that you also teach art classes.

Mrs. Doster: Well, I also teach art history and you could almost use an art history text.

Alecia: Well, if you were doing world history but for American history it is a little bit harder. I would definitely use the American history textbook but I would also look and find…see if there is an American history book that has…even if it just a few… projects for art…that can be put in there.

Mrs. Doster: Well, that is something we need to talk to a book company about. That’s a good idea. So, I think we have already discussed this…what type of students would benefit from Co-Study?

Alecia: Students who are willing to try, more than anything. I came away with more knowledge and better art skills.

Mrs. Doster: Willing…that’s a word I like.

Alecia: Yes, you have to be willing.

Mrs. Doster: Yes, you have to be willing to try. Now, you also participated in Living History Days.

Alecia: Yes…twice.

Mrs. Doster: Twice! You are the only one who has done that. Why don’t you tell me a little bit about your experience with Living History Days?

Alecia: Well, first of all, I first heard about it in the Co-Study class last year but I was also taking Chemistry II with Mrs. Crews. And because the IB students were unable to become docents, Mrs. Crews signed us up to go help.

Mrs. Doster: What did you think of that?

331 Alecia: What does this have to do with science? First question out of my mouth. Talk about an “open mouth, insert foot” situation. I didn’t know that there were only certain types of salt that could be used to get the sodium content…of certain chemicals such as salt that go into the ice cream to make the milk into the ice cream.

Mrs. Doster: So, there is a lot of chemistry going on in the kitchen?

Alecia: I had no awareness.

Mrs. Doster: So, you participated in Living History Days last year and this year. And Mrs. Crews is responsible for getting you into it and what was your role?

Alecia: I worked at the salt works where they boiled the water down to get the salt.

Mrs. Doster: And what did you learn from that? What are the most meaningful things you learned from that?

Alecia: Well, I learned it took teamwork to do it. Because I certainly never could have been able to move that giant pot on my own. I believe he said it weighed about 150 pounds.

Mrs. Doster: Huge, cast-iron, saucer dish…very rare to find.

Alecia: Yes, and he actually owns it himself. So, it was fun to work with Mr. Clark. It was fun to work with him. It was really enjoyable. Mrs. Crews signed us up and we did research, went to the library and everything, and I had no idea this was going to happen. And I was thinking, this is going to be so stupid…we are going to come out here and spend two days…cause everybody knows water evaporates. But the more I studied it and researched it, it has more to do with Bay County that I thought it did, especially St. Andrews Bay out there…where we were actually doing it at. And so, I went out there and it took a little while to get into it but Mr. Clark and I clicked…everybody was just drawn into it.

Mrs. Doster: Now, he’s a park ranger?

Alecia: As I understand it, he is but not here in Bay County. He’s from Bay County but he doesn’t work here.

Mrs. Doster: I believe he works at Wakulla Springs.

Alecia: Yes. This year I got the lovely idea, “Why don’t I do it again?” I talked with Mrs. Crews originally to see what I would need to do to do it and she, of course, referred me to you.

Mrs. Doster: Yes, Mrs. Warren and I plan it in conjunction with the state park, the district office of the state park system.

332 Alecia: I got approved. Originally, I thought I wouldn’t be able to because they couldn’t find a pot but then Mr. Clark said he was coming back, so I was allowed to do it. And I just feel…well, we had fun again…

Mrs. Doster: Was it as good the second time around?

Alecia: Better.

Mrs. Doster: Better? That’s great!

Alecia: It was better because I was more into it and was doing it on my own. I wasn’t being told how to do it.

Mrs. Doster: So, you graduated from docent to reenactor?

Alecia: Yes, I was a student reenactor.

Mrs. Doster: Wonderful, you were the only one I believe.

Alecia: No, Jessica and Cassidy helped Mrs. Gorman do it, but they were doing the Indian dance and they had been practicing over the summer. They didn’t have to get approved to be able do it, Mrs. Gorman asked them to. But I was the only one that actually requested to go back. I’m glad that I was teaching other people. We taught them things that I feel they never would have learned in a classroom, even in a Co-Study environment. In a Co-Study, you learn about it, you can do projects about it but you don’t go out and see people acting it out.

Mrs. Doster: This is the next level, isn’t it?

Alecia: Yes, definitely is.

Mrs. Doster: Textbook is the beginning, doing projects in the classroom is a step up, but actually going out in the field…

Alecia: It was a hands-on experience. They saw people make the butter and they got to taste it. They saw people make the grits from scratch…everything.

Mrs. Doster: And they saw you making salt.

Alecia: Yes, and we also were doing the mullet smoking and they got to taste fish…smoked fish. You can make it but you’ll never actually make it like we do…we did there. And that is something, I really feel, taught them stuff. It gave them the knowledge of what came before and helps them appreciate what they have now because they know it is better than what was.

333 Mrs. Doster: Easier, for sure. I don’t know about the butter…it was good but… store bought is good, too.

Alecia: Something we learned about the store bought butter at Living History…the margarine is only one molecule away from being a plastic.

Mrs. Doster: That’s margarine. That’s why I still buy real butter. I want the real thing. Is there anything else you would like to add?

Alecia: Other than the fact that I loved the class and I enjoyed Living History; I had fun.

Mrs. Doster: Well, we appreciate you Alecia because you are one of our better students who put forth a lot of effort and got into it and that is so rewarding for a teacher. You allowed it to work like it can work. And the ones that put their heads on the desks, as they do in all classrooms, are very discouraging.

Alecia: I think I’ve told you this before but…by teaching we learn...so…(interrupted by bell ringing) I didn’t say anything bad.

Mrs. Doster: Oh yes, the teacher is always the learner. No, that just means it’s time for students to come. Well, thank you very much.

Alecia: No problem.

334 APPENDIX B-8

INTERVIEW WITH CHARLES May 2, 2003

Mrs. Doster: Good morning. How are you?

Charles: I’m fine, thank you.

Mrs. Doster: Charles, characterize yourself as a student.

Charles: I’m a hardworking student that occasionally likes to talk. I do most of my work at school and I like to study a lot.

Mrs. Doster: That’s nice. And I agree; you are a good student. It’s a pleasure to have a good student in class. And I agree; you do like to talk. (laughing) What year are you now?

Charles: Tenth grade.

Mrs. Doster: So you are a sophomore. And what is your GPA?

Charles: I have a 3.672.

Mrs. Doster: Well, congratulations. What are your interests?

Charles: I’m interested in a lot of things. I want to be a geography teacher or a history teacher or I want to be a doctor...get up in college and go for a long time.

Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?

Charles: Math, science, English, history, and lunch.

Mrs. Doster: Lunch! And what are your least favorite subjects?

Charles: Home ec.

Mrs. Doster: Home ec? You take home ec?

Charles: No, I’m not taking it. I took it in sixth grade and I hated it.

Mrs. Doster: What did you have to do?

Charles: Sew.

335 Mrs. Doster: Sew! It won’t hurt to know how to mend your own clothes when you’re in college. Which Co-Study class are you taking?

Charles: History and Art Co-Study.

Mrs. Doster: World History and Art Co-Study, 2002-2003 school year. Well, we are at the end of the school year now and I would like for you to reflect back over the year and tell me what you remember most about the course.

Charles: I remember drawing a lot of maps…and I think that helped me out a lot because it gave me a better understanding of the area…and it gave me like visual pictures of the area so that when I was reading in the book and it said people moved to certain places I could understand by looking back in my head at the map.

Mrs. Doster: So you had a visual image in your head going on when you were reading? You could locate it visually?

Charles: Yeah, kind of like making a movie.

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember any other type of art besides making maps?

Charles: Oh, yeah, we did a lot of buildings from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and the caves…I remember that.

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember the content of the course? By that I mean the history part of it and not just the art.

Charles: I remember the history because the art helped me out a lot. I remember way back to Egypt and before…to the Neanderthals and the Cro-Magnon people…and all the way up to where we are now in the Middle Ages.

Mrs. Doster: Was Co-Study helpful to you?

Charles: Yeah, it was very helpful. Not only did it help in history, it helped in other subjects, too…like in science because we were studying about the first humans in science and I remembered it from the history class.

Mrs. Doster: That’s interesting. You are actually linking different classes together, connecting different classes together. Has that ever happened before?

Charles: Yep, you can do it in science and math, too. They kind of link together.

Mrs. Doster: Do you like to do that?

Charles: Yep.

336 Mrs. Doster: Does it make more sense to you when you can link knowledge?

Charles: Yeah, it’s easier because you don’t have to isolate different information to different subjects…when you can use one piece of information for different subjects.

Mrs. Doster: You can see it from different points of view and how it fits into the puzzle…interesting. Did Co-Study help you understand better the subject matter?

Charles: Yes, it did because…I could understand how people lived by looking at how they wrote and what kind of weapons they had developed, inventions they made, how their land was laid out and how their cities were built…and the castles were built…and how they had trade skills according to where they lived.

Mrs. Doster: And, then, to follow that did it help you remember it better?

Charles: Yes, see, I’m a visual person so that anything I draw I can remember, anything I write down I can remember…and all the bookwork and definitions help me remember too because if I write it down I get like a picture memory in my head...and then I take a test and it’s like “Look, there’s number 3”…it is like looking on a sheet of paper in you head.

Mrs. Doster: That’s interesting because that is the way I study, too. That is, I write it down, to study. Some people do this verbally and others do it visually. So, evidently, you are a visual learner. Did you ever know that before?

Charles: No…not before…

Mrs. Doster: Did you figure it out this year?

Charles: Yes, this year I figured it out.

Mrs. Doster: That’s great. So, did this improve your grade, do you think, or would you have done just as well without it?

Charles: Yeah, this is the first year I got over a 3.5. Last year I had a 3.5 and this year I got a 3.7.

Mrs. Doster: How had you done in history classes prior to this?

Charles: In middle school, sixth grade, I did exceptionally well because my dad beat it into me. In seventh and eighth grade, I did mediocre. Last year, I did well because I like geography and it was kind of like a geography-history class.

Mrs. Doster: What was a problem for you in Co-Study?

337 Charles: I really didn’t have any problems except for the people around me talking a lot…and I didn’t have any problems.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think that would happen in a regular class…they would be that talkative? Or does the Co-Study make them more talkative?

Charles: I don’t think Co-Study makes them more talkative except for the fact that Co- Study kind of gives you more freedom…you feel more free. You are not so bound to bookwork.

Mrs. Doster: So, by its nature it frees up the creative part. So it is not as regimented and you have more freedom and so people tend to get a little more relaxed.

Charles: And you learn better when you are in a relaxed atmosphere.

Mrs. Doster: It has always been kind of talkative in these classes…which doesn’t bother me as long as they are working. But, sometimes, I wonder if they are working. How could Co-Study be improved?

Charles: More like on the drawings, like when we draw maps and stuff…especially maps be more specific like on exactly where everything is. Like the little cities, too, because the more little cities you remember…because when you learn things you don’t always remember the major things you learn but if you try to memorize the specifics then you’ll forget most of the specifics but you’ll remember the basic things. Kind of like taking a step forward and a step back.

Mrs. Doster: So you would want them to be a little more detailed.

Charles: Yeah, so you like take two steps forward and you only go one step back.

Mrs. Doster: So, if you have to remember twice as much, you’ll remember half. If you’re told to remember 2x, then you’ll remember x.

Charles: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: What type of student do you think benefits from Co-Study?

Charles: A visual student.

Mrs. Doster: How do you think kids know if they are visual or not?

Charles: If you take Co-Study, you’ll find out.

Mrs. Doster: Have you ever had a Guidance counselor ask how you learn best, or how you like to learn? Anytime in school? Like middle school? Elementary, middle, or high school?

338 Charles: Yeah, in eighth grade, I went to my guidance counselor because I was having trouble with homework and she asked me. I told her I just listened, that I liked to listen and she thought that was the way I liked to learn. But come ninth grade, listening was nothing because you start falling asleep and you can’t listen. Visual is how I learn.

Mrs. Doster: And you had to come to that conclusion on your own?

Charles: Yeah, Co-Study helped me.

Mrs. Doster: That’s interesting. I’ve often wondered why we can’t take students and give them a learning style inventory test, trying to find out how they learn best. I’ve always wondered why these were not given to incoming ninth graders and, then, they could be told which courses are more visually oriented. Would that be helpful to you?

Charles: Yeah, that would be helpful to me and probably for upcoming ninth graders because in high school you don’t want to take a class that is not going to help you or that is going to make your grade worse because it can mess you up.

Mrs. Doster: Because it gets serious starting in the ninth grade, doesn’t it? It all starts to count.

Charles: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think ninth graders are aware of that?

Charles: Some of them, not most of them. My brother…he is not very aware of it.

Mrs. Doster: They don’t catch on until about the tenth grade and then it’s a little late because they’ve got one year of bad grades. And it stays with you. You get to start over again in college but that stays with you the rest of your life. I’m still doing things in college and they still look at my transcript from day one. They look at all of the things I have taken over the years. So just keep that in mind. I’m sure you will do well in college. You are a good student. I wish you were going to be in American History and Art Co-Study next year.

Charles: I did sign up for it but we’re moving.

Mrs. Doster: We’re going to miss you and I sure wish you were going to be in there because I think you are a positive influence on the class, that you’re a good student, and I’ve enjoyed watching you work this year and seeing your work. And we wish you luck in your new home. Is there anything else you would like to add?

