JRCA Vol. 20, No. 1 (2019), pp.247-296pp.〓-〓 247

TheThe Transnational transnational Civil civil Societysociety of NepaliNepali Emigrants emigrants andand thethe NepaliNepali Government:government: Corporatism beyond National Borders

Taeko Uesugi Senshu University

Abstract This paper examines the relationship between the transnational civil society and the State to investigate the transnational dynamics of civil society. The relationship between the Non-Resident Nepali Association (NRNA), a civil society organization (CSO) of Nepali emigrants, and the Nepali government is analyzed as a case study focusing on the Association’s campaign for the retention of Nepali citizenship by emigrants. I conclude that a corporatist relationship has formed beyond national geographical borders as a consequence of the close dealings between the NRNA and the government. This form of corporatism beyond national borders brought about economic privileges for the emigrant entrepreneurs compared to other foreign entrepreneurs, and it also allows the government to aim at economic development adapted to globalization. However, in contrast to the case of CSOs consisting of resident Nepali citizens, which have strengthened their power against the government as a result of democratization, the government holds a dominant position over the NRNA, which accepts the supervision and direction of the government. Thus, post-democratization Nepali civil society is characterized by its plurality of political cultures and the relationship with the 248 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 249

government, which has been generated by the emigrants’ activism beyond national borders.

Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil society, Nepal, emigration, Non-resident Nepali Association (NRNA)

Acknowledgments I greatly appreciate the cooperation of the members of the NRNA. However, I am solely responsible for the views and opinions expressed in this paper, and they do not reflect those of the NRNA unless differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their invaluable comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion of Sciences supported this research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers: JP19401047, JP23520998, JP24320175, and JP15K03054).

This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ transnational civil society and the State, especially their country of origin with attention to its corporatist characteristic, as an attempt at clarifying the transnational dynamics of civil society. Here, referring to the definition of civil society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; 1952: 266; 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnational process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term “transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of relationships, which falls between the private realm on the one hand and a specific State on the other, across geographical national boundaries and where, through sociability, social values such as civility, mutuality, religiosity, and others are produced, as the 248 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 249 government, which has been generated by the emigrants’ concerned people define them, and where activities whose main activism beyond national borders. purpose is profit seeking are not generally done.1 This type of civil society, which acts across geographical national boundaries, may Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil remind one of “global civil society” exemplified by the international society, Nepal, emigration, Non-resident Nepali Association non-governmental organizations (INGOs) (Kaldor, Moore, and (NRNA) Selchow eds. 2012; Keane 2003. See Introduction of this special issue about INGOs). However, global civil society is not bound with a specific State, and seeks or promotes more universal values. 2 Acknowledgments Therefore, transnational civil society is distinguished from global civil I greatly appreciate the cooperation of the members of the NRNA. society in terms of its anchorage in a specific State. However, I am solely responsible for the views and opinions expressed The relationship between civil society and the State, where civil in this paper, and they do not reflect those of the NRNA unless society sets its target or base, is not one of mere opposition (Pekkanen differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers 2006: 6). The State provides many elements of social order, from for their invaluable comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion property rights to infrastructures, which civil society needs to flourish of Sciences supported this research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant (Pekkanen 2006: 6). Numbers: JP19401047, JP23520998, JP24320175, and Two major trends in thought have developed regarding the JP15K03054). relationship between the State and civil society. One is the Tocquevillian idea that the confrontations among voluntary This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ organizations in civil society contribute to democracy (Tocqueville transnational civil society and the State, especially their country of 2002). The other is the Gramscian idea that these organizations are origin with attention to its corporatist characteristic, as an attempt at co-opted into State systems as a strategy to ensure hegemony over the clarifying the transnational dynamics of civil society. Here, referring 1 to the definition of civil society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; Comparing transnationalism with globalization, Kearney states that transnational processes are anchored in and transcend one or more nation-states, 1952: 266; 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of whereas global processes are largely decentered from specific national territories transnational process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term and take place in a global space (Kearney 1995: 548). As an example of “transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of transnational process, he takes up transnational corporations which operate worldwide but are centered in one home nation (Kearney 1995: 548). relationships, which falls between the private realm on the one hand 2 One may be reminded of the European Union or the United Nations as and a specific State on the other, across geographical national institutions which function beyond national geographical borders. However, boundaries and where, through sociability, social values such as they consist of States and do not rest between discrete individuals and the State. Therefore, these institutions are not regarded as civil society organizations civility, mutuality, religiosity, and others are produced, as the (CSOs). 250 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 251 publicgovernment, (Gramsci 1999).which Foucaulthas been contri generatedbuted to by the thesecond emigrants’ viewpoint by activismproposing beyond that civilnational society borders. is not naturally available, but that it correlates with emerging governance technologies (Shinkai 2009: 56-57).Key w ords: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil These two society,trends Nepal,do not emigration, contradict Non-resident each other. Nepali They Association express opposite extremes(NRNA) on the spectrum of the various forms of relationship between civil society and the State. Edwards (2014: 24) states that, if that relationship becomes “too close and cozy, then governments can be capturedAckn obyw leparticdgmeularnts interests in civil society, Iand greatly civil appreciatesociety cannot the cooperationplay its watchdog of the rolemembers on the of government.” the NRNA. However,On the other I am hand, solely if responsible the relationship for the is views aloof, and civil opinions society expressedcould be inpeople’s this paper,fortress and for resistthey ancedo notto the reflect government. those of the NRNA unless differently Further, specified.there is a Iconcept am also called grateful “corporatism” to the anonymous that can reviewers mediate forbetween their theinvaluable Tocquevillian comments. idea Theand theJapan Gramscian Society forone. the Corporatism Promotion ofis definedSciences by Wiardasupported as follows: this research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers: JP19401047, JP23520998, JP24320175, and JP15K03054).A system of social and political organization in which major societal groups or interests (labor, business, farmers, military, ethnic,This paper clan examinesor patronage the relationshipgroups, religious between bodies, emigrants’ caste transnationalassociations) civil are societyintegrated and into the the State, governmental especially theirsystem, country often onof origina monopolistic with attention basis to or its under corporatist state guidance, characteristic, tutelage, as an and attempt control, at clarifyingto achieve the transnationalcoordinated dynamicsnational ofdevelopment. civil society. (WiardaHere, referring 2015 to (1997):the definition ix). of civil society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; 1952: 266; 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnationalAlthough corporatismprocess by hasKearney been link(1995:ed to 548),fascist Ior use authoritarian the term regimes,“transnational the conceptcivil society” has become to mean useful the transnationalalso for describing domain and of analyzingrelationships, a States’which fallspost-World between Warthe privateII politics, realm onunder the onethe handlabel “neo-corporatism.”and a specific State Neo-corporatism on the other, is aacross system geographical of social and nationalpolitical organizationboundaries andthat where,“incorporates through societal sociability, or interest social groupsvalues suchdirectly as intocivility, the mutuality,decision-making religiosity, machinery and othersof the aremodern produced, state onas suchthe 250 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 251 publicgovernment, (Gramsci 1999).which Foucaulthas been contri generatedbuted to by the thesecond emigrants’ viewpoint issues as industrial policy, social welfare, pensions, and economic by activismproposing beyond that civilnational society borders. is not naturally available, but that it planning” (Wiarda 2015 (1997): 21). Several scholars have correlates with emerging governance technologies (Shinkai 2009: investigated neo-corporatism in democratic States (e.g., Calmfors and 56-57).Key w ords: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil Driffill 1988; Johansson 2012; Lindvall and Joakim 2005). In the These two society,trends Nepal,do not emigration, contradict Non-resident each other. Nepali They Association express present day, as part of neoliberalist policy, many governments opposite extremes(NRNA) on the spectrum of the various forms of outsource its work in the field of welfare, official development relationship between civil society and the State. Edwards (2014: 24) assistance, public education or administrative service based on states that, if that relationship becomes “too close and cozy, then neo-corporatism. governments can be capturedAckn obyw leparticdgmeularnts interests in civil society, Some CSOs are included in these corporatist groups. Therefore, Iand greatly civil appreciatesociety cannot the cooperationplay its watchdog of the rolemembers on the of government.” the NRNA. corporatism is thought to be one of the key concepts in examining However,On the other I am hand, solely if responsible the relationship for the is views aloof, and civil opinions society expressedcould be the relationship between civil society and the State. It is noteworthy inpeople’s this paper,fortress and for resistthey ancedo notto the reflect government. those of the NRNA unless that the Tocquevillian perspective in civil society studies was differently Further, specified.there is a Iconcept am also called grateful “corporatism” to the anonymous that can reviewers mediate developed through the observation of American society, which is said forbetween their theinvaluable Tocquevillian comments. idea Theand theJapan Gramscian Society forone. the Corporatism Promotion to have little corporatism, whereas the Gramscian idea emerged from ofis definedSciences by Wiardasupported as follows: this research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Gramsci’s prison experience under Mussolini’s fascist administration Numbers: JP19401047, JP23520998, JP24320175, and in Italy, which had a long history of corporatism.3 JP15K03054).A system of social and political organization in which major The governments of South Asian countries also have adopted societal groups or interests (labor, business, farmers, military, corporatist policies and co-opted CSOs into governmental systems, ethnic,This paper clan examinesor patronage the relationshipgroups, religious between bodies, emigrants’ caste although some governments have often denounced CSOs as transnationalassociations) civil are societyintegrated and into the the State, governmental especially theirsystem, country often onof subversive of State power and legitimacy and have attempted to origina monopolistic with attention basis to or its under corporatist state guidance, characteristic, tutelage, as an and attempt control, at control these groups through governmental agencies established to clarifyingto achieve the transnationalcoordinated dynamicsnational ofdevelopment. civil society. (WiardaHere, referring 2015 service them (Fisher 2010: 253). The Indian Government to (1997):the definition ix). of civil society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; acknowledges that voluntary organizations or NGOs play a major 1952: 266; 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of role in the development of the nation, supplementing the efforts of transnational Although corporatismprocess by hasKearney been link(1995:ed to 548),fascist Ior use authoritarian the term the government. Thus, it provides a portal which enables these “transnationalregimes, the conceptcivil society” has become to mean useful the transnationalalso for describing domain and of relationships,analyzing a States’which fallspost-World between Warthe privateII politics, realm onunder the onethe handlabel 3 Some corporatist systems are characterized by the presence of a strong State and“neo-corporatism.” a specific State Neo-corporatism on the other, is aacross system geographical of social and nationalpolitical and strict controls over interest-group activity. These regimes can evolve into boundariesorganization andthat where,“incorporates through societal sociability, or interest social groupsvalues suchdirectly as dictatorship, authoritarianism, even fascism (Wiarda 2015 (1997): 8). However, until recently, corporatism seldom found a receptive breeding ground in the US civility,into the mutuality,decision-making religiosity, machinery and othersof the aremodern produced, state onas suchthe (Wiarda 2015 (1997): 15). 252 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 253 organizationsgovernment, to enrollwhich centrallyhas been at onegenerated site, facilitates by the the emigrants’ creation of a repositoryactivism beyond of information national borders. about voluntary organizations/NGOs, and allows them to obtain an ID which is mandatory to apply for grantsKey wunderords: variousCorporatism governmental beyond national schemes borders, (Government transnational of India civil n.d.). society, Nepal, emigration, Non-resident Nepali Association However, studies(NRNA) of civil society and the state on one hand and of corporatism on the other share something in common. What they share is that the relationship between non-Western civil society and the specific State across Anationalcknowle dgeographicalgments boundaries has not Ibeen greatly fully appreciate examined. the As cooperationa natural consequence, of the members also academic of the NRNA.interest However,in corporatism I am solelymainly responsible rests in thefor therelationships views and opinionsbetween expresseddomestic ingroups this andpaper, their and State they governments do not reflect (Wiarda those 2015 of the(1997): NRNA 124, unless168). differentlyA few studies specified. have I am addressed also grateful corporatism to the anonymous in international reviewers fororganizations their invaluable (e.g., comments. Streeck Theand JapanSchmitter Society for1991); the Promotionhowever, ofcorporatism Sciences beyondsupported a nation’s this geographicalresearch (JSPS borders KAKENHI has largely Grant been Numbers:overlooked. 4 JP19401047,Furthermore, in JP23520998,the discussion JP24320175,of corporatism, andthe JP15K03054).production of social values by CSOs has not been given enough attention. ThisTo advancepaper examinesthe study the of relationship the transnational between dynamics emigrants’ of transnationalnon-Western civilcivil societysociety and in theits State,concrete especially form, theirI focus country on ofa originnon-Western with attention emigrants’ to its corporatistvoluntary characteristic,association, as namely,an attempt the at clarifyingNon-Resident the transnationalNepali Association dynamics (NRNA), of civil and society. clarify Here, its corporatist referring torelationship the definition to the of government civil society of by Nepal, Hegel which (1896: is§ 182:the emigrants’addition; country1952: 266; of origin. 1991:5 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnational process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term “transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of 4 Murphy (2000) deals with the corporatist relationship between Chinese relationships,emigrants and thewhich local falls government. between theHowever, private she realm focuses on mainly the one on handlocal andgovernment. a specific State on the other, across geographical national 5 boundariesI became aware and ofwhere, Adhikari through and Gellner’s sociability, (2018) informativesocial values paper such on theas NRNA only after the present article entered its final review. I regret that I could civility, mutuality, religiosity, and others are produced, as the not reflect the accomplishment of their study. However, the purpose and 252 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 253 organizationsgovernment, to enrollwhich centrallyhas been at onegenerated site, facilitates by the the emigrants’ creation of This paper addresses the following questions: Is the NRNA a a repositoryactivism beyond of information national borders. about voluntary organizations/NGOs, transnational CSO? If so, how is the relationship between this Nepali and allows them to obtain an ID which is mandatory to apply for emigrants’ transnational CSO and the Nepali government grantsKey wunderords: variousCorporatism governmental beyond national schemes borders, (Government transnational of India civil characterized? What are the differences between the domestic CSO n.d.). society, Nepal, emigration, Non-resident Nepali Association and transnational CSO in terms of their relationships with the State? However, studies(NRNA) of civil society and the state on one hand and of I first describe the background for the establishment of the NRNA corporatism on the other share something in common. What they and its activities. Then, the structure and agenda of the NRNA are share is that the relationship between non-Western civil society and outlined. Next, I analyze the relationship between the NRNA and the the specific State across Anationalcknowle dgeographicalgments boundaries has not Nepali government, considering the interaction of the two and the Ibeen greatly fully appreciate examined. the As cooperationa natural consequence, of the members also academic of the NRNA.interest ideology observed in the campaign for the retention of the Nepali However,in corporatism I am solelymainly responsible rests in thefor therelationships views and opinionsbetween expresseddomestic citizenship to examine the relationship in reality. ingroups this andpaper, their and State they governments do not reflect (Wiarda those 2015 of the(1997): NRNA 124, unless168). The data were collected through literature survey and intermittent differentlyA few studies specified. have I am addressed also grateful corporatism to the anonymous in international reviewers research in the United Kingdom in 2010, 2011, 2013, and 2018, in fororganizations their invaluable (e.g., comments. Streeck Theand JapanSchmitter Society for1991); the Promotionhowever, Nepal in 2013, 2015, and 2016, in Japan in 2012, 2013, 2014, and ofcorporatism Sciences beyondsupported a nation’s this geographicalresearch (JSPS borders KAKENHI has largely Grant been 2017, and in Australia in 2012. Numbers:overlooked. 4 JP19401047,Furthermore, in JP23520998,the discussion JP24320175,of corporatism, andthe JP15K03054).production of social values by CSOs has not been given enough Background attention. ThisTo advancepaper examinesthe study the of relationship the transnational between dynamics emigrants’ of With the promulgation of the State constitution in 1962, Nepal transnationalnon-Western civilcivil societysociety and in theits State,concrete especially form, theirI focus country on ofa became the only Hindu kingdom in the world, implementing originnon-Western with attention emigrants’ to its corporatistvoluntary characteristic,association, as namely,an attempt the at cultural assimilation policies toward ethnic minorities, introducing clarifyingNon-Resident the transnationalNepali Association dynamics (NRNA), of civil and society. clarify Here, its corporatist referring the party-less Panchayat system, and eliminating all political parties. torelationship the definition to the of government civil society of by Nepal, Hegel which (1896: is§ 182:the emigrants’addition; Before the democratization in 1990, the State sought to ensure that country1952: 266; of origin. 1991:5 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of no organization would be set up without the prior authorization of transnational process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term the government (Shrestha 2010: 196). Exceptions were traditional

“transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of types of voluntary association, such as the guṭhī institutions in Newari 4 Murphy (2000) deals with the corporatist relationship between Chinese relationships,emigrants and thewhich local falls government. between theHowever, private she realm focuses on mainly the one on handlocal andgovernment. a specific State on the other, across geographical national 5 boundariesI became aware and ofwhere, Adhikari through and Gellner’s sociability, (2018) informativesocial values paper such on theas discussion of their paper are different than those of this present one; their focus NRNA only after the present article entered its final review. I regret that I could does not rest upon the corporatist relationship between the NRNA and the civility, mutuality, religiosity, and others are produced, as the not reflect the accomplishment of their study. However, the purpose and Nepali government. 254 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 255 society,government, (Ishii 1980) which and has the beenfew orgageneratednizations by blessed the emigrants’with official connectionsactivism beyond and patronage, national suchborders. as the government-organized NGOs (GONGOs) and the ethnic organization of the Tharu, operated openlyKey w(Shresthaords: Corporatism 2010: 197; beyond Gurung national 1997: borders,526).6 transnational civil However, thesociety, democratization Nepal, emigration, process Non-resident in 1990 Nepali obliged Association King Birendra to admit(NRNA) freedom of speech and political parties. In 2008, the monarchy was abolished as a consequence of the broad opposition to the dictatorship of the last king (Gyanendra). The democratization also activatedAckn ocampaignswledgmen tbys oppressed people, such Ias greatly the discriminatedappreciate the castes,cooperation women, of theindigenous members ofethnic the NRNA.people However,(janajāti adivasi I am solely), and responsible Madhesis.7 for the views and opinions expressed in Thethis governmentalpaper, and they policy do onnot CSOs reflect was those also ofdramatically the NRNA changed. unless differentlyThe government specified. seems I amto have also optedgrateful for to various the anonymous non-oppressive reviewers ways forof controllingtheir invaluable CSOs. comments. After democratization, The Japan Society Nepal for has the become Promotion one of theSciences South supportedAsian countries this researchengaged (JSPSin a corporatistKAKENHI mode Grant of Numbers:governance (evenJP19401047, though we cannotJP23520998, exclude thatJP24320175, this was true alsoand JP15K03054).before democratization). The government also started to integrate CSOs into the governmental system to achieve its political aims. The NationalThis paperFive-Year examines Plan (1992-1997) the relationship acknowledged between the contributionemigrants’ transnationalof NGOs to rural civil developmentsociety and the(Shrestha State, 2010:especially 197). their In 1992, country Prime of originMinister with Girija attention Prasad to Koirala its corporatist announced characteristic, that the governmentas an attempt did at clarifyingnot wish tothe control transnational the functioning dynamics of ofsocial civil organizations society. Here, but referring that it todid thewish definition to acquire of information civil society regarding by Hegel their (1896: work §(Shrestha182: addition; 2010: 197).1952: The266; Social1991: Welfare220) andAct Dunn2049 was(1996: enacted 27) inand 1992 that andof accordingtransnational to theprocess Article by 26, Kearney the Social (1995: Welfare 548), Council I use (SWC) the term was “transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of

