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In the Interwar Period Japan’s “Carrier Revolution” in the Interwar Period A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy by Katsuya Tsukamoto In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 2016 Dissertation Committee Toshi Yoshihara, Chair Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr. Stephen Peter Rosen Katsuya TSUKAMOTO 2-23-A-704 Higashiyama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 1530043, Japan E-mail: [email protected] Education Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy (Tufts University), Medford, MA Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy , May 2006 Title of MALD Thesis: “Japan’s Aircraft Carrier Development in the Interwar Period” Aoyama Gakuin University , Tokyo, Japan Master of Arts in Political Science , Mar. 1998 MA Thesis: “The Formation of Japan’s Threat Perception toward Russia from the Late Shogunate Period to the Early Meiji Period” University of Tsukuba , Ibaraki, Japan Bachelor of Arts in International Relations , Mar. 1996 BA Thesis: “Changing Threat Perception and Arms Build-up in Southeast Asia after the Cold War” Professional Experience Ministry of Defense, Tokyo, Japan Deputy Director , Strategic Planning Division, Bureau of Defense Policy Oct. 2015 – Developed MOD’s deterrence strategy Coordinated Japan-U.S.-ROK trilateral defense cooperation Engaged in strategic dialogues with the United States, Britain and Australia National Institute for Defense Studies, Tokyo, Japan Senior Research Fellow , Policy Studies Department Sept. 2011 – Edited China Security Report 2011 and 2012 Coordinated NIDS International Symposium on Security Affairs Participated in policy-oriented research projects on RMA, scenario planning, and special operations Senior Research Fellow , Research Department Apr. 2008 – Sept. 2010 Planned and coordinated NIDS International Symposium on Security Affairs Planned and coordinated research exchanges with the Royal Military College of Canada Participated in policy-oriented research projects on RMA, non-proliferation and i Research Associate, Research Department Apr. 2000 – Mar. 2008 Edited East Asian Strategic Review 2002 and 2003 Coordinated research exchanges and international conferences Participated in policy-oriented research projects on military-to-military contacts, RMA, and arms control Japan Defense Agency (upgraded to the Ministry of Defense in 2007), Tokyo, Japan Defense Official, Defense Policy Division, Bureau of Defense Policy Jul. 2003 – Dec. 2004 Coordinated JDA’s North Korea policy Arranged and managed research projects Briefed on security issues to senior defense officials Publications ・ Katsuya Tsukamoto, “Naval Air Operation: The Development of Aircraft Carrier Operations during the Second World War,” Proceedings of the International Forum on War History 2014: “History of the Joint and Combined Operations,” March 2015, 71-83. ・ Katsuya Tsukamoto, Toyoko Kudo and Shuji Sue, “Why do States Remain Non-nuclear? Effects of Extended Deterrence on Nuclear Proliferation,” NIDS Security Reports , no. 10 (December 2009), 51-90. Teaching Experience Aoyama Gakuin University, Tokyo, Japan Lecturer , Department of International Politics and Economics Sept. 2013 – Oct. 2015 Taught one-semester course on strategic studies for undergraduate students Open University of Japan, Saitama, Japan 2011 – 2014 Lecturer , Saitama Study Center Taught two-days intensive seminar on war and peace for undergraduate students Nishogakusha University, Tokyo, Japan Lecturer , Department of International Politics and Economics Apr. 2003 – Mar. 2005 Taught one-year course on international security studies for undergraduate students ii Honors, Distinctions and Scholarships Honors ・ Second Place, Essay Contest on the Northern Territories, the Northern Union and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1998 ・ Defense Minister’s Award, Defense Research Center and Japan Defense Agency, 1996 ・ Second Place, Award for Excellent Graduating Thesis, University of Tsukuba, 1996 Scholarships ・ Fulbright Scholarship for Graduate Study at the Fletcher School, 1999 ・ Sasakawa Scientific Research Grant, the Japan Science Society, one million yen, 1998 ProfProfessionalessional Memberships ・ American Political Science Association ・ International Institute for Strategic Studies iii Abstract Carrier aviation has been considered as one of the most successful cases of revolutions in military affairs (RMA) in the period between the Frist and Second World Wars. During those two decades, only three navies, Japan, the United States, and Great Britain, successfully built and operationalized large fleet carriers. However, compared with the U.S. and British cases, the Japanese case has been understudied in the literature of RMA. In order to fill this void, this dissertation