A STUDY ON ECONOMICS OF FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION IN AGRICULTURE AT BLOCK OF DISTRICT,

Thesis submitted to BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY TIRUCHIRAPPALLI for the award of the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS

By A. JUSTIN THIRAVIAM, M.A., M.Phil.

Under the guidance of Dr. A. JEBAMALAI RAJA, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D.

PG and RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS URUMU DHANALAKSHMI COLLEGE TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 620 019

DECEMBER 2011

Dr. A. JEBAMALAI RAJA, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D. Research Advisor PG and Research Department of Economics Urumu Dhanalakshmi College Tiruchirappalli - 620 019 ______

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “A Study on Economics of

Fertilizer Consumption in Agriculture at Lalgudi Block of Tiruchirappalli

District, Tamil Nadu” is a bonafide record of the research work done by

Mr. A. JUSTIN THIRAVIAM, under my guidance and that the thesis has not formed the basis previously for award of any degree or diploma, fellowship or associateship or any other similar title.

(Dr. A. JEBAMALAI RAJA) Research Advisor Station : Tiruchirappalli Date :

DECLARATION

I declare that the thesis entitled, “A Study on Economics of Fertilizer

Consumption in Agriculture at Lalgudi Block of ,

Tamil Nadu” has been originally carried out by me at the Post-Graduate and

Research Department of Economics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli affiliated to Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli under the guidance and supervision of Dr. A. Jebamalai Raja, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., Research Supervisor,

PG and Research Department of Economics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College,

Tiruchirappalli and that it has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any

Degree, Diploma, Associateship and Fellowship.

Place : Tiruchirappalli A. JUSTIN THIRAVIAM Date :

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Almighty God for showering His abundant blessings on me to complete the Research work.

First and foremost, I express my deep sense of gratitude to my Guide Dr. A. Jebamalai Raja, Associate Professor of Economics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli. In the choice of the problem, review of literature and actual research activities, his guidance was a source of inspiration and direction. His strife for perfection and drive for timely work helped me to finish the work on time. For this I am thankful and grateful to him and wish to express my deep sense of indebtedness to him.

I express my sincere thanks to the Principal, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, and the Principal, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli for their generous support to me to complete the research work.

I am grateful to Dr. G. Stphen Vincent, Associate Professor of Statistics, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli and Dr. Arockiasamy, Professor of Economics, Gandhigram Rural University, Dindigul for helping me in arranging the statistical tools and necessary discussions in related to my research work.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. P. Stanly Joseph, Associate Professor of Economics, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli for his gladly consented to take up valuable suggestions and constant encouragement to me in completing the research work.

I am very much indebted and thankful to Dr. M. Durairajan, Librarian, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli; the Assistant Librarians of Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural University, Tiruchirappalli; and the librarian of Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli and the Director, M. S. Swaminathan Research Institute, Chennai for their timely help and support by giving necessary related literatures and constant encouragements to complete this research work successfully.

I express my sincere thanks to the Heads and Staff Members of the Department of Economics both of St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous) and Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli for their generous support and encouragement to me to complete the research work.

I am thankful to Mr. Ramesh, Statistical Department, , Tiruchirappalli, and the Joint Director of Agriculture, Tiruchirappalli District for helping me by supplying the necessary data for the completion of the research work.

I express my special thanks to Mr. S. Jesudoss, Mr. Padmanaban and Mr. Jesus Raja for their tireless work in terms of typing, editing and alignment of my research work in a successful manner.

I have great pleasure and express my gratitude to all my Family Members for their timely support and encouragements throughout the period of study.

It is my privilege and pleasant duty to acknowledge my deep sense of gratitude to all my friends for their constant love and encouragements to undertake and complete the research work successfully.

A. Justin Thiraviam

CONTENTS

Chapter Page Title № №

I. INTRODUCTION AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY 1

II. REVIEW OF THE PAST STUDIES 16

III. FERTILIZER USE ON AGRICULTURE - A FRAME WORK 47

IV. METHODOLOGY 130

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 150

VI. FINDINGS, POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 232

BIBLIOGRAPHY 243

APPENDICES: Appendix-I: TEST OF HYPOTHESES Appendix-II: QUESTIONNAIRE

LIST OF TABLES

3.1 Consumption of Fertilizers at World level (2008-12) ... 48 3.2 Production of Fertilizers in India (2001-10) ... 51 3.3 Consumption of Fertilizers in India (2001-10) ... 54 3.4 Import of Fertilizers by India (2001-10) ... 57 3.5 Consumption of Fertilizers in Southern India (2000-09) ... 61 3.6 Consumption of Fertilizers in Tamil Nadu (2001-09) ... 64 3.7 District-wise Consumption of Fertilizers in Tamil Nadu (2008-09) ... 66 3.8 Consumption of Fertilizers in Selective Agricultural Districts of Tamil Nadu (2008-09) ... 68 3.9 Consumption of Fertilizers at different countries in the World (2008-12) ... 74 3.10 Consumption of Fertilizers in Developed and Developing countries ... 78 3.11 Subsidies for Fertilizers in India (2000-01 to 2008-09) ... 80 3.12 International Prices of Urea, DAP and MOP (Jan 1990 to Sep 2008) ... 83 3.13 The consumption of Nitrogen, Phosphoric acid and Potash in India and other countries (per acre) ... 87 4.1 Land Holding Pattern ... 136 4.2 Rainfall - 2009-10 ... 137 4.3 Occupational pattern ... 138 4.4 Land Utilization (Area in hectares) ... 139 4.5 Important Crops cultivated in the study area ... 140 4.6 Irrigation ... 141 4.7 Fertilizers ... 141 4.8. Pesticides ... 142 4.9 General Features ... 143 4.10 Transport and Communications ... 144 5.1 Gender-wise distribution ... 152 5.2 Age-wise distribution ... 154 5.3 Religion-wise distribution ... 158

5.4 Community wise distribution ... 160 5.5 Distribution based on Educational level ... 162 5.6 Distribution of the family size and type of crop ... 166 5.7 Additional occupation and type of crop ... 168 5.8 Size of farm and additional occupations ... 169 5.9 Annual Income of the family ... 171 5.10 Distribution of respondents by their source of loan ... 172 5.11 Water Sources used by the respondents ... 173 5.12 Distribution of respondents by the method of applying fertilizer ... 175 5.13 Distribution of respondents by their Domicle ... 176 5.14 Distribution of respondents by the cultivated crop ... 177 5.15 Area of land under paddy cultivation ... 178 5.16 Distribution of respondents by the seasons of paddy cultivation ... 180 5.17 Distribution of area of cultivation during Kuruvai season ... 180 5.18 Paddy yield per acre during Kuruvai season cultivation ... 182 5.19 Expenditure on Land Preparation during Kuruvai Season ... 182 5.20 Expenditure towards Fertilizer during Kuruvai Season ... 183 5.21 Net Income per acre during Kuruvai Cultivation ... 183 5.22 Distribution of area of cultivation during Samba season ... 184 5.23 Paddy yield during Samba season cultivation ... 186 5.24 Expenditure on Land Preparation in Samba Season ... 187 5.25 Expenditure on Fertilizer in Samba Season ... 188 5.26 Net Income per acre in Samba Season ... 189 5.27 The area of cultivation during Thaladi Season ... 190 5.28 Paddy Yield during Thaladi season ... 191 5.29 Expenditure on Land Preparation during Thaladi Season ... 192 5.30 Expenditure on Fertilizer during Thaladi Season ... 193 5.31 Net Income from Paddy Cultivation during Thaladi Season ... 194 5.32 Distribution of Area of Land under Banana Cultivation ... 196 5.33 Yield of Banana ... 198 5.34 Expenditure on Land Preparation for Banana Cultivation ... 199 5.35 Expenditure on Fertilizer for Banana Cultivation ... 200

5.36 Net Income for Banana Cultivation ... 201 5.37 Level of satisfaction due to the utilization of fertilizer in the increasing yield ... 203 5.38 Distribution of respondents by their reason for not using bio- fertilizer ... 204 5.39 Distribution of respondents by bio-fertilizer usage ... 205 5.40 Distribution of respondents according to the motivation to use bio-fertilizer ... 206 5.41 Preference of chemical fertilizers ... 207 5.42 Brands of Chemical fertilizer used ... 209 5.43 Respondents and Agricultural Awareness Programme ... 212 5.44 Supply source of chemical fertilizer ... 213 5.45 Opinion on the advantages of chemical fertilizer ... 214 5.46 Opinion about the problems of using chemical fertilizers ... 216 5.47 Opinion about the using mixed form of chemical fertilizer ... 217 5.48 Order of preference of Bio-fertilizers ... 219 5.49 Distribution of respondents according to the actual use of the bio- fertilizer ... 221 5.50 Supply source of bio-fertilizer ... 223 5.51 Source of knowledge about bio-fertilizer ... 224 5.52 Opinion on the advantages of using bio-fertilizer ... 225

LIST OF CHARTS

3.1 World level Fertilizers Consumption (2008-12) ... 50 3.2 Production of Fertilizers in India ... 53 3.3 Consumption of Fertilizers in India ... 56 3.4 Imports of Fertilizers in India ... 59 3.5 Country level Fertilizers Consumption (2008-12 ... 75 5.1 Gender-wise distribution ... 153 5.2 Age-wise distribution ... 155 5.3 Religion-wise distribution ... 159 5.4 Community-wise distribution ... 161 5.5 Distribution based on Educational Level ... 163 5.6 Distribution of the Family Size and Type of Crop ... 167 5.7 Source of Irrigation ... 174 5.8 Profile Analysis ... 195 5.9 Profile chart comparing Revenue and Expenditure ... 202 5.10 Preference of chemical fertilizers ... 208 5.11 Brands of Chemical fertilizers used ... 211 5.12 Opinion on the advantages of chemical fertilizers ... 215 5.13 Opinion about the using mixed form of chemical fertilizers ... 218 5.14 Preference of Bio-fertilizers ... 220 5.15 Distribution of respondents by actually using the bio-fertilizers ... 222 5.16 Opinion on the advantages of using bio-fertilizers ... 227

CHAPTER - I INTRODUCTION AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY . .

In India, Agricultural prosperity is one of the key factors for identifying the

growth in economy. The development of agricultural sector is felt important in India

which has to feed around 121 crores of people,1 at least three times a day.

Agriculture in India is the means of livelihood of almost two thirds of the work

force in the country.2 Almost all the Five year Plans gave more importance to

agricultural sector and its development. Several works on this line stressed the need

for reorientation of agricultural activities prevalent in India. Production efficiency is

dependent upon several factors of which fertilizer management plays a pivotal role

in achieving targeted food production.3

For well-balanced and normal growth and prosperous development, plants

need water, air, light, favourable drainage and plant nutrients. Some of the factors

are under the control of man, but others are not so. With air, light and physical

support of control over temperature, man has little control. Water comes to the soil

as rain and snow, and man may influence in various ways the supply of its

availability for crops. Man may plant various crops and sometimes these lead to

direct loss of much water and soil as well due to Poor Water Management Practices.

In order to maintain soil fertility, and so to provide a sound basis for

continued plant growth the nutrients must be replaced in the soil. Thus, unless the

plant nutrient balanced in the soil is adequate for the optimum growth of crops,

other factors conducive to increasing agricultural production, such as better seeds,

2 water and improved land preparation can hardly be of any avail in bringing about the desired results.4 Increasing use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture make country self dependent in food production but it deteriorate environment and cause harmful impacts on living beings. Due to insufficient uptake of these fertilizers by plants results, fertilizers reaches into water bodies through rain water, causes eutrophication in water bodies and affect living beings including growth inhabiting micro organism.5 Therefore, it is essential that organic manures and fertilizers should be regarded as a Prime factor for better crop yields.

1.1 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

Fertilizers are used almost by all the farmers. Chemical fertilizers have now come to be recognized in the countryside as one of the most important farm inputs.

Although their use had started revolutionizing crop yields in western Europe and the

United States even earlier than World War-I. The artificial fertilizers had passed the experimental stage around 1875. Two decades later the methods of producing them had been fully developed. Their application to our agriculture is only of recent growth. It was in 1942 that the first concerted attempt was made to foster the use of chemical fertilizers by Indian agriculturists.

‘The Central Fertilizer Pool’ was formed in 1942 to support the ‘Grow More

Food’ campaign, which had become a necessity after the great Bengal famine and the fall of Burma to the Japanse. The subsequent year 1943 saw the incorporation of

Ferlizers and chemical Tranvancore Ltd. (FACT), which was the first attempt in the country to Produce chemical Fertilizers on a Commercial Scale. The FACT factory was set up in 1947. These efforts yielded some modest results.6 The improved

3 varieties generally require greater care in production and allow greater intensification, thereby providing a basis for expanded employment of agricultural labour. Additionally, employment opportunities are expanded because the possibilities of double cropping have been made more feasible by the genotypes, which have a shorter growing period than traditional varieties do.

In the interest of rational objectives, there is great need to provide farmers with substantial incentives for using fertilizes. The farmer will not use fertilizers unless he clearly find a positive relation between the cost of this input and the additional return attributable to the fertilizer. There is thus the need to subsidize the use of fertilizers till the production cost is decreased. Fertilizers also play a significant role in deciding the output and financial stability of the farmers

Consumption of fertilizers is one of the important areas where special study is to be made for the purpose of enhancing the agricultural productivity in the region. It is a key to securing the food security of a country.

The proper use of Fertilizer on soils of low natural fertility makes it possible to grow a wider variety of crops, ensures greater efficiency in the utilization of land, labour and water. Organic manures and bio-fertilizers also play an important role in improving the fertility of the soil. It adds humus, cannot possibly meet the entire requirements for reenergizing the soil fertility due to improved cultivation methods.