Charles: Nope, I liked the class. It was good.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.

339 APPENDIX B-9

INTERVIEW WITH CHRISTINA March 2, 2003

Mrs. Doster: Good morning, how are you?

Christina: I am great.

Mrs. Doster: Good. Christina, how would you characterize yourself as a student?

Christina: Uhm…a good student. I think I am a good student. I like to do my work.

Mrs. Doster: That is refreshing to hear. What year are you in now?

Christina: I’m a junior.

Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?

Christina: A 2.5.

Mrs. Doster: What are your interests in school?

Christina: History is my favorite subject.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have any others?

Christina: Probably zoology and stuff like that…science.

Mrs. Doster: What don’t you like?

Christina: Math…I hate math.

Mrs. Doster: Are you doing okay in math?

Christina: Yeah…I’m doing good…Algebra 1B.

Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class did you take?

Christina: I took the World History and Art Co-Study and I also took the Art in Other Cultures.

Mrs. Doster: Let’s talk about the World History and Art Co-Study. Was that last year you took that, the 2001-02 school year? You were in the tenth grade?

Christina: Yes.

340 Mrs. Doster: What do you remember about that course?

Christina: Egypt. I remember studying Egypt. That was my favorite. I still have my drawings and my notebook from that class.

Mrs. Doster: Do you really? What else do you remember…thoughts or feelings.

Christina: I remember the Mayans and just studying world history itself and having the art to go along with it.

Mrs. Doster: I was going to ask you if you remembered the content of the course and that is what I meant by…well, you already said it whether you know it or not…you were talking about the specific content…the Egyptians, the Mayans..

Christina: Aztecs…

Mrs. Doster: Did you find that Co-Study was helpful to you?

Christina: Oh, yeah. It helped me to, you know, understand it…to have hands-on activities…to learn it more. I like to learn from actually doing it…than just hearing a lecture…actually seeing it on slides and stuff like that. It gave me hands-on study material.

Mrs. Doster: Well, you mentioned quite a few things; you think it helped you to study. Do you think it helped you to understand?

Christina: I took that class in middle school and I didn’t even realize how much was actually in the course until I got into high school and took it again with the art. Co-Study actually taught me stuff instead of just learning reading and lecturing and stuff like that. You actually look at the stuff and see the art and understand the people more. You get into what was in the people’s minds and how they were drawing.

Mrs. Doster: Ah…you go more in depth? You have a greater understanding?

Christina: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Okay, you understand better, what about remembering? Does that help you remember or not? What do you think?

Christina: Yeah, I can still remember sitting in class and drawing from the slides and the overhead. It was fun.

Mrs. Doster: So, given that, do you think it improved your grade? Christina: Yeah, because I actually could do it. It was an easy course but challenging.

(Knock on the door. Pause tape.)

341 Mrs. Doster: Okay, so you think it improved your grade?

Christina: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: That reminds me…as I think back on this class…you folks were something called the Acceleration Academy and we inherited you in the tenth grade. The Acceleration Academy is a ninth grade…thing…and then we inherited you as a group during your tenth grade year.

Christina: A whole bunch of people that were together in the ninth grade...as a group.

Mrs. Doster: Could you tell me a little bit about your experience in the Acceleration Academy and then how you made the shift from what you were doing into Co-Study? Was it a difficult shift?

Christina: In the Acceleration Academy, you have two teachers; for your main courses you have two teachers and then you have your elective teachers. You have to take reading if you’re in the Acceleration Academy. You are in those classes all day until the end of the day when you go to your gym classes and stuff like that.

Mrs. Doster: So there was a heavy emphasis on reading. Did they tell you how you got placed in the Acceleration Academy?

Christina: They went through our records in middle school and FCAT in middle school. We had a hard time doing the FCAT. We came to a summer school to see if we actually liked it and if you liked you could sign up to be in the Academy. I liked it…I liked it…it actually, you know…it was good during the summer. And then when I got into it I was kind of like…I didn’t get to go around with other ninth graders and I was stuck with the same people.

Mrs. Doster: And then ya’ll were given to us and, I believe, for your English you had to stay as a group and with us in history, you had to stay as a group. Do you think that was a beneficial setup?

Christina: Yeah, I think because you were around the same people you actually knew how to work with those people. Then, when you got into the history and English you were around those same people.

Mrs. Doster: How do you think the other students felt about being in the Co-Study? Would they have rather been in a traditional history class or did they like the hands-on?

Christina: Everyone I talked to liked the Co-Study class. And I wanted to take it this year.

Mrs. Doster: Well, let’s talk about that for a second. You wanted to take it this year, American History and Art Co-Study, in the eleventh grade. What happened there?

342 Christina: They wouldn’t…they didn’t let us have that course this year.

Mrs. Doster: Yes, that was unfortunate. I’m like you; I didn’t know about it until the last minute either. Everybody was signed up and ready to go and it was cancelled. I had nothing to do with that. I want to tell you that we, ourselves, were very upset with that. In fact, I’m not doing any American history this year. Was there a problem for you in Co-Study? Which parts of it may have been a problem?

Christina: I don’t think I had any problems. It was, you know…as long as you did your work, you were good. You had a good grade. Kept up your notebook and actually listened to the teachers, you had a good grade.

Mrs. Doster: How do you think Co-Study could be improved?

Christina: I think it was good. It was a good course. I don’t think it could be improved; it was really good.

Mrs. Doster: What type of student do you think benefits from having a Co-Study class?

Christina: A student that is willing to listen and be taught and wants to be taught. The one that is willing to listen and do your work.

Mrs. Doster: Well, they might do well in a regular class, too. Don’t you think? Is there anything else?

Christina: Likes art.

Mrs. Doster: So, it helps to like art. Is there anything else you might think of?

Christina: (No response)

Mrs. Doster: Well, maybe what you were trying to tell me and I didn’t get it was that, maybe, they are more willing to listen if there was something like the art to look at? Is that what you were trying to say? I wasn’t quite picking up on it.

Christina: Yeah, They are more willing to try to understand and, you know, you can learn better by seeing it than just hearing it.

Mrs. Doster: Aha, that’s interesting. Is that how you learn better?

Christina: Yeah. I learn better by seeing something than just, you know, just listening to it and not understanding it…until I actually see it.

Mrs. Doster: You know, I’m the same way. Maybe, that’s why I teach this way. I’ve got to see before I understand it. Did I explain what integrated curriculum is at the

343 beginning of the class? Did we have a little talk about what we were doing in there? Do you remember? (She nods affirmative). What do you remember from that?

Christina: Yeah, I remember you were talking about history…not only history but that it has a connection to art, too…because people learn world history through art, through like the Egyptians having paintings of what they went through and how they lived. Seeing it on the wall shows you how they lived.

Mrs. Doster: So the integrated curriculum was bringing together two things that usually are taught separately…history and art. Well, you know, sometimes, even inside something like art, there are different groups of art. There is what we call studio art which is doing things with your hands, like most of our art classes here at Rutherford. But you can also study just art history and never make any art. You can also just talk about art. You remember our art criticism we did, when we just talked about art? All of these are different disciplines in the field of art and some people teach these separately. You mentioned the Art in Other Cultures class. That is also a type of integrated curriculum because when we did a project in that class we would, first, talk about the history, and, then, talk about examples of the art itself before we made anything. So talk to me about the Art in Other Cultures class. Tell me what you remember about that.

Christina: I remember going through and learning about the history of the art and then seeing it on slides and the overhead projector, the art, and then we would draw pieces of it and then we would actually draw a bigger project.

Mrs. Doster: Did you enjoy that class?

Christina: Oh, yeah.

Mrs. Doster: What did you learn from it?

Christina: I learned that history is not only people but it is art and other things that we do in everyday life. We draw, we read, and we write and that is how we got those things. We have time because we have history. It was a good course.

Mrs. Doster: I’m glad you enjoyed it. Talk to me, if you want, about anything else you would like to say about Co-Study.

Christina: I think we should have American History and Art Co-Study (laughing).

Mrs. Doster: Well, you are going to be a senior now. What about an Economics and Art Co-Study? (Seniors are required to take economics) That is something I have thought about because I used to teach economics. It seems, in my mind, that art could be used with a lot of different subjects. Do you thing there is any way you could do art and algebra? Would that help you get through that math? (laughing) Is there anything else you would like to say?

344 Christina: It was just a great, great, great course…awesome. I still have my notebook and I always look at it and remember things I did in that class.

Mrs. Doster: Well, I want to tell you Mrs. Warren and I enjoyed your class a lot, too. We always looked forward to you kids being in there. And it was always a lot of fun. It seems like we were always having fun and we were always taking off in a direction and doing something.

Christina: Yeah, we never had a dull day.

Mrs. Doster: No, we didn’t, did we? There was always something going on.

Christina: Just like in our art class.

Mrs. Doster: Always activity…always learning. Well, thank you very much.

Christina: You’re welcome.

345 APPENDIX B-10

INTERVIEW WITH CRYSTAL March 7, 2003

Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, Crystal. How are you?

Crystal: Fine. How about you?

Mrs. Doster: How would you characterize yourself as a student?

Crystal: I’m really committed and organized. I work hard at what I do…my work and stuff. I get my work done…on time or ahead of time.

Mrs. Doster: Yeah, I agree, having had you in my classes. It is a pleasure to have you in class. What year are you now?

Crystal: I am a senior.

Mrs. Doster: Getting ready to graduate. Are you excited about that?

Crystal: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?

Crystal: 3.4

Mrs. Doster: Good…good for you. What kind of interests do you have?

Crystal: I like to read…Stephen King books…and Harry Potter. I like anime. I like to write and play video games.

Mrs. Doster: What are you favorite subjects?

Crystal: English, mythology, art and that is about it.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have any least favorite?

Crystal: Math and gym. History and science are neutral…neither good nor bad.

Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class did you take?

Crystal: American History and Art Co-Study.

Mrs. Doster: I assume that was last year when you were a junior.

346 Crystal: Yes, 2001-2002.

Mrs. Doster: What do you remember most about the course?

Crystal: Doing lots of large packets and doing lots of art projects and Mrs. Warren lecturing and talking to herself and stuff...watching videos.

Mrs. Doster: Oh, really. (laughing)

Crystal: Talking to the VCR.

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember the content of the course?

Crystal: Yes, I remember most of it. I remember more than in world history which I was taking at the same time…except for World War I and II when both classes were studying the same thing.

Mrs. Doster: Can you give me an example?

Crystal: I remember, like, studying the presidents and we had to do Hoover’s plan, and like the different plans for how they handled the economic depression and stuff. Each one had their own plan. I remember doing a tornado thing for, I think, it was Hoover.

Mrs. Doster: The funnel approach. I think we were doing a pop-up book on the 1930s, weren’t we?

Crystal: Yeah, I couldn’t remember what we called it but it was a tornado. I remember it was a tornado. Yeah, we were doing a pop-up book of that and the FDR stuff.

Mrs. Doster: Was Co-Study helpful to you?

Crystal: Yeah, it helped me remember the information a lot better. I understand by reading; the Co-Study helped me remember. I could retain it more because we did so many things over and over instead of, like, just doing questions and then taking a test. But we did these packets and we did things like projects and it helped me remember it better than just doing book questions and taking a test.

Mrs. Doster: Is there anything in particular you remember? I know you mentioned Hoover, FDR, and the approaches to solving the economic depression and that was a visual remembrance because of the funnel approach being represented as a tornado. Is there anything that stands out in your mind as more important?

Crystal: The packets.

Mrs. Doster: What was in the packets?

347 Crystal: There was just a bunch of questions and activities, things to match up, fill-in- the-blanks and stuff. I can’t really remember very much but I remember they helped me a lot more because I’d just do my work, get the answers and stuff, and then I’d remember them on the test.

Mrs. Doster: Were there any art activities in the packet?

Crystal: Yeah, there were a bunch of them.

Mrs. Doster: Can you remember what types?

Crystal: Some of them were where we did things from the overhead, and we’d color some, and we did posters one time and we made a world map one time. We did a lot of different stuff—cut-out, draw, color.

Mrs. Doster: All of those activities, did they help you understand the subject matter better?

Crystal: Yeah, because like the funnel approach shows how it starts from the top and goes down. They help you remember better because when you see the funnel you see the funnel approach. When you see the tornado and, then, you put the little things in there it helps you to understand it.

Mrs. Doster: So, it’s almost like a diagram of something.

Crystal: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: So, it helped you understand it. Did it help you remember it better for the test?

Crystal: Yeah, because if you would have just given us a diagram, I wouldn’t have hardly, probably, looked over it as much but I would have looked over it. But actually having to fill it in myself, it helps me remember it because I had to fill it in myself.

Mrs. Doster: Draw it yourself.

Crystal: Draw it myself. That helped me.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think it improved your grade?

Crystal: Yeah, the whole class improved my grade. My other friends had other teachers and their grades were bad. Many people wanted to get into the Co-Study. Art would help them do better. Lecturing and worksheets don’t work well for me.

Mrs. Doster: What was a problem for you in Co-Study? (No response) Were there any problems?

348 Crystal: I don’t think there were any problems, really. The tests were long and I’m not good at matching. I did my work and I was usually ahead of everybody.

Mrs. Doster: I remember that…you were…how to keep you busy (laughing).

Crystal: I don’t remember. I don’t remember any problems. I would just sit there and do my work. And I was ahead.

Mrs. Doster: How do you feel Co-Study could be improved?