6relationships, A guthi institution which is established falls between for religious the private worship realm to a deityon the or god.one hand 7and Madhes a specificis a generic State term onfor peoplethe other, living inacross the borderlands geographical between national Nepal andboundaries India and and consists where, of several through ethnic sociability, groups or castes.social Janajati values adivasi such isas a generic term for people who insist that their forebears lived in Nepal prior to thecivility, arrival mutuality,of Hindus from religiosity, India and others are produced, as the 254 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 255 society,government, (Ishii 1980) which and has the beenfew orgageneratednizations by blessed the emigrants’with official instituted in 1993.8 The Act makes it mandatory for any foreign connectionsactivism beyond and patronage, national suchborders. as the government-organized NGOs NGO working in Nepal to apply to the SWC for permission before (GONGOs) and the ethnic organization of the Tharu, operated starting to work in Nepal (Article 12.1), while local associations are openlyKey w(Shresthaords: Corporatism 2010: 197; beyond Gurung national 1997: borders,526).6 transnational civil not obliged to do so. In response to the movement of janajāti adivasi, However, thesociety, democratization Nepal, emigration, process Non-resident in 1990 Nepali obliged Association King the Nepalese Government established the National Foundation for Birendra to admit(NRNA) freedom of speech and political parties. In 2008, Upliftment of Aadibasi/Janjati Act, 2058 (2002) in 2002 the monarchy was abolished as a consequence of the broad (Government of Nepal n.d.). According to the act, the government opposition to the dictatorship of the last king (Gyanendra). The approved the Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN), democratization also activatedAckn ocampaignswledgmen tbys oppressed people, such an umbrella organization for indigenous people’s organizations. Ias greatly the discriminatedappreciate the castes,cooperation women, of theindigenous members ofethnic the NRNA.people Major agreements between the Nepalese government, the NEFIN, However,(janajāti adivasi I am solely), and responsible Madhesis.7 for the views and opinions expressed and the Madhesi People’s Rights Forum were signed in August 2007, in Thethis governmentalpaper, and they policy do onnot CSOs reflect was those also ofdramatically the NRNA changed. unless taking initial steps to develop a framework for federal restructuring differentlyThe government specified. seems I amto have also optedgrateful for to various the anonymous non-oppressive reviewers ways and establishing proportional quotas for the constituent assembly forof controllingtheir invaluable CSOs. comments. After democratization, The Japan Society Nepal for has the become Promotion one (Middleton and Shneiderman 2008: 49). A caste association also of theSciences South supportedAsian countries this researchengaged (JSPSin a corporatistKAKENHI mode Grant of enjoys the new relationship with the government. The Nepali Numbers:governance (evenJP19401047, though we cannotJP23520998, exclude thatJP24320175, this was true alsoand government gave a cooperative association of people of a JP15K03054).before democratization). The government also started to integrate discriminated caste the advice and facilities necessary for them to CSOs into the governmental system to achieve its political aims. The modernize their traditional butchery trade (Nakagawa 2016: 157). NationalThis paperFive-Year examines Plan (1992-1997) the relationship acknowledged between the contributionemigrants’ Through this corporatist policy, the Nepali government can foster transnationalof NGOs to rural civil developmentsociety and the(Shrestha State, 2010:especially 197). their In 1992, country Prime of economic development while maintaining political stability, without originMinister with Girija attention Prasad to Koirala its corporatist announced characteristic, that the governmentas an attempt did at regressing to a developmental dictatorship.9 Indeed, for the Nepali clarifyingnot wish tothe control transnational the functioning dynamics of ofsocial civil organizations society. Here, but referring that it government, corporatism is “the third political system, different from todid thewish definition to acquire of information civil society regarding by Hegel their (1896: work §(Shrestha182: addition; 2010: either liberal-democratic or Marxian ones” (Wiarda 2015 (1997): 45). 197).1952: The266; Social1991: Welfare220) andAct Dunn2049 was(1996: enacted 27) inand 1992 that andof accordingtransnational to theprocess Article by 26, Kearney the Social (1995: Welfare 548), Council I use (SWC) the term was 8 “transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of The Social Welfare Council (SWC) is the body with which NGOs are obliged to register in order to receive funds from foreign sources (Glossary and relationships,6 A guthi institution which is established falls between for religious the private worship realm to a deityon the or god.one hand Abbreviations 2010: 269). and7 Madhes a specificis a generic State term onfor peoplethe other, living inacross the borderlands geographical between national Nepal 9 Lawoti (2010: 294) suggests that we adopt corporatism as a framework to boundariesand India and and consists where, of several through ethnic sociability, groups or castes.social Janajati values adivasi such isas a study Nepali politics and the effort to ensure that different classes are generic term for people who insist that their forebears lived in Nepal prior to represented in economic governance. However, he does not recognize that civility,the arrival mutuality,of Hindus from religiosity, India and others are produced, as the corporatism is already in place in Nepal. 256 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 257

Currently,government, the whichpower hasof thesebeen CSOs generated in the byrelationship the emigrants’ with the governmentactivism beyond is not national so weak borders. as before the democratization. After getting the permission, unless the NGO wants to keep being affiliatedKey wo withrds: Corporatismthe SWC, itbeyond is neither national subject borders, to inspection transnational by civilthe Social Welfaresociety, Council Nepal, nor emigration, declared Non-resident dissolved Nepaliby the Association Nepali government (Article(NRNA) 13, 18.5, and 20.1). Some local NGOs are even connected with the international donor community, which is a relevant source of funding for their projects.10 These CSOs’ Nepali employees could vote in Atheck nelectionowledg andmen manifestts their will through Iparliamentary greatly appreciate democracy. the cooperation Such changes of the explain members why of a thesenior NRNA. staff However,member Iof am the solely SWC responsible claimed for theto viewshave and“certain opinions feelings expressed of indisempowerment this paper, and aboutthey dothe not NGO reflect sector, those aof lossthe NRNAof authority” unless differently(Shrestha 2010:specified. 198). I amOn alsothe gratefulother hand, to the a anonymousleader of one reviewers NGO forcriticized their invaluablethe officials comments. for not being The interestedJapan Society in the for activitiesthe Promotion of the ofNGOs, Sciences and supportedclaimed thatthis theresearch responsibility (JSPS KAKENHIfor any potential Grant Numbers:problems cannotJP19401047, be attributed JP23520998, to the NGOs onlyJP24320175, (Shrestha 2010:and JP15K03054).199). Meanwhile, Nepalese Civil War launched by a Maoist faction of theThis Nepal paper Communist examines Party the in relationship 1996 continued between until emigrants’2006. The transnationalState’s new constitution,civil society anddefining the State,Nepal especially as a secular their democraticcountry of originfederal withrepublic, attention was promulgatedto its corporatist four characteristic, months after as the an devastating attempt at clarifyingearthquakes the oftransnational 2015. However, dynamics theof civilnew society. State Here,constitution’s referring todelineations the definition of provincial of civil societyborders by triggered Hegel (1896:fierce §182:opposition addition; by minority1952: 266; ethnic 1991: groups 220) and peopleand Dunn living (1996:in the borderlands27) and betweenthat of Indiatransnational and Nepal. process The latterby Kearneygroup blocked (1995: the 548), Nepal-India I use borderthe term for more“transnational than four civil months, society” supposedlyto mean thewith transnational India’s support. domain The of subsequentrelationships, political which fallsturbulence, between itsthe following private realm economic on the downturn, one hand and a specific State on the other, across geographical national boundaries and where, through sociability, social values such as 10 For example, NEFIN had the ear of both the government and the influential internationalcivility, mutuality, donor community religiosity, (Middleton and others and Shneiderman are produced, 2008: 42). as the 256 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 257

government,Currently, the whichpower hasof thesebeen CSOs generated in the byrelationship the emigrants’ with the and the reduction of travel restrictions have prompted a mass governmentactivism beyond is not national so weak borders. as before the democratization. After migration from Nepal to various destinations in and beyond South getting the permission, unless the NGO wants to keep being Asia since the 1990s. At present, more than three million Nepalis are affiliatedKey wo withrds: Corporatismthe SWC, itbeyond is neither national subject borders, to inspection transnational by civilthe estimated to be living in foreign countries other than India, and seven Social Welfaresociety, Council Nepal, nor emigration, declared Non-resident dissolved Nepaliby the Association Nepali to eight million in India.11 government (Article(NRNA) 13, 18.5, and 20.1). Some local NGOs are even Thanks to the development in information and communication connected with the international donor community, which is a technologies and transportation, those emigrants maintain personal relevant source of funding for their projects.10 These CSOs’ Nepali relationships with their families, relatives, and friends across national employees could vote in Atheck nelectionowledg andmen manifestts their will through geographical boundaries, although this varies from individual to Iparliamentary greatly appreciate democracy. the cooperation Such changes of the explain members why of a thesenior NRNA. staff individual according to necessities or fortune. For example, one of my However,member Iof am the solely SWC responsible claimed for theto viewshave and“certain opinions feelings expressed of informants residing in the United Kingdom claims to visit Nepal indisempowerment this paper, and aboutthey dothe not NGO reflect sector, those aof lossthe NRNAof authority” unless regularly in the autumn festival season with his family and enjoys differently(Shrestha 2010:specified. 198). I amOn alsothe gratefulother hand, to the a anonymousleader of one reviewers NGO close intimacy with relatives and friends in Nepal. He buys souvenirs forcriticized their invaluablethe officials comments. for not being The interestedJapan Society in the for activitiesthe Promotion of the at each visit to Nepal and has his sons present them to their British ofNGOs, Sciences and supportedclaimed thatthis theresearch responsibility (JSPS KAKENHIfor any potential Grant classmates, talking about Nepal (Interview in 2011). Another woman, Numbers:problems cannotJP19401047, be attributed JP23520998, to the NGOs onlyJP24320175, (Shrestha 2010:and a United Kingdom citizen, chats every day with her elderly mother JP15K03054).199). using a telecommunication application software and visits Nepal two Meanwhile, Nepalese Civil War launched by a Maoist faction of times a year to spend time with her mother. theThis Nepal paper Communist examines Party the in relationship 1996 continued between until emigrants’2006. The However, various problems have emerged related to international transnationalState’s new constitution,civil society anddefining the State,Nepal especially as a secular their democraticcountry of migration that are difficult to solve for single individuals, and originfederal withrepublic, attention was promulgatedto its corporatist four characteristic, months after as the an devastating attempt at migrants have resorted to various kinds of voluntary associations.12 clarifyingearthquakes the oftransnational 2015. However, dynamics theof civilnew society. State Here,constitution’s referring todelineations the definition of provincial of civil societyborders by triggered Hegel (1896:fierce §182:opposition addition; by 11 According to the 2011 census, 1,921,494 people did not reside at the minority1952: 266; ethnic 1991: groups 220) and peopleand Dunn living (1996:in the borderlands27) and betweenthat of registered address (7.2% of the population of Nepal). On the other hand, the Indiatransnational and Nepal. process The latterby Kearneygroup blocked (1995: the 548), Nepal-India I use borderthe term for Souvenir Book, published by the NRNA at the Regional Conference in 2016, more“transnational than four civil months, society” supposedlyto mean thewith transnational India’s support. domain The of asserts that 4.0-4.5 million Nepali emigrants reside in more than 110 countries other than India (Śarmā 2016: 72). The precise number of Nepali residents in subsequentrelationships, political which fallsturbulence, between itsthe following private realm economic on the downturn, one hand India is unknown because passport checks at the border are not performed and a specific State on the other, across geographical national either in India or in Nepal. 12 boundaries and where, through sociability, social values such as The British Gurkha Welfare Society, a CSO established by Gurkha veterans 10 For example, NEFIN had the ear of both the government and the influential of the British Army, is one example. See Tanaka’s paper in this special issue for internationalcivility, mutuality, donor community religiosity, (Middleton and others and Shneiderman are produced, 2008: 42). as the other kinds of CSOs founded by Nepali emigrants. 258 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 259

Thegovernment, NRNA is one which of them. has been generated by the emigrants’ activism beyond national borders. T he NRNA Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil Foundation osociety,f the NNepal,RN Aemigration, Non-resident Nepali Association In 2003, Nepali(NRNA) emigrants established the NRNA in Kathmandu. The NRNA’s purpose is to secure the welfare and rights of Nepali emigrants, establish a global network and common platform for them, and contribute to the developmentAcknowle dofg mNepal.ents “Non-Resident Nepali” I(NRN, greatly gair appreciate āvāsīya nepālīthe cooperation) is the name of usedthe membersby the NRNA of the to NRNA. refer to However,some Nepali I am emigrants. solely responsible13 for the views and opinions expressed in Asthis of paper, December and they2018, do the not NRNA reflect embraces those of registeredthe NRNA members unless differentlyliving in 78specified. countries. I am Aalso country grateful with to the more anonymous than 10 reviewers Nepali foremigrants their invaluable can establish comments. a National The JapanCoordination Society for Council the Promotion (NCC) ofaffiliated Sciences with supportedthe NRNA, this such research as the NCC(JSPS Canada. KAKENHI No NCC Grant is Numbers:established in JP19401047,any South Asian JP23520998, country, including JP24320175, India, despite andthe JP15K03054).presence of a large community of Nepali residents in those countries.14 The total number of registered members is not disclosed, This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ transnational13 The category “non-residentcivil society Nepali”and the does State, not includeespecially all the their Nepali country emigrants. of The Act Designed to Provide for the Legal Provisions Relating to Non-Resident originNepalis with(NRN attention Act 2007) to defines its corporatist a non-resident characteristic, Nepali as aas foreign an attempt citizen ofat clarifyingNepali origin the or transnationala Nepali citizen dynamics residing in ofa foreign civil society.country (ArticleHere, referring2. Ka). A to“foreign the citizendefinition of Nepali of civilorigin” society here refers by toHegel a citizen (1896: of foreign§182: country addition; other than the member countries of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation1952: 266; (SAARC) 1991: and220) who and or whose Dunn ancestor (1996: up to27) two generationsand that agoof wastransnational Nepali citizen process (article by 2. KearneyKha). A “Nepali(1995: citizen 548), residing I use inthe a foreignterm country”“transnational refers to civil a worker society” who residesto mean in a foreignthe transnational country other thandomain SAARC of countries more than two years, but is not a Nepali diplomat, a resident employeerelationships, of a whichmajor enterprise,falls between or athe re searcherprivate atrealm educational on the oneinstitution hand (Articleand a 2.specific Ga). State on the other, across geographical national 14 boundariesThe members and of where,the NRNA through assert sociability,that an NCC social India valuesis not necessarysuch as because people can freely go back and forth at the border between India and Nepal.civility, mutuality, religiosity, and others are produced, as the 258 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 259

Thegovernment, NRNA is one which of them. has been generated by the emigrants’ and only the identities of some members (office bearers, members, activism beyond national borders. advisers, patrons, and some active members) are shown on the T he NRNA website of the NRNA. According to it, the number of these limited Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil members is 1,104. They are classified into: 154 in 16 African Foundation osociety,f the NNepal,RN Aemigration, Non-resident Nepali Association countries, 67 in 4 American countries, 189 in 15 countries in the In 2003, Nepali(NRNA) emigrants established the NRNA in Kathmandu. Asia Pacific region, 425 in 27 European countries, 191 in 12 The NRNA’s purpose is to secure the welfare and rights of Nepali countries in the Middle East, and 78 in 4 countries in Oceania emigrants, establish a global network and common platform for them, (NRNA 2018b). In addition to these members, there are many other and contribute to the developmentAcknowle dofg mNepal.ents “Non-Resident Nepali” registered members. For instance, the NCC USA counted 11,000 I(NRN, greatly gair appreciate āvāsīya nepālīthe cooperation) is the name of usedthe membersby the NRNA of the to NRNA. refer to registered members in March 2015 and had become the largest NCC However,some Nepali I am emigrants. solely responsible13 for the views and opinions expressed in terms of registered members (Gurung 2016), but the homepage of in Asthis of paper, December and they2018, do the not NRNA reflect embraces those of registeredthe NRNA members unless the NRNA reports only 23 office bearers in the NCC USA.15 differentlyliving in 78specified. countries. I am Aalso country grateful with to the more anonymous than 10 reviewers Nepali foremigrants their invaluable can establish comments. a National The JapanCoordination Society for Council the Promotion (NCC) Organizational Structure of the NRNA ofaffiliated Sciences with supportedthe NRNA, this such research as the NCC(JSPS Canada. KAKENHI No NCC Grant is The organizational structure of the NRNA is hierarchical. Numbers:established in JP19401047,any South Asian JP23520998, country, including JP24320175, India, despite andthe Each NCC sends delegates to the NRNA’s International General JP15K03054).presence of a large community of Nepali residents in those Assembly (IGA, antarrāṣṭriya sammelan), the supreme organ of the countries.14 The total number of registered members is not disclosed, NRNA (Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2017 ko Sȧśodhan This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ sahit), Article 13.1), in which the members of the International 13 transnationalThe category “non-residentcivil society Nepali”and the does State, not includeespecially all the their Nepali country emigrants. of Coordination Council (ICC) and its office bearers are nominated by The Act Designed to Provide for the Legal Provisions Relating to Non-Resident originNepalis with(NRN attention Act 2007) to defines its corporatist a non-resident characteristic, Nepali as aas foreign an attempt citizen ofat negotiation or election in case of the failure in negotiation. There is clarifyingNepali origin the or transnationala Nepali citizen dynamics residing in ofa foreign civil society.country (ArticleHere, referring2. Ka). A sometimes fighting between supporters of rival candidates. Table 1 to“foreign the citizendefinition of Nepali of civilorigin” society here refers by toHegel a citizen (1896: of foreign§182: country addition; other presents the ICC’s composition. The IGA’s activities and election than the member countries of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation1952: 266; (SAARC) 1991: and220) who and or whose Dunn ancestor (1996: up to27) two generationsand that agoof wastransnational Nepali citizen process (article by 2. KearneyKha). A “Nepali(1995: citizen 548), residing I use inthe a foreignterm 15 country”“transnational refers to civil a worker society” who residesto mean in a foreignthe transnational country other thandomain SAARC of The NCC Japan also reports only 12 office bearers and 7 executive members countries more than two years, but is not a Nepali diplomat, a resident on the homepage of the NRNA, but the total number of registered members is employeerelationships, of a whichmajor enterprise,falls between or athe re searcherprivate atrealm educational on the oneinstitution hand 10,276 as of December 2017 according to the website of the NCC Japan, (Articleand a 2.specific Ga). State on the other, across geographical national about 541 times more. (However, the website of the NCC Japan is not 14 boundariesThe members and of where,the NRNA through assert sociability,that an NCC social India valuesis not necessarysuch as available as of January 2019.) According to a Nepali residing in Japan, the because people can freely go back and forth at the border between India and larger number includes people who are registered but are not engaged in any Nepal.civility, mutuality, religiosity, and others are produced, as the activity. 260 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 261

Tablegovernment, 1. Composition which of the ICChas been generated by the emigrants’ Fuactivismnctions/Off ibeyondces/Titles national borders. Number of members President 1 Vice President 2 Key words: CorporatismInternational beyondGeneral Secretary national borders, transnational1 civil society,Executive Nepal, emigration, Non-resident Nepali Association Committee Secretary 1 (NRNA) Treasurer 1 Spokesperson 1 Africa 1 Americas 1 Regional AcAsiaknowledgments 1 I greatly appreciateCoordinator the cooperationEurope1 of the members of the NRNA. Middle East 1 However,Administrative I am solely responsible for the views and opinions expressed Pacific 1 in this paper, and they doAfrica not reflect those of the NRNA1 unless differently specified. I am Americasalso grateful to the anonymous1 reviewers Deputy Asia 1 for their invaluableRegional comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion of Sciences supportedCoordinator thisEuro pe1research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Middle East 1 Numbers: JP19401047,Pacific JP23520998, JP24320175,1 and JP15K03054). Women Coordinator 1 Other Women Deputy Coordinator 1 This papercoordinators examines Youththe Coordinator relationship between emigrants’1 Deputy Youth Coordinator 1 transnational civil society and the State, especially theirOne person country per 10 of originNot with attentionMembers (representativesto its corporatist dispatched characteristic, by all the through as an 1000 attempt members at administrative NCCs) of each NCC (83 total in clarifying the transnational dynamics of civil society. Here,2015-2017) referring to the definitionOther ofmembers civil society by Hegel (1896:§182:Up toaddition; 15

1952:Source: NRNA266; (2015)1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnational process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term results“transnational are reported civil onsociety” TV and to in mean newspapers the transnational in Nepal and domain gather theof attentionrelationships, of the which general falls public. between the private realm on the one hand andVoters a specific in the Stateelection on are the the other, delegates across from geographical each NCC nationaland the membersboundaries and and advisors where, ofthrough the ICC sociability, (Gair Āvāsīya social Nepālīvalues Ssuchȧghako as civility,Vidhān 2003mutuality, (2017 religiosity,ko Sȧśodhan and sahit) others, Article are 13). produced, While an as NCC the 260 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 261