The rational approach under the present circumstances would be that the farmer is to be taught to plan his farming practices to produce the maximum output through the optimal use of fertilizers, may be chemical or bio-fertilizers There is also a mention about the use of chemical fertilizer for achieving higher levels of

4 production in Indian context. Farmers for boosting agricultural output the chemical fertilizers Indian soil is deficient in nitrogen and posphorus, the two plant nutrients, which together with organic manures influence crop output. In the recent past, there is an increased awareness among planners, administrators and farmers about the use of required fertilizers for their soil.7

The Present level of three nutrient components that is Nitrogen, Potassium and Phosphate seems to be not fully balanced. The imbalance is due to problems such as all the Nitrogen is being used and lower use of Phosphates and Potash by the soil. Many states are taking measures to correct the imbalances. There is also a concern that the fertilizers are not used to the targeted levels by the farmers

Indian Agricultural Ministry follows a Ten Point Programme to stimulate fertilizer consumption. The Ten-Point Programme includes massive demonstration on Package of approach for specific commodities like cotton, oilseeds, jute, cereals, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables and plantation crops. Indian farmers are also trying to use biological fertilizers, to increase the production of pulses. For instance,

Rhizobium bacteria is used for extracting Nitrogen from the air, which in turn rationalize the use of Nitrogen fertilizer. Hence a study on the economics of fertilizer consumption acquires a special mention at present.

1.2 CONSUMPTION OF CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS AND YIELD

Government of India, Ministry of Agricultural8 stated that “plants like all living things, require adequate nutrition for their proper development. The main nutrients which must be added to the soil in the form of fertilizers are Nitrogen,

Phosphorus and Potassium. Sometimes micro-nutrients such as calcium,

5 magnesium, manganese, boron, etc. would also be required. UN Manual defines fertilizer as “any material organic or inorganic natural or synthetic that furnishes to plants one or more of the chemical elements necessary for normal growth”.9

Teakle and Boyle10 found that fertilizer plays an important role in the growing of larger and better quality crops so urgently needed to-day. Fertilizer is needed to improve the yield and prevent the deterioration of good land. It is essential in the conversion of low productive and waste land into valuable and fertile farms. They suggest that the ideal fertilizer programme is one that promotes the most satisfactory production at the least cost. A veritable miracle is observed when high-yielding variety seeds and fertilizers are combined in real farm situations in most of the countries, they add.

The National Commission on Agriculture has laid down the ambit of fertilizer use in India as “addition of Plant nutrients in the form of Fertilizers constitute an essential step in agricultural production. Because of narrow land man ratio which would get still narrower in coming years, the hopeful means of supplying needs of agricultural produce would be the fertilizers”11

Fertilizer is one of the powerful resources to the man who wrests his living from the soil. The economic development of the nation also depends on its agricultural productivity. The study tries to provide ways and means to increase the net income of the farmers, which is the goal of production. There must be realistic and pragmatic approach for attaining the goal of profitability in agriculture.

Agricultural scientists and social scientists have developed many useful and precise tools for computing the profitability in farming activities. The study aims in

6 providing pragmatic environmental situation prevailing in the selected sample block with regard to fertilizer consumption.

The study focuses on the economic implications of reducing fertilizer consumption. The factors influencing the income of the farmers are analysed. The cost effectiveness of the use of fertilizers is also studied. Analysis is done based on the calculations of returns along with simulations of net returns considering alternative yields and prices. The comparisons about the use of chemical and bio- fertilizers and manures are done in this study for practical utility.

Many states in India have helped to promote the use of fertilizers through various methods. The progressive technology and infrastructural developments also have significant effect on the use of fertilizers The institutional factors, tenancy and the farm size have attracted a great deal of attention. The impact of method of land holdings such as tenancy, contracts etc. also have impact on fertilizers consumption pattern. Normally the quantity given by the tenant may be lesser than that of the owner of the land. However, this may not be generalized in the case of some existing practices in tenancy system. As regards farm size, the small farmers may tend to use lower fertilizers and the large farmers may use more. Financial powers of the farmers can also influence the fertilizer consumption pattern. Further the cropping pattern followed by the farmers may have significant impact on the consumption pattern of fertilizers Some cost variables such as cost of fertilizer, transportation, and use of application methods may also influence the Production

Plan of the farmers The actual incremental agricultural output may differ from place to place and crop to crop. For example, the high yielding variety crops are known to

7 be both more fertilizer response as compared to the conventional or traditional varieties. Some varieties are capable of absorbing a larger volume of nitrogen and other nutrients. It is to be noted that the consumption pattern primarily depends on the output and the profitability and hence the study of consumption pattern of fertilizer is highly needed at present.12

1.2.1 Issues in the use of chemical fertilizers

The use of fertilizer is determined by the presence or absence of number of constraints. Such constraints may either reduce the profitability of the farmer by using more fertilizer, or prohibit him from obtaining, or make it unattractive for him to seek such potential profits. The type of constraints and their relative impact on fertilizer use vary among geographical regions and among farm groups within regions. In general, small farmers tend to be faced with more severe constraints than large farmers, for a number of reasons to be further discussed.

While the presence and impact of individual constraints are location specific, a number of constraints appear to be present in most developing countries. These include unavailability of fertilizers where and when needed; lack of knowledge, risk and uncertainty, lack of credit, land tenure and lack of the most appropriate complementary inputs.

Indian agriculture has reached the stage of development and maturity much before some advanced countries in the world due to intense cultivation measures as given in historical books. However, food problems commenced in the 18th century and the magnitude of the problem intensified during the 20th century. But at present due to the pragmatic steps followed by the Government such as Green Revolution,

8 the intensity of food problem has decreased. However, the problems faced by the farmers seem to continuing due to various reasons. Farmers face diversity in landholdings, pattern of crop, usage, lack of capital, rural indebtedness, marketing problems and other economic problems

One of the major problems in the use of fertilizer to their crops at the optimum level of usage is yet to be identified. Outmoded farming techniques, fluctuations and inelasticity of crop output, more dependence on natural resources such as rain, temperature etc., also cause maximum fluctuations in the agricultural sector. Further India is a country having substantial diversities. Different regions exhibit entirely different characteristics so that not a single plan can be conceived for all agricultural regions of the nation. The nature of soil, the magnitude, availability of water in time, cost of farming, availability of power, cost of fertilizers and pesticides differ considerably between various regions. The existing regional imbalances also create considerable problems in generalizing the plans for use of fertilizers and cropping pattern.

Productivity in agriculture depends on social, technological and economical factors The consumption pattern of fertilizers also varies due to local and environmental factors. The social environmental of villages is a reason for changes in consumption pattern. Most of the Indian farmers are illiterates, superstitious, conservative and unresponsive to new agricultural techniques in relation to fertilizers

Land tenure system is also identified as one of the factors affecting fertilizer consumption. Regulation of rent, security of tenure, ownership rights for tenants

9 etc., did not make the position of the tenants better. Tenancy of most of the tenants continues to be insecure and they have to pay exorbitant rates of rent. In the land tenure system, it is difficult to increase productivity through various technological means. Unless land reforms precede technological advancements, developments in agricultural sector cannot be seen.

The use of fertilizer also depends upon the tenancy system. If the period is for is short duration, the level of applying fertilizer may come down. Lack of credit and marketing facilities with regard to produce is also considered as a factor influencing fertilizer consumption.

Subsidy provided by the Government has significant influence on the consumption pattern of fertilizers Availability of required quantity, storage facility for fertilizers, cost of applying fertilizers, chemical combination required, water and irrigation facilities available at the time of applying, type of crop etc., may influence fertilizer consumption pattern. Fertilizer use efficiency can be determined by complex of factors including agro-climatic conditions, the quality of soil, water management, the level and nutrient composition of fertilizer applied, quality of seed and the standard of weed and pest management.

The socio economic status of the farmers may also have impact on the consumption pattern. The present call for increased use of biological fertilizers may also divert the attention of the farmers to new – untouched areas. Some consumer organizations are also opposing the use of chemicals as fertilizers and wide propaganda is being made for use manure and bio-fertilizers A single window system has not so for been developed to minimize the problem of farmers,

10 especially in the case of fertilizer consumption. This study is aimed to identify the fertilizer consumption pattern in the study area and tries to find out the relationship between factors affecting fertilizer consumption.

1.3 THE PROBLEM

The success of Green Revolution has been the result of the combination of

High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds, adequate and timely application of chemical fertilizers and use of water. The agricultural prosperity generally said that it depends on inputs, incentives, infrastructure, institution and information.

Many research studies have proved that application of chemical fertilizers is the dominant variable in determining output. Because of genetic revolution, high yielding seeds of most of the crops have now become available. Adoption of HYV means adoption of the ‘New Input Basket’ which consists of HYV Seed, Fertilizer,

Pesticide, irrigation and better farm management practices.

Tiruchirappalli is one of the major agricultural districts in Tamil Nadu, where important food crop like Paddy and cash crop like Banana and sugar cane are cultivated. Studies reveal that a complex set up factors affect fertilizer consumption in India. Major determinants are agro-climatic factors, high yielding variety of seeds, irrigation, farm size, cropping pattern and socio-economic character of the farmers. With all these consideration in mind, the study proposes to examine the impact of fertilizers consumption in the cultivation of Paddy and Banana in Lalgudi

Block of Tiruchirappalli District” for a detailed investigation.

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1.4 OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the present study are:

 To find out the quantum of chemical and bio-fertilizers used by the sample

respondents in the study area.

 To examine the effect of chemical and bio-fertilizers between paddy and

banana.

 To study the impact of fertilizers in the cultivation of paddy and banana

 To examine the size and pattern of fertilizer consumption across various farm

sizes.

 To identify the relationship of fertilizer utilisation with the cropping pattern of

the various farmers.

 To probe the participation in farmers awareness programme of the sample

respondents.

1.5 HYPOTHESES

Based on the above objectives the following hypotheses have been enunciated to be tested in this study:

 The consumption pattern of fertilizers does not significantly differ among size

of the farm.

 Age of the sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption

pattern of fertilizers

 Educational qualification has no significant relationship between the uses of

different types of fertilizers

 Crop wise cost of fertilizer does not vary for different categories of farmers

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1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The farmers in this area are not keeping proper records of accounts with them. The data relating to inputs, quantity, cost, etc. are as per the data provided by the respondents. Exact nature of expenses could not be ascertained. Many farmers gave the data relating to input and output in quantity and they were to be converted into money worth only after getting data from other farmers The quantum of fertilizer used by the farmers is given as per the data provided and they have given data from their memory.

Another limitation is that the small cultivators are reluctant to part with some data relating to income, quantity of output in certain cases. Some farmers are not using standard measure for applying fertilizers. Further some farmers are using both chemical and bio-fertilizers in their cropping area. The farmers are following their own practices in combining various fertilizers for their crops.

It may be pointed out that the quantitative magnitude given are relevant only to these areas, which were selected for the study and cannot be used as dependable index for the country as a whole, the reason for these limitations are evident from the country as a whole, some broad generalization are, however, possible.

1.7 SCOPE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

Economics of fertilizers has several dimensions, viz. production, marketing, pricing, distribution, consumption and imports. Since it is not possible for an individual researcher to make an attempt to study all these dimensions, the present research is delimited to the study of economics of fertilizer consumption in one

13 predominantly agricultural block, namely Lalgudi, in Tiruchirappalli District. We believe that the present study is also significant from the broader perspective of regional and national policy making. Fertilizer consumption is the prime factor for higher yields. The results of this research would help in formulating government policies regarding to protect the soil from fertilizer. Balanced fertilization means application of essential plant nutrients particularly the major nutrients, Nitrogen,

Phosphoric, Potassic and Calcium in optimum quantity through correct method and time of application in right proportion. It is essential to encourage the use of

Nitrogen, Phosphoric and Potassic fertilizers, so as to achieve the desirable consumption ratio of 4:2:1 to maintain the soil health and sustain the crop productivity. The loss of soil fertility in many developing countries poses an immediate threat to food production. Plant nutrient exhaustion a real and immediate threat of food security and to the lives and livelihood of millions of people. So steps must be taken to protect soil fertility.

1.8 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

The present study on economics of fertilizer consumption in Lalgudi Block in Tiruchirappalli District is divided in six chapters.

 Importance of the study, consumption and issues in the use of chemical

fertilizers, the problem, objectives, Hypotheses and limitations and the scope of

the present study are given in the first chapter.

 The second chapter deals with the survey of related literature on the

methodological issues, dimensions and use of fertilizers.

14

 The third chapter reveals the use of fertilizers on agriculture - a frame work of

the study.

 The fourth chapter presents a brief account of the choice of the study area, the

period of study, the data, methodology viz., the sample, measurement of

variable, tools of analysis and statistical test used followed by a brief

description of the study area.

 In the fifth chapter, the results of the analyses are presented and discussed.

 The sixth chapter presents the summary of the thesis findings, policy

recommendations and conclusion.

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Chapter-I Notes

1. Census of India (Provisional) 2011. 2. D. R. Chaudhary, ‘Biofertilizers for Improving Crop Productivity’, Kisan World, October 2004, p. 12. 3. Gustafson, Handbook of Fertilizers, their Sources, Makeup, Effects and Use, Agro Botanical Publishers, New Delhi, 1997, p. 160. 4. Deepali and Kamal K. Gangwar, Indian Agriculture, January, 2011, p. 46. 5. M. H. Khan, The Role of Agriculture in Economic Development: A case study of Pakistan, Center for Agricultural Publications and Documentation, Wageningen, 1966, p. 46. 6. Eastern Economists, January, 1999, p. 1182. 7. P. C. Bansil, Agricultural Problems of India, Oxford Publications 4th Revised Edition, New Delhi, 1981, p. 118. 8. Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Fertilizers for the Farm Bulletin No. 202, 2008, p. 142. 9. United Nations, Fertilizers Manual: Role of Fertilizer in Agricultural Production, United Nations, New York, 1967, p. 216. 10. L. J. H. Teakle and R. A. Boyle, Fertilizer for the farm and Garden, Angus and Robertson, 1958, p. 322. 11. Government of India, National Commission on Agriculture, Part X, 1997, (Digitalized 2nd October 2009), pp. 64-65.

12. Anderson, The Role of fertilizers, Longman, New York, 1982, p. 170.

______

CHAPTER - II REVIEW OF THE PAST STUDIES . .

An adequate knowledge of the use and consumption of fertilizers in

agricultural productivity is vital to any attempt to determine the role played by it in

the development of food production of the area.

Various studies in relation to the use and consumption of fertilizer done in

the past, and most of which are scientific in nature. Agricultural scientists do

research on the impact of fertilizer on plants at various levels. Some economists

have also analyzed the pattern of use of fertilizers at different areas. Some studies

relating to fertilizer are reviewed in this chapter for the purpose of understanding

the concepts of pattern of use. The use of fertilizers has been considered as an

essential input in the study area and fertilizer consumption stresses higher yields

and profits to farmers is the subject of the present study.