Crystal: It was good because you worked at your own pace and were expected to meet a deadline. Make, like, deadlines…more deadlines. You would tell us one week and then it would get delayed or something. You need to put more deadlines in there.

Mrs. Doster: Or, maybe, stick to the original deadline.

Crystal: Yeah, I think that’s about it.

Mrs. Doster: That is always a problem for a teacher because not everybody moves at the same rate. And you are always doing your work. In fact, you were the one I would look to and say “How far along is Crystal? If she’s done, they need only one more day.” You were ahead of the class the whole time.

Crystal: I like classes where you work at your own pace, too, though because then I don’t have to sit and wait on everybody else to do everything…go ahead and get it done.

Mrs. Doster: Yeah, and some people are just the opposite. They like that, also, but in the opposite manner…they do less work. They don’t get as much done. So what type of student do you feel benefits from Co-Study?

Crystal: People who are self-paced and self-organized and people who are hardworking and they’re committed to what they’re doing. Students who want to earn a good grade, who are interested in art, and tired of lectures from teachers.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have to like art, to do Co-Study?

Crystal: No, because I didn’t really want to do art.

Mrs. Doster: But you did it anyway?

Crystal: That’s what you have to do.

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember art criticism?

Crystal: Yeah.

349 Mrs. Doster: What do you think that is, do you remember? Crystal: Art criticism is where you take a piece of art and you evaluate it and you give your opinion and use…I think it is properties or principles…and you evaluate it on the elements and principles and see how well it was crafted and stuff like that.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think that related to the history? Or was that just extra, when we would do that? (No response) I remember when we looked at one painting by an artist who had done a painting of a group of immigrants in New York City. At that point in time, we were studying the effects of immigration during the early 1900s and there were a lot of social problems given industrialization, immigration, World War I—all of the changes that had happened in American society—and in that unit we were looking at an overview of all these problems. When we viewed this painting of an immigrant area in New York City, we talked about it in terms of the elements and principles but we also talked about it in terms of what it showed about American society. Do you remember that and was it helpful?

Crystal: No, not looking at artwork like that. It doesn’t help me remember history very much. I’m not a visual learner like that. I don’t look at art and remember it for a time period, like that. I remember the carpetbaggers, though. I remember the artwork for that because it was funny.

Mrs. Doster: That was a political cartoon.

Crystal: I can remember them. But I can’t remember someone going and making a painting…like the guy who did the Spanish Rebellion…what’s his name?

Mrs. Doster: Goya?

Crystal: And he did that…and I remember that but I don’t remember, like, a lot of it because I don’t like looking at it and remembering it came from this and it represented this.

Mrs. Doster: So what you remember more, and what is more helpful to you is the illustrating or diagramming of the knowledge.

Crystal: Yeah, like actually doing work and projects and stuff helps…like doing them yourself.

Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?

Crystal: It was a good class. It was a little large. I almost switched out because it was a large class. I really liked it a lot better than I would have liked any other class…like Mr. Thompson’s class. He just lectures.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think other subject matter besides history could benefit from having art associated with it? Such as?

350 Crystal: English. I like English but it could. It could help English. Math…it won’t help math. Math is just terrible.

Mrs. Doster: It might. (laughing) I think it could help in geometry; I don’t know about algebra. Okay, anything else you want to add?

Crystal: Nothing.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.

351 APPENDIX B-11

INTERVIEW WITH ELIZABETH March 19, 2003

Mrs. Doster: Hi, how are you today?

Elizabeth: Good.

Mrs. Doster: Characterize yourself as a student.

Elizabeth: Average…responsible…trying to work hard.

Mrs. Doster: What year are you in school?

Elizabeth: I’m a junior.

Mrs. Doster: What is you GPA?

Elizabeth: A 2.357.

Mrs. Doster: What are your interests in school?

Elizabeth: Art and science.

Mrs. Doster: How many art classes have you taken?

Elizabeth: One.

Mrs. Doster: Which one was that?

Elizabeth: I didn’t take it here.

Mrs. Doster: What are you favorite science classes?

Elizabeth: Zoology and biology.

Mrs.Doster: What are your least favorite subjects?

Elizabeth: English and math.

Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class did you take?

Elizabeth: The World History and Art Co-Study.

352 Mrs. Doster: That would be last year, 2001-2002 school year. What do you remember most about the course?

Elizabeth: How much I learned and how easy it was to remember things because we drew so much and were so involved with the subject.

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember the history part?

Elizabeth: Somewhat, yeah. (laughing)

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember the activities? Could you recall anything from last year’s content?

Elizabeth: We did a lot of work on King Tut and the tomb…a lot of artwork on that.

Mrs. Doster: Did you find Co-Study to be helpful to you?

Elizabeth: Oh, yeah, because I know I wouldn’t have remembered if it wasn’t for the art portion of the subject.

Mrs. Doster: So, you felt like the art helped you to remember?

Elizabeth: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Did it help you to understand?

Elizabeth: A lot, yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think it improved your grade?

Elizabeth: Oh, yeah. It got me more involved with it because if I hadn’t had it then I wouldn’t have been so in tune with what was going on.

Mrs. Doster: Was there a favorite project you did or a favorite type of art that you did?

Elizabeth: The lettering…the lettering…was my favorite part.

Mrs. Doster: When did we do lettering?

Elizabeth: When we were studying the…I can’t even remember now…the Egyptians…the hieroglyphics and when we were working on the Romans we did Roman lettering.

Mrs. Doster: We may have done some other, too, when we got to the Middle Ages. Were there any problems for you in that class?

353 Elizabeth: Not really.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think it could be improved? What would help you to remember and learn better?

Elizabeth: Nothing, really. It was perfect. It’s the perfect class, really.

Mrs. Doster: What type of student, do you think, benefits from Co-Study?

Elizabeth: The kind of student who is, maybe, not slow per se but it’s kind of harder for them to learn...unless you are doing hands-on activities. I’m the type of student where it’s hard for me to learn unless I’m involved with the subject.

Mrs. Doster: And by involved, you mean doing something with your hands and your eyes as opposed to just your ears?

Elizabeth: Yeah, when myself is more involved in other than just listening to the teacher teach it.

Mrs. Doster: If you manipulate material somehow with, let’s say, a drawing it helps you to remember it better and understand it better?

Elizabeth: Yes m’am.

Mrs. Doster: Are you taking history this year?

Elizabeth: Yeah, I’m in western civilization and American history.

Mrs. Doster: Are they doing any kind of artwork in there or is it strictly the lecture type?

Elizabeth: Strictly lecture and I’m failing that class really bad.

Mrs. Doster: Both of them or one of them?

Elizabeth: One of them…my American history class. I’m okay in my western civ class. He mostly just lectures on everything. We don’t do anything hands-on or anything like that.

Mrs. Doster: Do you take notes?

Elizabeth: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: And that’s it?

Elizabeth: Yeah.

354 Mrs. Doster: So, you prefer a Co-Study method over the lecture method?

Elizabeth: Oh, yeah. (laughing)

Mrs. Doster: Well, I wish we could have had that for you this year.

Elizabeth: I wish you could have, too.

Mrs. Doster: As I recall, your group came to us from another course of study in the ninth grade called Acceleration Academy. We were given your class and the English teacher, Ms. W, was given your class. And the rest of your classes were taken with the rest of the sophomores, not just Academy students. Tell me a little bit about the Acceleration Academy. How did you get put into it and what was it for?

Elizabeth: Well, we got put into it because we didn’t do well on the FCAT and they were hoping it would improve our math and English scores as far as the FCAT goes….the reading and stuff. For the most part it helped, but it really set us back as far as getting all of our credits…the right credits as far as that goes. I found it to be really aggravating because I don’t have all the classes that I should have as a junior. I’m a year behind. I should have had American history over with already but I don’t.

Mrs. Doster: Well, now you take that in your junior year, generally.

Elizabeth: My math classes are behind.

Mrs. Doster: You’re really okay in history. But it’s the math…

Elizabeth: Yeah, it’s the math and English that are problems.

Mrs. Doster: So, how did you end up doing on the FCAT?

Elizabeth: Oh, I passed. The first time I took it I passed.

Mrs. Doster: Well, I guess in the long run, the Acceleration Academy paid off in that respect. Do you think Co-Study helped at all?

Elizabeth: Oh, yeah.

Mrs. Doster: In what way?

Elizabeth: It helped with the reading. I was more interested in it…in reading by the time the Co-Study was over with.

Mrs. Doster: So, your interest in reading improved with the Co-Study experience?

Elizabeth: Yes m’am.

355 Mrs. Doster: Was there anything else you would like to add?

Elizabeth: No.

Mrs. Doster: I appreciate your coming by and talking to me.

Elizabeth: Thank you.

Mrs. Doster: Thank you.

356 APPENDIX B-12

INTERVIEW WITH JACKSON May 7, 2003

Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon. How are you Jackson?

Jackson: Pretty good, you?

Mrs. Doster: Fine, thank you. Jackson, characterize yourself as a student.

Jackson: Uh…like…I don’t know…I make normal grades, I guess.

Mrs. Doster: What is a normal grade to you?

Jackson: Cs.

Mrs. Doster: Cs. Do you feel like you are working up to your potential?

Jackson: Not in some subjects…most of them.

Mrs. Doster: Which subjects do you favor?

Jackson: Anything involving computers…and math. I enjoy math, Web design, biology.

Mrs. Doster: What do you not like?

Jackson: History, English…that kind of stuff. I am unwilling in some classes, namely history, art, English.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have other interests?

Jackson: Computers.

Mrs. Doster: So, you are a computer person? Is that going to be your career?

Jackson: Yep.

Mrs. Doster: What year are you now?

Jackson: I’m a sophomore right now.

Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?

Jackson: Last report card it was a 2.666.

357 Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class are you taking?

Jackson: The World History and Art Co-Study.

Mrs. Doster: So you’re in World History and Art Co-Study, 2002-03 school year. Well, we’re winding down this year right now, in fact, we are nearly done. As you think back over the course of the year, what is it you remember most about the course?

Jackson: Having to do art. Being forced to draw maps.

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember anything else? Do you remember any history?

Jackson: A little bit.

Mrs. Doster: What?

Jackson: Like the stone age drawings and that kind of stuff.

Mrs. Doster: That was at the very beginning. Did you like those?

Jackson: It was okay. That is not all I remember.

Mrs. Doster: Did you find Co-Study helpful to you?

Jackson: In some ways…I mean…I learned locations on a map.

Mrs. Doster: So drawing the map helped you learn locations better?

Jackson: Not the drawing of the map…the looking at the map.

Mrs. Doster: The looking at the map helped you to…

Jackson: I don’t like the drawing.

Mrs. Doster: You don’t like the drawing. Talk to me about that.

Jackson: It’s just not fun to draw.

Mrs. Doster: So you did not find the drawing helpful to you at all?

Jackson: No.

Mrs. Doster: So you don’t like to draw. Did you find the drawing helping you to understand the subject matter any better, even though you didn’t like it?

Jackson: Maybe a little bit…parts of it…especially locations.

358 Mrs. Doster: Did it help you remember it any better?

Jackson: A little bit of the locations and stuff. That’s all. I’ve never been good in history. I listen, usually always, but don’t do the work. I listen to the art but don’t do the projects. I don’t like to do projects. I do some assignments and not other assignments. Sometimes I remember…understand better because of the art. It is extra…more…in a different way.

Mrs. Doster: So, you don’t like to draw but even though you did it and didn’t like to do it, it may have helped a little bit.

Jackson: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Did it hurt?

Jackson: No…hurt my hand.

Mrs. Doster: So you weren’t damaged by being in this class?

Jackson: Not mentally.

Mrs. Doster: How were you damaged?

Jackson: My hand hurts from drawing.

Mrs. Doster: Really?

Jackson: I don’t like drawing.

Mrs. Doster: Do you know why you don’t like drawing?

Jackson: Not fun…it has nothing to do with computers.

Mrs. Doster: So you are very singularly focused?

Jackson: Yep.

Mrs. Doster: Did you have art in elementary school?

Jackson: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Did you enjoy it then?

Jackson: It was okay. The classroom smelled though. You couldn’t enjoy it.

359 Mrs. Doster: You didn’t like the smell of the room. Did the teacher actually instruct you in how to draw or was it kind of like “Here it is…do your thing.”

Jackson: Sometimes we had stuff we were supposed to be drawing…not always.

Mrs. Doster: Was it a guided drawing where she showed you how to draw or did she just expect you to draw it?

Jackson: It just depended on what we were doing…the kind of stuff we did.

Mrs. Doster: Did you have that in all years of elementary or just some years?

Jackson: It was every third day, every year.

Mrs. Doster: You have had quite a bit of background at the elementary level. Did you have any art in middle school?

Jackson: No.

Mrs. Doster: So, in high school you are placed in the Co-Study and you took an art class. How did that happen?

Jackson: I had to get out of other classes.

Mrs. Doster: And this is what you had left to take. Do you think if you had had more drawing instruction at an earlier age you would like drawing better? Or is there some reason why you think you would not like drawing at all?

Jackson: No, I’m into computers and stuff and drawing is a pencil and paper kind of thing.

Mrs. Doster: The reason I ask is that there is a lot of art than can be done on the computer, such as in doing a Web page. You need the art.

Jackson: I make my Web pages and pay someone else to do the images.

Mrs. Doster: Wouldn’t you want to do your own images, customizing your work?