Tablegovernment, 1. Composition which of the ICChas been generated by the emigrants’ with less than 1,000 registered members can send one delegate per Fuactivismnctions/Off ibeyondces/Titles national borders. Number of members ten registered members, an NCC including more than 1,000 President 1 registered members can add delegates in the ratio of 1 to 40 for the Vice President 2 Key words: CorporatismInternational beyondGeneral Secretary national borders, transnational1 civil first additional 1,000 members, 1 to 80 for the next additional 1,000 society,Executive Nepal, emigration, Non-resident Nepali Association Committee Secretary 1 members, and 1 to 120 for every additional 1,000 members (NRNA) Treasurer 1 afterwards (Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2017 ko Spokesperson 1 Sȧśodhan sahit), Article 13.7). The total number of voters is not Africa 1 16 Americas 1 disclosed. Each NCC has its own goals to pursue through the Regional AcAsiaknowledgments 1 NRNA. Therefore, it strives to get as many registered members as I greatly appreciateCoordinator the cooperationEurope1 of the members of the NRNA. possible, and therefore ICC delegates, especially in the years in which Middle East 1 However,Administrative I am solely responsible for the views and opinions expressed the IGA is held. As a result, the number of registered members and Pacific 1 in this paper, and they doAfrica not reflect those of the NRNA1 unless dues income grow more sharply during the year of the IGA. differently specified. I am Americasalso grateful to the anonymous1 reviewers The ICC has authority to establish or disband an NCC (Gair Deputy Asia 1 for their invaluableRegional comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2017 ko Sȧśodhan sahit), Article of Sciences supportedCoordinator thisEuro pe1research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant 17.7). The ICC can supervise the activities of the NCC and instruct Middle East 1 Numbers: JP19401047,Pacific JP23520998, JP24320175,1 and the NCC through the appropriate Regional Coordinator, although JP15K03054). Women Coordinator 1 the NCC can request that the ICC reconsider its instructions (Gair Other Women Deputy Coordinator 1 Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2017 ko Sȧśodhan sahit), Article This papercoordinators examines Youththe Coordinator relationship between emigrants’1 17.11). When there is an inconsistency between an NRNA’s Statute Deputy Youth Coordinator 1 Gair Āvāsīya transnational civil society and the State, especially theirOne person country per 10 of and that of an NCC, the former overrides the latter ( originNot with attentionMembers (representativesto its corporatist dispatched characteristic, by all the through as an 1000 attempt members at Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2017 ko Sȧśodhan sahit), Article 23.8). administrative NCCs) of each NCC (83 total in clarifying the transnational dynamics of civil society. Here,2015-2017) referring Some people would like to reconsider the hierarchical organization to the definitionOther ofmembers civil society by Hegel (1896:§182:Up toaddition; 15 of the NRNA. Nabaraj Gurung, Americas Regional Coordinator of

1952:Source: NRNA266; (2015)1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of the ICC, writes in the NRNA’s official homepage, “its [the NRNA’s] transnational process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term formational years have seen top-down approach regarding “transnationalresults are reported civil onsociety” TV and to in mean newspapers the transnational in Nepal and domain gather theof organizational development. However, in recent years, there has been relationships,attention of the which general falls public. between the private realm on the one hand and Voters a specific in the Stateelection on are the the other, delegates across from geographical each NCC nationaland the 16 boundariesmembers and and advisors where, ofthrough the ICC sociability, (Gair Āvāsīya social Nepālīvalues Ssuchȧghako as According to one person who assisted a candidate in the election in 2015, the total number of voters was about 1,200, of which 200 came from the NCC civility,Vidhān 2003mutuality, (2017 religiosity,ko Sȧśodhan and sahit) others, Article are 13). produced, While an as NCC the Japan. 262 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 263 a realizationgovernment, and which emphasis has that been a stronggenerated ICC isby possible the emigrants’ only when NCCsactivism are strong,beyond andnational the NCCs borders. should reach out to the grassroots to become effective. NRNA has thus increasingly committed itself to a bottom-upKey words: Corporatismapproach and beyond has in national the process borders, been transnational continuously civil learning from society,the challenges Nepal, emigration, it faced alongNon-resident the way Nepali and Associationis moving forward with (NRNA)more NCCs becoming institutionalized” (Gurung 2016). The organizational structure of the NRNA is fractal as well as hierarchical: NCCs’ organization,Acknowl eoperations,dgments and duties are similar Ito greatly those ofappreciate the ICC. the Some cooperation NCCs, such of the as themembers NCC ofGermany, the NRNA. may However,have Local I amCoordination solely responsible Councils for the(LCCs), views andlocal opinions chapters expressed of the inNCC. this paper, and they do not reflect those of the NRNA unless differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers forGa ttheirheri ninvaluablegs comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion of TheSciences IGA issupported held in Kathmanduthis research every (JSPS two KAKENHIyears in October, Grant Numbers:together with JP19401047,the NRN Global JP23520998,Conference, the NRNJP24320175, Day, and otherand JP15K03054).related events. These seasonal events last approximately ten days. It is the most important festive season in Nepal. In the year in which the IGAThis is not paper held, examines the ICC canthe hold relationship regional conferences between emigrants’in order to transnationalunderstand better civil thesociety situation and theof theState, emigrants especially residing their incountry different of originregions with of the attention world asto wellits corporatist as to promote characteristic, the campaign as an toattempt preserve at clarifyingtheir interests the transnationaland rights (Gair dynamics Āvāsīya of Nepālī civil society. Sȧghako Here, Vidhān referring 2003 to(2017 the kodefinition Sȧśodhan of sahit)civil , societyArticle by12). Hegel During (1896: the§ 182:IGA addition;and the regional1952: 266; conferences, 1991: 220) the andNRNA Dunn invites (1996: government 27) and officials,that of politicians,transnational foreign process scholars, by Kearney and other (1995: VIPs to 548), lavish Iparties. use the term “transnationalThese conferences civil society” provide tothe mean participants the transnational from the NCCsdomain with of therelationships, opportunity which to promote falls between their activitiesthe private and realm express on theirthe one opinions hand inand front a specificof the membersState on fromthe otheother,r regions.across However,geographical in 2013,national an NCCboundaries delegate and harshly where, criticized through thatsociability, the ICC social office valuesbearers such should as havecivility, been mutuality, in the room religiosity, and heard and feedback others from are NCCs. produced, as the 262 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 263 a realizationgovernment, and which emphasis has that been a stronggenerated ICC isby possible the emigrants’ only when Also, taking advantage of other events in which Nepali emigrants NCCsactivism are strong,beyond andnational the NCCs borders. should reach out to the grassroots get together, the members of the NCCs hold their meetings. The to become effective. NRNA has thus increasingly committed itself to conference and meetings provide the members and their families with a bottom-upKey words: Corporatismapproach and beyond has in national the process borders, been transnational continuously civil opportunities to socialize, discuss, and eat together. learning from society,the challenges Nepal, emigration, it faced alongNon-resident the way Nepali and Associationis moving forward with (NRNA)more NCCs becoming institutionalized” (Gurung Income and Expenditure 2016). Most of the organizations’ income is gained at the IGA, regional The organizational structure of the NRNA is fractal as well as conferences, and related events, where registration fees are paid by hierarchical: NCCs’ organization,Acknowl eoperations,dgments and duties are similar each attendee and donations are also collected.17 For the period Ito greatly those ofappreciate the ICC. the Some cooperation NCCs, such of the as themembers NCC ofGermany, the NRNA. may between 16 July 2015 and 15 July 2017, 60% of income was gained However,have Local I amCoordination solely responsible Councils for the(LCCs), views andlocal opinions chapters expressed of the at the IGA, regional conferences, and NRN Day 2016. A standing inNCC. this paper, and they do not reflect those of the NRNA unless signboard and posters with the list of donors and donated amounts differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers are seen everywhere in the venue. Table 2 lists the main donors at the forGa ttheirheri ninvaluablegs comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion Seventh NRN Global Conference in 201518. of TheSciences IGA issupported held in Kathmanduthis research every (JSPS two KAKENHIyears in October, Grant As shown in Table 2, both Nepali emigrants and Nepali residents Numbers:together with JP19401047,the NRN Global JP23520998,Conference, the NRNJP24320175, Day, and otherand support the conference financially. Donors also include the previous JP15K03054).related events. These seasonal events last approximately ten days. It is and current presidents of the NRNA, and wealth and generosity seem the most important festive season in Nepal. In the year in which the to be among the factors which are highly appreciated for high IGAThis is not paper held, examines the ICC canthe hold relationship regional conferences between emigrants’in order to officials of the NRNA.19 transnationalunderstand better civil thesociety situation and theof theState, emigrants especially residing their incountry different of The membership due is USD 3,00 for the NCCs in the Middle originregions with of the attention world asto wellits corporatist as to promote characteristic, the campaign as an toattempt preserve at East, Malaysia, and Africa, and USD 5,00 for the NCCs in other clarifyingtheir interests the transnationaland rights (Gair dynamics Āvāsīya of Nepālī civil society. Sȧghako Here, Vidhān referring 2003 countries (Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2017 ko to(2017 the kodefinition Sȧśodhan of sahit)civil , societyArticle by12). Hegel During (1896: the§ 182:IGA addition;and the Sȧśodhan sahit), Article 9.2). For the period between 16 July 2015 1952:regional 266; conferences, 1991: 220) the andNRNA Dunn invites (1996: government 27) and officials,that of transnationalpoliticians, foreign process scholars, by Kearney and other (1995: VIPs to 548), lavish Iparties. use the term 17 “transnational These conferences civil society” provide tothe mean participants the transnational from the NCCsdomain with of For example, the income at the Seventh Global Conference was NPR 38,422,588.72 (S. R. Pandey & Co. 2017). relationships,the opportunity which to promote falls between their activitiesthe private and realm express on theirthe one opinions hand 18 The exact name of “Machapuchre Bank Limited” in Table 2 is andin front a specificof the membersState on fromthe otheother,r regions.across However,geographical in 2013,national an “Machhapuchchhre Bank Limited” according to its webpage (Machhapuchchhre boundariesNCC delegate and harshly where, criticized through thatsociability, the ICC social office valuesbearers such should as Bank Limited 2018). 19 A member praised a former president for holding a home party that every civility,have been mutuality, in the room religiosity, and heard and feedback others from are NCCs. produced, as the member of his NCC’ could attend. 264 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 265

Tablegovernment, 2. Main donors which at the Sixthhas NRNbeen Global generated Conference by heldthe in 2015emigrants’ activismAmount of mone beyondy nationalDonor borders. Detail of donor NPR 1 million Sanima Bank Financial institution NPR 1 million Imperial Developer Developer NPRKe 1y millionword s: Corporatism Kantipur Media beyond Group nationalGrou borders,p of media com transnationalpanies civil NPR 1 million society, NPBC Nepal,L emigration, Non-residentRoad constructor Nepali Association NPR 1 million (NRNA) Best Remit Financial institution specialized in remittance NPR 500 thousand TBI Group Group of companies led by an emigrant living in Japan (the President of the NRNA in 2017-2019) NPR 500 thousand MelbourneA cInstituteknow ofl edgmeCollegents managed by an emigrant living in I greatly appreciateTechnology the cooperation of theAustralia members (the President of of the the NRNANRNA. in 2013-2017) However,NPR 500 thousand I am solely Machapuchre responsible [sic.] Bank for the Financialviews andinstitution opinions expressed in this paper, and Limitetheyd do not reflect those of the NRNA unless differentlyNPR 500 thousan specified.d Global I am IME alsoBank grateful Financialto the institution anonymous reviewers NPR 300 thousand 4NationsInternational Agency for migration into Australia forNPR their 300 thousan invaluabled Sathi comments. The JapanUnknown Society for the Promotion ofNPR Sciences 300 thousan d supported Commerz andthis Trus tresearch Financial(JSPS institution KAKENHI Grant Numbers:NPR 300 thousand JP19401047, Nepal Global ServicesJP23520998, Provider of AdministrationJP24320175, service of realand estate owned by emigrants in Nepal JP15K03054).NPR 300 thousand Subinprara Infotech IT company engaged in the development of application of social networking service specialized in Nepali emigrants This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ transnationaland 15 July 2017, civil members’society and contributions the State, especially accounted their for thecountry 33% of originthe total with income attention (NPR to its85,420,915.55). corporatist characteristic, The fees collected as an attempt by each at clarifyingNCC from the its transnational members are dynamics deposited of into civil the society. ICC’s Here,treasury referring (Gair toĀvāsīya the definitionNepālī Sȧghako of civil Vidhān society 2003 by (2017 Hegel ko (1896:Sȧśodhan§182: sahit) addition;, Article 9.2).1952: Therefore, 266; 1991: NCCs’ 220) own and activities Dunn are (1996: crucially 27) financed and that by theof members’transnational donation process in additionby Kearney to the (1995: stipulated 548), fees. I20 use the term “transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of

20relationships, If the NCC considerswhich falls it necessary, between itthe can private charge realmadditional on thefees, onewhich hand are depositedand a specific in the NCC’sState bankon accountthe other, (Article across 9.3). geographicalIn the case of thenational NCC Australia,boundaries the andadditional where, fee forthrough a two-year sociability, single membership social values is AUD such 25.00 as and that for a two-year family membership is AUD 50.00 (NRNA Australia 2014).civility, mutuality, religiosity, and others are produced, as the 264 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 265

Tablegovernment, 2. Main donors which at the Sixthhas NRNbeen Global generated Conference by heldthe in 2015emigrants’ For the period between 16 July 2015 and 15 July 2017, the activismAmount of mone beyondy nationalDonor borders. Detail of donor expenditure at the IGA, regional conferences, and NRN Day NPR 1 million Sanima Bank Financial institution accounted for about the 68% of the total expenditure (S. R. Pandey NPR 1 million Imperial Developer Developer NPRKe 1y millionword s: Corporatism Kantipur Media beyond Group nationalGrou borders,p of media com transnationalpanies civil & Co., 2017). Other main items of expenditure regarded employees’ NPR 1 million society, NPBC Nepal,L emigration, Non-residentRoad constructor Nepali Association costs and administrative/operational expenses. NPR 1 million (NRNA) Best Remit Financial institution specialized in remittance NPR 500 thousand TBI Group Group of companies led by an emigrant Activities living in Japan (the President of the NRNA activities include the following21: NRNA in 2017-2019) NPR 500 thousand MelbourneA cInstituteknow ofl edgmeCollegents managed by an emigrant living in I greatly appreciateTechnology the cooperation of theAustralia members (the President of of the the NRNANRNA. in (1) Activities for Nepali emigrants 2013-2017) ･ However,NPR 500 thousand I am solely Machapuchre responsible [sic.] Bank for the Financialviews andinstitution opinions expressed Campaign for the retention of Nepali citizenship in this paper, and Limitetheyd do not reflect those of the NRNA unless ･ Provide mutual aid to Nepali emigrants in their host countries differentlyNPR 500 thousan specified.d Global I am IME alsoBank grateful Financialto the institution anonymous reviewers ･ Develop activities for the descendants of Nepali emigrants NPR 300 thousand 4NationsInternational Agency for migration into Australia ･ forNPR their 300 thousan invaluabled Sathi comments. The JapanUnknown Society for the Promotion Promote Nepali culture in emigrants’ host countries ofNPR Sciences 300 thousan d supported Commerz andthis Trus tresearch Financial(JSPS institution KAKENHI Grant Numbers:NPR 300 thousand JP19401047, Nepal Global ServicesJP23520998, Provider of AdministrationJP24320175, service of realand (2) Activities for Nepali society estate owned by emigrants in Nepal ･ 22 JP15K03054).NPR 300 thousand Subinprara Infotech IT company engaged in the development Relieve survivors of natural disasters of application of social networking service ･ Conduct charity work in Nepal specialized in Nepali emigrants ･ This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ Conduct activities in Nepal for women’s health transnationaland 15 July 2017, civil members’society and contributions the State, especially accounted their for thecountry 33% of ･ Develop education in Nepal originthe total with income attention (NPR to its85,420,915.55). corporatist characteristic, The fees collected as an attempt by each at ･ Establish homes for elderly people clarifyingNCC from the its transnational members are dynamics deposited of into civil the society. ICC’s Here,treasury referring (Gair ･ Establish a funeral site in Nepal ･ toĀvāsīya the definitionNepālī Sȧghako of civil Vidhān society 2003 by (2017 Hegel ko (1896:Sȧśodhan§182: sahit) addition;, Article Transfer skills, knowledge and technologies (e.g., the foundation 9.2).1952: Therefore, 266; 1991: NCCs’ 220) own and activities Dunn are (1996: crucially 27) financed and that by theof 21 members’transnational donation process in additionby Kearney to the (1995: stipulated 548), fees. I20 use the term I obtained the data on the activities of the NRNA through the reading of its “transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of newsletters and the attendance at its conferences. 22 For example, the NRNA had collected NPR 419,995,037.25 in total by 15 relationships,20 If the NCC considerswhich falls it necessary, between itthe can private charge realmadditional on thefees, onewhich hand are September 2017 for the victims of the earthquakes in 2015 (NRNA 2017). It depositedand a specific in the NCC’sState bankon accountthe other, (Article across 9.3). geographicalIn the case of thenational NCC also plans to build in Laprak, an earthquake-stricken area, “earthquake resilient Australia,boundaries the andadditional where, fee forthrough a two-year sociability, single membership social values is AUD such 25.00 as homes to restore affected communities’ dignity, society, economy and cultural and that for a two-year family membership is AUD 50.00 (NRNA Australia identity as the symbol of the emigrants’ collective love for Nepal and Nepalis” 2014).civility, mutuality, religiosity, and others are produced, as the (NRNA 2018a). 266 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 267

government,of the Nepal which Open University)has been generated by the emigrants’ activism･ Establish beyond trade national schools inborders. Nepal

(3)K Activitiesey words :for Corporatism Nepali economy beyond national borders, transnational civil ･ Invest collectivelysociety, Nepal, in hydropower emigration, plants Non-resident Nepali Association ･ Promote overseas(NRNA) employment for Nepali workers ･ Develop solutions to problems related to overseas employment ･ Promote the export of Nepali products ･ Engage in publicity effortsAckn oinw lemigrants’edgments host countries to promote I greatlyNepal’s appreciate tourism the industry cooperation (e.g., ofthe the establishment members of of the the NRNA. Nepal However,Houses I am in solelycountries responsible of residence) for the views and opinions expressed in ･this Participate paper, and in thethey Nepali do not government’s reflect those policymaking of the NRNA efforts unless differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers for Thetheir localinvaluable NCCs comments. conduct Thethe Japanactivities Society also for in the countries Promotion of ofresidence Sciences (see Tanaka’ssupported paper this in thisresearch special (JSPS issue). KAKENHI Grant Numbers: The following JP19401047, is the song of JP23520998,the NRNA, written JP24320175, by the 2014 Viceand JP15K03054).President, which shows mottos of the NRNA behind its activities. The video is available on YouTube (Bhatta 2014). This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ transnational civil societyMaking and theNepali State, Nepali especially their country of origin (Lyricwith attentionby Bhaban to Bhatta, its corporatist music by characteristic, Shambhujit asBaskota) an attempt23 at clarifying the transnational dynamics of civil society. Here, referring to(refrain) the definition of civil society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; Our1952: motto 266; of 1991:making 220)Nepali and Nepali Dunn (1996: 27) and that of Thetransnational continuous process campaign by Kearney of heightening (1995: the548), fame I useof thisthe greatterm country“transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of relationships, which falls between the private realm on the one hand Gandaki,and a specific Kosi, Karnali,State on Meci, the and other, Mahakali across24 geographical national boundaries and where, through sociability, social values such as 23civility, Translation mutuality, by me. religiosity, and others are produced, as the 266 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 267 government,of the Nepal which Open University)has been generated by the emigrants’ Let’s maintain our association to serve our country activism･ Establish beyond trade national schools inborders. Nepal Let’s spread to the mother country our skill, fortune, and manual labor (3)K Activitiesey words :for Corporatism Nepali economy beyond national borders, transnational civil Then we take photos of our mother country Nepal smiling ･ Invest collectivelysociety, Nepal, in hydropower emigration, plants Non-resident Nepali Association ･ Promote overseas(NRNA) employment for Nepali workers (refrain of the first section) ･ Develop solutions to problems related to overseas employment ･ Promote the export of Nepali products The fortune that we earned sweating in foreign countries ･ Engage in publicity effortsAckn oinw lemigrants’edgments host countries to promote We invest capital whichever direction we go to. This is the soul of I greatlyNepal’s appreciate tourism the industry cooperation (e.g., ofthe the establishment members of of the the NRNA. Nepal Nepalis However,Houses I am in solelycountries responsible of residence) for the views and opinions expressed Our network has expanded to Europe, Asia, Oceania, America, the in ･this Participate paper, and in thethey Nepali do not government’s reflect those policymaking of the NRNA efforts unless Middle East, and reached Africa differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers for Thetheir localinvaluable NCCs comments. conduct Thethe Japanactivities Society also for in the countries Promotion of (refrain of the first section) ofresidence Sciences (see Tanaka’ssupported paper this in thisresearch special (JSPS issue). KAKENHI Grant Numbers: The following JP19401047, is the song of JP23520998,the NRNA, written JP24320175, by the 2014 Viceand No ethnicity or caste. This association acknowledges the culture JP15K03054).President, which shows mottos of the NRNA behind its activities. common to all communities The video is available on YouTube (Bhatta 2014). It is unnatural not to accept hard-working youth for the reason of This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ their foreign nationality transnational civil societyMaking and theNepali State, Nepali especially their country of Although we are non-resident Nepali, our goal is ambitious origin (Lyricwith attentionby Bhaban to Bhatta, its corporatist music by characteristic, Shambhujit asBaskota) an attempt23 at The country outside the country, this is our Nepal. Hurrah, hurrah! clarifying the transnational dynamics of civil society. Here, referring to(refrain) the definition of civil society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; (refrain of the first and second section) 1952:Our motto 266; of 1991:making 220)Nepali and Nepali Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnationalThe continuous process campaign by Kearney of heightening (1995: the548), fame I useof thisthe greatterm This song refers to entrepreneurship of some emigrants, “transnationalcountry civil society” to mean the transnational domain of long-distance nationalism and unity based on Nepali national relationships, which falls between the private realm on the one hand identity beyond the dividing line of cast/ethnicity. andGandaki, a specific Kosi, Karnali,State on Meci, the and other, Mahakali across24 geographical national boundaries and where, through sociability, social values such as civility,23 Translation mutuality, by me. religiosity, and others are produced, as the 24 These are the names of major rivers in Nepal 268 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 269