Bansil1 in his book on ‘Agricultural Problems of India” finds out that

organic manures cannot possibly meet that full requirements for replenishing the

soils at higher levels of production envisaged by the new technology. He says that

chemical fertilizers play an important role in any scheme for boosting agricultural

output. He found out that the present level of nutrient components is not fully

balanced. He concluded that due to various plan programmes undertaken by both

central and state governments, the farming community is increasingly becoming

aware of the value of applying fertilizers.

17

Anderson2 in his work ‘The Role of Fertilizers’ analyzed the factors expected to restrict the contribution of fertilizers to food production to an accelerated rate of increase in food production and to remove the factors with emphasis on the role of public policy measures. He found out that unavailability of fertilizers, lack of Knowledge, risk and uncertainty, lack of credit, land tenure and lack of complimentary inputs are the impediments to overcome.

Deepak Kher and Bhat3 in their article ‘Economics of Fertilization in Maize and wheat: A study of Himachal Pradesh’ has analyzed the use of fertilizer and the relationship between fertilizer inputs and yield outputs with regard to maize and wheat in Himachal Pradesh. They have found out that the coefficient determination

R2 is significantly high for both the crops.

Mohanam4 in an article “Determinants of fertilizers use in Tamil Nadu” attempted to study the factors determining the fertilizers use in Tamil Nadu by choosing three groups factors, viz. Technological, Economic and Institutional and analyzed their relative importance on fertilizer use with the help of a simple regression model and found out that the proportion of area under heavy yielding varieties and more dominantly influencing the fertilizer use.

Swaminathan5 in his article ‘Synergetic Effects of the Coordinated use of

Fertilizers and other Inputs’ studied the fertilizer response function of local and high yielding varieties of rice and wheat. He mentioned that the test conducted on the

Nitrogen responsiveness at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute on these crops

(Rice and Wheat) responded well to all the three major nutrients.

18

Biswas et al.6 in their article on ‘Fertilizer use in some selected Agro-

Ecological Zones of India’ attempted to examine their fertilizer use pattern of some selected agro-ecological zones and also indicated the fertilizer use pattern for the future taking into account their compound growth of fertilizer consumption. They found out that fertilizer consumption varies widely in different agro-ecological zones in India.

Nelson Paul7 In his work on ‘Fertilization’ said that a plant is composed of about 90 per cent water and 10 per cent of dry weight. This 10 per cent consists of

14 essential elements. He also discussed about their Fertilization programmes.

Among the 14 essential elements there are Macro nutrients and Micro nutrients.

Singh and Jose Baelo Baleka8 in their study, ‘Factors Affecting fertilizers consumption in the Western Maharashtra’ identified important determinants of fertilizer consumption in different districts of western in Maharashtra. They stressed that fertilizer consumption is one of the important elements of agricultural growth strategy. It is influenced by certain regional factors relating to natural endowments like different types of soils, amount of participation, river basins etc., and sociological variations such as attitudes towards work and progress, spending habits, social restrictions, etc., These influence fertilizer consumption.

Ramalingaswamy et al.9 in their article ‘Effects of Integrated Use of

Fertilizers and Organic Manures on Soil and Crop Productivity Under Sugarcane

Based Cropping Systems’, studied the effect of integrated use of organic manures and fertilizers on soil fertility and found out that available Nitrogen, Phosphorus and

19

Potassium at the beginning and close of crops cycle were having significant effect by the integrated use of manures and fertilizers.

Bhattacharyya and Mishra10 in their article ‘Status of Bio-fertilizer Use in

Andhra Pradesh-Scope and Limitation’ studied the scope of applying Bio-fertilizer and said that Bio-fertilizer plays a significant role as one of the components of

Integrated Plant Nutrient Supply systems. They studied the potential demand in

Andhra Pradesh and stressed the need for the combined efforts of Centre and State

Government to meet the demand.

Robinson11 in his Book on “Bananas and Plantations”, discussed about fertilization and said that fertilization practices vary widely according to climate, cultivars, yield level, soil fertility and management expertise of the grower. He felt that in addition to nitrogen, potassium, Phosphorus, the use of calcium and zinc are also essential. Organic fertilization is another option for supplying nutrient elements to bananas.

Rajendra Prasad et al.12 in their article on “Interrelationships of Fertilizer

Use and Other Agricultural Inputs for Higher Crop Yields”, analysed briefly the interaction effect of various components of agronomic package and organic manures. They indicated that integrated plant nutrient system coupled with recommended agronomic practices are the key to the successful agriculture.

Pradhan et al.13 in their article “Growth of Fertilizer Consumption in Orissa

– A District-wise Analysis” found out that during post-Green Revolution the fertilizer consumption had increased when HYV seeds were introduced. They held

20 the view that the growth rate of fertilizer consumption in Orissa was 9.45 per cent where as in India it was 9.40 per cent during the period 1968-1992.

Raguram and Chowdry14 in their article, ‘Factors Influencing Fertilizer

Consumption in Andhra Pradesh: A Micro-Macro Analysis’ realized that the application of fertilizers was a pre-requisite for the realization of expected level of output on the farm. They had analyzed the factors influencing fertilizer consumption at the Micro and Macro levels. At the micro level quantitative factors like area under HYV seed, irrigated, etc., and qualitative factors viz. literacy, social status of the farmers etc., were analyzed to study the influence of fertilizers in three districts of Andhra Pradesh.

Mohanam15 in his article on ‘Growth Rates of Fertilizer Consumption - A district-wise analysis in Tamil Nadu’ analyzed the growth rate and found out that the growth rate of fertilizer consumption in India was nearly 18 per cent during the

Post-Green Revolution Period (1966-1985). According to him the growth rate of fertilizer consumption in Tamil Nadu, during the same periods, were 14 per cent and about 7.5 per cent, respectively. There were inter-district variations and almost clustered around the state level growth rate.

Bheemaiah et al.16 in their article ‘Effect of Integrated Application of Green

Leaf Manures and Fertilizers on Growth and Yield of Summer Groundnut under different cropping systems’ found out that inter-cropping of summer groundnut in 6 years old teak and sissoo plantations did not prove beneficial, while popinac green leaf manure was found effective in increasing the yield of groundnut.

21

Hegde et al.17 in their article ‘Bio-fertilizer for Central Production in India’, reviewed critically the performance of bio-fertilizers in cereal crops under different ecologies. They studied the effect of Azospirillum with millets, wheat sorghum, etc., and found out that yield has increased. The impact of bio-fertilizer like Azola,

Blue-Green Algae and Mycorrhizae were also studied. These had greater influence on the yield of cereal crops and they supplement chemical fertilizer.

Varavipour et al.18 in their article “Effect of Applied Phosphorus. Sulphar and Zinc on Yield and up take parameters of wheat and Soybean growth on loamy sand”, studied the effect of phosphorus, sulphar and Zinc on yield and uptake of crops, a green house experiment on wheat and soybean. Chemically pure salts were used as the source of nutrients and the crops were irrigated with distilled water. The crops were harvested at maturity and plant samples were analyzed for nutrient uptake following de-acid digest. They found after experiment that the three nutrient interactions were not found to be consistently effective.

Singh Shaktawat and Bansal19 in their article “Effect of different organic manures and nitrogen levels on growth and yield of sunflower” conducted a field experiment during winter season. According to them Sunflower crop fertilized with

80 Kg. N/ha produced significantly higher seed yield to the extent of 49.75 per cent over control yield of 1.40 tonnes.

Korwar and Pratibha20 in their article, ‘Performance of short duration pulses with African winter thorn in semi arid regions’, studied the effect of leaf- shedding in the area of black gram and Green gram cultivated as intercrops this

22 study conducted experiment on block gram and Green gram under the trees and found out that there was fertility improvement of the soil because of leaf-shedding.

Pandy et al.21 in their article, ‘Effect of farmyard manure and chemical N fertilizer on grain yield and quality of scented rice varieties’, analyzed the response of farmyard manure and chemical N fertilizer on the yield and N uptake and quality traits of scented rice, ‘Mathuri-II’ and ‘Pusa Basmathi-I’. They found out that

Mathuri-II gave significantly higher grain yield than Pusa Basmati. The increase in grain yield was mainly associated with the significant increase in effective tillers.

Mathuri II according to them recorded a higher N uptake by the grain and straw than that of Pusa Basmati I due to higher concentration and yield.

Nageswara Reddy et al.22 in their article, “Productivity and soil fertility changes under continuous fertilization of rice-rice cropping system”, conducted experiment with rice, rice-cropping system for 10 consecutive years from 1987-

1996 in a semi-arid climatic zone of Andhra Pradesh. They found out that comprehensive continuous nutrition to rice is a need for better result.

Kuo Leslie23 in his work ‘Agriculture in the People’s Republic of China -

Structural changes and Technical Transformation’ stressed the importance of organic fertilizers and chemical fertilizers in Chinese agriculture in stepping up production. He analyzed the fertilizer production, distribution and the use of chemical fertilizers in China. He felt that to make up deficiencies, the People’s

Republic of China the needs for import of chemical fertilizers.

Singh24 in his work of ‘Fertilizer Promotion’, conducted a study to identify the variables, which significantly contribute towards the level of fertilizers use of

23 farmers, and to increase the level of fertilizer use in Haringhata Block of Nadia

District, West Bengal, His study was based on using the analysis of Multiple

Regression of the standardized index of the level of fertilizer use of Marginal,

Small, and Medium and Pooled sample of farmers. Lack of detailed knowledge about fertilizers, lack of soil testing facility and inadequate irrigation facility are the constraints they met in their cultivation process.

Singh Virendra25 in an article, ‘Fertilizer Use in Food Crops’ stressed the need for application of fertilizers. It is very important practice in forage production, which supplies the nutrients to plants and animals through plant for their better growth and developments. Deficiency of these adversely affect the growth, development and production of animals. Major nutrient’s according to him like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are very important for the crops like sorghum,

Sudargrass, Maize, Bajra, Cow pea, Guar, berseem, Oats, etc.

Anumanthra Rao26 in his special article ‘WTO and viability of Indian

Agriculture’ felt the need for reforms at the grass-roots level and hold the key to improving the viability of Indian agriculture in the wake of trade liberalization. He was also of the opinion on that when private investment was stepped up in the post reform period of the 1990s in response to the liberalization of the economy and favourable terms of trade, real public investment continued to decline on account of fiscal compression and failure to reduce input subsidies.

The Economic Survey of India (2010-11)27 tells that the fertilizer consumption has increased from 216.51 lakh tonnes in 2006-2007 and in 2009-2010 the figure reached 264.86 lakh tonnes. In 2015 it may touch 364.5 lakh tonnes. The

24 ideal consumption of NPK for rice and wheat for the country as a whole is 4:2:1 of

NPK.

Desai28 in ‘Role of Agriculture in Economic Development’ traced their importance of agriculture to Indian Economic Development. He wanted that to achieve a rapid increase in incomes a greater proportion of investment should be made in agriculture.

‘Organic manure protects, enriches soil fertility”, expert Nammalvar29 said that the usage of organic manure will protect and enrich soil fertility and the agricultural produce raised through organic manure will have more nutrient contents. Heavy use of chemical fertilizers had affected the soil fertility and advised the farmers to switch over to organic farming. Dr. Nammalvar said everyone should strive hard to prevent global warming.

Examines the effects of fertilizers subsidy on the rural poor in Indonesia.

Discusses the factors which lead to rural poverty and measures which have been undertaken to combat these. Describes in detail a survey undertaken in two villages to establish the effects of the removal of the fertilizer subsidy. Concludes that there has been as increase in poverty and income inequality since its removal and suggests ways of remedying this problem (Carunia Mulya Firdausy, 1997).30

In less developed countries there are chronic food shortages and scarcity of arable land and water, coupled with increasing population. Widespread irrigation permits more intensive agriculture, but fertility is decreased and outbreaks of fluorosis and arsenic poisoning have occurred. Use of modern fertilizers causes soil mineral deficiency, including that of zinc. Iodine deficiency has caused outbreaks of

25 goiter. Increased fertilizer use leads to an unacceptably high concentration of nutrients and potential toxins in rivers and lakes. Industrial effluent also poses a serious problem (Bender and Bende, 1995).31

The growing demand for fertilizers makes the Indian market highly attractive for domestic and foreign manufactures. Recent policy changes by the government are a welcome step and will open up opportunities for local companies to strengthen their domestic presence and meet global aspirations (Pratik Kadakia et al., 2008).32

For India there is an urgent need to narrow the wide ratio between nitrogen

(N) and phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) consumption by stepping up P and K usage, which suffered markedly during much of the 1990s. By doing so, food security will be safeguarded and agricultural practices will be more sustainable.

India would need about 45 million tonnes (M t) of NPK in addition to 20 Mt of organic and bio-fertilizer sources to produce about 346 M t of food grain required by 2015 (Tiwari, 2007).33

Fertilizer has to play an important role in future growth of Indian agriculture as the net area available for cultivation is shrinking due to rising demand for new houses, factories, infrastructure and other commercial uses. It seems that practically all increase in farm output in future has to come from the increase in productivity.

This would require improved technology and increased application of yield enhancing plant nutrients. A large number of studies have shown that most of the increase in food grain output during the first two decades of green revolution are attributable to chemical fertilizers (Desai and Vaidyanathan 1995).34

26

Research conducted under All India Coordinated Research Project on Long

Term Fertilizer Experiments of ICAR provides strong evidence of this. It shows that continuous use of N alone produced decline in yield and has deleterious effect on long term fertility and sustainability (Indian Institute of Soil Science, 2000).35

During last 60 years consumption of P increased by 9.41 percent per year while use of N and K increased by around 8.50 percent. These growth rates show that, over time, fertilizer use in India has moved somewhat in favour of P and, there is no evidence of fertilizer use moving in favour of N. This prompted us to estimate exact nature of imbalance in fertilizer use against norm of balance use of N, P and K which is recommended to be in the ratio of 4:2:1. This was estimated by using an indicator of imbalance adopted in earlier studies (Mehta et al., 2007)36 as under:

(N  N )2  (P  P )2  (K  K )2 I  a n a n a n 3 where I is the measure of deviation in proportion of actual use of N, P and K from the norm and subscript `a’ indicates actual and subscript `n’ indicates norm. Value of I away from zero measures the magnitude of imbalance. When N, P and K are used in the recommended ratio then I is 0. If entire amount of fertilizer is in the form of K, which is the lowest digit in the norm, then I reach the value of 0.6. Thus

I would lie between 0 and 0.49 or 0 percent and 49 per cent representing perfect balance and extreme imbalance.

