The Representations of Indonesianness in Post-New Order Indonesia (1998-2016)
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THE REPRESENTATIONS OF INDONESIANNESS IN POST-NEW ORDER INDONESIA (1998-2016) by Suzanna Eddyono BA, Universitas Gadjah Mada, 1995 MSc, Universitas Gadjah Mada, 1999 MA, University of Kent, 2007 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2018 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH THE KENNETH P. DIETRICH SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Suzanna Eddyono It was defended on January 29, 2018 and approved by Kathleen Blee, Distinguished Professor of Sociology and Dean of Dietrich School and College of General Studies, Department of Sociology Andrew N. Weintraub, Professor, Department of Music Tarun Banerjee, Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology Dissertation Advisor: Mohammed Bamyeh, Professor, Department of Sociology ii Copyright © by Suzanna Eddyono 2018 iii THE REPRESENTATIONS OF INDONESIANNESS IN POST-NEW ORDER INDONESIA (1998-2016) Suzanna Eddyono, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2018 This study’s central question is how is nationalism defined and reproduced after the collapse of Suharto’s New Order in 1998? This study focuses specifically on the contested official narratives in post-Suharto Indonesia during its transition and consolidation to democracy. I argue that there are more than one narrative of the nation emerging in the post-New Order official narratives. Using narrative analysis in selected citizenship education textbooks published between 1998 and 2016 in Indonesian higher education, I found three narratives of the nation: 1. state-centered, 2. citizens-centered, and 3. ummah-centered narratives. The three narratives revise, counter, and offer a different insight from that of the New Order militaristic narrative. The three narratives, outlined above, redefine the meaning of the first principle of Pancasila to emphasize the piousness of the nation and Pancasila’s fourth principle to underline Indonesian new democracy. Whereas the state-centered narrative calls for the implementation of Pancasila democracy, the citizens-centered narrative emphasizes the building of democracy. In addition, the ummah-centered narrative underscores a truly Muslim society. I also argue that the process of reproducing nationalism in post Suharto Indonesia needs to take account of its transition from authoritarian to more democratic context. Using thematic narrative analysis, I generated information from in-depth interviews with publishers, authors, educators, and students to highlight textbook reproduction and usage. My study further shows that the three narratives are shaped within the intertwining dualism of national education, a complex process, in which actors collaborate and compete; existing ideas are rejected as well as adapted; textbooks’ writing and publication follow market demand while at the same time pay attention to government regulation; and students’ stories are fluidly shaped not only by their reference to textbooks in educational setting, but also to diverse sources of information in their everyday interactions. In a broader sociological discussion, the three contesting official narratives reveal not only tensions in citizenship education, but also mark the emergence of a new nationalism in post New Order Indonesia. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ..................................................................................................................................... X 1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 NATIONALISM IN POST-NEW ORDER INDONESIA ............................... 1 1.2 THE QUEST FOR REDEFINING NATIONALISM IN POST-NEW ORDER INDONESIA ......................................................................................... 5 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................... 13 1.4 SYSTEMATIZATION OF DISSERTATION ................................................ 16 2.0 THE REPRESENTATIONS OF THE NATION .................................................... 17 2.1 REPRODUCING NATIONALISM: CULTURAL MEMORY AND THE NARRATIVE OF THE NATION .................................................................... 18 2.2 THE SHIFTING CONTEXTS OF THE NARRATIVE OF THE NATION 23 2.3 DISCOURSES ON NATIONALISM BEFORE THE 1998 REFORM MOVEMENT ..................................................................................................... 27 2.4 TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY AND THE QUEST FOR NEW NATIONAL IDENTITY ................................................................................... 41 3.0 METHODOLOGY: UNDERSTANDING THE PROCESS OF MEANING- MAKING THROUGH NARRATIVE...................................................................... 52 v 3.1 TEXTBOOKS FOR UNDERSTANDING THE NARRATIVE OF THE NATION ............................................................................................................. 54 3.2 FIVE DATASETS .............................................................................................. 57 3.2.1 Dataset#1: Citizenship education textbooks in higher education ............. 58 3.2.2 Dataset#2: National policy documents concerning citizenship education 61 3.2.3 Dataset#3: in-depth interviews with publishers and writers ..................... 62 3.2.4 Dataset#4: in-depth interviews with educators ........................................... 63 3.2.5 Dataset#5: in-depth interviews with students and alumni ......................... 63 3.3 NARRATIVE ANALYSIS AND THEMATIC (NARRATIVE) ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................. 64 3.4 ISSUES OF TRUSTWORTHINESS AND CORRESPONDENCE IN NARRATIVE ANALYSIS ................................................................................ 71 4.0 THE OFFICIAL NARRATIVES OF THE NATION IN POST-NEW ORDER INDONESIA ............................................................................................................... 75 4.1 THE NARRATIVE OF THE NATION BEFORE THE 1998 REFORM MOVEMENT ..................................................................................................... 76 4.2 CONTESTING NARRATIVES OF THE NATION IN POST-NEW ORDER INDONESIA ...................................................................................................... 90 4.2.1 State-centered Narratives ............................................................................. 93 4.2.2 Citizen-centered Narrative ......................................................................... 108 4.2.3 Ummah-centered Narrative ........................................................................ 117 4.3 NARRATIVE STRATEGY: REVISITING THE DEFAULT EVENTS IN THE NATIONAL PAST. ................................................................................ 127 vi 5.0 REPRODUCING NATIONALISM IN THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ......... 151 5.1 THE INTERTWINING OF EDUCATIONAL DUALISM IN INDONESIA ........................................................................................................................... 153 5.2 CREATING GOOD CITIZENS THROUGH THE NEW CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION ................................................................................................... 161 5.3 WRITING AND PUBLISHING CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION TEXTBOOKS .................................................................................................. 167 5.4 SELECTING TEXTBOOKS .......................................................................... 169 5.5 BECOMING INDONESIANS ........................................................................ 172 6.0 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 182 6.1 THE CONTRIBUTION OF THIS STUDY .................................................. 182 6.2 THE LIMITATION AND VENUES FOR FURTHER STUDIES ............. 185 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................ 187 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................ 193 APPENDIX C ............................................................................................................................ 196 APPENDIX D ............................................................................................................................ 198 APPENDIX E ............................................................................................................................ 200 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 201 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1. Indonesian Higher Education in Numbers in 2013/2014 ........................................... 157 Table 5.2. The Numbers of Citizenship Education Program, Teaching Staffs, .......................... 162 Table 5.3. Variation in Core courses of the Program of Pancasila and Citizenship Education . 164 Table A.4. Selected National Textbooks .................................................................................... 187 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1. The 2013 online national catalogue at Indonesian national library ............................ 59 Figure 5.2. Dualism of Education in Indonesia .......................................................................... 154 ix PREFACE The completion