Jackson: I’m not creative in that way. I couldn’t possibly make the images.

Mrs. Doster: What if I told you that is not true? You are creative enough.

Jackson: No, no.

Mrs. Doster: As an art teacher I have worked with too many people for too many years and it is very rare that I find someone who is not a bit creative.

360 Jackson: It is the same as with music. Some people just don’t have…and…it’s the same thing.

Mrs. Doster: You think so? As your art teacher, I don’t agree with that. I see what you did in my class and I don’t agree with that. So I know that is what you think but it is not what I think. One last question on this: Even though you didn’t like the art but you did it any way—or most of it—and it may have helped you understand a little bit better and it may have helped you remember a little bit better the locations, would that translate into a better grade for you?

Jackson: I really don’t know. I always make bad grades in history.

Mrs. Doster: In middle school, what kind of grades did you have in history?

Jackson: Same as I have in your class now, Ds and Fs.

Mrs. Doster: So you can’t really compare.

Jackson: History is just not my subject.

Mrs. Doster: What was a problem for you in Co-Study besides the drawing?

Jackson: Not enough art supplies.

Mrs. Doster: What would you have liked?

Jackson: More.

Mrs. Doster: Such as?

Jackson: More colored pencils, markers.

Mrs. Doster: How else would you improve Co-Study?

Jackson: Let us trace the maps…more coloring by using a key…like color coding.

Mrs. Doster: Well, at the beginning of the year we did the “dot” method, which is like tracing but instead you’re putting dots and you draw the line afterwards. Did you try that?

Jackson: Yeah, and it was time consuming. Very time consuming…all those dots. I have to be able to trace. I don’t want to do dots. My stuff looks really bad. I need a straight edge and a compass…I can do anything thing with those…I take drafting.

Mrs. Doster: Well, you don’t put all the dots right next to each other. You separate them and then later connect the dots.

361 Jackson: And then you get those jagged lines.

Mrs. Doster: And you don’t like jagged lines?

Jackson: No.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think that you are too critical of your drawing?

Jackson: No, I just don’t like to draw.

Mrs. Doster: I remember you told me that…that you didn’t like the way it looked.

Jackson: I don’t like the way it looks. It doesn’t mean that I am being too critical.

Mrs. Doster: Well, I thought it looked okay. What type of student do you think benefits from Co-Study?

Jackson: A person who likes art, obviously. A person who likes to do things by hand…who doesn’t like computers.

Mrs. Doster: You think you can’t do both…you can’t do art and computers?

Jackson: I think it’s possible but a lot of people are either…very…they like it one way or the other. They are very organized…either that or they like art.

Mrs. Doster: Did you see any students that you felt benefited from Co-Study?

Jackson: Yes, that girl that just walked in the door.

Mrs. Doster: And what type of students are those?

Jackson: People who look like her and stuff…with papers hanging out of her book bag. I saw others who were benefiting and enjoying the art…those who learn by doing more.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much, Jackson.

Jackson: Sure.

362 APPENDIX B-13

INTERVIEW WITH KELLIE March 17, 2003

Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, how are you?

Kellie: Good.

Mrs. Doster: Kellie, characterize yourself as a student.

Kellie: I’m responsible. I do my work on time. And I enjoy going to school.

Mrs. Doster: What year are you now?

Kellie: Junior year.

Mrs. Doster: And what is your GPA?

Kellie: About a 3.0.

Mrs. Doster: And what are your interests?

Kellie: Art, history.

Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?

Kellie: Art, history, and science.

Mrs. Doster: What are you least favorite?

Kellie: Math, English and all them…like that.

Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class did you take?

Kellie: World History and Art Co-Study.

Mrs. Doster: And what year was that?

Kellie: My sophomore year.

Mrs. Doster: So, that would have been last year…2001-02 school year. What do you remember most about the course?

Kellie: It was fun. It kept me awake.

363 Mrs. Doster: Do you have a problem falling asleep in class?

Kellie: Not that one.

Mrs. Doster: In others?

Kellie: Yes, because, basically, the other ones were just reading books. Co-Study was not just hearing but doing things…making it come alive.

Mrs. Doster: You remember having fun. Do you remember the history?

Kellie: Yeah, because it was hands-on and now when my teachers quote something I remember it. It has helped me a lot this year. I can answer history questions this year. Usually I was not able to do that…in the past.

Mrs. Doster: Really? Do you remember any particular projects that you did?

Kellie: Yes, any part of the world we were studying, we drew it, mapped it out, keyed it out. It was pretty fun.

Mrs. Doster: So, we did maps and we had keys with the maps.

Kellie: We had to remember where temples were, and mountains were, and stuff like that.

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember anything else? Any other projects?

Kellie: I remember, like, every section we did we always had something to do that was hands-on. There was a mixture of activities—movies, drawing, bookwork. It was fun.

Mrs. Doster: So, did you find Co-Study to be helpful to you?

Kellie: Very much, yeah.

Mrs. Doster: In what way?

Kellie: Like now we just read through sections and then test. Then, we had things to do with the sections, instead of just reading, like we did maps and section sheets. We spent more time in sections than other classes.

Mrs. Doster: So, you’re talking about American History this year. It is all textbook oriented?

Kellie: Yeah, he reads...boring…I usually fall asleep.

Mrs. Doster: So, you don’t get to do any hands-on?

364 Kellie: Nothing at all.

Mrs. Doster: Do you miss that?

Kellie: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think it helped you to understand? I know you had fun but did it help you better understand what you were learning?

Kellie: Yeah, because teachers actually helped us. There were two of them there. It was nice having two teachers. We got more help. It was very organized. I learned a whole lot. We could see what we were doing. I learned geography.

Mrs. Doster: Did you like having both of us there...Mrs. Warren and I?

Kellie: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Two different personalities?

Kellie: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Did it help you remember better for the test?

Kellie: Definitely. Now we just get one worksheet. Then we had a bunch of worksheets with different sections. We got to take them home. The time we spent on it and the art are what helped. Now we have to do worksheets in class, so we can study and go over it and stuff.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think it improved your grade?

Kellie: Definitely, my grade in there now is probably terrible. My grade in your class was pretty high. It was usually in the 90s.

Mrs. Doster: Was there any problem for you in Co-Study?

Kellie: Besides people talking, no. But that’s in every class. There are always distractions with people talking.

Mrs. Doster: Not just in Co-Study?

Kellie: No, not just in Co-Study

Mrs. Doster: I wondered…because there was some talking going on. How could Co- Study be improved for students?

Kellie: Nothing, it was great. If we could have it back, it would be even better.

365 Mrs. Doster: I know. That was unfortunate. We were all set for American History and Art Co-Study together this year and it didn’t work out.

Kellie: I was ready for it, too.

Mrs. Doster: What type of student benefits from Co-Study?

Kellie: The kind that usually falls asleep in class and needs extra help because, now, when you ask for help you usually don’t get it. The teacher is too busy with other students but then you had two teachers. And they were always helping you instead of doing their own thing. It was the only class that Walter did good in. It is for people who like to do stuff rather than just reading out of a book.

Mrs. Doster: That’s interesting…although it was larger than an average class.

Kellie: You let us work in groups, too. That was helpful.

Mrs. Doster: You found that helpful?

Kellie: Definitely. If you didn’t understand something then your friend understood and could help you. In my classes now if you help each other they think you are cheating. But, then, you guys walked around and you helped us, too, so we weren’t cheating.

Mrs. Doster: You were a member of the Acceleration Academy before you came to our class. We inherited you as a whole group. Was that a problem, all of you being together?

Kellie: No, it wasn’t. Everybody who was in that class was my friend. And my sister was in there and so, when we went home, we did it together. It was very helpful. We were always talking about it. And when we got ready for midterms and stuff, we would have a big study group.

Mrs. Doster: That is really good. It sounds like what you do in college when you have a big test.

Kellie: We would go to my friend’s house and make little cards and stuff.

Mrs. Doster: How did people get put into the Acceleration Academy?

Kellie: I think it is because…something with FCAT or something…like if you got lower grades. My FCAT grade this year was awesome.

Mrs. Doster: Really?

Kellie: I didn’t have to retake it all. I passed it the first time.

366 Mrs. Doster: Well, congratulations. So, it was a program of study designed for ninth graders who had trouble with the eighth grade FCAT?

Kellie: Yeah, we had CCC labs where you get on the computer and it helps you step up levels when you passed the lessons on there.

Mrs. Doster: So, ya’ll did that for a year in ninth grade and stayed together in the tenth grade for history and English II?

Kellie: Yeah, I wish we could always stay together as a group because I hate having classes with people I don’t know.

Mrs. Doster: So, this year, the eleventh grade, you are randomly placed throughout the school just like any other student?

Kellie: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Do you feel like you are having any problems anywhere?

Kellie: Definitely. My grades have fallen so much compared to my first two years. I try…I try hard…but it is just not cuttin’ it.

Mrs. Doster: But you did okay on the FCAT. Do you think Co-Study helped prepare you for that test in anyway?

Kellie: Definitely. It helped me in math and English.

Mrs. Doster: How would Co-Study play a part?

Kellie: Because we read out loud. People who don’t usually like reading out loud, you’d encourage them to read out loud. Usually when I take FCAT, I hate reading. You know how you have to read that long thing and answer all the questions. It just helped me to read. I read at home normally now. Reading out loud is pretty fun.

Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add.

Kellie: No, that’s about it.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.

Kellie: You’re welcome.

367 APPENDIX B-14

INTERVIEW WITH MICHAEL May 1, 2003

Mrs. Doster: Good morning, Michael. How are you?

Michael: I’m doing pretty good.

Mrs. Doster: Michael, how would you characterize yourself as a student?

Michael: Hard-worker. I try my best and I don’t sit there and play around too much. I try to get down and get the work done.

Mrs. Doster: What year are you now?

Michael: I’m in the tenth grade and I graduate in 2005, I think.

Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?

Michael: I’m thinking somewhere around a 3.0 to 3.3…somewhere in that area.

Mrs. Doster: Good. What are your interests? What are you interested in?

Michael: I’m kind of interested in technology and engineering and stuff. I also like to be a kid outside and play basketball, baseball, and all the sports.

Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?

Michael: Favorite subjects…I kind of like math… a little…I kind of struggle sometimes. I like history, a lot, sometimes. Then, I also like my technology class because that’s a fun class.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have a least favorite subject?

Michael: A least favorite subject? My newspaper class.

Mrs. Doster: Really?

Michael: Yeah, really, I don’t like it…at all.

Mrs. Doster: Why not?

Michael: Because people play around too much. And I’ll write a story and it just won’t get in the paper.

368 Mrs. Doster: Do you think you would enjoy it if you were published, if your articles made the paper?

Michael: Yeah, and if I didn’t get criticized so much in the class saying my papers are not “very well”.

Mrs. Doster: You mean not written well or they don’t agree with your viewpoint?

Michael: I think a little bit of both. I think the teacher just doesn’t like me.

Mrs. Doster: So, you are learning about politics, internal politics.

Michael: Basically.

Mrs. Doster: That’s unfortunate.

Michael: Yes, it is.

Mrs. Doster: Which Co-Study class are you in?

Michael: History and Art Co-Study class.

Mrs. Doster: That’s the world history and you’re taking it this year. So you are taking World History and Art Co-Study in the 2002-03 school year. Well, our year is almost over. Think back. What is it that you remember most about the course?

Michael: That we didn’t really just study out of the book. We drew pictures and we discussed it in the class. We drew the pictures of the people and the things in the place we were actually studying about.

Mrs. Doster: You remember the activity of it but do you remember the actual content? Do you remember anything about the first few chapters we did during the first semester?

Michael: Not really, I don’t remember anything from the first semester. It’s been a long year.

Mrs. Doster: Does Egypt ring a bell?

Michael: Yes, it does. I remember Egypt.

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember Ancient Greece?

Michael: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: Anything about the Roman Republic?

369 Michael: Not really…slightly. I mean it’s not because the teacher was bad or anything, it is just because I just don’t really remember everything from back at the beginning of the year.

Mrs. Doster: Was Co-Study helpful to you?

Michael: Actually, it was because it helped me understand what we were studying about instead of reading it out of the book and trying to imagine it. We actually had to draw it. We went over it in the class instead of me doing it by myself. It was like a whole group activity thing.

Mrs. Doster: So it helped you to visualize the written word. Did it help you understand any of it?

Michael: Yeah, it did. It helped me understand a lot better than the normal classes that are not like the Co-Study. The Co-Study helped a lot.

Mrs. Doster: When you went to take a test, did it help you remember it better for the test?

Michael: Basically, it did. Even though I didn’t study for most of the tests, it did help me remember it…

Mrs. Doster: You didn’t what? (laughing)

Michael: Yeah, it helped me remember it.

Mrs. Doster: So, you didn’t have to study? Is that what you are telling me?

Michael: No, that is not what I’m saying. I’ve never been one to study for a test but the Co-Study helped me remember it better. When I did look over it before the test, I basically remembered everything that I knew.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think it improved your grade?

Michael: Yeah, it did. In all my other history classes I’ve had in the past, I always had a low C in the classes and I have a B average in the Co-Study class. My grade has improved a lot.

Mrs. Doster: So your grade has improved. Were there any problems for you in Co- Study?

Michael: I’m not a very great drawer; I can’t do art. But it has helped me to learn how to and how to practice doing it.