Tankdon37 in his work ‘Sulphur Fertilizers for Indian Agriculture’, is of the view that sulphur is more recognized as the fourth nutrient in addition to nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. He considered about the deficiency and toxicity

27 symptoms, among the crops Alfalfa, Banana, Cocoa, Coffee, Cotton, Groundnut,

Maize, Oil palm, Pineapple, Potato Sugarcane, Tea, Wheat, etc., According to him sulphur improves the quality and marketability of the produce. This sulphur was not priced formerly. It was ignored. At present sulphur is the cheapest.

Tandon et al.38 in their work, ‘Elemental Sulphur-Based and other Available

Sulphur Fertilizers’, said that more than 60 fertilizers are used in agriculture world wide. They found out that the application of elemental sulphur can result in significant increases of 20 percent to 106 percent in crop yields. Magnesium sulphate is produced and used most commonly in India. Copper, Sulphate, Iron

Sulphate, Manganese sulphate and Zinc sulphate are having sulphur content among micro-nutrient carriers.

Vaidyanathan39 in his article ‘Fertilizers in Indian Agriculture’, traced the salient features of Agriculture in India and the growth of fertilizer use. According to him the principal affecting factor are the prices of fertilizers and of output. He is of the view that fertilizers are now the dominant source of – additional production. He also speaks about the fertilizer use efficiency and efficiency in fertilizer production.

Mishra et al.40 in their article, ‘Soil Water and Fertilizer Management for

Wheat Cultivation in Rice-Wheat Rotation’. Studied the crop rotation among wheat and rice. According to the study wheat yield in rice-wheat rotation is considerably low. After rice is harvested, the soil condition then is quite favourable for the growth and yield of the subsequent crop like wheat. They also accepted that balanced application of nutrients is important for getting higher yield in addition to irrigation, plant production, etc.

28

Parmar and Walia41 in their analysis, Green revolutionin India has made us self sufficient in the production of food grains. This phenomenon increase in food production has been made possible by increased use of inorganic (Phosphatic, N-P and N-P-K) and organic fertilizers. Modern trend is towards production and use of mixed fertilizers containing N and P and quite often these are blended with K to make it a complete fertilizer. Besides urea, ammonium nitrate is also widely used in admixture with Phosphatic fertilizer in the form of N, P or NPK, NPK fertilizers are available in different grades having different proportion of the elements based on crop requirements and soil needs. The good points of such mixed fertilizers are that they are readily soluble in water, are highly concentrated and their nutrient ratios can be adjusted as recommended. Over the years fertilizer consumption in the country has increased manifold and is expected to rise to about 364 lakh tonnes by

2015 AD.

Though inorganic fertilizers have been used very successfully for several decades, some limitations of such use are coming to be known. It has been found to escape into atmosphere as products of de nitrification or being highly soluble in water get leached to ground water as nitrate or nitrite. The atmospheric burden of

N2O which is about 1500 million tonnes (1500 Tg) is alarmingly increasing at 0.2% per annum and may lead to depletion of the ozone layer. In high rain fed rice growing zones the effective use of urea is only up to 35% and the rest is washed away or volatilized or decomposed. In upland areas the utilization is about 50-60%.

At present there is no effective means to prevent this loss. Apart from high wastage of fertilizers, nitrite and nitrate ions ultimately find their way in water reservoirs and

29 cause undesirable growth of algae. Researchers at Indian Agricultural Research

Institute are working to develop products with enhanced fertilizer-N use efficiency.

Since fertilizers and allied agrochemicals are potential contaminants of concern in integrated land and water management, their environmental implications needs to be properly assessed.

Kumarasamy42 in his articles, the plants absorb all the nutrients as inorganic ionic forms only, irrespective of the sources through which they are supplied. The plants do not and cannot differentiate between the nutrients supplied through manures and fertilizers. The nutrients supplied through organic and inorganic sources do not behave or interact differently after being absorbed by the plants. For example, plants can absorb nitrogen either as NH4 ions or as NO3 ions, irrespective of the source of these ions being a nitrogenous fertilizer or manure. The behavior and functions of the nutrients within the plant will also be same irrespective of their sources. The nutrients from the organic and inorganic sources differ only in their relative availability for crop uptake. The nutrients from the fertilizers are readily available as most of the fertilizers are water-soluble while the nutrients supplied through organic manures would become available for crop uptake slowly and gradually but would be available for longer duration due to slow decomposition of the organic manures and gradual release of the nutrients into the labile pool. After being released into the labile pool, the nutrients from the fertilizers as well as the manures will behave and interact similarly.

Among the different farming enterprises compared for integration along with low-transplanted rice viz. fish culture, rabbit rearing and poultry rearing performed

30 significant superior. Positive interactions among these enterprises resulted in higher crop yield, economic indices and soil fertility status. The highest net returns of

` 1,55,920 ha and ` 2,28,090 during the first and second season, respectively were obtained with integrated rice + fish culture poultry farming systems. The same also recorded the highest grain yield of rice (5.67 tonnes and 5.25 tonnes/ha during first and second season, respectively). The highest post-harvest nutrient status with regard to N, P and K was also observed with rice+ fish culture + poultry farming system.

Bio-pesticides are one broad spectrum of plant protection methods that are supportive to the environment. The modern agriculture practices such as increased and indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals due to this, a number of new problems emerged especially in the field of plant protection, over dependence on these pesticides has led to problems like development of insecticidal resistance, residue in food chain, degradation in quality of ecosystem human health and adverse effect on beneficial micro biota. Moreover with increase in cost of cultivation, the net income per unit area has gone down sharply. Maintaining the productivity in a sustainable manner with sound sources of management would be key issue in the coming decades.

Murugan and Kathiresan43 pointed out in their article, the agriculture research though made considerable progress in addressing food security, adopted policies to grow more and more food to support the growing population, ignoring the issues of health and environment, which lead to disastrous situations. The adequate food and environmental security would remain the key issues confronting

31 mankind in the third millennium. The use of chemical pesticides in agriculture has seen a sharp increase in recent years. In current scenario plant protection was mainly oriented towards the chemical control. Though chemical gained lot of importance and proved their positive effects in targeting the food security but their continuous and injudicious use has resulted in several implications such as development of insecticidal resistance in key species of pests and environmental problems, residue in human foods and loss of beneficial micro biota. Especially in terms of Asian agriculture, small farmers with very few exceptions dominate this.

While many are directly benefiting from the dramatic urban-oriented growth that characterizes many parts of Asia, a far greater number still struggle to produce sufficient food and income.

Mishra et al.44 discussed that the plant diseases were traditionally managed by the application of chemical pesticides. However, they have been proven to cause adverse environmental effects and result in health hazards to humans as well as other organisms. Furthermore, relatively few chemicals are available to control soil- borne diseases that can be caused by bacteria, fungi or nematodes as they cannot easily be delivered into soil. Therefore, alternative disease management strategies are needed. Bio control or biological control can be defined as the use of natural enemies to control pests. Natural enemies of pests are categorized as parasites, predators and pathogens. Organic rise farming technology development and its fesibility, the primary concern for organic rice relies on its quality parameters that will ensure its unique standard for global disposal to the international market. Major quality parameters viz. crude protein content, total amylase content, bran oil

32 content, milling percentage and hardness are ensured appropriately in the grain produced organically. Nonetheless, Organic rice farming is reported to enhance the quality parameters appreciably. Studies comprising nutrient management purely with organic sources revealed comparable grain quality with that obtained following conventional farming by applying chemical sources of nutrients It implies no quality deterioration following organic farming so far as inherent qualitative parameters of the rice grain is concerned. Contrary to that, as all the inputs/practices are of organic in nature, it is most unlikely to obtain any chemical residues in rice grain. However, presence chemical residues in the long run is yet to be confirmed.

There is a possibility that contamination of some uncontrolled inputs, mainly irrigation water from either surface sources or ground water sources or even rainwater may cause some chemical residue, particularly heavy metals, in the soil in the long run; impact of which on grain quality needs further study.

Panneer Selvam and Rajkumar45 explained there are some states realizing the importance of organic farming and they have passed special Act. Recently

Mizoram is the first state to bring in an organic farming Act which bans the sale and use of fertilizers and thus transforms the farm into organic paradise. Nagaland and

Sikim are the two states in the northeast which are in the process of declaring themselves organic in the near future. In Tamil Nadu also realizing the benefits of organic farming many farmers have started converting their farming techniques to organic way. Studies have shown that organic agriculture is economically viable and farmers can achieve more income through premium prices and they need fewer inputs to maintain returns. A recently concluded international agriculture far in the

33

UK focused on organic food production. According to Dushyant Laijawala, partner

Nico Organic Manures, there is a good scope for organic products in UK and

Europe and at least 100 Indian Companies are engaged in exporting organic items.

Vipin46 state the role of sulphur is very important in attaining normal growth and sustaining the productivity of crops. Sulphur is found to be absorbed by the rice crop in amounts equal to phosphorous and is considered essential for the attainment of 90 per cent of optimum yield of rice. It is thus being identified as the fourth major nutrient agriculture. Sulphur fertilizers and their nutrient content commonly used for correction of its deficiency in different soils and crops depends on their cost and easy accessibility. Ammonium Sulphate and single super phosphate contain 24 percent and 12 percent of sulphur respectively and can be regarded as two excellent sources of sulphur for rice. Other fertilizer sources include

Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate (18% sulphur), Potassium Sulphate (18% sulphur),

Zinc Sulphate (15% sulphur), Gypsum (13 20 co-sulphur), Iron Pyrites (22 24% sulphur), Phosphogypsum (11% sulphur). Other non-fertilizer sources include press mud. Several studies aimed to evaluate optimum rate of sulphur in rice indicated that yield of rice increased significantly with 10 to 40 kg S/ha and optimum comes between this. Only a portion of added sulphur is utilized by the first crop. The benefit of added sulphur is carried over to the succeeding crops. The succeeding crops benefit more when the rate of sulphur application to the previous crops was high, the first crop utilized less sulphur, and insoluble sources like pyrites, elemental sulphur of FYM and press mud were used economic gains from sulphur use. Composition of nutrient prices shows that among N, P, K and sulphur,

34 the price of sulphur is lowest. Research from experimental station and farmer’s field deficient station and farmers field deficient in sulphur shows that application of 20 to 40 kg/ha over recommended dose of NPK is highly economical. The return from

1 kg of fertilizer sulphur application to paddy, on an average is ` 116.2. The value cost ratio comes to around 20.4. Thus, sulphur application is considered highly profitable in sulphur deficient soils of India.

Sathya Sundaram47 in his article, cropping systems and crop production practices are also important. The type of pests and their behaviour differ with the crop eco-system. Also, the natural enemies’ composition varies with the cropping systems. Pests should not reach a critical number. The ‘non-pesticidal management’ can bring in both ecological and economic benefits to the farmers. Farmers should take to crop rotation, supply of micro-nutrients to crops, judicious use of badly needed chemical fertilizers and pesticides along with green manure and bio- pesticides to boost productivity and minimize the harmful effects from pesticides.

Panwar and Ompal Singh48 in their article, to meet out the nutrient requirement of the crop, a balanced nutrient supply should be ascertained for healthy growth and maximum biomass production. The soil rich in nutrients play a very important role for higher productivity. To meet out the food requirement of population in the world, particularly in Asian countries, more attention has been laid towards increasing productivity through the use of inorganic fertilizers and using the NPK fertilizers exorbitantly that are deficient in micronutrients and few nutrients are available in proper amount. In India, farmers supply nitrogen fertilizers exorbitantly that erected imbalance in the nutrient supply. During green revolution,

35 much importance was given for increasing productivity without keeping in mind the integrated nutrient management, which caused the imbalanced nutrient availability.

The fertilizer application should also be based on the soil test and special nutrient requirement of the crop.

Manna et al.49 in their article, phosphate bio fertilizers are an important source of augmenting nutrients supplies for crop production systems. In this article, quality of nutritionally enriched phosphor compost prepared from different crop residues and city garbage has been analyzed and their field performance studied, compared with chemical fertilizers. Yield gains and uptake of P on soybean showed that the application of enriched phosphor compost at 5 tonnes/ha was comparable with single superphosphate when used at 60 kg P2O5/ha. Direct application of P- solubilizers into transplanted seedlings done not give promising effect for higher crop productivity. This is mainly due to interaction of many inherent micro- organisms under field conditions and low content of energy sources present in the soil. To overcome such difficulties, organic enrichment compost by utilizing crop residues, city garbage with bioinoculum is one of the viable alternatives to improve land productivity and biological system of the soil.

Microbial inoculant can generally be defined as preparations containing live or latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen-fixing, phosphate solubilizing or celluloytic micro-organisms used for application to seed or composting areas with the objective of increasing the number of such micro-organisms and accelerate those microbial processes which augment the availability of nutrients that can be easily assimilated by plants. Bio-fertilizers can also be considered as the nutrient

36 inputs of biological origin for plant growth. Here biological origin should be referred to as micro-biological process synthesizing complex compounds and their further release into outer medium, to the close vicinity of plant roots which were again taken up by plants. Therefore, the appropriate term for bio-fertilizers should be microbial inoculants. Fertilizer has become the part and parcel of agricultural inputs. In most of the developing countries, use of fertilizer is consistently increasing. For well-balanced normal growth and proper development plants need water, air, light, a favorable temperature, sufficient root space and physical support, proper drainage and physical condition, or suitable tilt of the soil, and plant nutrients.

Manganese, copper, boron, and zinc have been found during comparatively recent years to be essential for plant growth. These elements are present in most, if not all soils, but other elements or some abnormal soil condition may prevent the plant from using them. Consequently the plant suffers as if these elements were not present in the soil. Iodine and sodium are often helpful to plants but plant scientists do not generally accept this evidence as conclusive that either iodine or sodium is absolutely essential for plant growth. Chlorine and silicon which some had believed to be essential are not so regarded now.