NRgovernment,NA’s Rela tiwhichonshi pshas w itbeenh Po ligeneratedtical Par tibyes inthe N eemigrants’pal Theactivism statute beyond of NRNAnational declaresborders. in its preamble that it aims at establishing an independent, non-profit, non-political, non-governmental, andK epermanentlyy words: Corporatism stable association. beyond national Nonetheless, borders, transnationalthe NRNA civilhas maintained relationshipssociety, Nepal, with emigration, politicians Non-resident to gather Nepali support Association for its cause. For example,(NRNA) in 2013 the ICC informed political parties of items that the NRNA wanted to be included in their manifests at the election of the second Constituent Assembly (Antarrāṣṭriya Samanwaya Pariṣad 2011-013Acknowl ekādg mGatividhients 2013: 55, 10-11 ISeptember greatly appreciate 2013). Asthe describedcooperation above, of the the members guests ofat theglobal NRNA. and However,regional conferences I am solely responsibleinclude politicians. for the views Such and a opinionsclose relationship expressed inwith this politicians paper, and sometimes they do brings not reflectabout thethose suspicion of the thatNRNA they unlessmight differentlyintervene into specified. the election I am ofalso the grateful ICC’s office to the bearers. anonymous reviewers for their invaluable comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion ofRe laSciencestionship wsupportedith the B uthissine ssresearch Comm un(JSPSity in NKAKENHIepal Grant Numbers: The NRNA JP19401047, has a close relationshipJP23520998, alsoJP24320175, with the business and JP15K03054).community in Nepal. The NRNA supports staffing services, tourism, cinema, infrastructure, and export industries. For example, in 2013 theThis NRNA paper and examines the Nepal the Infrastructure relationship Development between emigrants’ Company transnationalagreed to the civil construction society and of thea tunnelState, especiallybetween Kathmandutheir country and of originHetauda with ( Gairattention Āvāsīya to its Nepālī corporatist Sȧgha characteristic, Antarrāṣṭriya as anSamanwaya attempt at clarifyingPariṣad kā the Pachillā transnational Gatividhi dynamics 2013: 11, of 17 civil January society. 2013). Here, The referring NRN toGlobal the Conferencedefinition of in civil2013 society also showed by Hegel a friendly (1896: relationship§182: addition; with the1952: domestic 266; business1991: 220) community. and Dunn For example,(1996: Imperial27) and Developer that of Pvt.transnational Ltd. hosted process a party by for Kearney the NRNA (1995: at the 548), construction I use thesite ofterm its gorgeous“transnational condominium civil society” and calledto mean for investmentthe transnational in it. As domain described of above,relationships, the IGA which and falls related between events the are private organized realm throughon the onefees hand and donationsand a specific from domesticState on companies. the other, across geographical national boundariesThe NRNA and also where, has a cooperativethrough sociability, relationship social with values the Federation such as ofcivility, Nepali mutuality, Chambers religiosity, of Commerce and others and Industryare produced, (FNCCI), as thean 268 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 269

NRgovernment,NA’s Rela tiwhichonshi pshas w itbeenh Po ligeneratedtical Par tibyes inthe N eemigrants’pal umbrella organization of Nepal’s business community. The NRNA’s activismThe statute beyond of NRNAnational declaresborders. in its preamble that it aims at headquarters was hosted in a corner of the building of the FNCCI establishing an independent, non-profit, non-political, non-governmental, until the NRNA moved to its new building. The NRNA concluded andK epermanentlyy words: Corporatism stable association. beyond national Nonetheless, borders, transnationalthe NRNA civilhas an agreement with the FNCCI concerning the NRNA’s support to maintained relationshipssociety, Nepal, with emigration, politicians Non-resident to gather Nepali support Association for its the extension of the FNCCI building (Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧgha cause. For example,(NRNA) in 2013 the ICC informed political parties of Antarrāṣṭriya Samanwaya Pariṣad kā Pachillā Gatividhi 2013: 11, 20 items that the NRNA wanted to be included in their manifests at the January 2013). election of the second Constituent Assembly (Antarrāṣṭriya Samanwaya Pariṣad 2011-013Acknowl ekādg mGatividhients 2013: 55, 10-11 Relationship with Local CSOs ISeptember greatly appreciate 2013). Asthe describedcooperation above, of the the members guests ofat theglobal NRNA. and The NRNA financially supports local CSOs. In the occasion of the However,regional conferences I am solely responsibleinclude politicians. for the views Such and a opinionsclose relationship expressed NRN global and regional conferences, the CSOs that are supported, inwith this politicians paper, and sometimes they do brings not reflectabout thethose suspicion of the thatNRNA they unlessmight or wish to be supported, by the NRNA give presentations about their differentlyintervene into specified. the election I am ofalso the grateful ICC’s office to the bearers. anonymous reviewers activities. for their invaluable comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion ofRe laSciencestionship wsupportedith the B uthissine ssresearch Comm un(JSPSity in NKAKENHIepal Grant Relationship between the NRNA and Governments Numbers: The NRNA JP19401047, has a close relationshipJP23520998, alsoJP24320175, with the business and JP15K03054).community in Nepal. The NRNA supports staffing services, tourism, Relationship with the Government of Nepal cinema, infrastructure, and export industries. For example, in 2013 The NRNA has a very close relationship with the Nepali theThis NRNA paper and examines the Nepal the Infrastructure relationship Development between emigrants’ Company government. transnationalagreed to the civil construction society and of thea tunnelState, especiallybetween Kathmandutheir country and of The NRNA was established with the support of the Nepali originHetauda with ( Gairattention Āvāsīya to its Nepālī corporatist Sȧgha characteristic, Antarrāṣṭriya as anSamanwaya attempt at government in 2003. In the same year, the Nepali government clarifyingPariṣad kā the Pachillā transnational Gatividhi dynamics 2013: 11, of 17 civil January society. 2013). Here, The referring NRN institutionalized the NRN Day, and on the request of the NRNA, it toGlobal the Conferencedefinition of in civil2013 society also showed by Hegel a friendly (1896: relationship§182: addition; with co-organized the First NRN Global Conference in 2003. The former 1952:the domestic 266; business1991: 220) community. and Dunn For example,(1996: Imperial27) and Developer that of king Gyanendra attended the conference. Currently, the NRNA transnationalPvt. Ltd. hosted process a party by for Kearney the NRNA (1995: at the 548), construction I use thesite ofterm its holds the NRN Global Conferences with the joint sponsorship of the “transnationalgorgeous condominium civil society” and calledto mean for investmentthe transnational in it. As domain described of government and the FNCCI. 25 Until 2011, the government relationships,above, the IGA which and falls related between events the are private organized realm throughon the onefees hand and anddonations a specific from domesticState on companies. the other, across geographical national 25 A Global Conference Planning Committee, a meeting of high-level officials, boundaries The NRNA and also where, has a cooperativethrough sociability, relationship social with values the Federation such as is held under the chairmanship of the minister of foreign affairs (Antarrāṣṭriya Samanwaya Pariṣad 2011-013 kā Gatividhi 2013: 55, 9 September 2013). On civility,of Nepali mutuality, Chambers religiosity, of Commerce and others and Industryare produced, (FNCCI), as thean the first page of the Souvenir Books distributed on the occasion of the Global 270 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 271 absorbedgovernment, some ofwhich the costs has of beenthe conferences. generated 26by On the the emigrants’first pages of theactivism newsletters beyond published national during borders. the NRN Global Conferences, there are the messages of congratulations from high government officials. KIne y2007, words :the Corporatism Act Designed beyond to nationalProvide borders,for the transnationalLegal Provisions civil Relating to Non-Residentsociety, Nepal, Nepalis emigration, (NRN Non-resident Act) was instituted,Nepali Association which, as described later,(NRNA) established the new legal status of “Non-Resident Nepali” (NRN) (Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī) and the privileges associated with this status. Accompanying the act, the NRN Rule was also stipulated by the government.Ackno wAccordingledgmen ttos this NRN Act (Article I15.1), greatly in appreciate2012, the thefirst cooperation meeting of ofthe the NRN members Advisory of the Board NRNA. was However,held under I amthe solely leadership responsible of the for Vicethe views President and opinions of the expressedNational inPlanning this paper, Commission. and they27 doThe not NRNA reflect was those formally of the registered NRNA unlessas an differentlyassociation specified.affiliated withI am the also Mini gratefulstry of to Foreign the anonymous Affairs in 2013reviewers and foris exempted their invaluable from taxation. comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion of TheSciences government supported expects this Nepali research emigrants (JSPS to contributeKAKENHI to Nepal’sGrant Numbers:development JP19401047,through investments, JP23520998, donations, JP24320175, and transfer andof JP15K03054).knowledge, skills, and technologies. Through the NRNA, the

This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ transnationalConference, the civilAide societyto the President and the (sahasaciv State, )especially in the President their Palacecountry wrote of that the Global Conference was held with the cooperation of the Nepalese originGovernment, with attentionthe FNCCI, to andits corporatist the NRNA characteristic,(Budhā 2015: 1; as Dāhāl an attempt 2013: 1).at clarifyingThe event isthe held transnational at the Nepali Armydynamics Officers’ of Club.civil society. Here, referring to Thethe FNCCI definition is registered of civil as asociety national byrepresentative Hegel (1896: chamber§182: in pursuantaddition; of section 3 of the National Directives Act 1961 (Rāṣṭriya Nirdeśan Ain 2018) (FNCCI1952: 266;n.d.). 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of 26transnational According to processthe financial by Kearneyreport of the(1995: NRNA, 548), the Iamount use thewas termNPR 1,500,000“transnational in 2005, civil NPR society” 2,000,000 to meanin 2007, the NPR transnational 1,500,000 indomain 2009, andof NPR 3,000,000 in 2011. Thereafter, owing to domestic criticism, the Nepali governmentrelationships, no longerwhich absorbed falls between the cost the of theprivate conferences. realm on the one hand 27and Its amembers specific included State onthe Secretarythe other, of theacross Ministries geographical of the Economy,national Foreignboundaries Affairs, and and where, Industry, through the Governor sociability, of the Nepalsocial National values Bank,such theas Economic Advisor to the Prime Minister, and the president of the NRNA (Enārenkocivility, mutuality, Sarōkār mā Sarkārīreligiosity, Cāsō 2012:and 9).others are produced, as the 270 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 271 absorbedgovernment, some ofwhich the costs has of beenthe conferences. generated 26by On the the emigrants’first pages of government has asked emigrants to make investment in Nepal.28 theactivism newsletters beyond published national during borders. the NRN Global Conferences, there Responding to such a request of the government, the NRNA has are the messages of congratulations from high government officials. encouraged the emigrant entrepreneurs to invest to Nepal. For KIne y2007, words :the Corporatism Act Designed beyond to nationalProvide borders,for the transnationalLegal Provisions civil example, the founding president of the NRNA called out to its Relating to Non-Residentsociety, Nepal, Nepalis emigration, (NRN Non-resident Act) was instituted,Nepali Association which, members for investment in Nepal, arguing that the Nepali economy as described later,(NRNA) established the new legal status of “Non-Resident has low risks and high returns at the IGA in 2015. Nepali” (NRN) (Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī) and the privileges associated Furthermore, the government invites NRNA members to with this status. Accompanying the act, the NRN Rule was also participate in its advisory committees related to economic diplomacy, stipulated by the government.Ackno wAccordingledgmen ttos this NRN Act (Article promotion of foreign direct investment (FDI), and tourism, to help I15.1), greatly in appreciate2012, the thefirst cooperation meeting of ofthe the NRN members Advisory of the Board NRNA. was with government policymaking in these areas.29 However,held under I amthe solely leadership responsible of the for Vicethe views President and opinions of the expressedNational In addition, members of the NRNA voluntarily implement inPlanning this paper, Commission. and they27 doThe not NRNA reflect was those formally of the registered NRNA unlessas an activities in accordance with government policies in their countries of differentlyassociation specified.affiliated withI am the also Mini gratefulstry of to Foreign the anonymous Affairs in 2013reviewers and foris exempted their invaluable from taxation. comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion 28 In 2014 emigrants’ remittances reached the 29.2% of Nepal’s GDP, the of TheSciences government supported expects this Nepali research emigrants (JSPS to contributeKAKENHI to Nepal’sGrant third-highest in the world, next to Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan (World Bank 2016). Kr̥ṣṇahari Bāskoṭā, the Secretary of the Ministry of Economy, wrote that Numbers:development JP19401047,through investments, JP23520998, donations, JP24320175, and transfer andof he welcomed the investment by the NRNs (Bāskotā 2012: 2). Ciranjīvī Nepāl, JP15K03054).knowledge, skills, and technologies. Through the NRNA, the a Supreme Economic Advisor to the Ministry of Economy, also wrote that the investment by Nepalis residing in foreign countries could constitute the basis for a big change (Sȧgaṭit yātrāko ek daśāk 2013: 9). Gopal Prasad Koirala（Vice This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ President, Central Bank of Nepal）in 2013, Kush Kumar Joshi（former transnationalConference, the civilAide societyto the President and the (sahasaciv State, )especially in the President their Palacecountry wrote of President of the FNCCI）in 2013, and Raghu Raj Kafle (Foreign Employment that the Global Conference was held with the cooperation of the Nepalese Promotion Board, Government of Nepal) in 2015 expressed the same thought originGovernment, with attentionthe FNCCI, to andits corporatist the NRNA characteristic,(Budhā 2015: 1; as Dāhāl an attempt 2013: 1).at in their speeches in the NRN Global Conferences. In the Souvenir Books clarifyingThe event isthe held transnational at the Nepali Armydynamics Officers’ of Club.civil society. Here, referring distributed in occasion of the Global Conferences in 2013 and 2015, the Prime to Thethe FNCCI definition is registered of civil as asociety national byrepresentative Hegel (1896: chamber§182: in pursuantaddition; of Minister (Koirala 2015: 2), the Aide to the President (sahasaciv) (Dahal 2013: section 3 of the National Directives Act 1961 (Rāṣṭriya Nirdeśan Ain 2018) 1; Budhā 2015: 1), and the Chief Cabinet Secretary (adhyakṣa mantripariṣad) (FNCCI1952: 266;n.d.). 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of (Regmi 2013: 2) expressed their thanks to the NRNA for its contribution to transnational26 According to processthe financial by Kearneyreport of the(1995: NRNA, 548), the Iamount use thewas termNPR the development of Nepal and assistance in the reconstruction after the great 1,500,000“transnational in 2005, civil NPR society” 2,000,000 to meanin 2007, the NPR transnational 1,500,000 indomain 2009, andof earthquakes in 2015 (Koirālā 2015: 2; Budhā 2015: 1) and their expectation NPR 3,000,000 in 2011. Thereafter, owing to domestic criticism, the Nepali for further contribution by the NRNA. governmentrelationships, no longerwhich absorbed falls between the cost the of theprivate conferences. realm on the one hand 29 For example, on 28 June 2013, Kulcandra Gautam, an advisor to the NRNA, and27 Its amembers specific included State onthe Secretarythe other, of theacross Ministries geographical of the Economy,national participated in the high-level meeting of the Committee for Management and Foreignboundaries Affairs, and and where, Industry, through the Governor sociability, of the Nepalsocial National values Bank,such theas Follow-up of Economic Diplomacy, held under the chairmanship of the Economic Advisor to the Prime Minister, and the president of the NRNA Minister of Foreign Affairs (Antarrāṣṭriya Samanwaya Pariṣad 2011-013 kā (Enārenkocivility, mutuality, Sarōkār mā Sarkārīreligiosity, Cāsō 2012:and 9).others are produced, as the Gatividhi 2013: 55). 272 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 273 residence.government, For instance,which hasmembers been holdgenerated “Nepal by Festivals” the emigrants’ in several countriesactivism to beyond promote national tourism borders. and trade. 30 The support provided to survivors after the earthquakes in 2015 is also a remarkable example. However,Key wo rdthiss: Corporatismcontribution beyond has sometimes national borders, generated transnational the criticism civil that the NRNAsociety, looks Nepal, like a emigration,“parallel government,” Non-resident whichNepali wasAssociation denied by the NRNA (NRNA)president in his speech to the IGA in 2015. On the other hand, according to the NRN Act and NRN Rule, the Nepali government supervises the NRNA’s activities and audits its finances, and the NRNAA doesckn oacceptwledg mtheen inspectionts of its operations Iby greatly the government.appreciate the31 cooperationFurther, the of Ministry the members of Foreign of the NRNA.Affairs However,conducts I follow-upam solely responsibleassessments for ofthe theviews NRNA’s and opinions accounts expressed and inoperations this paper, (NRNand they Rule,do not Articlereflect those 17.1), of the and NRNA can unlessgive differently“recommendations” specified. forI am the also improvement grateful to ofthe the anonymous NRNA’s operations reviewers for(Article their 17.2),invaluable to which comments. the NRNA The Japan is obliged Society to for conform the Promotion (Article of17.3). Sciences The NRNA supported has even this amended research its (JSPSstatute toKAKENHI be in accordance Grant Numbers:with the NRN JP19401047, Act and NRN Rule.JP23520998, In 2009, theJP24320175, NRNA amended and its JP15K03054).own definition of “general member” in its Statute (Article 5.1) to be consistent with the definition of NRN in the NRN Act (Gair Āvāsīya This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ transnational civil society and the State, especially their country of 30 The following activities are listed as promotion of tourism and other originindustries: with discussions attention with to theits corporatistMinister and characteristic, Undersecretary asof anthe attemptMinistry atof clarifyingTourism; donation the transnational of carts to Tribhuvan dynamics International of civil society. Airport; Here, holding referring Nepal tofestivals the definitionin foreign countries;of civil establishmentsociety by Hegel of the (1896:Nepal §House182: addition;in Russia; establishment of the Tenzing Hillary Centre in New Zealand; and building “cultural1952: 266;houses” 1991: for the 220) recognition and Dunnof Nepal (1996: as a multiethnic 27) and country. that Toof promotetransnational other industries,process bythe Kearneyfollowing initiatives(1995: 548),were launched:I use the providing term Nepali“transnational manufacturers civil withsociety” information to mean on exhibitionsthe transnational in Western domain countries; of helping Nepali manufacturers obtain barcodes; providing technical education forrelationships, Nepali handicraft which falls artisans; between and the discussing private realmNepali on productsthe one handwith manufacturingand a specific entrepreneurs. State on the other, across geographical national 31 boundariesThe certified and public where, accountant through who auditssociability, the account social of valuesthe NRNA such must as submit a copy of the accounting audit to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (NRN Rule,civility, Article mutuality, 14.3). religiosity, and others are produced, as the 272 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 273 residence.government, For instance,which hasmembers been holdgenerated “Nepal by Festivals” the emigrants’ in several Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2009 ko Sȧśodhan sahit Milāieko countriesactivism to beyond promote national tourism borders. and trade. 30 The support provided to Rūpmā)). In 2013, Article 29.2 was added to the Statute, stipulating survivors after the earthquakes in 2015 is also a remarkable example. that the approval of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is required However,Key wo rdthiss: Corporatismcontribution beyond has sometimes national borders, generated transnational the criticism civil whenever an article or clause is amended or deleted (Gair that the NRNAsociety, looks Nepal, like a emigration,“parallel government,” Non-resident whichNepali wasAssociation denied Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2012 ko Sȧśodhan sahit); Gair by the NRNA (NRNA)president in his speech to the IGA in 2015. Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2013 ko Sȧśodhan sahit)).32 On the other hand, according to the NRN Act and NRN Rule, Further, through the NRNA, the Nepali government can attempt the Nepali government supervises the NRNA’s activities and audits its to secure the loyalty of emigrants residing in foreign countries. The finances, and the NRNAA doesckn oacceptwledg mtheen inspectionts of its operations Advisory Board gives suggestions to the government on policies with Iby greatly the government.appreciate the31 cooperationFurther, the of Ministry the members of Foreign of the NRNA.Affairs which the Nepali government must agree “in order to maintain a However,conducts I follow-upam solely responsibleassessments for ofthe theviews NRNA’s and opinions accounts expressed and stable cultural unity of the non-resident Nepalis in foreign countries” inoperations this paper, (NRNand they Rule,do not Articlereflect those 17.1), of the and NRNA can unlessgive (NRN Rule, Article 17.1.cha). Considering that a policy of cultural differently“recommendations” specified. forI am the also improvement grateful to ofthe the anonymous NRNA’s operations reviewers assimilation was implemented toward ethnic minority groups before for(Article their 17.2),invaluable to which comments. the NRNA The Japan is obliged Society to for conform the Promotion (Article democratization, this article of the NPN Rule can be interpreted as of17.3). Sciences The NRNA supported has even this amended research its (JSPSstatute toKAKENHI be in accordance Grant revealing the intention of the Nepalese government to control the Numbers:with the NRN JP19401047, Act and NRN Rule.JP23520998, In 2009, theJP24320175, NRNA amended and its political leanings of ethnic minorities in the NRNA, and the NRNA JP15K03054).own definition of “general member” in its Statute (Article 5.1) to be accepts this situation. Also, the Code of Conduct of the NRNA consistent with the definition of NRN in the NRN Act (Gair Āvāsīya (Article 7.d) prescribes that the members shall not be involved in This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ direct political criticism of the country of residence as well as of transnational civil society and the State, especially their country of Nepal (NRNA 2013: 26). 30 The following activities are listed as promotion of tourism and other originindustries: with discussions attention with to theits corporatistMinister and characteristic, Undersecretary asof anthe attemptMinistry atof As written above, the NRNA has cooperated with the government clarifyingTourism; donation the transnational of carts to Tribhuvan dynamics International of civil society. Airport; Here, holding referring Nepal in policymaking and governmental functions, met the government’s tofestivals the definitionin foreign countries;of civil establishmentsociety by Hegel of the (1896:Nepal §House182: addition;in Russia; expectations, and accepted the government’s control. The capacity to establishment of the Tenzing Hillary Centre in New Zealand; and building “cultural1952: 266;houses” 1991: for the 220) recognition and Dunnof Nepal (1996: as a multiethnic 27) and country. that Toof demonstrate loyalty to the government is thought to be useful to the promotetransnational other industries,process bythe Kearneyfollowing initiatives(1995: 548),were launched:I use the providing term NRNA in its solicitation to the government to address emigrants’ Nepali“transnational manufacturers civil withsociety” information to mean on exhibitionsthe transnational in Western domain countries; of concerns. helping Nepali manufacturers obtain barcodes; providing technical education forrelationships, Nepali handicraft which falls artisans; between and the discussing private realmNepali on productsthe one handwith manufacturingand a specific entrepreneurs. State on the other, across geographical national 31 32 boundariesThe certified and public where, accountant through who auditssociability, the account social of valuesthe NRNA such must as Accordingly, in reviewing any amendment of the NRNA’s Statute, the submit a copy of the accounting audit to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (NRN Assistant Secretary of Nepali Ministry of Foreign Affairs confirms its content Rule,civility, Article mutuality, 14.3). religiosity, and others are produced, as the and affixes the official seal of the ministry on all the pages of the original text. 274 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 275