370 Mrs. Doster: You know that’s the key, don’t you? It’s a skill, like a basketball skill or any of those skills you’ve learned. Drawing is a skill. Now some people are going to be better than others, of course, but everyone can learn to draw. I think we need to get rid of that mystery that only certain people can do art, or can draw, because we can all learn how to…up to a point, for sure…at least enough to get through a Co-Study class. I hope your drawing improved.

Michael: It did, to an extent. Because before, I would be lucky if I could draw a stick person and now I can actually draw…somewhat of a person with two dimensions.

Mrs. Doster: You mean the person has two sides to the torso instead of one stick? (laughing)

Michael: Yeah, something like that.

Mrs. Doster: Were there any other problems?

Michael: Not really. Everything else was great. It helped a lot.

Mrs. Doster: How could Co-Study be improved?

Michael: Well, you see, I have no idea. To me it seems like it’s better the way it is. I don’t think there is anything they could really change about it. It worked for me.

Mrs. Doster: What type of student, do you think, benefits from Co-Study?

Michael: A person who likes looking at it, like a visual person instead of reading it out of the book and trying to imagine it…you look at it…a hands-on person.

Mrs. Doster: A visual and a hands-on?

Michael: Yeah, because I guess when you draw it…honestly, it helps me like when I put the points on the map or something, it helps me remember where everything’s at.

Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?

Michael: Not really.

Mrs. Doster: Have you signed up for American History and Art Co-Study?

Michael: Yes, I have.

Mrs. Doster: Well, here’s hoping it’s a go!

Michael: Yeah, really.

371 Mrs. Doster: I know. I’m looking forward to it.

Michael: Me, too.

Mrs. Doster: Thank you very much.

Michael: You’re welcome.

372 APPENDIX B-15

INTERVIEW WITH SAMANTHA April 30, 2003

Mrs. Doster: Good morning. How are you?

Samantha: Fine.

Mrs. Doster: Samantha, characterize yourself as a student.

Samantha: I’m generally a good student. I work hard.

Mrs. Doster: What year are you in school?

Samantha: Tenth grade.

Mrs. Doster: So you are a sophomore. What is your GPA?

Samantha: 3.1

Mrs. Doster: What are your interests?

Samantha: Art, reading, sports.

Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?

Samantha: English, art, and mythology.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have any that you don’t like?

Samantha: Math.

Mrs. Doster: I think I have heard that before. Which Co-Study class are you in?

Samantha: World history.

Mrs. Doster: World History and Art Co-Study, 2002-03 school year. As you think back over the year, what is it that you remember most about the course?

Samantha: Greece and Rome.

Mrs. Doster: What do you remember about them?

Samantha: Just the political changes that were going on at that time.

373 Mrs. Doster: Okay, you remember the content of the course. Was Co-Study helpful to you?

Samantha: Yeah, I really enjoyed it. The art was wonderful and it helped me understand so much.

Mrs. Doster: That is what I was about to ask: In what way was it helpful to you?

Samantha: The art and especially the maps helped me to understand the projects we had to do.

Mrs. Doster: So it helped you get a fix on your location in the world. Did it help you understand the subject matter any better?

Samantha: Yes, a little…by looking at the art I could understand their culture more.

Mrs. Doster: When it came time to take a test, did it help you remember any of the subject matter better?

Samantha: Oh, definitely. I have a pictographic memory and looking at pictures is easier than reading it out.

Mrs. Doster: Would you call yourself a visual learner?

Samantha: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: And you remember pictures rather than words?

Samantha: Yes. This sort of class definitely helps visual learners.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think it improved your grade?

Samantha: Yeah, I’ve always been really bad in history and this year I’ve been doing really good.

Mrs. Doster: Good. I had no idea…you are one of my better students. So you haven’t done well before in history?

Samantha: No, I usually hate history but I’ve never had really good teachers. You know, like it’s history out of the book. You know “Just read out of the book and your test is on so and so date.” This helps me understand it better.

Mrs. Doster: Are you going to take the American History and Art Co-Study next year?

Samantha: Yes.

374 Mrs. Doster: Great. What was a problem for you in Co-Study?

Samantha: The other students…and…I had problems with when we had to do a timeline because I am kind of a perfectionist and the assignments…I had trouble stopping drawing. I had to stop drawing and I said, “No, I’m not done yet.”

Mrs. Doster: Oh, the time constraints we were under to get the illustrated timelines done? Of course, we can always take work home and finish it up. Yeah, there is always a problem between trying to get all the information we need to cover done in a survey type course and also, at the same time, trying to do more depth to get more meaning out of it. There is always a problem there, isn’t there? Given that, how would you improve Co-Study?

Samantha: I think we need more time for the students…more time for visual learning instead of trying to jump back and forth between the book and the art because jumping like that tends to confuse some people and I am one of those people.

Mrs. Doster: What would you have me do differently? Just give more time for projects?

Samantha: Yes, because we have a lot of students that, you know, sit there and plan it out, think about it, change, and jump back and forth. When it is time to turn in a project, they are only half-sure what they are doing.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think that if they worked at home on their projects that would be helpful? Or do they need input the whole time we are doing the project?

Samantha: It would be easier for some if they could go home with it. Some you need to be over their shoulders the whole time or they won’t do anything.

Mrs. Doster: So what type of student benefits from Co-Study?

Samantha: A visual learner. People who are very visual and like hands-on activities.

Mrs. Doster: What do you think a visual learner is? What does that mean to you?

Samantha: A visual learner learns best from hands-on activities, looking at something instead of just reading it from a book.

Mrs. Doster: When teachers are lecturing, do you have a problem understanding what they are saying?

Samantha: Yeah, I’m not a very good audio learner. I tend to zone out a lot unless, you know, I’m doing something right that moment.

Mrs. Doster: Your attention wanders?

375 Samantha: Yes, I think most teenagers do. We have, technically, the attention span of a gnat.

Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to say about Co-Study?

Samantha: I think it is really great and we should have it more often. We should have it year after year. A lot of students would benefit from it.

Mrs. Doster: What do you think is the best way to get the word out about it? We have been doing this about five years.

Samantha: Yeah, a lot of students don’t know about it. I guess you just need to make it more obvious to students…students who don’t generally do well in history classes should take this class.

Mrs. Doster: So maybe the Guidance people could tell students they have an option of how to learn history?

Samantha: Yeah, you know, people who like art should be able to know about this beforehand.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much Samantha.

Samantha: You’re welcome.

Mrs. Doster: It’s been a good year.

376

APPENDIX C

PRESENT STUDY INTERVIEWS

377 APPENDIX C-1

INTERVIEW GUIDE

INTERVIEW #1: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY

1.1 Where were you born?

1.2 Where have you lived?

1.3 What grade are you in?

1.4 Characterize yourself as a student.

1.5 What are your favorite subjects?

1.6 What are your least favorite subjects?

1.7 Do you participate in any extracurricular activities?

1.8 Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special talents?

1.9 What is your routine as a student?

1.10 Do you study regularly?

1.11 How do you study?

1.12 Who encourages you to do well in school?

1.13 Who has influenced you the most?

1.14 Have you had any favorite teachers? Why were they your favorite?

1.15 Have you enjoyed school? Elementary? Middle school? High school?

1.16 What would you change about high school?

1.17 Have you taken any art classes? Elementary? Middle school? High school?

1.18 What are your goals after high school?

1.19 What is your GPA?

378 INTERVIEW #2: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE

2.1 Did you elect to take this co-study class or were you placed in it?

2.2 (If applicable) Why did you sign up?

2.3 Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?

2.4 Do the art activities help you to remember better the history?

2.5 Do the art activities help you to understand better the history?

2.6 Which activity stands out in your mind?

2.7 Do you like or dislike the class?

2.8 Tell me what you like about the class.

2.9 Tell me what you dislike about the class.

2.10 Tell me what you would change about the class.

INTERVIEW #3: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING

3.1 Were there any problems for you in American History and Art Co-Study?

3.2 Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade?

3.3 Did the Co-Study Curriculum change you as a student?

3.4 What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional history class?

3.5 What disadvantages?

3.6 How could it be improved?

3.7 What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?

3.8 Has your attitude toward art changed because of American History and Art Co-Study?

3.9 If so, how?

3.10 Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?

379 APPENDIX C-2

Note: The following is a three interview series with Anna, a student in Doster’s class

INTERVIEW #1 WITH ANNA: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY March 4, 2003

Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, Anna.

Anna: Good afternoon.

Mrs. Doster: How are you?

Anna: I am good.

Mrs. Doster: Where were you born?

Anna: I was born here, in Panama City.

Mrs. Doster: Where have you lived?

Anna: I’ve lived only in Port St. Joe and here.

Mrs. Doster: What grade are you in?

Anna: Eleventh.

Mrs. Doster: Characterize yourself as a student.

Anna: Um…I think I’m an average student and I try to do good work and I try to pass.

Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?

Anna: I like art and I like sign language.

Mrs. Doster: What are your least favorite subjects?

Anna: Definitely math.

Mrs. Doster: I think I’ve heard that before. Do you participate in any extracurricular activities?

Anna: Other than work, no.

Mrs. Doster: Where do you work?

380 Anna: At Rodeo’s.

Mrs. Doster: Is that a restaurant?

Anna: Yes, it’s a restaurant.

Mrs. Doster: How many hours a week do you work?

Anna: Oh, probably about 18 or 20.

Mrs. Doster: Does that affect your studies?

Anna: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: I think it would have to. Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special talents?

Anna: I used to be a cheerleader and I was in chorus for a while but not anything new lately.

Mrs. Doster: What is your routine as a student?

Anna: I really don’t have a set routine. I try and study before I have tests when I know about it. I try to get my homework done but not anything routinely.

Mrs. Doster: Do you study right before the test or the night before the test?

Anna: Usually the evening or a couple days before.

Mrs. Doster: Who encourages you to do well in school?

Anna: My parents.

Mrs. Doster: Who has influenced you the most?

Anna: My mom.

Mrs. Doster: What does Mom do?

Anna: She really wants me to do good. She talks to me about it and sets examples and tries to talk to me about it and get involved with things that I am doing.

Mrs. Doster: Good. Have you had any favorite teachers?

Anna: Yeah, I’ve had a couple. One of my teachers this year teaches sign language. She is real fun to be around.

381 Mrs. Doster: Any favorite teachers in elementary or middle school? And why favorite?

Anna: I’ve had one or two…in elementary school. We just had a lot of activities to do and a lot of field trips and fun stuff.

Mrs. Doster: Have you enjoyed school?

Anna: I don’t really enjoy it but it hasn’t been nothing horrible for me.

Mrs. Doster: Was elementary school enjoyable?

Anna: Not really. I never really enjoyed it but it’s not been bad for me.

Mrs. Doster: What about middle school?

Anna: Middle school was okay.

Mrs. Doster: What about high school?

Anna: It’s better in high school.

Mrs. Doster: What would you change about high school?

Anna: I really wouldn’t change anything. I can’t think of anything specific.

Mrs. Doster: Have you taken any art classes?

Anna: The Art 3-D is the only one.

Mrs. Doster: Did you have any art in elementary school?

Anna: Other than basic art you have in classrooms…not nothing extra.

Mrs. Doster: So you did not have an art teacher come by your room. Your classroom teacher maybe did some art with you.

Anna: Yeah, that was about it.

Mrs. Doster: Were you in Port St. Joe then or Panama City?

Anna: Port St. Joe.

Mrs. Doster: Did you have any art in middle school?

Anna: No.

382 Mrs. Doster: And you’ve had one art class in high school…the one you are taking now?

Anna: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: What are your goals after high school?

Anna: College. I’m definitely going into college. I’m not for sure about what exactly I’m going to major in or go into…but definitely college.

Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?

Anna: I believe it is a 2.8, maybe.

Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you want to add?

Anna: That’s it.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.

INTERVIEW #2 WITH ANNA: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE March 10, 2004

Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, Anna.

Anna: Good afternoon.

Mrs. Doster: Did you elect to take American History and Art Co-Study or were you placed in the class?

Anna: I signed up for it.

Mrs. Doster: Why did you sign up?

Anna: Well, I haven’t took any type of class where, you know, it combined art with it and I didn’t know anyone else that did it too and it just seemed interesting.

Mrs. Doster: Who told you about it?

Anna: Last year, my teacher…my last history teacher.

Mrs. Doster: So your World History teacher told you about it. Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?

383 Anna: Yes, I think so.

Mrs. Doster: In what way?

Anna: Some of the artwork you have shown us has helped me to remember it and just different examples, different activities we have done.

Mrs. Doster: Do the art activities help you to remember the history better?

Anna: Yeah, I think so. It gets you the idea about how it was in that time era. So I think it helps.

Mrs. Doster: Do the art activities help you to understand the history better?

Anna: Yeah…I think so.

Mrs. Doster: Which activity stands out in your mind?

Anna: I think most definitely the art pieces you brought in for us to look at helped a lot.

Mrs. Doster: I showed the slides or the overheads and we used the art criticism method. And, I think what you’re saying is that it helped you more than the drawing.

Anna: Yeah, definitely, because we talk about it more and we look at someone else’s instead of trying to make our own.

Mrs. Doster: So, you feel like the Co-Study Curriculum is more effective when you are looking at art of the time period rather than when you are creating it yourself. Do you like or dislike the class?

Anna: I like the class.

Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you like about the class.

Anna: I like that we do more activities instead of just reading straight out of the book and doing worksheets like most history classes. We get to do more activities and more drawing and stuff like that.

Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you dislike about the class.

Anna: I can’t think of anything that I really dislike about it.

Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you would change about the class.

Anna: I can’t think of anything either that I would change about it.

384 Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?

Anna: No.

Mrs. Doster: Okay, well, thank you very much.

INTERVIEW #3 WITH ANNA: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING March 12, 2004

Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, Anna. How are you?

Anna: I’m good.

Mrs. Doster: Were there any problems for you in American History and Art Co-Study?

Anna: Um…personally, I don’t think I studied enough. But as far as like the structure of the class or anything, I don’t think so.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade?

Anna: Actually, I think it stayed about the same.

Mrs. Doster: Compared to your history grade from last year.

Anna: Yeah. It’s been about the same.

Mrs. Doster: Did the Co-Study Curriculum change you as a student?

Anna: I don’t think so.

Mrs. Doster: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional history class?

Anna: Well, I think with all of the maps and pictures and stuff you brought in, I think it makes the work a lot clearer and easier to work on…easier to understand than just from the book.

Mrs. Doster: What disadvantages are there?

Anna: I can’t really think of any.

Mrs. Doster: How could the Co-Study Curriculum be improved?

385 Anna: Maybe field trips or more hands-on activities.

Mrs. Doster: So, increase the number of projects and field trips are always welcome

Anna: Yeah. I think so.

Mrs. Doster: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?

Anna: I think any student, really, can benefit from it but I think the ones that would be most interested are ones that are interested in art and can appreciate it more.

Mrs. Doster: So they would have an inclination to do better because they are interested in art but, even if they weren’t, maybe they could still benefit.

Anna: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Has your attitude toward art changed because of American History and Art Co-Study?

Anna: I think so. I think I criticize it more and look at it more deeper than I would normally. And…I think so…yeah.

Mrs. Doster: So, by criticism you mean the art criticism method that we did?

Anna: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?

Anna: Yeah, I hope so.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have an interest in anything in particular?

Anna: Not in particular, just anything, really.

Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?

Anna: That’s it.

Mrs. Doster: Okay, thank you very much.

386 APPENDIX C-3

Note: The following is a three interview series with David, a student in Warren’s class

INTERVIEW #1 WITH DAVID: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY March 4, 2004

Mrs. Doster: Good morning, David.

David: Hey, how are you doing?

Mrs. Doster: I’m fine, thank you. Where were you born?

David: I was born in Sacramento, California.

Mrs. Doster: Where have you lived?

David: I’ve lived in California and I’ve lived in Florida.

Mrs. Doster: Two ends of the continent and nowhere in between?

David: Well, I lived in Alabama for…like for three months but…you know…

Mrs. Doster: That doesn’t count. What grade are you in?

David: I’m in the eleventh grade.

Mrs. Doster: Characterize yourself as a student.

David: I’m a good student. You know, I behave well. I have average grades.

Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?

David: I like art; I like history; and, I like science.

Mrs. Doster: What are your least favorite subjects?

David: I do not like drafting; I hate math; and, that’s about it.

Mrs. Doster: Do you participate in any extracurricular activities?

David: No.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special talents?

387 David: I can…I can draw pretty well and I put together the little plastic model kits, you know…yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Of what?

David: Of cars.

Mrs. Doster: Are you a mechanic type person?

David: Kind of…something like that.

Mrs. Doster: Do you work on your car at home?

David: Yeah, but I don’t like to because…we have a terrible car.

Mrs. Doster: Do you do anything art wise on it…any painting on it?

David: No…don’t paint the car.

Mrs. Doster: So, you do under the hood only. What is your routine as a student?

David: What do you mean?

Mrs. Doster: When do you study…how often?

David: Oh, I don’t never study. It’s…it’s just not happening.

Mrs. Doster: You do not study?

David: I do not study.

Mrs. Doster: How do you make good grades?

David: Well, if the teacher says you can go ahead and study for five minutes before the test, I study then. I don’t study at home.

Mrs. Doster: Do you do the work?

David: Oh, yeah, I do just about all of my work.

Mrs. Doster: Do you do any homework?

David: I don’t usually get homework so I don’t do stuff at home.

Mrs. Doster: What about projects?

388 David: I haven’t gotten a project in forever.

Mrs. Doster: So, the projects we’ve done you’ve been able to complete them in class?

David: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Who encourages you to do well in school?

David: My dad.

Mrs. Doster: Who has influenced you the most?

David: Probably, my dad.

Mrs. Doster: What has he done that…

David: I don’t know…he’s just…

Mrs. Doster: There for you?

David: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Have you had any favorite teachers?

David: Yeah. I like Mrs. Riviere; I like Mr. Stapleton; and, I like you.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you. Why are they your favorite?

David: I don’t know…because they are not too mean to me. They don’t make me do too much work.

Mrs. Doster: Have you enjoyed school?

David: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Thinking back…all the way to the beginning. Did you enjoy elementary school?

David: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: What about middle school?

David: That was all right.

Mrs. Doster: And what about high school?

389 David: I’m having a good time, you know. I’m not failing so everything’s all right.

Mrs. Doster: What would you change about high school?

David: I don’t know…just…nothing.

Mrs. Doster: Have you taken any art classes?

David: I’ve taken Art 2-D; I’ve taken Art 3-D; taken Drawing I; taken Painting.

Mrs. Doster: You’ve taken a lot. You have taken a lot of what we have to offer here. Did you take any art in elementary school?

David: All the art classes I took was down here. It was at Southport Elementary.

Mrs. Doster: How often did you see an art teacher?

David: I think it was every two days or something.

Mrs. Doster: Did you take any art in middle school?

David: Nope. I don’t think they have any.

Mrs. Doster: What are your goals after high school?

David: I don’t know…become a cop, a fireman…something like that. Something that’s easy and I get paid a lot.

Mrs. Doster: Do you really think those jobs pay a lot?

David: No, but it’s easy so that’s cool.

Mrs. Doster: How do you know those jobs are easy?

David: They’ve got to be. If I can’t become, you know, one of them, I’ll become like a drafter or something like that…something that’s easy.

Mrs. Doster: I thought you didn’t like that drafting class.

David: I don’t like drafting but it’s easy. I just don’t like the class, I guess.

Mrs. Doster: What is this fixation with easy?

David: I don’t like things that are hard.

Mrs. Doster: In other words, you want to do things you are suited to do.

390 David: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: When you do something you are suited to do, it’s not hard to do. I think that is what you are saying. What is your GPA?

David: I think a 2.1.

Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you want to add?

David: Nope.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.

INTERVIEW #2 WITH DAVID: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE March 10. 2004

Mrs. Doster: Good morning, David.

David: Good morning.

Mrs. Doster: Did you elect to take American History and Art Co-Study or were you placed in the class?

David: Well, the first year, World History and Art Co-Study, I was placed in it and, then, in the second year, I signed up for it.

Mrs. Doster: So you elected to take American History and Art Co-Study. Why did you sign up?

David: Because I liked it the first time.

Mrs. Doster: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?

David: Yeah, I guess; I’m getting’ an “A” so it’s helping me.

Mrs. Doster: Could you be a little specific? Is there anything in particular?

David: Well, it’s…you know…the art…well, see, I can draw…so when I draw I learn stuff. So, we did the Battle of Something or Other, I forgot what is was, but we drew and…I still remember it, so…

Mrs. Doster: But you don’t remember the name of the battle!

391 David: Shiloh…it was Shiloh.

Mrs. Doster: Okay, okay…good, I’m glad you remembered! So, you came to class with drawing ability and experience and you were able to use it. Do the art activities help you to remember the history better?

David: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Do they help you understand it better?

David: I guess…I mean…I don’t know what you mean by that.

Mrs. Doster: Well, recall for a test—to remember a name or a place or a date for a test— is one thing; to understand a concept is another. For instance, when we were doing the Civil War Visual Vocabulary and the Reconstruction Visual Concept you had to illustrate that you understood the meaning of the word or concept.

David: Oh, yeah…okay…yeah, yeah, it does.

Mrs. Doster: Did the art help you then?

David: Yeah, it did…I mean ‘cause it helps you get the concept.

Mrs. Doster: I have noticed that some of the people in my class have trouble thinking of pictures to illustrate concepts with. So you don’t have any problem with that?

David: No.

Mrs. Doster: Which activity that we did stands out in your mind?

David: Um…well, we’re doing one now about how America isolated themselves. You know, when we first started out…isolating ourselves and…you know, the Monroe Doctrine and all that mess. We just…we just, you know, did that and…the Battle of Shiloh.

Mrs. Doster: So, the foreign policy visual that we’re now completing stands out for you and the Civil War Visual Vocabulary project.

David: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Do you like or dislike the class?

David: I like it.

Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you like about it.

392 David: Well, it’s easy to do and…I just…enjoy it.

Mrs. Doster: We’re back to that “easy to do” thing again. In other words, you have the ability to do it and it flows for you.

David: Yeah, that’s what it is.

Mrs. Doster: We discussed this last time. It is not because it’s easy but that you do well at it because it…

David: It comes naturally.

Mrs. Doster: Yeah. Tell me what you dislike about it?

David: I don’t know. We work too much.

Mrs. Doster: Maybe I’m wrong about that easy thing! Tell me what you would change about the class.

David: I don’t know…more presentations…because I’m good at those.

Mrs. Doster: You like to present?

David: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: I think you are in a minority for your age group. I think you do present well. I enjoyed your presentations…especially when you have a visual to hold up and go along with it. Any other projects from first semester you particularly enjoyed?

David: You had a picture…I don’t remember the name, what we were doing.

Mrs. Doster: What was the picture?

David: I forgot…I don’t know. I remember the Battle of Shiloh because I did a whole presentation on it.

Mrs. Doster: Okay. Well, thank you very much.

INTERVIEW #3 WITH DAVID: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING March 12, 2004

Mrs. Doster: Good morning, David.

393 David: Good morning.

Mrs. Doster: How are you today?

David: I’m all right.

Mrs. Doster: Were there any problems for you in the American History and Art Co- Study class?

David: No, I’ve taken art classes before and I just took to it.

Mrs. Doster: So you did not have any anxiety about having to draw.

David: No.

Mrs. Doster: Have you noticed any others in your class having anxiety about drawing?

David: Only like people who can’t draw. They don’t like doing it because they can’t draw, you know?

Mrs. Doster: Do you think they just say they can’t draw and they can draw okay or they really can’t draw?

David: Yeah, they say they can’t draw just so they don’t have to do the work.

Mrs. Doster: As you look around do you see their finished products?

David: Yeah, they are creative. They’re not good looking but they’re creative.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade?

David: Yeah, because, you know, we do a whole bunch of art projects and I can do it. So, yeah, it has.

Mrs. Doster: Did the Co-Study Curriculum change you as a student?

David: I had an okay grade in history before. Not really, no.

Mrs. Doster: Does it make you look at things any differently or think differently?

David: Yeah, I mean like we’re doing Edgar Allen Poe in English class. And, you know, like some of his stories are kind of insane. You can’t really get a good idea of what it was like so some pictures would help in there. You know, just little stuff.

Mrs. Doster: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional history class?

394 David: Well, instead of like listening to somebody talk, you know give a lecture on history, or just reading out of the book you are taking part in…in the lesson, you know.

Mrs. Doster: That’s interesting. You feel some ownership in the lesson. What are some disadvantages?

David: I don’t think there are any. I mean…it’s all good, you know.

Mrs. Doster: How would you improve the Co-Study Curriculum?

David: I don’t know, like…just…the people that didn’t want to be there…if they don’t like doing it…bye, you know.

Mrs. Doster: They shouldn’t sign up for it or be placed in it. Do you think students should be asked how they like to learn…listening to lecture, drawing or looking at art, doing projects…and be placed accordingly?

David: It just kind of brings the whole class down. There’s a bunch of kids, like, that want to do so but there’s always that three or four that just like, “I don’t want to do nothing”, you know. They really stand out in this class because everyone takes part in everything and then you have the ones that don’t do it.

Mrs. Doster: Does that put a damper on things for you?

David: Yeah, it does.

Mrs. Doster: I agree. It does for a teacher, too. When you registered over the last couple of years, did anyone in Guidance mention to about the Co-Study Curriculum in history?

David: Yeah, it was. They had Art Co-Study and, you know, art and I’m good at it so I just took it.

Mrs. Doster: But did they explain to you what it was?

David: Yeah, they explained it. You can look at drawings and pictures that were done during that time period and all that stuff.

Mrs. Doster: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?

David: I guess those that like to express themselves or something, you know.

Mrs. Doster: Has your attitude toward art changed because of the Co-Study Curriculum?

David: Well, no. I mean…not really, you know.

Mrs. Doster: So you came in with a positive attitude toward art and it remains positive.

395 David: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Do you look at art any differently?

David: Yeah, like I can just notice…like, yeah, we were doing something with people from way back when and they had big eyes. And they believed the eyes were the windows of the soul or something like that. I just look at stuff and I think of history, you know. Because I look at some of the Japanese drawings, Japanese anime, right, and the eyes are huge and I think of the Sumerians.

Mrs. Doster: So, you’re making connections. That’s interesting. Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?

David: Yeah, I do. I just can’t take anymore at this school because I’ve taken all of them.

Mrs. Doster: Art will be a part of your life in the future?

David: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: What do you think you will get into?

David: I just want to learn how to draw cars, you know. I just want to do that really well.