Time of Application

The time of application of fertilizer often makes a considerable difference in its utilization by the crop. Plants absorb large, quantities of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash during the early stage of growth.

37

Therefore, the fertilizers should be applied to most crops at or before sowing time. Fertilizers need not be applied to annual crops in the latter stages of their growth. A late application of nitrogen to a crop increases the nitrogen content, prolongs the growing period and delays maturity. But crops of log duration, like sugarcane, enquire the application twice or thrice at suitable intervals.

The phosphoric fertilizers should be applied a little before or at the time of planting the crop, as phosphorus is not leached out of the soil. Potash is applied at the time of planting and to a limited extent as a top-dressing a later stage of crop growth.

Response of Fertilizers

The response to fertilizers varies with the nature of the soil, the crop grown, and whether it is rain-fed or irrigated. Results of extensive trials conducted throughout India in cultivator’s fields show that the best response with nitrogen fertilizer on rice was obtained on old alluvial soils, with an increase of 859 Ibs. Of paddy over the control plot. In decreasing order the responses on the other soils were: black soil, and soil, red gravelly soil, and on a mixture of red and black soil.

The least responses with nitrogen ferilizer on paddy was obtained on coastal alluvium, detail and saline soils, new alluvium and late rite. The increase in paddy yield over the control plot as a result of applying 30Ibs. Of N was 514 IBs of grain.

The respective yield I case of bajra was 155 Ibs. Ragi 4121IBs, wheat 289 Ibs. Per acre over the control plot.

38

Green Revolution

Green Revolution initiated in the 1960’s centered around the use of semi- dwarf high yielding varieties responsive to irrigation and chemical fertilizers yielded good results in giving a big boost to the production of wheat in the first stage and later to the production of rice. But more recently, it has been felt that high yielding varieties have reached a plateau and the scope for future increase in production appears to be very limited. In other words, it is being argued that the seed-water-fertilizer technology has exhausted its potential to reach a point of diminishing returns. But the planning commission has set a target of food grains production of the order of 300 million tonnes by 2007 – 08. Consequently, the skeptics believe that traditional Green Revolution breeding techniques have come to a dead end.

Irrigation

An important constituent of the current strategy for raising agricultural production is the increasing reliance on irrigation. The strategy of Intensive

Agricultural District Program (IADP) and the High Yielding Varieties Program

(HYVP) were initially introduced only in those areas which had assured rainfall and irrigation facilities. As the scope for extending the cropped area is limited in fact, the cropped area has ranged between 140 to 141 million hectares in recent years – greater reliance has to be placed on irrigation so as to have double or multiple cropping. The basic objective is to produce a much higher yield of grain output per hectare by promoting the sowing of two or more crops on irrigated land.

39

Improved Seeds

In the past, Indian farmers generally used seeds of very indifferent quality either because the special good quality seeds kept for sowing are consumed away during the off-season or because good seeds deteriorated through bad storage.

Agricultural Department and the Indian council of Agricultural Department and the

Indian council of Agricultural Research have done much to evolve and popularize improved and disease - resisting varieties of seeds suitable for different local condition.

Seed is “basic and crucial input for attaining sustained growth in agricultural production”. Seed is the carrier of new technology to crop production, propagation and multiplication. Accordingly, production of quality seeds and distributions of new improved plant varieties constitute an important component of Government’s agricultural policy. In fact, it is the success of this policy initiative which is the main reason for India’s current self-sufficiency in food grains.

A number of high yielding varieties of rice and wheat, hybrids of maize, jowar and barge have been introduced. The High Yielding Varieties Program

(HYVP) was started in 1966 by 1997 – 98 a total of 76 million hectares of land were covered by high yielding varieties. While coverage of area under HYV is as high as 90% in the case of wheat, the coverage under rice is much lower.

The organized seed sector particularly for food crops and cereals is dominated by the public sector. The Government is giving considerable attention.

i. To research in evolving better seeds suitable to Indian condition.

ii. Large production and better distribution of quality seeds.

40

iii. Expansion of irrigation and fertilizer and pesticides which are necessary for

the use of quality seed.

Organic Manures

The practice of applying organic manures has stood the test for centuries as it has helped to keep the soil in a fertile state over long period. However, in the First

Year Plan, sufficient attention was not devoted to the development and increased production of local manorial resources in rural areas. Even in the Second Plan, only schemes for making town or urban composts found a place. It was later realized that there was considerable scope for developing manures of local origin from the wastes in National Extension Service and Community Development. Blocks and schemes for the production of night soil compost in the bigger Panchayats and smaller villages were formulated in 1956.

Rural Compost

It was envisaged that the compost production per adult cattle per annum could be stepped up from one ton to two tons and the nitrogen contents of the manure increased from 0.5 per cent to one per cent. During the Second Plan period this scheme functioned in about 1,500 blocks. The rural compost production reported for 1960-61 works out to about 83 million tons against the agreed total target of 150 million tons for the Third Plan.

Urban Compost

A scheme for the preparation of compost from city wastes, like garbage, nigh soil, sewage, sludge, slaughterhouse wastes, was sponsored as early as 1943-44 by

41 the Indian Council Agricultural Research. Legislation has since been passed in some of the States making it obligatory on the part of the municipal committees to compost refuse wastes within their jurisdiction. The scheme on town composting now constitutes an important activity of the increased agricultural production programme. Both loans and subsidies are being to State Governments from the

Center for equipping the Municipalities with necessary transport needed for production and distribution of compost manure. The target of compost production by the end of the Second Plan was three million tons and the actual achievement has been reported to about 2.7 million tons. In the third Plan, a financial allocation of

` 180 lakh has been made and it is programmed to cover all the urban centers (about

3,000) in the country to achieve production of town compost to its potential capacity of about five million tons.

The elements Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are regarded as the more important fertilizer elements, since it is one or more of these which most often controls or limits the yield of crops. They may limit crop yields because they are really lacking, or because they occur in insoluble material from which the crop cannot obtain the supply of them needed for good growth. In addition to these three, calcium, magnesium, manganese, sulfur and occasionally copper, boron, and iron may not be present in available from or in sufficient quantities for well-balanced normal growth.

Uniqueness of the present study

Though various studies on fertilizer have been conducted, no specific study is conducted in the study area, which is situated on the banks of River Coleroon

42

(Kollidam). This study is unique in nature as the study area is not analyzed by researchers with regard to pattern of fertilizer use. Further, a comparative study is done with reference to the farmers of Paddy and Banana. This study, therefore, is unique in nature and tries to identify the relationship between various factors affecting the use of fertilizers.

43

Chapter-II Notes

1. Bansil, P.C., Agricultural Problems of India, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1993, pp. 136-152. 2. Anderson, The Role of Fertilizers: Agricultural Research and Technology in Economic Development, International Food Policy Research Institute, Longman, London, 1982, pp. 148-175. 3. Deepak Kher and Bhat G. M., “Economics of fertilization in Maize and wheat: A study of Himachal Pradesh”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. 45(4), July 1990. 4. T. C. Mohanam, ‘Determinants of fertilizer use in Tamil Nadu’, Agricultural Situation in India, 45(6), 1990, pp. 387-395. 5. M. S. Swaminathan, ‘Synergetic Effects of Coordinated use of Fertilizers and other Inputs’, Fertilizer News, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, January 1971. 6. B. C. Biswas, Naresh Prasad and Sonmithra, ‘The Fertilizer Association of India, New Delhi’, Agro India, May-June, 1998, pp. 16-19. 7. V. Nelson Paul, Fertilization: Green House Operation and Management, 5th edition, Published by Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1996, pp. 285-306. 8. S. P. Singh, and Jose Baelo Belaka, ‘Factors Affecting Fertilizer Consumption in the Western Maharashtra’, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. 54(6), 1999, pp. 361- 363. 9. K. Ramalingaswamy, D.V.N. Raju, T.K.V. Mlligarjuna Rao and A. Padma Raju, ‘Effects of Integrated use of fertilizers and organic manures on soil and crop productivity under sugarcane based cropping systems’, Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 69(8), August 1999. 10. P. Bhattacharyya, and U. C. Mishra, ‘Status of bio-fertilizer use in Andhra Pradesh Scope and Limitation’, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. 50 (3), 1995, pp. 127- 133. 11. J. C. Robinson, Bananas and Plantations, C.A.B. International, Wallingford, Oxon, United Kingdom, 1984, p. 139. 12. Rajendra Prasad, Surendra Singh and S. N. Sharma, Interrelationships of Yields, New Delhi, 1998, p. 35. 13. P. N. Pradha, S. Jena and A. K. Mitra, ‘Growth of Fertilizer Consumption in Orissa - A District-wise Analysis’ Agricultural Situation in India, Vol, XLVIII, No.4, July 1993, pp. .257-259.

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14. P. Raguram and K. R. Chowdry, ‘Factors Influencing Fertilizer Consumption in Andhra Pradesh-A Micro-Macro Analysis’, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. 55, No. 12, March 1999, pp. 735-737. 15. T. C. Mohanam, ‘Growth Rates of Fertilizer Consumption - A District-wise Analysis’, Agricultural situation in India, Vol.SL III, No. 7, October 1988, pp. 951- 956. 16. G. Bheemaish, M. V. R. Subrahmanyam, Syed Ismail, S. Sridevi and K. Radhika, ‘Effect of Integrated Application of Green Leaf Manures and Fertlizers on Growth and Yield of Summer Groundnut under different cropping systems’, Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 69, No.10, October 1999, pp. 735-737. 17. D. M. Hegde, B. S. Dwivedi and S. N. Sudhakara Babu, ‘Bio-fertilizer for Central Production in India: A review’, Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 69, No.2, July 1997, pp.73-79. 18. M. Varavipour, R. Hasan and D. Singh, ‘Effect of Applied Phosphorus, Sulphur and Zinc on yield and uptake parameters of wheat and soybean growth on loamy sand’, Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 69, No.1, January 1999, pp. 1-4. 19. R. P. Singh Shaktawat and K. Bansal, ‘Effect of different organic manures and nitrogen levels on growth and yield of sunflower’, Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 69. No. 1, January 1999, pp. 8-9. 20. G. R. Korwar and G. Pratibha, ‘Performance of short duration pulses with African winter thorn in semi arid regions’, Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 68, No. 8, August 1999, pp. 560-561. 21. N. Pandy, A. K. Sarawgi, N. K. Rastogi and R. S. Tripathi, ‘Effect of farmyard manure and chemical N fertilizer on grain yield and quality of scented rice varieties’, Indian Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. 69, No. 9, September 1999, pp. 621- 622. 22. M. Nageswara Reddy, M. Sitaramayaa, S. Narayanaswamy, A. Sairam and G. Krishna Kanth, ‘Productivity and soil fertility changes under continuous fertilization of rice-rice cropping system’, Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 69, No. 6, June 1999, pp. 395-397. 23. T. C. Kuo Leslie, Agriculture in the People’s Republic of China - Structural Changes and Technical Transformation, Praeger Publishers, Fourth Avenue, New York, U.S.A., 1997, pp. 141-157. 24. A. K. Singh, ‘Fertilizer Promotion: Studies in Agricultural Extension and Management’, K. M. Mittal, Publications, Delhi, 1989, p. 25.

45

25. Singh Virendra, ‘Fertilizer Use in Food Crops’, Indian Farmers Digest, Vol. 24, No. 6, June 1991, pp. 24-25. 26. C. H. Anumanthra Rao, ‘WTO and Viability of Indian Agriculture’, Economics and Political Weekly, September 2001, pp. 3453-3457 27. Economic Survey of India (2010-11), Government of India, Ministry of Finance, Economic Division, Oxford University Press, February 2011, pp. 196 –197. 28. R. G. Desai, ‘Role of Agriculture in Economic Development’, Agricultural Economics, Himalayan Publishing House, Mumbai, 1990, pp. 71-76. 29. Nammalvar, The Hindu, dated September 26, 2010. 30. Carunia Mulya Firdausy, ‘Effects of the subsidy removal of fertilizer on rural poverty in north Sulawesi, Indonesia’, International Journal of Social Economics, Vol. 24, Issue 1-3, 1997. 31. A. E. Bender and D. A. Bende, ‘Food and the environment’, Environmental Management and Health, Vol. 6, Issue 3, 1995. 32. Pratik Kadakia, Jeffry Jacob and Anshul Saxena, ‘Emerging Opportunities in the Indian Fertilizer Market’, Chemical Weekly, November 2008, p. 199. 33. K. N. Tiwari, ‘The Changing Face of Balanced Fertilizer Use in India’, Better Crops, India, 2007, p. 3. 34. Desai and Vaidyanathan, ‘Fertilizers in Indian’, Agriculture institute of Development Studies, Madras, India, Vol. 23, No. 1, 1995. pp. 236, 251. 35. All India Coordinated Research Project on ‘Long Term Fertilizer Experiments’, Indian Institute of Soil Science, 2000, p. 546. 36. J. D. S. Mehta, Panwar and Ompal Singh, ‘Balanced Use of Fertilizers for Higher Crop Productivity’, Indian Farming, 2007, Vol. 50, No. 2, p. 23. 37. H. L. S. Tandon, Sulphur Fertilizers for Indian Agriculture, The Sulphur Institute, Washington, DC., USA, 1991, pp. 1-23. 38. H. L. S. Tandon, D. L. Massick, and S. P. Ceccotti, ‘Elemental Sulphur Based and Available Sulphur Fertilizers,’ The Sulphur Institute, Washington, DC, USA, January 1991, pp. 95,100. 39. A. Vithyanathan, ‘Fertilizers in Indian Agriculture’, Institute of Development Studies, Madras, India, Vol. XXIII, No.1, 1993. pp. 236, 251.