However,government, the memberswhich has of thebeen NRNA generated have notby alwaysthe emigrants’ obeyed the government.activism beyond During national dictatorship borders. of King Gyanendra, members rallied in the streets of New York in opposition to it. Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil Relationshipsociety,s with Nepal,Othe remigration, Countri eNon-residents’ Governm Nepalients Association The NRNA(NRNA) builds relationships with foreign national and local governments. There have been contacts with the ministers of governments of countries of residence.33 Acknowledgments IT greatlyhe Ca mappreciatepaign f other tcooperationhe Retent iofon the of membersNepali Cofi ttheize nNRNA.ship However, I am solely responsible for the views and opinions expressed in Thethis NRNApaper, andcampaign they do for not the reflectretention those of ofNepali the NRNAcitizenship unless by differentlyemigrants isspecified. described I belowam also in gratefullight of tothe the relationship anonymous between reviewers the forNRNA their andinvaluable the Nepali comments. government, The Japan with Society reference for theto Promotiona previous ofpaper Sciences (Uesugi supported2017). this research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers: JP19401047, JP23520998, JP24320175, and JP15K03054).NRNA’s Req uest to the Government of Nepal The Nepali Citizenship Act does not stipulate the possibility of dualThis citizenship; paper examines therefore, the emigrantsrelationship naturalized between asemigrants’ foreign transnationalcitizens/nationals civil losesociety their and Nepali the State, citizenship. especially Also, their thecountry Nepali of originCitizenship with attentionAct prevents to its the corporatist offspring characteristic,of Nepali women as an and attempt foreign at clarifyingmen from the obtaining transnational dual dynamics citizenship of civilvia society.bilinear Here, descent, referring by to the definition of civil society by Hegel (1896: 182: addition; § 331952: For example, 266; at1991: the Regional 220) Conferenceand Dunn held (1996: in 2014 in27) Nagano, and Japan,that theof Seniortransnational Vice Minister process of Land, by InfrastrucKearneyture, (1995: and Transportation 548), I use made the a speech.term In“transnational 2012, the NRNA civil hadsociety” an informal to mean meeting the withtransnational the Japan Internationaldomain of Cooperation Agency, which conducts Japan’s official development assistance, to discussrelationships, the activities which of fallsthe NRNAbetween (Gair the Āvāsīyaprivate Nepālīrealm Sonȧgha the Antarrā one handṣṭriya andSamanwaya a specific Pariṣ adState kā Pachillāon the Gatividhi other, 2013:across 11,geographical 5 July 2012). national At the Regionalboundaries Conference and where, in Sydney through in 2012, sociability, both the socialPrime Ministervalues suchand theas Minister of Migration of Australia submitted their messages of congratulations tocivility, be published mutuality, in the Souvenirreligiosity, Book. and others are produced, as the 274 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 275

government,However, the memberswhich has of thebeen NRNA generated have notby alwaysthe emigrants’ obeyed the restricting the principle of citizenship acquisition by birth only to government.activism beyond During national dictatorship borders. of King Gyanendra, members patrilineal descent. In protesting these provisions, the NRNA has rallied in the streets of New York in opposition to it. made the following requests. Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil Relationshipsociety,s with Nepal,Othe remigration, Countri eNon-residents’ Governm Nepalients Association 1) People who are originally from Nepal should be able to retain The NRNA(NRNA) builds relationships with foreign national and local Nepali citizenship even after obtaining citizenship/nationality in governments. There have been contacts with the ministers of other countries. However, the NRNA does not demand that governments of countries of residence.33 immigrants into Nepal acquire Nepali citizenship while retaining Acknowledgments other citizenship/nationality. The reason is that the association has IT greatlyhe Ca mappreciatepaign f other tcooperationhe Retent iofon the of membersNepali Cofi ttheize nNRNA.ship concerns about Indian or Chinese people acquiring land (as However, I am solely responsible for the views and opinions expressed expressed by an advisor of the NRNA in 2011). The background in Thethis NRNApaper, andcampaign they do for not the reflectretention those of ofNepali the NRNAcitizenship unless by of this concern is the peculiar geopolitical situation in which differentlyemigrants isspecified. described I belowam also in gratefullight of tothe the relationship anonymous between reviewers the Nepal is involved. Nepal is a land-locked country between India forNRNA their andinvaluable the Nepali comments. government, The Japan with Society reference for theto Promotiona previous and China: “a yam squeezed between two giant boulders” as stated ofpaper Sciences (Uesugi supported2017). this research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant by the former king Prithvi Narayan Shaha (Gyawali 2015). Numbers: JP19401047, JP23520998, JP24320175, and Currently, India and China are major sources of development JP15K03054).NRNA’s Req uest to the Government of Nepal assistance and FDI in Nepal. Because the Himalayas restrict The Nepali Citizenship Act does not stipulate the possibility of imports from the north, Nepal imports many types of dualThis citizenship; paper examines therefore, the emigrantsrelationship naturalized between asemigrants’ foreign commodities through Indian territory. On the other hand, in transnationalcitizens/nationals civil losesociety their and Nepali the State, citizenship. especially Also, their thecountry Nepali of Kathmandu, Chinese-managed hotels, restaurants, money-changers, originCitizenship with attentionAct prevents to its the corporatist offspring characteristic,of Nepali women as an and attempt foreign at and shops are increasing. The association recognizes the threat clarifyingmen from the obtaining transnational dual dynamics citizenship of civilvia society.bilinear Here, descent, referring by which can be brought by close economic relationship with foreign to the definition of civil society by Hegel (1896: 182: addition; countries.34 § 1952:33 For example, 266; at1991: the Regional 220) Conferenceand Dunn held (1996: in 2014 in27) Nagano, and Japan,that theof 2) The NRNA requests that the offspring of Nepali women and Seniortransnational Vice Minister process of Land, by InfrastrucKearneyture, (1995: and Transportation 548), I use made the a speech.term foreign men be able to acquire Nepali citizenship by descent. It In“transnational 2012, the NRNA civil hadsociety” an informal to mean meeting the withtransnational the Japan Internationaldomain of asserts that not doing so is an infringement of the International Cooperation Agency, which conducts Japan’s official development assistance, to discussrelationships, the activities which of fallsthe NRNAbetween (Gair the Āvāsīyaprivate Nepālīrealm Sonȧgha the Antarrā one handṣṭriya Bill of Human Rights and that they should be allowed to acquire andSamanwaya a specific Pariṣ adState kā Pachillāon the Gatividhi other, 2013:across 11,geographical 5 July 2012). national At the

Regionalboundaries Conference and where, in Sydney through in 2012, sociability, both the socialPrime Ministervalues suchand theas Minister of Migration of Australia submitted their messages of congratulations 34 However, there is the NCC China, while there is no NCC India, as tocivility, be published mutuality, in the Souvenirreligiosity, Book. and others are produced, as the mentioned above. 276 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 277

government,citizenship (Ke which Sī 2014). has been generated by the emigrants’ activism beyond national borders. W hy Does the NRNA Conduct the Citizenship-Retention CaKmeyp waiogrnds? : Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil In this section,society, I reportNepal, emigration,the explanations Non-resident some Nepalimembers Association of the NRNA provided(NRNA) for their interest in retaining Nepali citizenship.35 These motivations also show how they conceptualize their ties with their mother country and what social value is generated in the activities of the NRNA. Acknowledgments I greatly appreciate the cooperation of the members of the NRNA. However,1) Many I am of solelythe NRNA responsible members for the that views I interviewedand opinions stated expressed that in thisthey paper, feel anda sensethey ofdo responsibilitynot reflect those to contributeof the NRNA to Nepal’sunless differentlydevelopment specified. byI am investing also grateful capital, to the donating anonymous funds, reviewers and for theirtransferring invaluable knowledge comments. and The skills. Japan They Society pointed for outthe thatPromotion lack of of SciencesNepali supportedcitizenship thisprevents research them (JSPS from KAKENHI exercising Grantthat Numbers:responsibility. JP19401047, A member JP23520998,said: JP24320175, and JP15K03054). NRNs go to Nepal to assist, when some trouble happens, This forpaper example, examines when thea natural relationship disaster occurs.between However, emigrants’ if we transnationalare notcivil full society citizens, and thewhat State, will especiallyhappen? theirFor example,country ofif origin withAmerica attention or toJapan its corporatist came to characteristic,help, politicians as an would attempt say, at clarifying“Foreigners the transnational dictate dynamics us.” They of civil[politicians] society. Here, make referring stories to the definition[about foreign of civil domination] society by (Interview Hegel (1896: in 2013).§182: addition; 1952: 266; 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnational process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term “transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of 35 I got these explanations through interviews, conference attendance, and literaturerelationships, survey. which In the interviews,falls between I asked the informants, private realm “Why on do the you one think hand that theand retention a specific of Nepali State citizenship on the isother, necessary?” across The geographical informants’ occupations national were:boundaries 2 restaurateurs, and where, a gem-seller, through a privatesociability, school social operator, values a solicitor, such as2 medical doctors, a hospital worker, a university professor, a university lecturer, a civilcivility, servant, mutuality, and 2 Gurkha religiosity, veterans. and others are produced, as the 276 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 277 government,citizenship (Ke which Sī 2014). has been generated by the emigrants’ Another member also said that he would like to contribute to activism beyond national borders. Nepal on an equal position with Nepali-resident citizens: “I W hy Does the NRNA Conduct the Citizenship-Retention cannot feel that we are equal without the right to vote. I would CaKmeyp waiogrnds? : Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil like to be an equal partner” (Interview in 2013). In this section,society, I reportNepal, emigration,the explanations Non-resident some Nepalimembers Association of the NRNA provided(NRNA) for their interest in retaining Nepali citizenship.35 2) Some interviewees explained their reasons from an emotional These motivations also show how they conceptualize their ties with perspective. A Gurkha veteran said that because there is no their mother country and what social value is generated in the Ganges River in the United Kingdom, he would like to take his activities of the NRNA. Acknowledgments last breath in Nepal (Interview in 2011).36 Another veteran I greatly appreciate the cooperation of the members of the NRNA. said that the good tradition, culture, and heart of Nepal is However,1) Many I am of solelythe NRNA responsible members for the that views I interviewedand opinions stated expressed that necessary also for emigrants (Interview in 2013). in thisthey paper, feel anda sensethey ofdo responsibilitynot reflect those to contributeof the NRNA to Nepal’sunless 3) Interviewees wished to have the right to enter Nepal freely, differentlydevelopment specified. byI am investing also grateful capital, to the donating anonymous funds, reviewers and without a visa. Thanks to cheap transportation, many for theirtransferring invaluable knowledge comments. and The skills. Japan They Society pointed for outthe thatPromotion lack of emigrants visit Nepal in September and October, when major of SciencesNepali supportedcitizenship thisprevents research them (JSPS from KAKENHI exercising Grantthat festivals are held, and spend time with their families and Numbers:responsibility. JP19401047, A member JP23520998,said: JP24320175, and kinfolk. According to the former spokesperson of the NRNA, JP15K03054). those who are originally from Nepal feel sad when they are NRNs go to Nepal to assist, when some trouble happens, treated as foreigners and required to get a visa to visit Nepal This forpaper example, examines when thea natural relationship disaster occurs.between However, emigrants’ if we (Śarmā 2010). transnationalare notcivil full society citizens, and thewhat State, will especiallyhappen? theirFor example,country ofif 4) An interviewee showed concerns that, without the political origin withAmerica attention or toJapan its corporatist came to characteristic,help, politicians as an would attempt say, at rights connected to citizenship, the government might easily clarifying“Foreigners the transnational dictate dynamics us.” They of civil[politicians] society. Here, make referring stories establish laws which taxes emigrants more heavily (Interviews to the definition[about foreign of civil domination] society by (Interview Hegel (1896: in 2013).§182: addition; in 2013) 1952: 266; 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of 5) Some influential members of the NRNA, who are transnational process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term entrepreneurs, were keen to take advantage of the business “transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of opportunities in Nepal and wished to have economic and 35 I got these explanations through interviews, conference attendance, and literaturerelationships, survey. which In the interviews,falls between I asked the informants, private realm “Why on do the you one think hand that investment rights connected to Nepali citizenship. The Nepali theand retention a specific of Nepali State citizenship on the isother, necessary?” across The geographical informants’ occupations national government has restricted the economic activities of foreigners were:boundaries 2 restaurateurs, and where, a gem-seller, through a privatesociability, school social operator, values a solicitor, such as2 medical doctors, a hospital worker, a university professor, a university lecturer, a civilcivility, servant, mutuality, and 2 Gurkha religiosity, veterans. and others are produced, as the 36 Some rivers in Nepal ultimately join the Ganges. 278 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 279