Mrs. Doster: Do you want to paint or draw?

David: I can draw really well but when I paint it, it all goes downhill from there.

Mrs. Doster: So, you want to stick to drawing and focus on cars. Do you have anything else you would like to add?

David: No.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you for participating in this.

396 APPENDIX C-4

Note: The following is a three interview series with Ernest, a student in Warren’s class

INTERVIEW #1 WITH ERNEST: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY March 3, 2004

Mrs. Doster: Good afternoon, how are you?

Ernest: Doin’ O.K.

Mrs. Doster: Ernest, where were you born?

Ernest: Panama City.

Mrs. Doster: And…where have you lived?

Ernest: Panama City.

Mrs. Doster: So, you’ve never lived anywhere else?

Ernest: No m’am.

Mrs. Doster: What grade are you in?

Ernest: The eleventh.

Mrs. Doster: Characterize yourself as a student.

Ernest: A good one.

Mrs. Doster: What do you mean by “a good one”?

Ernest: I guess because I am all around good in most of my classes and stuff like that. I have like…good habits.

Mrs. Doster: So you do well in class and what else do you do…?

Ernest: Um…I guess I consider myself a normal student. I’m like a little above average but not totally above average.

Mrs. Doster: What are you favorite subjects?

Ernest: Even though I’m struggling, geometry is my favorite subject.

Mrs. Doster: Really? So, you are a math person?

397 Ernest: Yes m’am.

Mrs. Doster: That’s good! What are your least favorite subjects?

Ernest: Science.

Mrs. Doster: Do you participate in any extracurricular activities?

Ernest: No.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special talents?

Ernest: My hobby is like playing basketball. And I am a music type person.

Mrs. Doster: Do you play basketball for Rutherford?

Ernest: No.

Mrs. Doster: Do you just play for fun?

Ernest: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: And what do you mean by music? Do you play an instrument?

Ernest: Yeah, I play the drums…and I make a lot of music for people.

Mrs. Doster: Do they hire you?

Ernest: No, I just do it because they ask.

Mrs. Doster: Do you mean like live music or do you record it?

Ernest: I create the music and then they’ll put words to it.

Mrs. Doster: Are you in the (RHS) band?

Ernest: No.

Mrs. Doster: What is your routine as a student?

Ernest: Study and that’s about it.

Mrs. Doster: When do you study?

Ernest: After school and sometimes before a test.

398 Mrs. Doster: So, when you go home do you study right then?

Ernest: No, I have to wait a little while.

Mrs. Doster: Do you study everyday?

Ernest: No, I don’t study everyday. I study…like whenever we get ready to have a test. I will study the night before.

Mrs. Doster: So, you plan when you are going to study…or is it haphazard?

Ernest: Yeah…I’m more of a crammer type person.

Mrs. Doster: Oh, you do…you wait until the last minute?

Ernest: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Do you work outside of school?

Ernest: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Where do you work?

Ernest: In the mall at Burlington Shoes.

Mrs. Doster: How many hours a week do you work?

Ernest: A little over twenty.

Mrs. Doster: Well, that is a healthy part-time job. Does that detract from your studies?

Ernest: No…’cause I study when I come home.

Mrs. Doster: Do you get home late? What time do they let you off?

Ernest: It is like in between 9:15 and 10:00.

Mrs. Doster: And that is on a school night?

Ernest: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: You come home and you still study?

Ernest: Yeah.

399 Mrs. Doster: Well, good for you. So, to sum it up, you study regularly before tests but you don’t study a little bit every night. Who encourages you to do well in school?

Ernest: My mom.

Mrs. Doster: So Mom keeps after you. Who has influenced you the most?

Ernest: I’d have to say my cousin…yeah, he has.

Mrs. Doster: Is he older than you?

Ernest: Yeah, he’s twenty.

Mrs. Doster: And how has he influenced you?

Ernest: He has always tried to tell me like right and wrong and stuff like that.

Mrs. Doster: Does he talk to you about school?

Ernest: Yeah, he talks to me about school and about everyday things.

Mrs. Doster: You really look up to him?

Ernest: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: That’s nice. Does he live here in town?

Ernest: Yes, m’am.

Mrs. Doster: Have you had any favorite teachers?

Ernest: My geometry teacher.

Mrs. Doster: Why is that person your favorite?

Ernest: She makes it easy for me to understand what’s going on.

Mrs. Doster: So, you enjoy learning it and she helps you to learn…that’s great. Do you enjoy school in general?

Ernest: Yeah, for the most part of it.

Mrs. Doster: What about all through…did you like elementary school?

Ernest: Yeah.

400 Mrs. Doster: What about middle school?

Ernest: It was okay. It was not as good. I like high school probably more than all of it.

Mrs. Doster: What would you change about high school?

Ernest: A longer lunch period.

Mrs. Doster: Have you taken any art classes?

Ernest: This year I have.

Mrs. Doster: What are you taking?

Ernest: Art 2-D.

Mrs. Doster: Did you have art in elementary school?

Ernest: I guess that was art.

Mrs. Doster: Did you have someone called an art teacher who came by or was it just with your classroom teacher?

Ernest: It was an art teacher. We had to paint and stuff like that.

Mrs. Doster: Do you remember how often you did that?

Ernest: I think it was like once every week.

Mrs. Doster: What about middle school?

Ernest: I didn’t have any art in middle school.

Mrs. Doster: So, you had art once a week in elementary school, none in middle school, and this—Art 2-D—is the first art class you’ve taken in high school?

Ernest: Yes m’am.

Mrs. Doster: Are you enjoying it?

Ernest: Yeah, it’s fun…’course I have a good grade in it. I have an “A”.

Mrs. Doster: What are your goals after high school?

Ernest: To do something in music…hopefully.

401 Mrs. Doster: What about some sort of training after high school?

Ernest: There is a school down in Orlando called Full Sell. I might go there.

Mrs. Doster: A music school?

Ernest: A music production school.

Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?

Ernest: I’m not sure…I think it is maybe a 2.0…something like that.

Mrs. Doster: Well, Ernest, thank you very much.

Ernest: All right.

INTERVIEW #2 WITH ERNEST: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE March 4, 2004

Mrs. Doster: Good morning, how are you?

Ernest: I’m doing all right.

Mrs. Doster: Did you elect to take American History and Art Co-Study or were you placed in the class?

Ernest: I elected to take it.

Mrs. Doster: How did you find out about it?

Ernest: My history teacher. My tenth grade history teacher had told me about it.

Mrs. Doster: Why did you sign up?

Ernest: Because I like pictures. I like seeing stuff in pictures.

Mrs. Doster: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?

Ernest: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: In what way?

402 Ernest: It like just helps me see what’s going on instead of just having to think it in my mind. It gives me a better picture.

Mrs. Doster: Do the art activities help you to remember the history better?

Ernest: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: Do the art activities help you to understand the history better?

Ernest: Yeah, a little more...than usual.

Mrs. Doster: So it helps you to remember and helps you, somewhat, to understand.

Ernest: I can…I can remember what the picture looks like then and…then…so I just adapt to what it is saying…like what the questions are saying.

Mrs. Doster: Of the art activities we did first semester, which one stands out in your mind?

Ernest: The one where we had to look at the picture and we had to summarize what the picture was about. I don’t recall the name of it but I remember it was one thing we had to do. I don’t quite remember. I got a 93 on my…uh… semester exam.

Mrs. Doster: Well, good for you. Do you like or dislike the class?

Ernest: I like it. It’s challenging…interesting.

Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you like about it.

Ernest: I like mainly…I guess ‘cause I like looking at pictures. I guess that’s one reason why I like it. Because I like seeing stuff more than having to picture it in my mind.

Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you dislike about it.

Ernest: Nothing, really. There is nothing bad about the class.

Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you would change about it.

Ernest: Um…I would say we should be able to use the visuals on the test.

Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?

Ernest: I just like being in class. It’s fun…enjoyable.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.

403 INTERVIEW #3: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING March 12, 2004

Mrs. Doster: Good morning, Ernest. How are you?

Ernest: I’m doing okay.

Mrs. Doster: Are you glad it’s Friday?

Ernest: Yes, I am.

Mrs. Doster: Were there any problems for you in American History and Art Co-Study?

Ernest: No, there wasn’t.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade?

Ernest: Yeah, it improved it a whole lot.

Mrs. Doster: Why do you think that?

Ernest: Because like before when I was taking history I wasn’t really doing too good. I had like a “C” average but now this year I have a “B” average.

Mrs. Doster: You took world history last year but it was not a Co-Study Curriculum. So you enjoy the visuals we use in class?

Ernest: Yes m’am.

Mrs. Doster: And you feel it has improved your grade.

Ernest: Yes m’am.

Mrs. Doster: Did it change you as a student?

Ernest: Well, in somewhat way, it kind of did. I mean…I have better study habits.

Mrs. Doster: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional history class?

Ernest: Um…it gives you a better idea of where the history comes from. You can actually see what’s going on in the history instead of just having to think it.

Mrs. Doster: What disadvantages does it have?

404 Ernest: It really don’t have…it doesn’t have disadvantages. To me, it’s just better overall.

Mrs. Doster: How could the Co-Study Curriculum be improved?

Ernest: More visuals and less text.

Mrs. Doster: You are trying to get rid of the textbook, aren’t you?

Ernest: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: I don’t think that is going to happen. We do have to read.

Ernest: Read the pictures.

Mrs. Doster: Yes, we do, don’t we? What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?

Ernest: Um…a student that, you know, does better learning with a visual than just hearing about something…well, that likes to see what’s going on instead of just hearing.

Mrs. Doster: When did you figure out that you learn better that way?

Ernest: When I got a “B”.

Mrs. Doster: So you learned that this year in American History and Art Co-Study. Has you attitude toward art changed because of the Co-Study Curriculum?

Ernest: I’ve always liked art and this like made me see...it made me realize how important art is…to everyone.

Mrs. Doster: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?

Ernest: Um…I don’t think so because like my career…it doesn’t really have anything to do with art. But I still like to look at art. I’m not a good art person. I like to look. I’m a spectator.

Mrs. Doster: You would rather look that do?

Ernest: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: In our last interview when we were discussing the projects, you said you enjoyed “summarizing what the picture was about.” Did you mean the art criticism that we did?

Ernest: Yeah, I believe that was it…right there…the art criticism.

405 Mrs. Doster: Half of the projects we did required drawing and the other half required viewing art. So, you enjoyed the viewing projects better than the drawing projects?

Ernest: Yes m’am. I like looking at the art. It was very nice.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have anything else you would like to add?

Ernest: No.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.

406 APPENDIX C-5

Note: The following is a three interview series with James, a student in Doster’s class

INTERVIEW #1 WITH JAMES: FOCUSED LIFE HISTORY March 4, 2004

Mrs. Doster: Good morning, James.

James: Good morning.

Mrs. Doster: Where were you born?

James: Tampa, Florida.

Mrs. Doster: Where have you lived?

James: Here…and Japan…Washington, that’s about it.

Mrs. Doster: Washington State?

James: Yeah, State.

Mrs. Doster: I guess you are military…Air Force?

James: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: What grade are you in?

James: Eleventh.

Mrs. Doster: Characterize yourself as a student.

James: I think I’m an average person. I don’t know; I do what most kids do as a student.

Mrs. Doster: And what’s that?

James: I’m not like above grade level, but I’m not right on it…I’m not in IB. I study…every now and then.

Mrs. Doster: What are your favorite subjects?

James: Science, that’s about it.

Mrs. Doster: Any particular area in science?

407 James: No, I just like doing the things in science…anything. It’s pretty fun.

Mrs. Doster: And what are your least favorite subjects?

James: English and math.

Mrs. Doster: Do you participate in any extracurricular activities?

James: Um…soccer.

Mrs. Doster: Are you junior varsity or varsity?

James: Last year I was junior varsity and I didn’t do it this year because I got a job. I was going to…I didn’t know if I was going to do track.

Mrs. Doster: So your job has taken over?

James: Yes, taken over…

Mrs. Doster: Where do you work?

James: Pizza Hut.

Mrs. Doster: How many hours a week?

James: Uh…right now, it’s 25.

Mrs. Doster: That’s a lot. Does that interfere with your studying?

James: No.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have any hobbies, interests, or special talents?

James: I go skim boarding…about it.

Mrs. Doster: What is your routine as a student?

James: Normally, I just go home, do my homework, and then I leave for work. That’s about it.

Mrs. Doster: So, you do homework everyday after school?

James: Not everyday. It depends how important it is. Like if I know the stuff or I don’t think I really need to do it, I won’t do it.

Mrs. Doster: What about studying for tests?

408 James: Um…I try to study but… sometimes I don’t.

Mrs. Doster: So do you study regularly or irregularly?

James: Uh…irregularly.

Mrs. Doster: When you do study, how do you study?

James: Um…I just read over the notes I took. Sometimes I read from the book.

Mrs. Doster: Who encourages you to do well in school?

James: My parents.

Mrs. Doster: Who has influenced you the most?

James: Probably my aunt. Because when she was little they didn’t have a lot of money and now she is really rich. She’s in the top rich people in America. And she said she studied. She said she wasn’t the best person in school but she told me her career plan and how she did it.

Mrs. Doster: She influences you to do well in school?

James: Nah…sort of.

Mrs. Doster: She influences you in other areas of life?