46

40. H. S. Mishra, T. R. Rathore, R. C. Pant and R. P. Tripathi, ‘Soil, Water and Fertilizers management for Wheat Cultivation in Rice-Wheat Rotation’, Indian Farmers’ Digest, Vol. 33, No. 6, January 1990, pp. 3,7. 41. P. S. Parmar and S. Walia, ‘Agrochemicals for Efficient Agriculture,’ Indian Farming, March 2005, pp. 3-4. 42. K. Kumarasamy, ‘Sustainable Agriculture through Integrated Soil Fertility Management’, Indian forming, June 2005, p. 19. 43. G. Murugan and R. M. Kathiresan, ‘Integrated Rice Farming Systems’, Indian Forming, April 2005, p. 4. 44. B. K. Mishra, A. K. Panduy, A. Arora, S. Gained and Lata, ‘Biological Control of diseases through Microbes’, Indian Forming, November 2005, pp. 5, 11. 45. A. Panneer Selvam and S. Rajkumar, ‘Organic Farming: Farms of the Future’, Kissan World, October 2007, pp. 53,54. 46. K. S. Vipin, ‘Role of Sulphur in Balanced Fertilization of Rise’, Kissan World, September 2007, p. 31. 47. I. Sathya Sundaram, ‘Pesticides at the cross roads’, Business and Economic Fax For You, February 2011, Vol. 31, No. 5. 48. J. D. S. Panwar and Ompal Singh, ‘Balanced fertilizers for higher crop productivity’, Indian Farming, Vol. 50, No.2, May 2000. 49. M. C. Manna, K. G. Mandal, K. M. Hati, J. D. S. Suboth Kundu, S. P. Panwar, Saikia and V. S. G. R. Naidu, ‘Use of phosphate biofertilizer for crop production system and Biofertilizers for enhancing crop productivity and environmental security’, Indian Farming, January 2001, Vol. 50, No. 10, pp. 52, 57.

______

CHAPTER - III FERTILIZER USE ON AGRICULTURE - A FRAME WORK . .

Agriculture provides the livelihood for 70 per cent of the world’s poor.

Investment in agriculture in terms of fertilizers must be increased because for the

majority of poor countries a healthy agricultural sector is essential to overcome

hunger and poverty and is a pre-requisite for overall economic growth.

Productivity in agriculture is mainly dependent on technological factors.

Among the technological factors are the use of agricultural inputs and methods such

as improved seeds, fertilizers, improved ploughs, tractors, harvesters and irrigation.

Fertilizer use may differ with regard to factors such as soil, plant and other

socio-economic conditions. In most of the developing countries, use of fertilizer is

consistently increasing. In this chapter, a brief account of fertilizer use on

agriculture a theoretical frame work is presented. The present chapter comprises

two sections. The first heads the fertilizer use at world, national and state level over

a period. It is followed by elements needed for plant growth to show its fertilizer is

an important input in agricultural influence.

Production, fertilizer consumption by the farmers in the present day

environment is of greater importance. Lot of controversies are going on with regard

to the use of chemical fertilizers. Many institutions are strongly advocating the use

of bio-fertilizers instead of chemical fertilizers. Periodically health care takers have

been also notifing the dangers of using chemical fertilizers for agricultural products.

48

The present day farmers are using all types of fertilizers such as Nitrogen,

Phosphorous and Potash. Biological fertilizers are also used by many farmers. The pattern of use of chemical and bio-fertilizers may change due to various factors.

Some of the factors are the size of the farm, type of crop, adoption of varieties, status of landownership, age of the farmer, level of education of the farmers, size of the family of the farmers, knowledge about fertilizers etc. The study is also around the fertilizer use pattern. The data relating to consumption of chemical fertilizer at world level, National level and state level and District wise are collected and shown in the following tables to understand the use of fertilizers.

SECTION-I

Consumption of fertilizer at world level is an index to identify the use of fertilizer. The data relating to consumption of fertilizer for the period from 2008-

2012 are presented in Table 3.1. The consumption of Nitrogen, Phosphate and

Potash fertilizers and the total shown.

Table 3.1 Consumption of Fertilizers at World level (2008-12) (‘000 tonnes) Year Nitrogen Phosphate Potassium Total 2007-08 98441 40444 28353 167238 2008-09 100486 41490 29254 171230 2009-10 102290 42552 30090 174932 2010-11 104101 43557 31026 178684 2011-12 105716 44605 31943 182264 Source: FAO of the UN - Current World Fertilizer Trends and Outlook to 2012

49

The production of fertilizer has increased substantially from 2007-08 to

2011-12. This is due to the increase in the consumption of fertilizers worldwide.

From the above table it is inferred that the fertilizer consumption has increased considerably from 2007-08 to 2011-12. The fertilizers consumption which stood at

167238 tonnes in 2007-08 has increased to 182264 tonnes in 2011-12. The three major types of fertilizers viz., Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potassium are consumed more and more by the farmers. The consumption of nitrogen is substantially more than phosphate and potassium. The same trend is witnessed in the production of fertilizers also.

50 Fig. 3.1: World level Fertilizers Consumption (2008-12)

51

Production of Fertilizer in India for a period of 10 years are collected and shown for analysis in Table 3.2. The production of fertilizer is categorized as

Nitrogen and Phosphate fertilizers and the total figures are also shown.

Table-3.2 Production of Fertilizers in India (2001-10) (in ‘000 tones) Year Nitrogenous (N) Phosphate (P) Total (NP) 2000-01 11004 3748 14752 (74.59) (25.41) (100) 2001-02 10771 3861 14632 (73.61) (26.39) (100) 2002-03 10562 3906 14468 (73.00) (27.00) (100) 2003-04 10634 3631 14265 (74.55) (25.45) (100) 2004-05 11338 4067 15405 (73.60) (26.40) (100) 2005-06 11354 4221 15575 (72.8) (27.2) (100) 2006-07 11578 4517 16095 (71.9) (28.1) (100) 2007-08 10900 3807 14707 (74.1) (25.9) (100) 2008-09 10870 3464 14334 (75.8) (24.2) (100) 2009-10 11900 4321 16221 (73.3) (26.4) (100) 2010-11* 12175 4532 16707 (72.8) (27.2) (100) Note: Potassic fertilizer met through import. Figures in parentheses show percentage; NA: Not available; * Estimated (Production figures are considered actual for April to November 2010 and estimated for December 2010 to March 2011). Source : Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers, Department of Fertilizers

52

The above table shows the production of fertilizer in India from 2005-06 to

2010-11. The production of nitrogenous and phosphates fertilizers alone is observed and there was no production of potassic fertilizer. The need was fulfilled through import. It is found that the production of nitrogenous fertilizer was more than 70 per cent in all the years and the production of phosphate fertilizer had decreased from

28.1 per cent in 2006-07 to 25.9 per cent in 2007-08.

53

Fig. 3.2 Production of Fertilizers in India

54

Consumption of fertilizer shows the pattern of utilizing fertilizers in India.

The data relating to consumption of fertilizer during the study period from 2000-01 to 2010-2011 is shown in Table 3.3. The consumption of Nitrogen, Phosphate and

Potash fertilizers and the total figures are also shown.

Table-3.3 Consumption of Fertilizers in India (2001-10) (in ‘000 tones) Year Nitrogenous (N) Phosphate (P) Potassic (K) Total (NPK) 2000-01 10920 4215 1567 16702 (65.38) (25.23) (9.39) (100) 2001-02 11310 4382 1667 17360 (65.15) (25.24) (9.61) (100) 2002-03 10474 4019 1601 16094 (65.08) (24.98) (9.94) (100) 2003-04 11076 4124 1598 16798 (65.93) (24.55) (9.52) (100) 2004-05 11714 4624 2060 18398 (63.67) (25.14) (11.19) (100) 2005-06 12723 5204 2413 20340 (62.55) (25.56) (11.89) (100) 2006-07 13773 5543 2335 21651 (63.6) (25.6) (10.78) (100) 2007-08 14419 5515 2636 22570 (63.8) (24.4) (11.6) (100) 2008-09 15090 6506 3313 24909 (60.5) (26.1) (13.3) (100) 2009-10 15580 7274 3632 26486 (58.8) (27.4) (13.7) (100) 2010-11* NA NA NA NA

Figures in parentheses show percentage; NA: Not available; * Estimated (Production figures are considered actual for April-November 2010 and estimated for December 2010 - March 2011) Source : Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers, Department of Fertilizers

55

The above table shows that in all the years from 2005-06 to 2009-10, the quantity of consumption of nitrogenous (N) fertilizer was more compared to phosphate and potassic. Regarding nitrogenous fertilizer the consumption has decreased from 62.55 per cent to 58.8 per cent. The consumption of phosphate (P) has increased from 25.57 per cent to 27.4 per cent. In the case of potassic (K) fertilizer, consumption has increased from 11.8 per cent to 13.7 per cent.

56

Fig. 3.3 Consumption of Fertilizers in India

57

Import of Fertilizers in India for a period of 10 years are collected and shown for analysis in Table 3.4. The Import of fertilizer is categorized as Nitrogen and

Phosphate fertilizers and the total figures are also shown.

Table-3.4 Import of Fertilizers by India (2001-10) (in ‘000 tones) Year Nitrogenous (N) Phosphate (P) Potassic (K) Total (NPK) 2000-01 154 396 1541 2090 (7.35) (18.93) (73.72) (100) 2001-02 269 429 1701 2399 (11.21) (17.88) (70.91) (100) 2002-03 67 170 1520 1757 (3.82) (9.67) (86.51) (100) 2003-04 132 338 1548 2018 (6.54) (16.75) (76.71) (100) 2004-05 411 296 2045 2752 (14.94) (10.75) (74.31) (100) 2005-06 1385 1122 2747 5254 (26.3) (21.4) (52.3) (100) 2006-07 2689 1322 2069 6080 (44.2) (21.8) (34) (100) 2007-08 3677 1391 2653 7721 (47.6) (18) (34.4) (100) 2008-09 3844 2927 3380 10151 (37.8) (28.9) (33.3) (100) 2009-10 3447 2756 2945 9148 (37.6) (30.2) (32.2) (100) 2010-11* 3448 3515 3022 9985 (34.53) (35.3) (30.2) (100) Note: Figures in parentheses show percentage; NA: Not available; * Estimated (Production figures are considered actual for April to November 2010 and estimated for December 2010 to March 2011). Source : Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers, Department of Fertilizers

58

The import of fertilizers from 2005-06 to 2010-11, the table shows that the import of potassic fertilizer has come down from 52.2 per cent in 2005-06 to 30.2 per cent in 2010-11. In the case of phosphate the import has come down from 21.4 per cent in 2005-06 to 18 per cent in 2007-08. From 2008-09 the import of phosphate was 28.9 per cent which increased to 35.3 per cent. The nitrogenous fertilizer increased to 47.6 per cent in 2007-08 from 26.3 per cent in 2005-06.

59

Fig. 3.4 Imports of Fertilizers in India

60

Consumption of fertilizer shows the pattern of utilizing fertilizer in southern states of India. The data relating to consumption of fertilizer during the study period from 2000- 2001 to 2008-2009 is shown in Table 3.5. The consumption of

Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potash fertilizers and the total are also shown.

The Table 3.5 presents the particulars about the consumption of fertilizers in southern states which comprises of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Among the southern states, Andhra Pradesh is consuming the maximum amount of fertilizers. Its fertilizer consumption stood at 3070.88 tonnes in 2008-09. It is followed by Karnataka and Tamil Nadu with the consumption of

1831.83 tonnes and 1265.22 tonnes respectively. Kerala’s consumption of fertilizers is very low which stood at 260.91 tonnes only.

61 Table 3.5 Consumption of Fertilizers in Southern India (2000-09) (in ‘000 Tonnes) States Nutrients 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 1361.79 1182.72 1035.71 1138.83 1156.53 1522.09 1466.08 1560.37 1720.84 N (62.62) (60.51) (61.92) (61.46) (58.18 (59.63) (59.01) 58.49 56.03

P2O5 603.46 545.37 433.92 474.09 538.98 690.1 685.93 695.02 852.2 Andhra (27.75) (27.90) (25.94) (25.58) (27.11 (27.03) (27.61) 26.05 27.75 Pradesh K2O 209.32 226.52 203.05 240.08 292.39 340.36 332.05 412.19 497.84 (9.63) (11.59) (12.14) (12.96) (14.71 (13.33) (13.36) 15.45 16.21 Total 2174.57 1954.61 1672.68 1853.00 1987.87 2552.55 2484.06 2667.58 3070.88 N 731.99 670.68 601.00 493.17 655.98 754.44 756.16 790.28 864.1 (54.29) (53.68) (54.65) (53.62) (50.72) (49.47) (50.89) (52.42 (47.17

P2O5 383.5 360.44 303.57 240.18 363.98 435.14 438.36 386.78 558.83 Karnataka (28.44) (28.85) (27.60) (26.11) (28.14) (28.53) (29.50) (25.65 (30.50

K2O 232.87 218.27 195.16 186.45 273.27 335.34 291.31 330.32 408.9 (17.27) (17.47) (17.75) (20.27) (21.13) (21.99) (19.60) (21.91 (22.32 Total 1348.36 1249.39 1099.73 919.80 1293.23 1524.92 1485.83 1507.38 1831.83 N 73.76 76.42 86.66 85.42 88.25 82.49 88.66 93.26 111.74 (42.58) (43.14) (42.34) (44.47) (43.79) (40.74) (42.43) (44.77) (42.82)

P2O5 37.6 37.24 40.21 38.94 41.79 44.24 45.61 42.73 55.02 Kerala (21.71) (21.02) (19.65) (20.27) (20.74) (21.85) (21.83) (20.51) (21.08)

K2O 61.85 63.47 77.79 67.74 71.49 75.73 74.65 72.31 4.15 (35.71) (35.83) (38.01) (35.26) (35.47) (37.40) (35.73) (34.71) (36.08) Total 173.21 177.13 204.66 192.10 201.53 202.46 208.92 208.3 260.91

62

States Nutrients 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 N 547.17 504.99 420.39 378.55 482.73 559.24 586.18 543.34 646.68 (56.2) (53.84) (56.57) (53.09) (50.71) (50.87) (52.05) (50.51) (51.11)

P2O5 207.94 205.13 150.88 158.57 211.32 256.12 269.65 228.12 254.99 Tamil Nadu (21.59) (21.87) (20.30) (22.24) (22.20) (23.30) (23.94) (21.20) (20.15) K2O 207.89 227.90 171.89 175.98 257.98 283.86 270.35 304.19 363.55 (21.59) (24.30) (23.13) (24.68) (27.10) (25.82) (24.00) (28.27) (28.73) Total 963.00 938.02 743.16 713.1 952.03 1099.22 1126.18 1075.65 1265.22 N 12.42 13.65 18.89 22.05 22.88 22.29 25.18 20.04 16.06 (52.47) (53.47) (56.62) (55.85) (54.42) (52.34) (57.04) (53.91) (57.48)