considers two related research questions. First, what factors made the “carrier revolution” possible for the Japanese Navy, and second, to what extent do the different approaches account for their relative degrees of strategic success achieved by aircraft carriers? This study argues that, while technological opportunities and the external environment provided an initial push for the “carrier revolution,” organizational innovation is a critical intervening variable in accelerating the process of RMA. Given the lack of civilian control over the military and the relative autonomy enjoyed by the Japanese Navy during the interwar period, senior officers in the Japanese Navy recognized a structural change in the security environment, invented a “new theory of victory” and adapted their organization by their own initiative. The Japanese Navy underwent a process of innovation by expanding its officer corps through creating a new career path and establishing their organizational base, the Naval Aviation Department. A distinctive organizational culture developed within naval aviation encouraged vigorous training and experimentation, which drove military innovation more profoundly than in any other branches of the Japanese Navy. iv However, the specific ways the organizational innovations were implemented critically affected the degree to which the Japanese Navy achieved the RMA during the Pacific War. In particular, the Japanese Navy’s practice of funding personnel only after its procurement budget was approved and the commitment to ensuring the promotion of Naval Academy graduates up to the rank of Captain contributed to limiting the organizational representation of aviators within the navy, which, in turn, had serious adverse implications for the development of carrier aviation. v To Yuri and Naoya, for their unconditional support and incredible patience vi Acknowledgements This dissertation could not have been completed without support from a number of mentors, friends, and colleagues. I first came to the Fletcher School in September 1999 as a MALD student, and I have gone back and forth between Japan and the United States since then. My long academic journey gave me many chances to interact with them, which I appreciate greatly. I would like to thank the entire Fletcher community for giving me a chance to pursue a Ph.D. degree. First and foremost, I truly appreciate my committee members, Profs. Toshi Yoshihara, Robert F. Pfaltzgraff, Jr., and Stephen Peter Rosen for their kind assistance and advice. Their guidance helped me to focus on the most important issues. My special thanks go to Profs. Alan Wachman and William Martel, who allowed me to start this endeavor. Without their encouragement, I could not have even dreamed of applying to the Ph.D. program. Their premature passing was a huge loss to the Fletcher community, and I miss them a lot for their warm hearts and great insights. I also thank Jenifer Burckett-Picker for her indispensable support to continue my study. Her timely and candid advice helped me to overcome a number of challenges in the course of my long journey. I have been very fortunate to have come across with great classmates since 1999. A few of those are Kevin Newman, Toru Matsushita, Tomoko Kyogoku, and Kei Koga. I am particularly indebted to Tim Wilkie and Jim Platte for their comments and edits on my draft dissertation. Their suggestions greatly improved my erroneous English into a readable text. However, I should note that all the flows and errors contained in this dissertation are entirely my own. vii Outside of the Fletcher School, I would like to thank my colleagues at the National Institute for Defense Studies (NIDS) and the Ministry of Defense for their support. In particular, my special thanks go to my colleagues at NIDS, Masafumi Iida, Masami Nishino, and Hikaru Yamashita for their advice. My former colleagues, Jun Tsunekawa, Hideki Tsuchimoto and Hitoshi Kawamura played an indispensable role to allow me to continue my study while working full-time at the institute. My thanks also go to my colleagues at the Ministry of Defense, Atsushi Endo, Daiki Iwashita, Koji Kano, Akihito Fukui, Yoshihiko Tsuchida, Kentaro Suzuki, Yoshinobu Hosokawa, and Jikichiro Matsubara for their help and encouragement. My job at NIDS gave me precious opportunities to interact with top-notch experts in my field. Those include such prominent scholars as Eliot Cohen, Andrew Krepinevich, Edward Luttwak, Thomas Mahnken, Mark Mandeles, Williamson Murray, Geoffrey Till, and Barry Watts. In particular, I was extremely fortunate to meet Mr. Andrew Marshall in person through my work. His great insight inspired me to look into the Japanese case, and I would not have done so without his pointed suggestion. And last, but not least, I would like
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