James: Yes, like…like I do well in most areas…like as in workwise. She told me to work really hard. And right now I’m almost becoming assistant manager at Pizza Hut, so...

Mrs. Doster: Have you had any favorite teachers?

James: Um…I don’t really know.

Mrs. Doster: Have you enjoyed school?

James: Yeah, I’m not one of those people that hate school. I like going to school everyday. There is every now and then…I don’t want to come…but yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Have you enjoyed it all along, as in elementary, middle school, and high school?

James: I didn’t really like middle school that much. Elementary and high school are pretty good. I don’t know why I didn’t like middle school; I just didn’t.

409 Mrs. Doster: What would you change about high school?

James: Uh…I don’t really like the electives they have. I don’t know which ones I would like to take but it seems like every time I try to take one it’s either filled up or all they have is gym classes left.

Mrs. Doster: So, not enough to choose from?

James: Yeah, there are not a lot of them I would take.

Mrs. Doster: Have you taken any art classes?

James: Yeah, I’m taking one right now.

Mrs. Doster: Oh, that’s right. You are in my Art 3-D class. Have you taken any other art classes during high school?

James: No, I haven’t. I took some in elementary.

Mrs. Doster: Where were you living during your elementary school years?

James: I was living here. Then I moved to Japan; that’s when I was taking art, though.

Mrs. Doster: Here, during elementary, did you have an art teacher?

James: Yes…I don’t know what her name was.

Mrs. Doster: How often did you see the art teacher?

James: Everyday. They made us go everyday.

Mrs. Doster: Did you take art in middle school?

James: No.

Mrs. Doster: Have you had any other art classes in high school besides the one, Art 3-D, that you are taking with me now?

James: No.

Mrs. Doster: What are your goals after high school?

James: Um…right now I’m taking an engineering class and then I’m going to go into the military and while I’m there I’ll be going to college. And I think they help out with college so I’m going to take engineering classes in college, too. I want to be an officer.

410 Mrs. Doster: Are you going to apply for an ROTC scholarship for them to send you to college first and then go in and pay back? Or do you want to join immediately after high school?

James: I don’t think I want to join right after high school. I was thinking about going to college first.

Mrs. Doster: Are you in ROTC?

James: No.

Mrs. Doster: Have you ever been in?

James: No.

Mrs. Doster: It doesn’t matter. You can still apply for a scholarship. It depends on what the military needs. If you want to study something that they need, they will consider you for a scholarship. They look at your grades and their needs and decide whether or not to offer you a scholarship…full or partial.

James: Really, I didn’t know that. My dad has been in for almost twenty years. He is not an officer.

Mrs. Doster: What is your GPA?

James: 3.0.

Mrs. Doster: Do you have anything else you would like to add?

James: No.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much, James.

INTERVIEW #2 WITH JAMES: THE DETAILS OF EXPERIENCE March 5, 2004

Mrs. Doster: Good morning, James.

James: Good morning.

Mrs. Doster: Did you elect to take American History and Art Co-Study or were you placed in the class?

411 James: I elected it.

Mrs. Doster: Why did you sign up?

James: I had World History and Art Co-Study with you last year.

Mrs. Doster: Has the structure of the class been helpful to you?

James: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: In what way?

James: Um…just all the art and stuff we do helps me to learn it a lot better.

Mrs. Doster: Do you know why?

James: Yeah…like normally when I see something…um…it just helps me to learn it. If I like read it I’m not going to know what I am reading or I can’t get a picture of it in my head and I don’t know what it looks like.

Mrs. Doster: So, the art activities help you to remember the history better?

James: Yes.

Mrs. Doster: Does it help you understand it better?

James: At a point. There are sometimes…like…I don’t know what I am doing…no matter what. But most of the activities, they help me.

Mrs. Doster: So they definitely help you to remember and they help you to understand to a point. Which activity we did this year stands out in your mind?

James: I think the one that really stands out is the one where we had to make a tree with the branches.

Mrs. Doster: I remember your Constitutional Tree.

James: Yes, my tree was excellent.

Mrs. Doster: Yes, it was. Overall, do you like or dislike the class?

James: I like it.

Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you like about it.

412 James: I like how we get to discuss everything. We look at stuff on the overhead and, then, everybody gets to put in their opinion on what they think it is.

Mrs. Doster: Tell me what you dislike about the class.

James: Um…there’s not really a lot I dislike about it. I can’t really think of anything off the top of my head.

Mrs. Doster: Well, then tell me what you would change about the class.

James: Um…um…I don’t know. We could maybe do something with the vocab. Because I know a lot of people are lazy like me and they don’t do the vocab. Maybe…I don’t know…I don’t know if we could do anything about that or not.

Mrs. Doster: Well, you know, we did the Civil War Visual Vocabulary. Did you find that helpful?

James: Yeah, I liked that where we made the path leading to Civil War.

Mrs. Doster: The Road to War…yeah, that we visualized in a timeline and a path with vocabulary words and illustrations.

James: Since we had to visualize it, it made me want to do it. So it made me learn a lot more.

Mrs. Doster: What about the next project—the Civil War Visual Vocabulary—where you had to take one vocabulary word, illustrate it, and then stand up in front of the class and explain it?

James: Yeah…and then…and then I pay attention when people are up there and talking about it. So I have my vocab list out and I’ll just jot down notes of what they are saying. It’s a lot easier.

Mrs. Doster: So that was helpful to you?

James: It was.

Mrs. Doster: Then we, essentially, did the same thing with Reconstruction. Instead of a vocabulary word we did a vocabulary concept, like Lincoln’s 10% Plan, which had to be illustrated and explained to the class. Was that helpful, too?

James: Yeah.

Mrs. Doster: Vocabulary is a stumbling block for you in history?

James: Yeah.

413 Mrs. Doster: And we have a lot of it. I was wondering if there was a connection between taking the World History and Art Co-Study last year and signing up for Art 3-D this year?

James: I decided because I like doing things hands-on and there are not a lot of classes where you can do that so I picked Art 3-D. I was going to take drawing but Art 3-D sounded more interesting.

Mrs. Doster: Did taking World History and Art Co-Study last year influence you to take an art class this year?

James: It probably did influence me. I like doing all the drawing pictures and stuff.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you, James.

James: You’re welcome.

INTERVIEW #3 WITH JAMES: REFLECTION ON THE MEANING March 10, 2004

Mrs. Doster: Good morning, James.

James: Good morning.

Mrs. Doster: I was reading over our last two interviews and I had a couple of questions. During the first interview, you said that during your elementary years you saw the art teacher everyday at school. Where did you go to elementary school?

James: Callaway, Tyndall, and Solars Elementary was…which was in Japan.

Mrs. Doster: At which of those schools did you see an art teacher?

James: Japan.

Mrs. Doster: Did you have an art teacher at either of the other two schools?

James: I may have in Callaway but I’m not really sure about that. I just remember the Japan one really well.

Mrs. Doster: And you saw the art teacher everyday?

James: Yeah.

414 Mrs. Doster: Do you remember what you did?

James: We did little paintings and we made magnets. My mom still has one of those that I made…from a long time ago.

Mrs. Doster: Was it a Japanese person teaching or an American?

James: It was an American school. It was on base.

Mrs. Doster: I didn’t know if they brought in any Japanese art teachers for the school.

James: Um…they had….um…they had a cultural class and we did art in there sometimes. But we didn’t really just do art the whole time.

Mrs. Doster: What type of art activities did you do in the cultural class?

James: Origami and calligraphy with a brush and ink. It was kind of hard.

Mrs. Doster: How old were you in Japan?

James: Seven or eight up to ten then we moved back here. I went to Callaway, then we moved to Japan, and then we came back here…when I went to Tyndall because we were living on base.

Mrs. Doster: Another question I had was during the second interview when you said that you enjoyed looking at “stuff on the overhead” and talking about it. I wasn’t sure what you were referring to in that remark. Could you clarify that for me?

James: Um…yes…I was talking about when you like put a picture on the overhead and everybody gets to guess what it was or say what they think it is.

Mrs. Doster: So, when we were doing art criticism…reacting, describing, interpreting, and judging. You enjoyed that? You found it helpful?

James: Yeah, because...I don’t know…a lot of times if I just look at it I’m not going to know what it is and when everybody is saying what they think it is I get better ideas.

Mrs. Doster: Were there any problems for you in American History and Art Co-Study?

James: No, not really.

Mrs. Doster: Do you think the Co-Study Curriculum improved your grade?

James: Um…probably if I was in a normal history class it would be down but I haven’t been in a normal one in high school yet. I didn’t take it in ninth grade.

415 Mrs. Doster: That’s a good point. When you were in ninth grade, history was not required as it is now. In tenth grade, you took a Co-Study Curriculum as well as this year. Did you take history in middle school?

James: Yes, in middle school I did and it was a lot more difficult just ‘cause we didn’t have pictures. We just went from the textbook.

Mrs. Doster: Did the Co-Study Curriculum change you as a student?

James: Um…no, not really.

Mrs. Doster: Did it make you do anything differently in the way you study, or how you study, or how you look at things?

James: Well, it made me want to do more of the projects and stuff. And, every time we got one of those I felt like…I don’t know…I felt better…like happier. I don’t know…I got excited.

Mrs. Doster: Well, good! So, it felt good to complete a project?

James: Yeah, because we don’t really do many of those in high school.

Mrs. Doster: So, in most of your classes you’re not doing many projects?

James: Yeah, we just do textbook stuff and after a while that gets boring…like the same old thing everyday.

Mrs. Doster: What advantages does the Co-Study Curriculum have over a traditional history class?

James: In the traditional one, I’m guessing just from my middle school years, that they just read out of the textbook and go home and study and they don’t have any visual art to learn. And…um…when I see the art I can actually put it in my head and know what happened. In the other history classes you just have numbers thrown in your head and you don’t know where they go or…

Mrs. Doster: What disadvantages are there to the Co-Study Curriculum?

James: I don’t know if there are any disadvantages…not any that I can think of. It is a pretty good class.

Mrs. Doster: How could it be improved?

James: I don’t know. I have said this before…just the vocab.

416 Mrs. Doster: Yeah, when I graded those notebooks the other day, I realized how few students were completing the vocab.

James: I did the vocab this time.

Mrs. Doster: What type of student benefits from the Co-Study Curriculum?

James: Um…probably the student that actually likes to see things. I know there are some students…they don’t…they don’t care for art and they would rather do everything out of the book. It’s easier to them. Some people like to actually see it. I guess those students.

Mrs. Doster: You know, there is a name for that. It is called a learning style, a preference for learning. Some people prefer just to read a book and others prefer to see it…visual learning. Has your attitude toward art changed because of the Co-Study Curriculum?

James: Well, it made me appreciate it a lot more because I didn’t know it could be used to teach. I knew people did art and stuff and sometimes I draw pictures but I never knew it would like help or anything.

Mrs. Doster: You never knew it could be useful in other ways?

James: Yeah, I didn’t know it helped a lot in history and probably in other classes but they don’t ever use it.

Mrs. Doster: So, does it make you think that art is something that everybody can do or is it just for the talented ones?

James: Well, I know that everybody can do it. I mean…it’s just that…I mean you can draw little stick figures or whatever and label them and you can know what it is. Everybody can do it. There are more people that prefer to do it. I think they should do it.

Mrs. Doster: Do you plan to take any art classes in the future?

James: Well, I’m taking one right now and…uh… next year I don’t think I’m taking any but I walked into the Greek mythology class and I’m taking that and they do a lot of crazy things in there…like a lot of art. I’ve seen masks of people with their eyes bleeding and I don’t know, it’s just a lot of crazy things.

Mrs. Doster: Well, the mask making skill that you learned in Art 3-D will help you in that class.

James: Some people used the papier-mâché and I’m pretty sure they were in Art 3-D before.

417 Mrs. Doster: Is there anything else you would like to add?

James: Not really.

Mrs. Doster: Well, thank you very much.

James: You’re welcome.

418

APPENDIX D

STUDY APPROVAL FORMS

419 APPENDIX D-1

420 APPENDIX D-2

421

APPEN

422 APPENDIX D-3

423 APPENDIX D-4

424

APPENDIX E

CONTACT & FEEDBACK INFORMATION

425 APPENDIX E-1

This appendix provides information for those individuals who wish to ask questions or provide feedback regarding their development or use of the Co-Study Curriculum process in classroom instruction or professional activities. My contact information is:

Mail: Jennifer R. J. Doster Rutherford High School 1000 School Avenue Panama City, FL 32401

Email: [email protected]

426

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435 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Jennifer Ruth Jones Doster, a native Floridian, earned a BA (1970) and MA (1971) in International Affairs from Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida. For the next two decades, she, along with her husband, owned and operated three retail stores in Florida, while raising their three children. After leaving the business world, she returned to Florida State University and earned a BS in Social Studies Education (1994). She was hired as an art teacher and, subsequently, became certified in the field of art education. Her first teaching position was at West Bay Elementary School where she was awarded Teacher of the Year in 1994-95. She furthered her education by earning a Specialist in Art Education (2001) at Florida State University. Ms. Doster is presently teaching at Rutherford High School in Panama City, Florida. She divides her time between the Social Studies and Art Departments. Along with Ms. Jean Warren, they have been able to utilize the Co-Study Curriculum process within two of the school’s course offerings—American History and Art Co-Study and World History and Art Co-Study. Ms. Doster holds Florida certifications in both Art (K- 12) and Social Studies (9-12).

436