government,in general. whichPreviously, has theybeen could generated not even by invest the capitalemigrants’ or buy activismland beyondin Nepal. national37 In borders. 1992, the Foreign Investment and Technology Transfer Act 2049 (1992) lifted the restrictions to Keyallow word sinvestments: Corporatism made beyond 100% national by foreigners borders, (World transnational Intellectual civil Propertysociety, Organization Nepal, emigration, n.d.). Non-residentHowever, Nepalithere Associationremained restrictions(NRNA) on the industries in which foreigners can invest.38 Furthermore, foreign investors could not acquire landed property, and there was no exemption of the visa fee for foreign investors. 39 This Arestrictioncknowled gwasmen tsal so applied to foreign I greatlyinvestors appreciate of Nepali the cooperation origin. of the members of the NRNA. However,6) Some I ammembers solely responsible of the NRNA for the wished views toand improve opinions their expressed social in thisstatus paper, in andtheir theyhost docountries not reflect by making those ofNepal the aNRNA rich country. unless differentlyThe specified.founding Ipresident am also gratefulof the NRNAto the anonymous argued that reviewers Nepali for theiremigrants invaluable are comments. sometimes The humiliated Japan Society in forforeign the Promotioncountries of Sciencesbecause supportedNepal is poor this and, research therefore, (JSPS that KAKENHIthey have to Grantmake Numbers:great effortsJP19401047, to develop JP23520998,Nepal (The EighthJP24320175, NRN Regional and JP15K03054).Conference in 2014). The interviewees claimed that, to do so, Nepali citizenship is necessary. This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ transnational civil society and the State, especially their country of 37 After the land reform in 1964, foreigners could not acquire real estate in originNepal (Gaige with attention1975: 95). to its corporatist characteristic, as an attempt at clarifying38 The restricted the transnational industries include dynamics cottage ofindustries, civil society. security, Here, printing, referring arms, toand theammunition definition industries. of civil society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; 39 As seen in the example of Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), some countries1952: 266; mutually 1991: allow 220) businesspeople and Dunn to enter (1996: without 27) acquiring and thatvisas. ofA Nepalitransnational businessman process living byin JapanKearney enjoys (1995: this privilege 548), whenI use visiting the APECterm countries.“transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of The Nepali government introduced a new Foreign Investment Policy, 2015, replacingrelationships, the policy which of 1992,falls between with the objectivethe private of makingrealm onthe theeconomy one handmore dynamicand a specificand competitive State (Nepalon the Rastra other, Bank, across Research geographical Department 2018:national 9). Asboundaries of 2018, andany where,registered through industry sociability, can acquire social land valuesas per such normal as requirements or may request a special arrangement (Nepal Rastra Bank, Researchcivility, Departmentmutuality, 2018:religiosity, 14). and others are produced, as the 278 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 279 government,in general. whichPreviously, has theybeen could generated not even by invest the capitalemigrants’ or buy 7) The interviewees thought that maintenance of the linkage activismland beyondin Nepal. national37 In borders. 1992, the Foreign Investment and between Nepali descendants and Nepal is significant for the Technology Transfer Act 2049 (1992) lifted the restrictions to continuing development of Nepal. Given that descendants in Keyallow word sinvestments: Corporatism made beyond 100% national by foreigners borders, (World transnational Intellectual civil the second-and-more generation have citizenship/nationality in Propertysociety, Organization Nepal, emigration, n.d.). Non-residentHowever, Nepalithere Associationremained their countries of residence, they lose Nepali citizenship restrictions(NRNA) on the industries in which foreigners can invest.38 according to the current citizenship act and might consequently Furthermore, foreign investors could not acquire landed lose interest in the development of Nepal. However, if they property, and there was no exemption of the visa fee for foreign could retain Nepali citizenship in addition to the citizenship of investors. 39 This Arestrictioncknowled gwasmen tsal so applied to foreign the country of residence, they could continue to commit to the I greatlyinvestors appreciate of Nepali the cooperation origin. of the members of the NRNA. development of Nepal or to make use of the linkage with Nepal However,6) Some I ammembers solely responsible of the NRNA for the wished views toand improve opinions their expressed social to build their career (Interview in 2011 and 2013). in thisstatus paper, in andtheir theyhost docountries not reflect by making those ofNepal the aNRNA rich country. unless 8) Some members from minority ethnic groups thought that they differentlyThe specified.founding Ipresident am also gratefulof the NRNAto the anonymous argued that reviewers Nepali needed full citizenship with the right to vote in order to for theiremigrants invaluable are comments. sometimes The humiliated Japan Society in forforeign the Promotioncountries maintain political power of these groups in Nepal (Interview in of Sciencesbecause supportedNepal is poor this and, research therefore, (JSPS that KAKENHIthey have to Grantmake 2013). Numbers:great effortsJP19401047, to develop JP23520998,Nepal (The EighthJP24320175, NRN Regional and 9) Gurkha veterans, who have the right to apply for British JP15K03054).Conference in 2014). The interviewees claimed that, to do so, citizenship after four years’ service, argued that because the Nepali citizenship is necessary. Nepali government “dispatched” Gurkhas for the service, it This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ should ensure their retention of Nepali citizenship even after transnational civil society and the State, especially their country of their acquisition of British citizenship.40 (Interview in 2013) 37 After the land reform in 1964, foreigners could not acquire real estate in originNepal (Gaige with attention1975: 95). to its corporatist characteristic, as an attempt at clarifying38 The restricted the transnational industries include dynamics cottage ofindustries, civil society. security, Here, printing, referring arms, Negotiation toand theammunition definition industries. of civil society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; The NRNA cannot expect to participate in parliamentary 39 As seen in the example of Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), some countries1952: 266; mutually 1991: allow 220) businesspeople and Dunn to enter (1996: without 27) acquiring and thatvisas. ofA democracy directly because of its members’ lack of political rights. Nepalitransnational businessman process living byin JapanKearney enjoys (1995: this privilege 548), whenI use visiting the APECterm Nor can it resort to rallying in the streets or promoting a general countries.“transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of strike due to foreign residence. Thus, the NRNA has to make The Nepali government introduced a new Foreign Investment Policy, 2015, replacingrelationships, the policy which of 1992,falls between with the objectivethe private of makingrealm onthe theeconomy one handmore recourse to a different method to solicit the government to support dynamicand a specificand competitive State (Nepalon the Rastra other, Bank, across Research geographical Department 2018:national 9). the cause of the retention of Nepali citizenship. Therefore, NRNA Asboundaries of 2018, andany where,registered through industry sociability, can acquire social land valuesas per such normal as requirements or may request a special arrangement (Nepal Rastra Bank, Researchcivility, Departmentmutuality, 2018:religiosity, 14). and others are produced, as the 40 Gurkhas have a service history of over 200 years under the British Crown. 280 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 281 officialsgovernment, have resortedwhich hasto beenlobbying generated ministers, by thepoliticians, emigrants’ and bureaucrats.activism beyond A member national said borders. that they do lobbying instead of street rallies in order to make efficient use of “energy” (Interview in 2012). TheKe relationshipsy words: Corporatism they build beyond with other national associations, borders, transnationalmass media, andcivil the business communitysociety, Nepal, in Nepal emigration, are also Non-resident thought to Nepali be useful. Association (NRNA) A dvancements Some politicians have supported the legalization of the dual citizenship, particularly Athoseckno wthatled grepresentments the interests of the Iresidents greatly appreciatein the Terai the regioncooperation (the borderlandof the members between of theNepal NRNA. and However,India), where I am solelymany responsible Nepali-Indian for the people views andlive. opinions However, expressed other inpoliticians this paper, have and expressed they do reservations,not reflect those pointing of the out NRNA that unlessabout differently300,000 Nepali specified. women I am have also married grateful Indian to the men. anonymous They assert reviewers that, if forthe theirchildren invaluable of these comments. couples were The to Japan obtain Society dual Nepalifor the andPromotion Indian ofcitizenships Sciences throughsupported bilinear this descent,research India(JSPS might KAKENHI intervene Grant into Numbers:Nepalese politics JP19401047, using these dualJP23520998, nationals. In lightJP24320175, of these concerns, and JP15K03054).the NRNA suggested limiting the retention of Nepali citizenship to emigrants with citizenship in countries other than those of the South AsiaThis Association paper examinesfor Regional the Cooperation relationship (SAARC). between emigrants’ transnational However, this civil step society did not and fully the eliminateState, especially the politicians’ their country concerns. of originAccording with to attention a member to ofits thecorporatist NRNA, characteristic,politicians stated as an that attempt SAARC at clarifyingcountries thecould transnational legally appeal dynamics to obtain of civil acknowledgment society. Here, referringof dual tocitizenship/nationality the definition of civilfor societytheir bynationals Hegel (1896:who §had182: aaddition; claim. Considering1952: 266; that1991: India, 220) theand mostDunn influential (1996: 27)SAARC and country,that of exemptstransnational emigrants process with by citizenship/nationality Kearney (1995: 548), of particular I use thecountries term from“transnational obtaining civil privileges, society” these to politicians’mean the transnationalconcerns do notdomain seem toof berelationships, realistic.41 whichTherefore, falls betweensome members the private of realmthe NRNA on the onebegan hand to and a specific State on the other, across geographical national boundaries and where, through sociability, social values such as 41 India also limits the issue of the Person of Indian Origin Card to a person of civility, mutuality, religiosity, and others are produced, as the Indian origin who holds a passport in a country other than Afghanistan, 280 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 281 officialsgovernment, have resortedwhich hasto beenlobbying generated ministers, by thepoliticians, emigrants’ and suspect that those politicians might be more worried about the fact bureaucrats.activism beyond A member national said borders. that they do lobbying instead of street that emigrants, who are supposed to be educated, industrious, and rallies in order to make efficient use of “energy” (Interview in 2012). know more about democracy and the government’s working, might TheKe relationshipsy words: Corporatism they build beyond with other national associations, borders, transnationalmass media, andcivil be their political rivals than they are about possible political the business communitysociety, Nepal, in Nepal emigration, are also Non-resident thought to Nepali be useful. Association interventions by India (Interview in 2013). Therefore, the NRNA (NRNA) suggested that people with dual citizenship should not be eligible for A dvancements politically powerful offices, such as those of the President, Prime Some politicians have supported the legalization of the dual Minister, or Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. citizenship, particularly Athoseckno wthatled grepresentments the interests of the These discussions and negotiations between the NRNA and the Iresidents greatly appreciatein the Terai the regioncooperation (the borderlandof the members between of theNepal NRNA. and Nepali government led to the passing in 2007 of the above-described However,India), where I am solelymany responsible Nepali-Indian for the people views andlive. opinions However, expressed other NRN Act. The act established the new legal status of NRN. NRN ID inpoliticians this paper, have and expressed they do reservations,not reflect those pointing of the out NRNA that unlessabout cardholders can freely invest their capital in any field, enjoy visa-free differently300,000 Nepali specified. women I am have also married grateful Indian to the men. anonymous They assert reviewers that, if entry, and buy a limited amount of real property, which was not forthe theirchildren invaluable of these comments. couples were The to Japan obtain Society dual Nepalifor the andPromotion Indian allowed to other foreigners even under the Foreign Investment and ofcitizenships Sciences throughsupported bilinear this descent,research India(JSPS might KAKENHI intervene Grant into Technology Transfer Act 2049 (1992). However, the NRN Act is Numbers:Nepalese politics JP19401047, using these dualJP23520998, nationals. In lightJP24320175, of these concerns, and silent on emigrants’ political rights. JP15K03054).the NRNA suggested limiting the retention of Nepali citizenship to The NRN Act was bearing fruit. According to one survey, emigrants with citizenship in countries other than those of the South emigrants had invested NPR 29,885 million by the end of 2014 and AsiaThis Association paper examinesfor Regional the Cooperation relationship (SAARC). between emigrants’ had generated 8,276 jobs in nine selected districts (Society of transnational However, this civil step society did not and fully the eliminateState, especially the politicians’ their country concerns. of Economic Journalists–Nepal 2015: 9).42 Calculating on average rates originAccording with to attention a member to ofits thecorporatist NRNA, characteristic,politicians stated as an that attempt SAARC at for the USD/NPR currency conversion on 14 August 2014, USD clarifyingcountries thecould transnational legally appeal dynamics to obtain of civil acknowledgment society. Here, referringof dual 1.00 to NRP 93.5389 (Pound Sterling Live 2013-2018a), the tocitizenship/nationality the definition of civilfor societytheir bynationals Hegel (1896:who §had182: aaddition; claim. investment by NRNs to the nine selected districts was roughly 1952:Considering 266; that1991: India, 220) theand mostDunn influential (1996: 27)SAARC and country,that of equivalent to USD 303.28 million and 71% of the FDI inflow to transnationalexempts emigrants process with by citizenship/nationality Kearney (1995: 548), of particular I use thecountries term “transnationalfrom obtaining civil privileges, society” these to politicians’mean the transnationalconcerns do notdomain seem toof

41 relationships,be realistic. whichTherefore, falls betweensome members the private of realmthe NRNA on the onebegan hand to Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. and a specific State on the other, across geographical national 42 These districts included the following ones that had high concentration of boundaries and where, through sociability, social values such as emigrants’ investments: Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Gorkha, Makwanpur, 41 India also limits the issue of the Person of Indian Origin Card to a person of Baglung, Siraha, Chitwan, and Kaski (Society of Economic Journalists – Nepal civility, mutuality, religiosity, and others are produced, as the Indian origin who holds a passport in a country other than Afghanistan, 2015: 9, 20). 282 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 283

Nepalgovernment, from 2006 which to 2014. has 43 beenFor example,generated the by second the emigrants’president of theactivism NRNA, beyond who runs national a company borders. in Japan, has invested capital in Nepal to found a company for the agricultural production of organic vegetables.Key word s : Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil Further, thesociety, new State Nepal, Constituti emigration,on Non-residentpromulgated Nepali in 2015 Association ushered in a new type (NRNA)of citizenship for foreigners of Nepali origin, namely Non-Resident Nepali Citizenship (Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Nāgarikatā). This citizenship type includes economic and cultural rights, but still not political rights.44 InA addition,cknowled gbecausements the patrilineal basis of Icitizenship greatly appreciate succession the cooperationremained intact, of the themembers children of theof NRNA.Nepali However,mothers andI am non-Nepalisolely responsible fathers for cannotthe views become and opinions Nepali expressed citizens in this paper, and they do not reflect those of the NRNA unless differently43 According specified.to the World I am Investment also grateful Reports to 2009,the anonymous 2015, and 2018,reviewers FDI forinflows their to invaluableNepal were USDcomments. 7 million The in 2006, Japan USD Society 6 million for thein 2007, Promotion USD 1 ofmillion Sciences in 2008, supported USD 39 million this inresearch 2009, USD (JSPS 87 million KAKENHI in 2010, USDGrant 95 million in 2011, USD 92 million in 2012, USD 71 million in 2013, USD 30 Numbers:million in 2014, JP19401047, USD 52 million inJP23520998, 2015, USD 106 millionJP24320175, in 2016 and USDand JP15K03054).198 million in 2017 (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 2009: 249; 2012: 171; 2015: A5; 2018: 186). The data before 2005 are not available. Accordingly, the total amount of the FDI to Nepal until the end of 2014This was paperUSD 428 examines million. Because the relationship NRNs include betweenNepali citizens emigrants’ living in transnationalforeign countries civil as wellsociety as citizens and theof otherState, countries especially originally their fromcountry Nepal, of investment by Nepali citizens living in foreign countries per se is unclear in the originWorld Investmentwith attention Reports. to its corporatist characteristic, as an attempt at clarifying44 “Cultural the rights” transnational refer to the genericdynamics “right of tocivil culture,” society. recognized Here, referringin Article to15 ofthe the definition International of Covenantcivil society on Economic,by Hegel Social (1896: and§182: Cultural addition; Rights (Xanthaki 2017). The article recognizes the right of everyone: 1952:(a) To take 266; part in1991: cultural 220) life; and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnational(b) To enjoy the benefitsprocess ofby scientific Kearney progress (1995: and its 548), applications; I use the term “transnational(c) To benefit from civil the society”protection to of meanthe moral the and transnational material interests domain resulting of from any scientific, literary, or artistic production of which they are the author. relationships,(United Nations which Human falls Rights between Office theof the private High Commissionerrealm on the 1996-2018). one hand andBefore a democratizationspecific State inon Nepal, the other,in 1990, across policy geographical promoted the national cultural boundariesassimilation ofand ethnic where, minorities. through Therefore, sociability, cultural rightssocial werevalues demanded such byas the ethnic minority movement after the 1990s. The new constitution extended civility,such rights mutuality, to ethnic minorities. religiosity, and others are produced, as the 282 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 283

Nepalgovernment, from 2006 which to 2014. has 43 beenFor example,generated the by second the emigrants’president of through descent. They can obtain naturalized Nepali citizenship, but theactivism NRNA, beyond who runs national a company borders. in Japan, has invested capital in still cannot hold the offices of Prime Minister, President, or Chief Nepal to found a company for the agricultural production of organic Justice of the Supreme Court. Since the bill for related acts to ensure vegetables.Key word s : Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil the status and rights of Non-Resident Citizenship (as indicated by the Further, thesociety, new State Nepal, Constituti emigration,on Non-residentpromulgated Nepali in 2015 Association ushered 2015 Constitution) has not been passed yet, the campaign is in a new type (NRNA)of citizenship for foreigners of Nepali origin, namely continuing as of January 2019 (Continuation of Nepali Citizenship Non-Resident Nepali Citizenship (Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Nāgarikatā). Task Force 2017-2019). This citizenship type includes economic and cultural rights, but still Regarding overseas voting, the Election Committee of Nepal not political rights.44 InA addition,cknowled gbecausements the patrilineal basis of concluded that it would be logistically impossible for Nepali citizens Icitizenship greatly appreciate succession the cooperationremained intact, of the themembers children of theof NRNA.Nepali to vote while residing in other countries because the government does However,mothers andI am non-Nepalisolely responsible fathers for cannotthe views become and opinions Nepali expressed citizens not have diplomatic relations with all other countries and cannot in this paper, and they do not reflect those of the NRNA unless prepare polling booths for all constituencies at overseas polling differently43 According specified.to the World I am Investment also grateful Reports to 2009,the anonymous 2015, and 2018,reviewers FDI stations (Śarmā 2016: 79). forinflows their to invaluableNepal were USDcomments. 7 million The in 2006, Japan USD Society 6 million for thein 2007, Promotion USD 1 ofmillion Sciences in 2008, supported USD 39 million this inresearch 2009, USD (JSPS 87 million KAKENHI in 2010, USDGrant 95 million in 2011, USD 92 million in 2012, USD 71 million in 2013, USD 30 Discussion Numbers:million in 2014, JP19401047, USD 52 million inJP23520998, 2015, USD 106 millionJP24320175, in 2016 and USDand JP15K03054).198 million in 2017 (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development The NRNA as a Transnational CSO? 2009: 249; 2012: 171; 2015: A5; 2018: 186). The data before 2005 are not The NRNA can be viewed as both a transnational CSO and a local available. Accordingly, the total amount of the FDI to Nepal until the end of 2014This was paperUSD 428 examines million. Because the relationship NRNs include betweenNepali citizens emigrants’ living in CSO in each member’s country of residence. It is a voluntary transnationalforeign countries civil as wellsociety as citizens and theof otherState, countries especially originally their fromcountry Nepal, of association of Nepali emigrants and is neither a kin group nor a State investment by Nepali citizens living in foreign countries per se is unclear in the originWorld Investmentwith attention Reports. to its corporatist characteristic, as an attempt at organization. It falls between the private realm on the one hand and a clarifying44 “Cultural the rights” transnational refer to the genericdynamics “right of tocivil culture,” society. recognized Here, referringin Article specific State on the other both within States’ territories and across to15 ofthe the definition International of Covenantcivil society on Economic,by Hegel Social (1896: and§182: Cultural addition; Rights national geographical borders. Although its organization has (Xanthaki 2017). The article recognizes the right of everyone: 1952:(a) To take 266; part in1991: cultural 220) life; and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of international characteristics and some of its activities take place in the transnational(b) To enjoy the benefitsprocess ofby scientific Kearney progress (1995: and its 548), applications; I use the term transnational social space across national geographical borders, its “transnational(c) To benefit from civil the society”protection to of meanthe moral the and transnational material interests domain resulting of purpose and activities are focused on a specific State: Nepal. Its from any scientific, literary, or artistic production of which they are the author. relationships,(United Nations which Human falls Rights between Office theof the private High Commissionerrealm on the 1996-2018). one hand activities produce social values such as long-distance nationalism, a andBefore a democratizationspecific State inon Nepal, the other,in 1990, across policy geographical promoted the national cultural sense of responsibility to Nepali society, mutuality, and generosity. boundariesassimilation ofand ethnic where, minorities. through Therefore, sociability, cultural rightssocial werevalues demanded such byas Through its hierarchical structure and meetings, the NRNA collects the ethnic minority movement after the 1990s. The new constitution extended civility,such rights mutuality, to ethnic minorities. religiosity, and others are produced, as the emigrants’ desires, needs, suggestions, resources, and energy, and 284 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 285 transmitsgovernment, them towhich the Nepali has beengovernment generated and theby expectationthe emigrants’ of the governmentactivism beyond is conveyed national to the borders. members.