P2O5 5.76 6.46 8.3 9.87 10.09 10.9 11.4 8.57 5.67 Pondicherry (24.33) (25.30) (24.88) (25.00) (24.00) (25.59) (25.82) (23.05) (20.29) K2O 5.49 5.42 6.17 7.56 9.07 9.39 7.56 8.56 6.21 (23.19) (21.23) (18.50) (19.15) (21.57) (22.05) (17.12) (23.02) (22.22) Total 23.67 25.53 33.36 39.48 42.04 42.58 44.14 37.17 27.94 N 2727.13 2448.46 2162.65 2118.02 2406.37 2940.55 2922.26 3007.68 3359.7 (58.24) (56.36) (57.62) (56.97) (53.75) (54.23) (54.63) (54.71) (52.02)

P2O5 1238.26 1154.64 936.88 921.65 1166.16 1436.5 1450.95 1361.58 1726.89 Southern (26.44) (26.58) (24.96) (24.79) (26.05) (26.49) (27.12) (24.76) (26.74) India K2O 717.42 741.58 654.06 677.81 904.17 1044.68 975.92 1127.69 1370.79 (15.32) (17.07) (17.42) (18.23) (20.20) (19.26) (18.24) (20.51) (21.22) Total 4682.81 4344.68 3753.59 3717.48 4476.7 5421.73 5349.13 5496.95 6457.38

63 States Nutrients 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 N 10920.16 11310.22 10474.12 11076.95 11713.91 12723.32 13774.11 7715.74 15090.53 (65.38) (65.15) (65.08) (65.94) (63.66) (62.55) (63.61) (62.03) (60.58)

P2O5 4214.62 4382.4 4018.81 4124.28 4623.79 5203.68 5543.32 3185.33 6506.24 India (25.23) (25.24) (24.97) (24.55) (25.13) (25.58) (25.60) (25.6) (26.11)

K2O 1567.62 1667.09 1601.16 1597.91 2060.66 2413.31 2334.81 1535.94 3312.57 (9.39) (9.60) (9.95) (9.51) (11.20) (11.86) (10.78) (12.34) (13.29) Total 16702.3 17359.71 16094.09 16799.14 18398.36 20340.31 21652.24 12437.01 24909.34 Parentheses is percentage Source: South India Statistics.com (2010)

64

Consumption of fertilizer shows the pattern of utilizing fertilizer in Tamil

Nadu. The data relating to consumption of fertilizer during the study period from

2000-01 to 2008-2009 is shown in Table 3.6 for analysis. The consumption of

Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potash fertilizers and the total are also shown

Table - 3.6 Consumption of Fertilizers in Tamil Nadu (2001-09) (in ‘000 Tonnes) Year N P K NPK 2000-01 547.17 207.94 207.89 963 (56.2) (21.59) (21.59) (100) 2001-02 504.99 205.13 227.90 938.02 (53.84) (21.87) (24.30 (100) 2002-03 420.39 150.88 171.89 743.16 (56.57) (20.30) (23.13) (100) 2003-04 378.55 158.57 175.98 713.1 (53.09) (22.24) (24.68) (100) 2004-05 482.73 211.32 257.98 952.03 (50.72%) (22.19%) (27.09%) (100%) 2005-06 559.24 256.12 283.86 1099.22 (50.97%) (23.30%) (23.93%) (100%) 2006-07 586.18 269.65 270.35 1126.18 (52.05%) (23.95%) (24.00%) (100%) 2007-08 543.34 228.12 304.19 1075.65 (50.51%) (21.21%) (28.28%) (100%) 2008-09 646.68 254.99 363.55 1265.22 (51.11%) (20.15%) (28.74%) (100%) Source: South India Statistics.com

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From the above table it is clearly perceived that the fertilizer consumption in

Tamil Nadu is an increasing growth trajectory. The fertilizer consumption in Tamil

Nadu has increased substantially. In the year 2004-05 the fertilizer consumption in

Tamil Nadu was only 952.03 thousand tonnes and it has shot up to 1265.22 thousand tonnes in 2008-09. The three major components of fertilizer viz.,

Nitrogen, Phosphates and Potash have been increasingly consumed by the farmers during the 2004-05 to 2008-09. From the above table it is inferred that the consumption of Nitrogen and Phosphates has been lower in the year 2007-08 but in the subsequent year 2008-09 the consumption has picked up impressively. The fall in the consumption of Potash is seen in the year 2006-07 and in the subsequent years 2007-08 and 2008-09 the consumption again peaked at higher levels. The unambiguous conclusion from the above is that the consumption of fertilizers in

Tamil Nadu has been quite high and it has been increasing over the years. The reason for their upward trend can be attributed to the anxiety on the part of the farmers to improve the production of crops by sing fertilizers intensively.

Consumption of fertilizer shows the pattern of utilizing fertilizer in various

Districts of Tamil Nadu. The data relating to consumption of fertilizer during the study period for 2008-2009 is shown in Table 3.7 for analysis. The consumption of

Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potash fertilizers and the total are also shown.

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Table 3.7 District wise Consumption of Fertilizers in Tamil Nadu (2008-09) (in tonnes) Districts N P K Total Ariyalur 9693 827 4796 15316 (63.29) (5.40) (31.31) Coimbatore 55101 10482 47398 112981 (48.77) (9.28) (41.95) Cuddalore 50789 2706 23856 77351 (65.66) (3.50) (30.84) Dharmapuri 14789 430 8529 23748 (62.27) (1.81) (35.91) Dindigul 32727 2694 22501 57922 (56.50) (4.65) (38.85) Erode 81641 5567 39675 126883 (64.34) (4.39) (31.27) Kancheepuram 29345 258 26009 55612 (52.77) (0.46) (46.77) Kanyakumari 7061 54 6166 13281 (53.17) (0.41) (46.43) Karur 12174 1289 8990 22453 (54.22) (5.74) (40.04) Krishnagiri 7343 325 3235 10903 (67.35) (2.98) (29.67) Madurai 66426 4231 28286 98943 (67.14) (4.28) (28.59) Nagapattinam 36580 200 12144 48924 (74.77) (0.41) (24.82) Namakkal 11785 1457 5916 19158 (61.51) (7.61) (30.88) Nilgiris 4689 3145 7528 15362 (30.52) (20.47) (49.00) Perambalur 12850 796 7134 20780 (61.84) (3.83) (34.33) Pudukottai 38486 4022 17798 60306 (63.82) (6.67) (29.51) Ramanathapuram 16626 15 2986 19627 (84.71) (0.08) (15.21)

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Districts N P K Total Salem 69505 4661 46437 120603 (57.63) (3.86) (38.50) Sivagangai 20658 333 5647 26638 (77.55) (1.25) (21.20) Thanjavur 68744 1727 29632 100103 (68.67) (1.73) (29.60) Theni 16276 1249 10392 27917 (58.30) (4.47) (37.22) Thoothukudi 14741 758 6928 22427 (65.73) (3.38) (30.89) Tiruchirapalli 94443 7203 59423 161069 (58.64) (4.47) (36.89) Tirunelveli 62103 2577 27922 92602 (67.06) (2.78) (30.15) Tiruvallur 29644 1217 11920 42781 (69.29) (2.84) (27.86) Tiruvannamalai 65342 1063 28967 95372 (68.51) (1.11) (30.37) Tiruvarur 40003 1277 16009 57289 (69.83) (2.23) (27.94) Vellore 63159 2061 22674 87894 (71.86) (2.34) (25.80) Villupuram 70748 2665 37903 111316 (63.56) (2.39) (34.05) Virdhunagar 18726 471 7604 26801 (69.87) (1.76) (28.37) Tamil Nadu 1122197 65760 584405 1772362 (63.32) (3.71) (32.97) Source: South India Statistics.com

The above table shows the district wise consumption of fertilizer in Tamil

Nadu. The table also shows the fertilizer wise consumption viz., Nitrogen,

Phosphate and Potassium.

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Consumption of fertilizer shows the pattern of utilizing fertilizer in selective

Agricultural Districts of Tamil Nadu. The data relating to consumption of fertilizer during the study period for 2008-2009 is shown in Table 3.8 for analysis. The consumption of Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potash fertilizers and the total are also shown.

Table 3.8 Consumption of Fertilizers in Selective Agricultural Districts of Tamil Nadu (2008-09) (in tonnes) NPK Districts N P K Total Coimbatore 55101 10482 47398 112981 (48.77) (9.28) (41.95) (100) Erode 81641 5567 39675 126883 (64.34) (4.39) (31.27) (100) Madurai 66426 4231 28286 98943 (67.14) (4.27) (28.59) (100) Salem 69505 4661 46437 120603 (57.64) (3.86) (38.50) (100) Thanjavur 68744 1727 29632 100103 (68.67) (1.73) (29.60) (100) Tiruchirapalli 94443 7203 59423 161069 (58.64) (4.47) (36.89) (100) Tirunelveli 62103 2577 27922 92602 (67.07) (2.78) (30.15) (100) Tiruvannamalai 65342 1063 28967 95372 (68.51) (1.12) (30.37) (100) Villupuram 70748 2665 37903 111316 (63.56) (2.39) (34.05) (100) Tamil Nadu 1122197 65760 584405 1772362 (63.32) (3.71) (32.97) (100) Parentheses is percentage Source: South India Statistics.com (2010);

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The above table presents the particulars of fertilizer consumption in selective districts of Tamil Nadu for the year 2008-09. The district which was topping the list of fertilizer consumption was Tiruchirappalli, with 161069 tonnes followed by

Erode district with 126883 tonnes and Salam district has the consumption of

120603 tonnes. The reason for the heavy consumption of fertilizers in those districts is obvious and those districts are well irrigated districts and the livelihood of the people hinges and agriculture only Tirunelveli district has lowest consumption of fertilizers with 92602 tonnes, Tivannamalai with 95372 tonnes and Madurai with

98948 tonnes are districts with very low consumption of fertilizers due to small irrigated land and rain fed cropping. In the composition of fertilizers, Nitrogen was the most sought after component in all the selected districts. Potash was the second most demanded fertilizer and the phosphates was the least preferred component of fertilizer. Even though there are differences in the consumption pattern of the above three components but their consumption was on the upswing in all the districts. This analysis of consumption of fertilizers by the select districts clearly reveals that there is no slackening in the consumption of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu.

SECTION-II

ELEMENTS NEEDED FOR PLANT GROWTH

Manganese, copper, boron, and zinc have been found during comparatively recent years to be essential for plant growth. These elements are present in most, if not all soils, but other elements or some abnormal soil condition may prevent the plant from using them. Consequently the plant suffers as if these elements were not present in the soil. Iodine and sodium are often helpful to plants but plant scientists

70 do not generally accept this evidence as conclusive that either iodine or sodium is absolutely essential for plant growth. Chlorine and silicon which some had believed to be essential are not so regarded now. As methods of chemical analysis are refined, however, it appears probable that additional elements may prove to be equally as necessary for plant growth as are any of the fourteen elements listed here.

FERTILIZER ELEMENTS

The elements Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are regarded as the more important fertilizer elements, since it is one or more of these which most often controls or limits the yield of crops. They may limit crop yields because they are really lacking, or because they occur in insoluble material from which the crop cannot obtain the supply of them needed for good growth. In addition to these three, calcium, magnesium, manganese, sulfur and occasionally copper, boron, and iron may not be present in available from or in sufficient quantities for well-balanced normal growth.

Nitrogen

Nitrogen makes up nearly four-fifths of the air, so there is no shortage of this necessary nutrient element. Nitrogen is inactive but elusive. Most of the crops can use nitrogen only when it is combined with other elements. Of combined nitrogen the supply is limited and this accounts for its relatively high cost. Fortunately for mankind legumes, when properly inoculated, through a close relationship with bacteria working in the nudules on their growth. Between the more commonly known garden and farm-crop legumes are beans and peas and clovers and alfalfa.

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All other families of plants may be classed as non-legumes, among which are the grosses and common grains, many truck and garden crops, and most trees.

Among the later are two common exceptions, the locusts, and redbud or

Judas tree, which are legumes. When legumes are fed to farm animals and the resulting manure returned to the soil, or when the legumes are plowed under directly succeeding crops get the benefit of the nitrogen fixed by the legumes.

In the soil combined nitrogen occurs mainly in the bodies of living organisms and in the more or less decayed residues from plants or animals, which is called organic matter. As decay of the organic matter goes on in the soil, the nitrogen is changed to forms which plants use in their growth. In addition, fixation of nitrogen is accomplished in the soil under favourable cropping conditions by organisms other than the legume bacteria.

Mineral soil contain from a few hundreds to 0.25 per cent of nitrogen, or from a few hundred pounds to 5000 pounds of nitrogen in the plowed soil of an acre which weighs approximately 2,000,000 pounds. Very sandy soils contain as much as 3 percent of this element and sometimes more or 30,000 pounds in the plowed soil, which weighs approximately 1,000,000 pounds to the acre. Nitrogen in soils is not very active. A soil containing 5000 pounds of this element under favourable conditions supplies sufficient nitrogen for good yield of grains and grasses. Many vegetable crops, however, respond to additions of nitrogen even to soils that contain

5000 pounds of it to the acre in the surface six inches. On sandy and other soils low in nitrogen or where it is particularly inactive, most crops will make better growth if nitrogen is added.

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Phosphorus

A very common compound of phosphorus is calcium phosphate,1 which together with aluminum and iron phosphates, is present in soil to a greater or lesser extent. Phosphorus is so active as an element that it occurs in nature only in compounds. Calcium phosphate makes up in large part the bones of animals and it occurs also in the phosphate beds of Florida, Carolina, Tennessee, and the

Northwestern states. Soils contain from less than 0.02 percent to 0.12 percent of phosphorus2 or from 400 to 2400 pounds of this element to the acre in the plowed soil. At first glance this might appear to be abundance of this element, but soil phosphorus is not readily available to crops. Since soils always have been and must continue to be man’s source of food, it is fortunate that phosphorus has not been lost rapidly from the soil. Owing to the slow availability of soil phosphorus, many soils do not furnish crops with enough of this important element for strong normal growth and for the production of satisfactory yields. High lime-requirement legumes such as sweet and red clover and alfalfa make good use of soil phosphorus.

On the other hand, crops that are unable to use insoluble phosphorus require the addition of this element in soluble forms in order to make satisfactory growth.