ThKee yC whoarrdasc: tCorporatismeristics of tbeyondhe Rel anationaltionsh iborders,p betw etransnationalen the NR NcivilA and the Nepasociety,li Go vNepal,ernm emigration,ent Non-resident Nepali Association A corporatism(NRNA) has developed through the close dealings between the NRNA and the Nepali government, across national geographical borders. The NRNA is an objectAck ofno wthisled gcorporatistments policy of the Nepali Igovernment, greatly appreciate as the the largestcooperation organization of the membersof Nepali of theemigrants, NRNA. However,representing I am the solely most responsible influential forway the for views emigrants and opinions to negotiate expressed with inthe thisNepali paper, government. and they It do has not been reflect co-opted those into of thethe State NRNA apparatus, unless differentlyas evidenced specified. by the I amfact also that grateful it participates to the anonymous in making reviewers and forimplementation their invaluable of comments.national policies, The Japan especially Society concerning for the Promotion Nepal’s ofadjustment Sciences to supportedeconomic globalization,this research such (JSPS as the KAKENHIpromotion ofGrant FDI, Numbers:the tourism industryJP19401047, and economic JP23520998, diplomacy. JP24320175, and JP15K03054). Thus, we can safely claim that this relation between the transnational CSO and the State represents an instance of corporatismThis paper beyond examines geographical the relationship national borders. between This corporatismemigrants’ transnationalbeyond national civil borderssociety andcomprises the State, an elementespecially of their the countryemigrants’ of origintransnationalism, with attention and to its formscorporatist a characteristic,governance asmachinery an attempt ofat clarifying“transnational the transnationalnation-state” whosedynamics population of civil society.is no longer Here, defined referring as toresiding the definition solely within of civil the societynational by territory Hegel (1896:(Schiller§182: and addition; Fouron 1999:1952: 133).266; 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnational process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term T“transnationalhe Corpor aciviltist Rsociety”elation tosh imeanp bet wtheee ntransnational the NRN Adomain and t hofe Grelationships,overnmen twhich in C ofallsmp abetweenrison w theith privateOther realmCSO ons the one hand andThe a specificNRNA’s Statecorporatist on the relationship other, across with geographical the government national is differentboundaries from and that where, of other through CSOs (localsociability, NGOs social and INGOs). values such as civility,As already mutuality, described, religiosity, the power and of otherothers CSOs are produced,in the relationship as the 284 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 285 transmitsgovernment, them towhich the Nepali has beengovernment generated and theby expectationthe emigrants’ of the with the government is not so weak as before the democratization. governmentactivism beyond is conveyed national to the borders. members. After the 1990 democratization, resident Nepali citizens’ political desires increasingly have been reflected in the national politics ThKee yC whoarrdasc: tCorporatismeristics of tbeyondhe Rel anationaltionsh iborders,p betw etransnationalen the NR NcivilA through parliamentary democracy. In addition, many domestic social and the Nepasociety,li Go vNepal,ernm emigration,ent Non-resident Nepali Association activists can engage in general strikes or street protests. Some local A corporatism(NRNA) has developed through the close dealings between NGOs can even accept patronage of influential overseas donors. the NRNA and the Nepali government, across national geographical On the other hand, the relationship of the NRNA and the Nepali borders. government is corporatist one characterized by the Nepali The NRNA is an objectAck ofno wthisled gcorporatistments policy of the Nepali government’s dominance over the NRNA. The NRNA accepts the Igovernment, greatly appreciate as the the largestcooperation organization of the membersof Nepali of theemigrants, NRNA. Nepali government’s inspections and tutelage according to the However,representing I am the solely most responsible influential forway the for views emigrants and opinions to negotiate expressed with provisions of the NRN Act, the NRN Rule, and the Statutes of the inthe thisNepali paper, government. and they It do has not been reflect co-opted those into of thethe State NRNA apparatus, unless NRNA. The Nepali government has thus invented a way to influence differentlyas evidenced specified. by the I amfact also that grateful it participates to the anonymous in making reviewers and emigrants’ political orientation and flow of resources such as money forimplementation their invaluable of comments.national policies, The Japan especially Society concerning for the Promotion Nepal’s and information collectively through the NRNA’s hierarchical and ofadjustment Sciences to supportedeconomic globalization,this research such (JSPS as the KAKENHIpromotion ofGrant FDI, fractal organization and the mediation of the NRNA. Thus, the Numbers:the tourism industryJP19401047, and economic JP23520998, diplomacy. JP24320175, and government can benefit from their long-distance nationalism, and use JP15K03054). Thus, we can safely claim that this relation between the their resources to help develop Nepal. By the provision of the above transnational CSO and the State represents an instance of act, rule, and statute, Emigrants’ rights and responsibilities to Nepal corporatismThis paper beyond examines geographical the relationship national borders. between This corporatismemigrants’ are carefully prescribed so that the government can attract their transnationalbeyond national civil borderssociety andcomprises the State, an elementespecially of their the countryemigrants’ of wealth, knowledge, and skills while restraining their ability to origintransnationalism, with attention and to its formscorporatist a characteristic,governance asmachinery an attempt ofat compete for political office, thus preventing the assumed foreign clarifying“transnational the transnationalnation-state” whosedynamics population of civil society.is no longer Here, defined referring as interventions in Nepal’s politics, which seems to worry local toresiding the definition solely within of civil the societynational by territory Hegel (1896:(Schiller§182: and addition; Fouron politicians. The corporatist relationship between the NRNA and the 1952:1999: 133).266; 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of government thus appears to be in accordance with the Gramscian transnational process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term view of civil society rather than the Tocquevillian. The NRNA’s case “transnationalThe Corpor aciviltist Rsociety”elation tosh imeanp be twtheee ntransnational the NRN Adomain and t hofe shows different features from those of domestic corporatism, which is Grelationships,overnmen twhich in C ofallsmp abetweenrison w theith privateOther realmCSO ons the one hand brought about by its transnational context where the given and The a specificNRNA’s Statecorporatist on the relationship other, across with geographical the government national is corporatism is embedded. boundariesdifferent from and that where, of other through CSOs (localsociability, NGOs social and INGOs). values such as Five factors contribute to the government’s dominant position civility, As already mutuality, described, religiosity, the power and of otherothers CSOs are produced,in the relationship as the vis-à-vis the NRNA. First is emigrants’ lack of political rights. In the 286 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 287 absencegovernment, of voting which rights, has emigrants been generated cannot holdby thethe emigrants’government accountableactivism beyond through national elections borders. as is done by local CSOs. Second is geographical distance and national boundaries between the countries of Kresidenceey words :and Corporatism Nepal. The beyond NRNA national cannot borders, easily transnational resort to street civil rallies or generalsociety, strikes. Nepal, Even emigration, if the emigrants Non-resident had Nepali right Associationto vote, it would be difficult(NRNA) for them to exercise it in Nepal. Third, since the NRNA is not an INGO, it cannot rely on the patronage of the influential international donor community. Fourth, entrepreneur members of the NRNA Ahaveckn ogottenwledg ma emorents favored position than Iother greatly foreign appreciate entrepreneurs the cooperation by the of NRNA’sthe members solicitation of the NRNA.to the However,government. I am Given solely the responsible considerable for thebusiness views opportunitiesand opinions inexpressed Nepal, inthey this wish paper, for andthe NRNAthey do tonot attract reflect the those favor of ofthe the NRNA government unless differentlyofficials. Fifth, specified. between I am the alsogovernment grateful toand the the anonymous emigrants, therereviewers is a forshared their commitment invaluable comments. to discourage The any Japan possible Society violation for the ofPromotion national ofsovereignty, Sciences thesupported so-called this foreign research threat. (JSPS As KAKENHIstated above, Grant the Numbers:government exploitsJP19401047, this issue, JP23520998, supposedly broughtJP24320175, about by andthe JP15K03054).offspring of international couples, in order to restrain the NRNA’s demands about citizenship, while some members of the NRNA are worriedThis aboutpaper the examines “foreign threat”the relationship caused by the between purchase emigrants’ of land by transnationalforeigners. Although civil society there andis difference the State, in especially the views their of the country two, the of originmembers with of attention the NRNA to its have corporatist to take characteristic, the government’s as an claimattempt of ata clarifying“foreign threat”the transnational into account, dynamics because of civil thesociety. NRNA Here, enshrinesreferring topatriotism. the definition The nature of civil of societyNepal’s bygeopolitical Hegel (1896: situation§182: is, addition; thus, a factor1952: characterizing266; 1991: the220) development and Dunn of Nepali(1996: corporatism27) and thatbeyond of nationaltransnational geographical process borders.by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term “transnationalHowever, the civil weakness society” of tothe mean NRNA the attributable transnational to thedomain lack of emigrants’relationships, political which rights falls betweencan affect the Nepal’s private democratization realm on the one process. hand Accordingand a specific to Wiarda State (2015on the (1997): other, 121), across neo-corporatism geographical maynational lead toboundaries a “dual power and where,structure” through by which sociability, the activities social of valuesinterest such groups as mightcivility, be mutuality, hidden to citizens,religiosity, and and the formulationothers are ofproduced, policies throughas the 286 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 287 absencegovernment, of voting which rights, has emigrants been generated cannot holdby thethe emigrants’government corporatist activities might be opaque to voters. We should ask how accountableactivism beyond through national elections borders. as is done by local CSOs. Second is the corporatist relationship beyond national geographical borders geographical distance and national boundaries between the countries between the NRNA and the Nepali government influences the of Kresidenceey words :and Corporatism Nepal. The beyond NRNA national cannot borders, easily transnational resort to street civil accountability of the Nepali government to its domestic Nepali rallies or generalsociety, strikes. Nepal, Even emigration, if the emigrants Non-resident had Nepali right Associationto vote, it citizens. This is a task that I plan on pursuing in further work. would be difficult(NRNA) for them to exercise it in Nepal. Third, since the NRNA is not an INGO, it cannot rely on the patronage of the Conclusions influential international donor community. Fourth, entrepreneur members of the NRNA Ahaveckn ogottenwledg ma emorents favored position than In this paper, I have described and analyzed the relationship Iother greatly foreign appreciate entrepreneurs the cooperation by the of NRNA’sthe members solicitation of the NRNA.to the between the NRNA and the Nepali government in order to help However,government. I am Given solely the responsible considerable for thebusiness views opportunitiesand opinions inexpressed Nepal, clarify the transnational dynamics of non-Western civil society. The inthey this wish paper, for andthe NRNAthey do tonot attract reflect the those favor of ofthe the NRNA government unless corporatist link between the NRNA and the Nepali government differentlyofficials. Fifth, specified. between I am the alsogovernment grateful toand the the anonymous emigrants, therereviewers is a enables the association to be incorporated into the State’s forshared their commitment invaluable comments. to discourage The any Japan possible Society violation for the ofPromotion national governmental system and to serve as a mediator for the political ofsovereignty, Sciences thesupported so-called this foreign research threat. (JSPS As KAKENHIstated above, Grant the participation of emigrants, who have no political rights in Nepal. Numbers:government exploitsJP19401047, this issue, JP23520998, supposedly broughtJP24320175, about by andthe This transnational corporatist relationship between the NRNA and JP15K03054).offspring of international couples, in order to restrain the NRNA’s the Nepali government also helps the government elaborate policies demands about citizenship, while some members of the NRNA are that are more appropriate in a globalized economy. worriedThis aboutpaper the examines “foreign threat”the relationship caused by the between purchase emigrants’ of land by However, unlike the case of local CSOs, this corporatism is transnationalforeigners. Although civil society there andis difference the State, in especially the views their of the country two, the of characterized by political culture where the government commands originmembers with of attention the NRNA to its have corporatist to take characteristic, the government’s as an claimattempt of ata dominant position and emigrants’ loyalty and patriotism are adopted clarifying“foreign threat”the transnational into account, dynamics because of civil thesociety. NRNA Here, enshrinesreferring as mottos which focus emigrants’ discourse and practice into one topatriotism. the definition The nature of civil of societyNepal’s bygeopolitical Hegel (1896: situation§182: is, addition; thus, a direction. Thus, the development of Nepali civil society after 1952:factor characterizing266; 1991: the220) development and Dunn of Nepali(1996: corporatism27) and thatbeyond of democratization has never been unilineal and it is characterized by transnationalnational geographical process borders.by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term plural political cultures, as shown by the difference in the relationship “transnational However, the civil weakness society” of tothe mean NRNA the attributable transnational to thedomain lack of with the government between local CSOs, mainly consisting of relationships,emigrants’ political which rights falls betweencan affect the Nepal’s private democratization realm on the one process. hand resident Nepali citizens, and that consisting of Nepali emigrants. andAccording a specific to Wiarda State (2015on the (1997): other, 121), across neo-corporatism geographical maynational lead Further, I pointed out the possibility of this corporatism leading to a boundariesto a “dual power and where,structure” through by which sociability, the activities social of valuesinterest such groups as “dual power structure” (Wiarda 2015 (1997): 121). civility,might be mutuality, hidden to citizens,religiosity, and and the formulationothers are ofproduced, policies throughas the Focusing on the case of the NRNA, this paper has thus 288 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 289 contributedgovernment, to thewhich understanding has been ofgenerated how the byrelationship the emigrants’ between CSOactivism and beyondthe State national may borders. vary according to the domestic or transnational context in which it is embedded. Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil society, Nepal, emigration, Non-resident Nepali Association References (NRNA)

Adhikari, K. P. and D. N.

2018 The Non-ResidentA cNepaliknow Movement.ledgment sIn D. N. Gellner and S. L. Hausner eds. Global Nepalis: Religion, Culture, and Community in a I greatly appreciateNew and Old the Diaspora cooperation, pp.437-66. of the New members Delhi: Oxfordof the UniversityNRNA. However, Press.I am solely responsible for the views and opinions expressed inAntarrā thisṣṭ riyapaper, Samanwaya and they Pari doṣad not2011-013 reflect kā thoseGatividhi of (Thethe NRNAActivities unlessof the differentlyInternational specified.Coordination I Councilam also in grateful2011-13) to the anonymous reviewers 2013 Global Nepali 15, 51-5. for their invaluable comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion Bāskotā, K. of 2012Sciences Lagānīlāī supported Sadhaĩ Swāgatthis . research(Investment (JSPS Is Always KAKENHI Welcome) GrantGlobal Numbers:Nepali JP19401047, 11, 2. JP23520998, JP24320175, and JP15K03054).Bhatta, Bhaban

2014 Nepālī lāi Nepālī (Making Nepali Nepali) (NRNA Song by NRNA). Retrieved 16 December 2018 from https://www.youtube.com/watc This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ h?v=9AfxJs0O7yA. transnationalBudhā, C. civil society and the State, especially their country of origin 2015 with Śubakāmanā attention Sandeś to its (Messagecorporatist of Congratulations). characteristic, Global as an Nepali attempt 22, 1.at clarifyingCalmfors, L theand J.transnational Driffill dynamics of civil society. Here, referring 1988 Bargaining Structure, Corporatism and Macroeconomic Performance. to the definition of civil society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; Economic Policy 3(6), 13-61. Retrieved January 11, 2018 from htt 1952: 266;ps://www.researchgate.net/profile/John_Driffill/publication/272543769 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnational_Bargaining_Structure_Corporatism_and_Macroeconomic_Performanc process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term “transnationale/links/550c0efc0cf2528164db147f/Bargaining-Structure-Corporatism- civil society” to mean the transnational domain of relationships,and-Macroeconomic-Performance.pdf. which falls between the private realm on the one hand Continuationand a specific of Nepali State Citizenship on the Task other, Force across geographical national 2017-2019 Terms of Reference (TOR) of the NRN Task Force on boundariesContinuation and where, of Nepali through Citizenship sociability, (CNCTF) social 2017-2019. values Retrieved such as 4 civility, mutuality,January 2019 religiosity,from https://nrna.org/Portals/0/cnc17-19.pdf. and others are produced, as the 288 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 289 contributedgovernment, to thewhich understanding has been ofgenerated how the byrelationship the emigrants’ between Dāhāl, Vāsudev CSOactivism and beyondthe State national may borders. vary according to the domestic or 2013 Śubakāmanā Sandeś (Message of Congratulations). Global Nepali 15, 1. transnational context in which it is embedded. Dunn, E. 1996 Money, Morality and Modes of Civil Society among American Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil Mormons. In C. Hunn and E. Dunn ed. Civil Society: Challenging society, Nepal, emigration, Non-resident Nepali Association Western Models, pp.27-49. London: Routledge. References (NRNA) Edwards, M.

2014 (2004) Civil Society (Third Edition). Cambridge: Polity Press. Enārenko Sarōkār mā Sarkārī Cāsō Adhikari, K. P. and D. N. 2012 Global Nepali 11, 9. 2018 The Non-ResidentA cNepaliknow Movement.ledgment sIn D. N. Gellner and S. L. Hausner eds. Global Nepalis: Religion, Culture, and Community in a Fisher, W. F.

I greatly appreciateNew and Old the Diaspora cooperation, pp.437-66. of the New members Delhi: Oxfordof the UniversityNRNA. 2010 Civil Society and Its Fragments. In D. N. Gellner ed., Varieties of However, Press.I am solely responsible for the views and opinions expressed Activist Experience: Civil Society in South Asia, pp.250-68. New Delhi: inAntarrā thisṣṭ riyapaper, Samanwaya and they Pari doṣad not2011-013 reflect kā thoseGatividhi of (Thethe NRNAActivities unlessof the SAGE Publications India. International Coordination Council in 2011-13) FNCCI differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers 2013 Global Nepali 15, 51-5. n.d. “Introduction.” Retrieved 22 June 2018 from http://www.fncci.org/ for their invaluable comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion Bāskotā, K. introduction-25.html. of 2012Sciences Lagānīlāī supported Sadhaĩ Swāgatthis . research(Investment (JSPS Is Always KAKENHI Welcome) GrantGlobal Gaige, F. H.

Numbers:Nepali JP19401047, 11, 2. JP23520998, JP24320175, and 1975 Regionalism and National Unity in Nepal. Berkelry: University of JP15K03054).Bhatta, Bhaban California Press. Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧgha Antarrāṣṭriya Samanwaya Pariṣad kā Pachillā Gatividhi 2014 Nepālī lāi Nepālī (Making Nepali Nepali) (NRNA Song by NRNA). Retrieved 16 December 2018 from https://www.youtube.com/watc (NRNA ICC’s Latter Activities) This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ h?v=9AfxJs0O7yA. 2013 Global Nepali 13, 11. transnationalBudhā, C. civil society and the State, especially their country of Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2009 ko Sȧśodhan sahit Milāieko Rūpmā) origin 2015 with Śubakāmanā attention Sandeś to its (Messagecorporatist of Congratulations). characteristic, Global as an Nepali attempt 22, 1.at 2009 NRNA 2013, Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧgha tathā Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī clarifyingCalmfors, L theand J.transnational Driffill dynamics of civil society. Here, referring Sambandhī Baidhānik (sic.) ra Kānunī Dastāvejharu (Collections of 1988 Bargaining Structure, Corporatism and Macroeconomic Performance. Statutes and Acts Related to the NRNA and NRN), pp.47-59. to the definition of civil society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; Economic Policy 3(6), 13-61. Retrieved January 11, 2018 from htt Kathmandu: Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧgha ko Saciwālaya (Secretariat of the 1952: 266;ps://www.researchgate.net/profile/John_Driffill/publication/272543769 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of NRNA). transnational_Bargaining_Structure_Corporatism_and_Macroeconomic_Performanc process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2012 ko Sȧśodhan sahit) (The Statute of “transnationale/links/550c0efc0cf2528164db147f/Bargaining-Structure-Corporatism- civil society” to mean the transnational domain of the NRNA, 2003 (Including Amendment in 2012)) relationships,and-Macroeconomic-Performance.pdf. which falls between the private realm on the one hand 2012 NRNA 2013, Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧgha tathā Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sambandhī Baidhānik (sic.) ra Kānunī Dastāvejharu (Collections of Continuationand a specific of Nepali State Citizenship on the Task other, Force across geographical national 2017-2019 Terms of Reference (TOR) of the NRN Task Force on Statutes and Acts Related to the NRNA and NRN), pp.1-25. boundariesContinuation and where, of Nepali through Citizenship sociability, (CNCTF) social 2017-2019. values Retrieved such as 4 Kathmandu: Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧgha ko Saciwālaya (Secretariat of the civility, mutuality,January 2019 religiosity,from https://nrna.org/Portals/0/cnc17-19.pdf. and others are produced, as the NRNA). 290 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 291

Gairgovernment, Āvāsīya Nepālī Swhichȧghako Vidhānhas been 2003 (2013generated ko Sȧśodhan by sahit)the emigrants’(The Statute of theactivism NRNA, 2003 beyond (Including national Amendment borders. in 2013))

2013 Retrieved 3 January 2019 from https://www.nrna.org/Portals/0/pdf/ nrna_biddhan_2013.pdf. Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2017 ko Sȧśodhan sahit) (The Statute of the NRNA, 2003society, (Including Nepal, Amendment emigration, in 2017)) Non-resident Nepali Association 2017 Retrieved(NRNA) 24 Decemver 2018 from https://www.nrna.org/Portals/0/ Bidhan_2017.PDF. Glossary and Abbreviations

2010 D. N. Gellner ed., Varieties of Activist Experience: Civil Society in South Asia, pp.181-216. NewAck nDelhi:owle SAGEdgme Publicationsnts India. IGovernment greatly appreciate of India the cooperation of the members of the NRNA. However, n.d. NGODARPAN.I am solely responsible Retrieved for31 theDecember, views and2018 opinions from https://ngodar expressed in this paper,pan.gov.in/. and they do not reflect those of the NRNA unless Government of Nepal, Nepal Law Commission differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers n.d. National Foundation for Upliftment of Aadibasi/Janjati Act, 2058 for their invaluable (2002). Retrieved comments. 13 January The 2019Japan from Society http://www.lahurnip.org/u for the Promotion of Sciencesploads/articles/national-foundation-for-upliftment-of-aadibasi-janjati-ac supported this research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers:t-2058-2002.pdf. JP19401047, JP23520998, JP24320175, and JP15K03054).Gramsci, A. 1999 Selections from Prison Notebook. Translated from the Italian by Quentin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith. London: ElecBook. Retrieved 28 This paperAugust 2017examines from http://abahlali.org/files/gramsci.pdf. the relationship between emigrants’ transnationalGurung, H. civil society and the State, especially their country of origin 1997 with State attention and Society to itsin Nepal.corporatist In D. N.characteristic, Gellner, J. Pfaff-Czarnecka as an attempt and atJ. clarifying Whelptonthe transnational eds., Nationalism dynamics and ofEthnicity civil society.in a Hindu Here, Kingdom: referring The Politics of Culture in Contemporary Nepal, pp.495-532. Amsterdam: to the definitionHarwood Academicof civil Publishers.society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; 1952:Gurung, N.266; 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnational 2016 Bringing process Grassroots by MovementKearney in(1995: USA. Retrieved548), I23 use December the term2018 “transnationalfrom https://www.nrna.org/Publications/PubId/1.civil society” to mean the transnational domain of relationships,Gyawali, M. which falls between the private realm on the one hand 2015 Nepal and the Great Power Courtship. The Diplomat, January 20, 2015. and a specific Retrieved State 2 March on 2019the other,from https://thediplomat.com/2015/01/nep across geographical national boundariesal-and-the-great-power-courtship/. and where, through sociability, social values such as civility,Hann, C. andmutuality, E. Dunn (eds.)religiosity, and others are produced, as the 290 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 291

Gairgovernment, Āvāsīya Nepālī Swhichȧghako Vidhānhas been 2003 (2013generated ko Sȧśodhan by sahit)the emigrants’(The Statute of 1996 Civil Society: Challenging Western Models. London: Routlege. theactivism NRNA, 2003 beyond (Including national Amendment borders. in 2013)) Hegel, G. W. F.

2013 Retrieved 3 January 2019 from https://www.nrna.org/Portals/0/pdf/ 1896 Hegel’s Philosophy of Right. Translated by S. W. Dyde. London: G. nrna_biddhan_2013.pdf. Bell. Retrieved 25 August 2017 from https://www.marxists.org/refer Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧghako Vidhān 2003 (2017 ko Sȧśodhan sahit) (The Statute of ence/archive/hegel/works/pr/philosophy-of-right.pdf. the NRNA, 2003society, (Including Nepal, Amendment emigration, in 2017)) Non-resident Nepali Association 1952 Philosophy of Right. Translated by T. M. Knox. London: Oxford 2017 Retrieved(NRNA) 24 Decemver 2018 from https://www.nrna.org/Portals/0/ University Press. Bidhan_2017.PDF. 1991 Elements of the Philosophy of Right. Translated by H. B. Nisbet. Glossary and Abbreviations Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2010 D. N. Gellner ed., Varieties of Activist Experience: Civil Society in South Ishii, H. 石井溥 Asia, pp.181-216. NewAck nDelhi:owle SAGEdgme Publicationsnts India. 1980 『ネワール村落の社会構造とその変化―カースト社会の変容』 IGovernment greatly appreciate of India the cooperation of the members of the NRNA. (Social Structure of a Newar Village and Its Change: The Change in Caste However, n.d. NGODARPAN.I am solely responsible Retrieved for31 theDecember, views and2018 opinions from https://ngodar expressed Society). 東京：アジア・アフリカ言語文化研究所 (Tokyo: Research in this paper,pan.gov.in/. and they do not reflect those of the NRNA unless Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa). Government of Nepal, Nepal Law Commission Johansson, J. differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers n.d. National Foundation for Upliftment of Aadibasi/Janjati Act, 2058 2012 Swedish Employers and Trade Unions, Varieties of Capitalism and for their invaluable (2002). Retrieved comments. 13 January The 2019Japan from Society http://www.lahurnip.org/u for the Promotion Labour Migration Policies. Nordic Journal of Migration Research 2(4), of Sciencesploads/articles/national-foundation-for-upliftment-of-aadibasi-janjati-ac supported this research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant 325-34. Retrieved 12 January 2018 from https://www.degruyter.co Numbers:t-2058-2002.pdf. JP19401047, JP23520998, JP24320175, and m/downloadpdf/j/njmr.2012.2.issue-4/v10202-012-0003-y/v10202-01 JP15K03054).Gramsci, A. 2-0003-y.pdf. 1999 Selections from Prison Notebook. Translated from the Italian by Quentin Kaldor, M. and H. L. Moore, and S. Selchow (eds.) Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith. London: ElecBook. Retrieved 28 2012 Global Civil Society 2012: Ten Years of Critical Reflection. Basingstoke: This paperAugust 2017examines from http://abahlali.org/files/gramsci.pdf. the relationship between emigrants’ Palgrave Macmillan. transnationalGurung, H. civil society and the State, especially their country of Keane, J. origin 1997 with State attention and Society to itsin Nepal.corporatist In D. N.characteristic, Gellner, J. Pfaff-Czarnecka as an attempt and atJ. 2003 Global Civil Society? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. clarifying Whelptonthe transnational eds., Nationalism dynamics and ofEthnicity civil society.in a Hindu Here, Kingdom: referring The Kearney, M. Politics of Culture in Contemporary Nepal, pp.495-532. Amsterdam: 1995 The Local and the Global: The Anthropology of Globalization and to the definitionHarwood Academicof civil Publishers.society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; Transnationalism. Annual Review of Anthropology 24, 547-65. 1952:Gurung, N.266; 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of Retrieved 27 October 2019 from https://www.jstor.org/stable/21559 transnational 2016 Bringing process Grassroots by MovementKearney in(1995: USA. Retrieved548), I23 use December the term2018 49?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents. “transnationalfrom https://www.nrna.org/Publications/PubId/1.civil society” to mean the transnational domain of Ke Sī, Man relationships,Gyawali, M. which falls between the private realm on the one hand 2014 Pres Vijñapti (Press Release) (Ref. N-23/013-15), 13 Pous 2071 B.S. (28 2015 Nepal and the Great Power Courtship. The Diplomat, January 20, 2015. December 2014) Retrieved 30 March 2015 from http://nrna.org.n and a specific Retrieved State 2 March on 2019the other,from https://thediplomat.com/2015/01/nep across geographical national p/press_pdf/n_23_013_15_prese_realease_on_nrn_citizenship.pdf. boundariesal-and-the-great-power-courtship/. and where, through sociability, social values such as Koirālā, S. civility,Hann, C. andmutuality, E. Dunn (eds.)religiosity, and others are produced, as the 2015 Śubhakāmanā (Congratulations). Global Nepali 22, 2. 292 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 293

Lawoti,government, M. which has been generated by the emigrants’ 2010activism Inclusion beyond and national Accountability borders. in a ‘New’ Democratic Nepal. In Rita States in Conflict with their Minorities: Challenges to Manchanda ed., Minority Rights in South Asia, pp.279-306. New Delhi: SAGE Key woPublicationsrds: Corporatism India. beyond national borders, transnational civil Lindvall, J. and J.society, Sebring Nepal, emigration, Non-resident Nepali Association 2005 Policy(NRNA) reform and the decline of corporatism in Sweden. West European Politics 28(5), 1057-74. Retrieved 12 January 2018 from https://w ww.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01402380500311814.

Machhapuchchhre Bank Limited 2018. Home. Retrieved 27A cOctoberknowl e2019dgm froment shttps://www.machbank.com/. IMiddleton, greatly appreciate T. and Sara Shneidermanthe cooperation of the members of the NRNA. However, 2008 Reservations,I am solely responsibleFederalism and for thethe Politicsviews andof Recognition opinions expressedin Nepal. in this paper,Economic and and they Political do notWeekly reflect 43(19), those 39-45. of Retrievedthe NRNA 9 December unless from https://www.jstor.org/stable/40277442?seq=1#page_scan_tab_co differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers ntents. forMurphy, their R. invaluable comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion of 2000Sciences Return supported Migration, Entrepreneurshipthis research and(JSPS Local KAKENHI State Corporatism Grant in Numbers:Rural JP19401047, China: The experience JP23520998, of two counties inJP24320175, south Jiangxi. Journal and of JP15K03054).Contemporary China 9, 231-47. Nakagawa, K. 中川加奈子 2016 『ネパールでカーストを生きぬく―供犠と肉売りを担う人び This paperとの民族誌』 examines(Living the through relationship a Caste Discrimination between inemigrants’ Nepal: An transnationalEthnography civil society of People and Engaged the in State, Sacrifice especially and Meat Salestheir). country京都：世界 of origin with思想社 attention (Kyoto: to Sekai-shiso-sha).its corporatist characteristic, as an attempt at clarifyingNepal Rastra the Bank, transnational Research Department dynamics of civil society. Here, referring 2018 A Survey Report on Foreign Direct Investment in Nepal. Retrieved 24 to the definition December of2018 civil from society https://nrb.org.np/red/publications/study_repo by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; 1952: 266;rts/Study_Reports--A_Survey_Report_on_Foreign_Direct_Investment_ 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnationalin_Nepal).pdf. process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term NGO“transnational Federation ofcivil Nepal society” to mean the transnational domain of relationships,2017 Rāṣṭriya which Nirdeśan falls Ain between (National the Directive private Act). realm Retrieved on the 22 one June hand 2018 from http://www.ngofederation.org/sites/default/files/2017-09/%E0% and a specificA4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F% State on the other, across geographical national boundariesE0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF-%E0%A and where, through sociability, social values such as civility, mutuality,4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E religiosity, and others are produced, as the 292 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 293

Lawoti,government, M. which has been generated by the emigrants’ 0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A 2010activism Inclusion beyond and national Accountability borders. in a ‘New’ Democratic Nepal. In Rita 8-%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A6.pdf. States in Conflict with their Minorities: Challenges to Manchanda ed., NRNA Minority Rights in South Asia, pp.279-306. New Delhi: SAGE 2013 Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sȧgha tathā Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sambandhī Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil Publications India. Baidhānik (sic.) ra Kānunī Dastāvejharu (Collections of Statutes and Lindvall, J. and J.society, Sebring Nepal, emigration, Non-resident Nepali Association Acts Rrelated to the NRNA and NRN). Kathmandu: Gair Āvāsīya 2005 Policy(NRNA) reform and the decline of corporatism in Sweden. West European Nepālī Sȧgha ko Saciwālaya (Secretariat of the NRNA). Politics 28(5), 1057-74. Retrieved 12 January 2018 from https://w 2017 Non-Resident Nepali Association, Earthquake Disaster Relief Fund ww.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01402380500311814. 2072, List of Contributors. Retrieved 9 December 2018 from htt

Machhapuchchhre Bank Limited ps://www.nrna.org/Fund-Contributor-List. 2018. Home. Retrieved 27A cOctoberknowl e2019dgm froment shttps://www.machbank.com/. 2018a Laprak Model Settlement. Retrieved 27 December 2018 from http IMiddleton, greatly appreciate T. and Sara Shneidermanthe cooperation of the members of the NRNA. s://www.laprakmodelsettlement.org/. However, 2008 Reservations,I am solely responsibleFederalism and for thethe Politicsviews andof Recognition opinions expressedin Nepal. 2018b NRNA Global. Retrieved 8 December 2018 from https://www.nrn in this paper,Economic and and they Political do notWeekly reflect 43(19), those 39-45. of Retrievedthe NRNA 9 December unless a.org/. from https://www.jstor.org/stable/40277442?seq=1#page_scan_tab_co NRN Act (Gair Āvāsīya Nepālīko Sambandhamā Vyavasthā Baneko Vidheyak 2064, differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers ntents. Act Designed to Provide for the Legal Provisions Relating to Non-Resident forMurphy, their R. invaluable comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion Nepalis) of 2000Sciences Return supported Migration, Entrepreneurshipthis research and(JSPS Local KAKENHI State Corporatism Grant in 2007 Retrieved 27 December 2018 from https://www.nrna.org/Portals/0/ Numbers:Rural JP19401047, China: The experience JP23520998, of two counties inJP24320175, south Jiangxi. Journal and of Approved%20NRN%20Act264-5-10_1.pdf. JP15K03054).Contemporary China 9, 231-47. NRNA Australia Nakagawa, K. 中川加奈子 2014 Membership Application – Term: 2017-2019. Retrieved 17 December 2016 『ネパールでカーストを生きぬく―供犠と肉売りを担う人び 2018 from https://nrn.org.au/statemembership/apply/ggf0tr53r7i7oell This paperとの民族誌』 examines(Living the through relationship a Caste Discrimination between inemigrants’ Nepal: An 6o0k0riap5/. transnationalEthnography civil society of People and Engaged the in State, Sacrifice especially and Meat Salestheir). country京都：世界 of NRN Rule (Gair Āvāsīya Nepālī Sambandhī Niyamāwali, 2066, Rule Related to origin with思想社 attention (Kyoto: to Sekai-shiso-sha).its corporatist characteristic, as an attempt at Non-Resident Nepalis) clarifyingNepal Rastra the Bank, transnational Research Department dynamics of civil society. Here, referring 2007 Retrieved 28 December 2018 from https://www.nrna.org/Portals/0/ 2018 A Survey Report on Foreign Direct Investment in Nepal. Retrieved 24 NRN%20Rule%2C%202066%20%20Final%20copy_Govt_1.pdf. to the definition December of2018 civil from society https://nrb.org.np/red/publications/study_repo by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; Pound Sterling Live 1952: 266;rts/Study_Reports--A_Survey_Report_on_Foreign_Direct_Investment_ 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of 2013-2018a Historical Rates for the USD/NPR Currency Conversion on 14 transnationalin_Nepal).pdf. process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term August 2014 (14/08/2014). Retrieved 23 December 2018 from ht NGO“transnational Federation ofcivil Nepal society” to mean the transnational domain of tps://www.poundsterlinglive.com/best-exchange-rates/us-dollar-to-nepal relationships,2017 Rāṣṭriya which Nirdeśan falls Ain between (National the Directive private Act). realm Retrieved on the 22 one June hand 2018 ese-rupee-exchange-rate-on-2014-08-14. from http://www.ngofederation.org/sites/default/files/2017-09/%E0% 2013-2018b Historical Rates for the USD/NPR Currency Conversion on 15 and a specificA4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F% State on the other, across geographical national October 2015 (15/10/2015). Retrieved 18 January 2019 from htt boundariesE0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF-%E0%A and where, through sociability, social values such as ps://www.poundsterlinglive.com/best-exchange-rates/us-dollar-to-nepal civility, mutuality,4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E religiosity, and others are produced, as the ese-rupee-exchange-rate-on-2015-10-15. 294 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants 295

Regmi,government, K. which has been generated by the emigrants’ 2013activism Śubhakāmanā beyond national (Congratulations). borders. Global Nepali 15, 2. S gatit Yātrāko Ek Daśāk ȧ (The Association’s Ten-year Journey) 2013 Global Nepali 15, 8-9. Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil Śarmā, H. R. 2016 Enārenkosociety, Sāmānyajñān Nepal, emigration, (General Non-resident Knowledge Nepalion the Association NRNA), Non-resident(NRNA) Nepali Association (NRNA) Souvenir, pp.71-82. 2010 Enārenlāī Dohoro Nāgarikatā ki Nepālī Nāgarikatāko Nirantaratā? (NRNs’ Dual Citizenship or the Retention of Nepali Citizenship?),

『北大ビショウニ (Bisaunī)』(Hokkaido University Lounge) 12, 71-3. Retrieved 17 DecemberAckn 2012owl efromdgm ents I greatly appreciatehttp://circle.cc.hokudai.ac.jp/nepal/bisauni/archive/issue12/pdf. the cooperation of the members of the NRNA. However,Schiller, N. G.I am and solely G. Fouron responsible for the views and opinions expressed in 1999this paper, Transnational and they Lives do and not National reflect Identities: those of The the Identity NRNA Politics unless of Haitian Immigrants. In M. P. Smith and L. E. Guarnizo eds., differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers Transnationalism from Below, pp.130-61. New Brunswick: Transaction for their invaluablePublishers. comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion ofShrestha, Sciences C. H. supported this research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers: 2010 Activists JP19401047, and Development JP23520998, in Nepal. In D. N.JP24320175, Geller ed., Varieties and of JP15K03054).Activist Experience: Civil Society in South Asia, pp.181-216. New Delhi: SAGE Publications India. Shinkai, Yasuyuki 慎改康之 2009This paper「『生政治の誕生』もしくは市民社会の系譜学」 examines the relationship between (Theemigrants’ Birth of transnationalBiopolitics civil orsociety Genealogy and of the Civil State, Society). especially『現代思想』 their( Contemporarycountry of origin withPhilosophy attention) 37(7), to its 192-205. corporatist Retrieved characteristic, 10 September as an 2017 attempt from htat clarifying tp://www.meijigakuin.ac.jp/~french/shinkai/pdf%20files/societecivile.pthe transnational dynamics of civil society. Here, referring df. toSociety the of definition Economic Journalists of civil –society Nepal by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; 1952:2015 266;NRN 1991:Investment 220) in andNepal Dunn(A Survey (1996: of Nine 27) Selected and thatDistricts) of. transnationalKathmandu: process Society by ofKearney Economic (1995: Journalists 548), – Nepal. I use the term S.“transnational R. Pandey & Co. civil society” to mean the transnational domain of relationships,2017 Statement which of fallsFinancial between Position the as private at Ashad realm 31, 2074 on the(15 Julyone 2017).hand Retrieved 23 December 2018 from http://nrna.org/Portals/0/Audit_ and a specificReport%202073-2074.pdf. State on the other, across geographical national Streeck,boundaries W. and and P. C. where,Schmttter through sociability, social values such as civility,1991 mutuality, From National religiosity, Corporatism and to othersTransnational are produced,Pluralism: Organized as the 294 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants Taeko Uesugi 295

Regmi,government, K. which has been generated by the emigrants’ Interests in the Single European Market. Politics & Society 19(2), 2013activism Śubhakāmanā beyond national (Congratulations). borders. Global Nepali 15, 2. 133-64. Retrieved 17 January 2018 from http://www.rochelleterma S gatit Yātrāko Ek Daśāk ȧ (The Association’s Ten-year Journey) n.com/ComparativeExam/sites/default/files/Bibliography%20and%20S 2013 Global Nepali 15, 8-9. ummaries/streek%201991.pdf. Key words: Corporatism beyond national borders, transnational civil Śarmā, H. R. Tocqueville, A. de 2016 Enārenkosociety, Sāmānyajñān Nepal, emigration, (General Non-resident Knowledge Nepalion the Association NRNA), 2002 Democracy in America, translated from French by H. Reeve. State Non-resident(NRNA) Nepali Association (NRNA) Souvenir, pp.71-82. College, PA: Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved 28 August 2017 2010 Enārenlāī Dohoro Nāgarikatā ki Nepālī Nāgarikatāko Nirantaratā? from http://seas3.elte.hu/coursematerial/LojkoMiklos/Alexis-de-Tocqu (NRNs’ Dual Citizenship or the Retention of Nepali Citizenship?), eville-Democracy-in-America.pdf.

『北大ビショウニ (Bisaunī)』(Hokkaido University Lounge) 12, 71-3. Uesugi, Taeko 上杉妙子 Retrieved 17 DecemberAckn 2012owl efromdgm ents 2017 「多重市民権をめぐる交渉と市民権の再構成―在外ネパール I greatly appreciatehttp://circle.cc.hokudai.ac.jp/nepal/bisauni/archive/issue12/pdf. the cooperation of the members of the NRNA. 人協会の「ネパール市民権の継続」運動―」(Negotiations around However,Schiller, N. G.I am and solely G. Fouron responsible for the views and opinions expressed Multiple Citizenship and Restructuring of Citizenship: The in 1999this paper, Transnational and they Lives do and not National reflect Identities: those of The the Identity NRNA Politics unless of Non-Resident Nepali Association’s Campaign for “Retention of Nepali Haitian Immigrants. In M. P. Smith and L. E. Guarnizo eds., Citizenship”). 名和克郎（編）『体制転換期ネパールにおける「包 differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers Transnationalism from Below, pp.130-61. New Brunswick: Transaction 摂」の諸相─言説政治・社会実践・生活世界』(In Katsuo Nawa, for their invaluablePublishers. comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion ed., Aspects of “Inclusion” in Nepal at the Era of Regime Change: Politics of ofShrestha, Sciences C. H. supported this research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Discourse, Social Practice and Life World), pp.485-524. 東京：三元社 Numbers: 2010 Activists JP19401047, and Development JP23520998, in Nepal. In D. N.JP24320175, Geller ed., Varieties and of (Tokyo: Sangensha). JP15K03054).Activist Experience: Civil Society in South Asia, pp.181-216. New Delhi: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) SAGE Publications India. 2009 World Investment Report 2009: Transnational Corporations, Agricultural Shinkai, Yasuyuki 慎改康之 Production and Development. New York: United Nations. Retrieved 22 2009This paper「『生政治の誕生』もしくは市民社会の系譜学」 examines the relationship between (Theemigrants’ Birth of December 2018 from https://unctad.org/en/Docs/wir2009_en.pdf. transnationalBiopolitics civil orsociety Genealogy and of the Civil State, Society). especially『現代思想』 their( Contemporarycountry of 2012 World Investment Report 2012: Towards a New Generation of Investment origin withPhilosophy attention) 37(7), to its 192-205. corporatist Retrieved characteristic, 10 September as an 2017 attempt from htat Policies. New York: United Nations. Retrieved 22 December 2018 from clarifying tp://www.meijigakuin.ac.jp/~french/shinkai/pdf%20files/societecivile.pthe transnational dynamics of civil society. Here, referring https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/wir2012_embargoed_en.pdf. df. 2015 World Investment Report 2015: Reforming International Investment toSociety the of definition Economic Journalists of civil –society Nepal by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; Governance. New York: United Nations. Retrieved 21 December 2018 1952:2015 266;NRN 1991:Investment 220) in andNepal Dunn(A Survey (1996: of Nine 27) Selected and thatDistricts) of. from https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/wir2015_en.pdf. transnationalKathmandu: process Society by ofKearney Economic (1995: Journalists 548), – Nepal. I use the term 2018 World Investment Report 2018: Investment and New Industrial Policies. S.“transnational R. Pandey & Co. civil society” to mean the transnational domain of Retrieved 23 December 2018 from https://unctad.org/en/Publicatio relationships,2017 Statement which of fallsFinancial between Position the as private at Ashad realm 31, 2074 on the(15 Julyone 2017).hand nsLibrary/wir2018_en.pdf. Retrieved 23 December 2018 from http://nrna.org/Portals/0/Audit_ United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner and a specificReport%202073-2074.pdf. State on the other, across geographical national 1996-2018 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Streeck,boundaries W. and and P. C. where,Schmttter through sociability, social values such as Retrieved 16 December 2018 from https://www.ohchr.org/en/profes civility,1991 mutuality, From National religiosity, Corporatism and to othersTransnational are produced,Pluralism: Organized as the sionalinterest/pages/cescr.aspx. 296 TheThe Transnationaltransnational Civilcivil societySociety ofof NepaliNepali emigrantsEmigrants

Wiarda,government, H. J. which has been generated by the emigrants’ 2015activism (1997) beyond Corporatism national and borders. Comparative Politics: The Other Great “Ism.” London: Routledge. World Bank 2016Key wo Personalrds: Corporatism Remittances, beyond Received national (% of GDP).borders, Retrieved transnational 3 May 2016civil from society,http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.TRF.PWKR.DT.GD.ZS. Nepal, emigration, Non-resident Nepali Association World Intellectual(NRNA) Property Organization n.d. The Foreign Investment and Technology Transfer Act, 2049 (1992). Retrieved 16 March 2017 from http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/tex

t.jsp?file_id=189131. Xanthaki, A. Acknowledgments I greatly2017 appreciate Cultural Rights, the Oxfordcooperation Bibliographies of the. Retrievedmembers 16 of December the NRNA. 2018 However, fromI am http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780solely responsible for the views and opinions expressed in this paper,199796953/obo-9780199796953-0123.xml. and they do not reflect those of the NRNA unless differently specified. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their invaluable comments. The Japan Society for the Promotion of Sciences supported this research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers: JP19401047, JP23520998, JP24320175, and JP15K03054).

This paper examines the relationship between emigrants’ transnational civil society and the State, especially their country of origin with attention to its corporatist characteristic, as an attempt at clarifying the transnational dynamics of civil society. Here, referring to the definition of civil society by Hegel (1896:§182: addition; 1952: 266; 1991: 220) and Dunn (1996: 27) and that of transnational process by Kearney (1995: 548), I use the term “transnational civil society” to mean the transnational domain of relationships, which falls between the private realm on the one hand and a specific State on the other, across geographical national boundaries and where, through sociability, social values such as civility, mutuality, religiosity, and others are produced, as the