Potassium

Potassium, also, being exceedingly active as an element occurs in natural only in compounds. In general, soils are well supplied with this element, containing from 0.42 to 1.67 percent of potassium, or from 8000 to 33,000 pounds in the plowed soil of an acre. Like phosphorus this element occurs in the soil in insoluble minerals. Plants with large root systems in proportion to their potassium needs often

73 obtain from the soil sufficient potash for normal growth. On the other hand, plants with restricted root systems or forage crops and to add for vegetables. Sandy and peaty soils are deficient in potassium; hence it must be added in manure or fertilizers in order that these soils may produce good yields.

Calcium

Calcium occurs in soils in many different minerals, varying greatly in the proportion present in different soils from practically none in some to enormous quantities in others, particularly those recently formed from limestone. Calcium, although a necessary plant - nutrient element, serves also to maintain the proper reaction or balance between acidity and alkalinity in the soil.

Manganese, Copper, Boron, Zinc

During recent years the use of materials carrying one or more of these elements has proved distinctly beneficial to crops on highly calcareous or on very sandy soils and on some un-manure normal soils. Regular manure appears to enable many plants to obtain the manganese, copper and zinc needed for healthy growth.

Small quantities of these elements are now being added to fertilizers for certain crops on special soils, but further information on crop response to additions of manganese, copper, boron, and zinc to normal soils is needed as a basis for their economic use in crop fertilization.

Consumption of fertilizer at different countries in the world is an index to identify the use of fertilizer. The data relating to consumption of fertilizer for the period from 2008-2012 in Table 3.9. The consumption is shown as Nitrogen,

Phosphate and Potash fertilizers and the total figures are also shown.

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Table 3.9 Consumption of Fertilizers at different countries in the World (2008-12) (‘000 tonnes) Ferti- World and Regional 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 lizers American Countries N 20942 21329 21583 21852 22069 (Argentina, Canada, (56.71) (56.53) (56.25) (55.58) (55.24) Greenland, Mexico, P 10857 11217 11549 12174 12546 Uruguay, etc.) (29.41) (29.74) (30.11) (30.97) (31.39) K 5129 5180 5231 5286 5343 (13.88) (13.73) (13.64) (13.45) (13.37) Total 36928 37726 38363 39321 39958 (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) European Countries N 14379 14571 14787 15036 15336 (Albania, Poland, (63.27) (63.49) (63.65) (63.89) (64.11) France, Germany, P 3696 3703 3741 3769 3816 Sweden, etc.) (16.27) (16.14) (16.11) (16.02) (15.95)

K 4650 4675 4702 4726 4772 (20.46) (20.37) (20.24) (20.09) (19.94) Total 22725 22949 23230 23531 23924 (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Asian Countries N 63961 66234 68292 70292 72189 (China, Indonesia, (62.71) (62.73) (62.74) (62.74) (62.68) Japan, Thailand, P 23617 24391 25058 25716 26388 India, etc.) (23.18) (23.11) (23.03) (22.95) (22.91)

K 14305 14961 15489 16031 16584 (14.01) (14.16) (14.23) (14.31) (14.41) Total 101883 105586 108839 112039 115161 (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) World Level N 103608 106630 109322 112006 114605 (59.29) (59.26) (59.24) (59.15) (59.08) P 40696 41885 42972 44333 45474 (23.29) (23.29) (23.90) (23.41) (23.44) K 30458 31400 32218 33048 33928 (17.42) (17.45) (17.46) (17.44) (17.48) Total 174762 179915 184512 189387 194007 (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Source: FAO of the UN - Current World Fertilizer Trends and Outlook to 2012

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Fig. 3.5 Country level Fertilizers Consumption (2008-12)

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Regions are shown in the above table. The table gives the projection for the year 2012 also. In American countries like Argentina, Canada, Greenland, Mexico,

Uruguay, etc., the consumption of Nitrogen was lesser than the world level and lower than European countries like Albania, Poland, France, Germany, Sweden, etc., and Asian countries like China, Indonesia, Japan, Thailand, India. A higher level of more than 63 per cent consumption of Nitrogen took place in European countries.

Regarding Phosphate the American countries consumed more than 30 per cent from

2010 to 2012. The European countries and Asian countries consumed a lesser percentages of 16 and 22.95 respectively in 2011. The consumption of Potash in

European countries was higher than the Asian and American countries.

INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS ELEMENTS ON CROPS

Nitrogen has a quick, outstanding effect on plant growth, whenever it is used in moderately large quantities. Its first effect is to stimulate the growth of leaf and stem, the vegetative part of the plant, somewhat as does abundant rainfall. It gives to leaves a decidedly dark green color, whereas lack of sufficient nitrogen is often indicated by a yellowish color of the leaves and short growth of the stalk or stem. In grains abundance of nitrogen cause the growth of tall weak stalks. Nitrogen in the plant seems to control the utilization of phosphorus and potassium. It tends to produce watery, succulent growth, very desirable in such crops as lettuce, spinach, and celery, but undesirable with such crops as tomatoes, strawberries, and the grains. Nitrogen applied in too large quantities causes trouble more often than do the other elements. Excessive use of nitrogen may have several important detrimental effects.It may delay ripening by causing too much vegetative growth of

77 crops like tomatoes. Too much nitrogen causes peaches to be late in ripening and to be of poor shipping quality, and the wood of fruit trees may not mature until so late that winter injury often results.

Phosphorus is absolutely essential in many phase of plant growth. Fat and albumen do not form without it, and although starch forms, it cannot change to sugar without phosphorus. Seeds are usually richer in phosphorus than other parts of the plant. It appears, therefore, to have an important function in seed development.

Phosphorus hastens ripening, which is very important with such crops as corn and tomatoes in sections having a short growing season. Seeds are richer in phosphorus than are other parts of the plant; consequently a good supply of available phosphorus increases the yield of grain as compared with straw. By balancing the weakening effects of nitrogen phosphorus strengthens the straw and thus reduces the tendency of small grains, especially oats, to lodge. Phosphorus plumps the kernel of grains and improves the tone and vigor of the plant and the quality of the crop. Improvement in quality is especially notable when mature grain or ripe fruit such as of peaches, tomatoes, or peppers is concerned. No undesirable effects have been noted from the use of phosphorus even in ordinarily heavy applications.

Potassium is needed for the formation of the green part of plants called chlorophyll, which with the aid of sunlight brings about starch formation, for which potassium is absolutely necessary. Through its aid in starch formation potash, like phosphorus, helps plump the grain of cereals. Potassium in extremely heavy applications of it in the soil from the fertilizer used on preceding crops, frequently causes heavy damage to this crop on some peat soils.

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As compared with leading agricultural countries of the world, the acre yields in India, indicating scope for increasing the yield with the improvement of soil fertility and other improved practices. The consumption of N,P,K. per acre in India is insignificant and high unbalanced as compared to that of some of the progressive countries in the world. This is illustrated in the following Table-3.10

Consumption of fertilizer in kilogram per hectare between Developed and

Developing countries of the world is an index to identify the use of fertilizer.

The data relating to consumption of fertilizer for the period from 2006-2008 in

Table 3.10. The consumption is shown as total (NPK) Nitrogen, Phosphate and

Potash fertilizers and the total figures are also shown.

Table-3.10 Consumption of Fertilizers in Developed and Developing countries 2006 2007 2008 Countries (Total NPK in (Total NPK in (Total NPK in kg per hectare ) kg per hectare ) kg per hectare ) Developed Countries France 189.9 207.7 146.1 Germany 194.4 221.9 160.4 Japan 332.8 350.5 278.2 Sweden 103.6 89.4 142.1 United States 254.2 259.0 208.2 Developing countries Brazil 141.5 185.3 165.7 China 433.0 484.1 468.0 India 136.4 142.8 153.5 Indonesia 158.0 168.1 189.1 Philippines 135.9 147.3 131.2 Source: The World Bank Group-2011, AG. CON. FERT. 25

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The above table presents consumption of fertilizers in the developed and developing countries. Among the developed countries Japan and US are the countries which consume maximum amount of fertilizers. But in both the countries the consumption of fertilizers has been falling the same trend is seen in all the other developed countries. In the developing countries China is far ahead of other countries. Next to China, Indonesia is consuming the maximum amount of fertilizers. In the developing countries the consumption of fertilizer has been increasing steadily which is quite contrary to the trend found in the developed countries.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND FERTILIZER

Agricultural production is more crucial today than ever before in the context of the present food situation. The foundations of economic progress lie in a prosperous agriculture. The history of advanced countries bears out that an agricultural revolution preceded the industrial revolution. People have to develop agriculture in such a way that it helps industrial development and makes a positive concentration to the regeneration of the entire economy.

Of the various agricultural inputs, fertilizer is by far the most important in increasing crop yields. Due to continuous cropping over the years, the fertility of the soils may decline. In any system of intensive agriculture, the harvesting of the crops takes place in succession, often several times a year. This involves a recurring drain of nutrients from the soil, and sustained agricultural production at a high level will be impossible unless the nutrient elements removed from the soils are regularly returned to it.

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Fertilizer is an important area for production function research. Greater use of fertilizer has been one of the important developments in agriculture over the previous decades. It is an input which is clearly divisible and for which profit- maximizing principles, for either limited or unlimited capital situations, can easily be applied.

The subsidies for various fertilizers in India are shown in Table 3.11. The data collected during the period of 2000-01 to 2008-09. The data is shown as total value of fertilizers is measured in crores of Rupees.

Table 3.11 Subsidies for Fertilizers in India (2000-01 to 2008-09)

Year Indigenous Imported Decontrolled Total Urea Urea Fertilizers

2000-01 9480 1 4319 13800

2001-02 8044 47 4504 12595

2002-03 7790 0 3225 11015

2003-04 8521 0 3326 11847

2004-05 10243 494 5142 15879

2005-06 10653 1211 6596 18460

2006-07 12650 3274 10298 26222

2007-08 12950 6606 12934 32490

2008-09 16517 10981 48351 75849

Source: FAI

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The fertilizers subsidy has been increasing in India. The aim of fertilizers subsidy is to supply fertilizer to the farmers at affordable levels. But the subsidy bill which is increasing over the years should be controlled and efforts should be made to see that subsidies are used only by the farmers and not by the producers.

FERTILIZER PRICES AND SUBSIDIES

Lower fertilizer prices would normally increase fertilizer use unless the presence of certain constraints prohibit such increase. The relationship between price change and the corresponding change in the quantity demanded is measured by the price elasticity of demand. The price elasticity of demand for fertilizer various among locations, types of fertilizers and other variables.

INDIRECT SUBSIDIES

The real price of fertilizers may be reduced in a number of ways other than direct subsidies. One of the most common is to make credit available to farmers at a subsidized interest rate. Subsidized credit programs may be effective in increasing the use of fertilizers in cases where lack of credit with reasonable interest rates is a major constraint. Although the allocation mechanism of the free market system does not necessarily operate perfectly, there is nevertheless a tendency to allocate credit to projects where the highest return can be obtained. Hence, permanent subsidization of credit for the purchase of fertilizer may involve considerable cost to society because returns to limited capital are reduced. A less costly policy may be to remove the factors causing the high interest rates associated with such credit. Risk and uncertainly in agricultural production and lack of credit security are probably

82 the major factors causing such high interest rates and reluctance among commercial banks to provide agricultural credit. Government policy aimed at reducing the risk and uncertainly and providing additional security for the moneylenders in a way acceptable to the farmer is likely to provide higher benefits than subsidized interest rates.

It is difficult to ensure that subsidized credit is in fact used for fertilizer purchases over and above those that would have taken place in the absence of such subsidies. Hence, the impact of such programmes on fertilizer use tend to be much smaller than expected. Other indirect subsidy programmes include tax concessions, preferential exchange rates, preferential freight rates, etc.

INTERNATIONAL FERTILIZER PRICES

International fertilizer prices play an important role in determining prices in the individual developing country, although the above-mentioned exchange rate and trade policies reduced this role in some countries. International fertilizer prices are largely determined by supply and demand. World supply capacity and projected demand for each of the three major fertilizers are compared. Supply capacities exceed projected demand for all years and fertilizers.

The International prices of fertilizers viz., Urea, DAP and MOP are shown in

Table 3.12. The data collected during the period of January 1990 to September

2008. The data is shown as Minimum and Maximum value it measured by US $ / tonne for various fertilizers.

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Table-3.12 International Prices of Urea, DAP and MOP (Jan 1990 to Sep 2008)

Product Minimum Maximum Average Coefficient of CAGR (US$/tonne) (US$/tonne) (US$/tonne) variation (%) (% pa) Urea 70 865 200 63.5 2.64 (Jul-Dec 1998) (Jul-Sep 2008) DAP 110 1230 270 83.6 2.77 (Jan-Jun 1993) (Apr-Jun 2008) MoP 80 945 160 70.7 2.46 (Jan-Jun 1993) (Jul-Sep 2008) DAP: Diammonium Phosphate, MoP: Muriate of Potash Source: FAI (2008)

The prices of urea, the main nitrogen product traded and consumed, have varied widely both in absolute and in relative terms over the last two decades. The price of urea varied from about US$ 70 in Jul-Dec 1998 to US$ 865 per tonne in

Jul-Sep 2008. The coefficient of variation was quite high (63.5%) between 1990 and 2008. The average FOB price during the decade of 1990s was US$ 135 and increased significantly (US$ 260/tonne) during the 2000s. The price of DAP varied from about US$ 110 in Jan-Jun 1993 to US$ 1230 per tonne in Apr-Jun 2008. The prices of DAP are the most volatile among three major products, namely Urea, DAP and MoP. The average FOB price during the decade of 1990s was US$ 177 and increased significantly (US$ 422/tonne) during the 2000s, an increase of 238 per cent. The prices of MoP varied from US$ 80 per tonne to US$ 945 per tonne between 1991 and 2008. The price of muriate of potash (MoP), the most common source of potassium, rose from about US$ 175 per tonne in 2006 to US$ 280 per tonne in 2007 and by Dec 2008, MoP was sold for US$ 870 per tonne, an increase

84 of about 400 percent. The above discussion clearly shows that fertilizer markets are highly concentrated and prices of fertilizer products show a wide variability.

ORGANIC MANURES

The practice of applying organic manures has stood the test for centuries as it has helped to keep the soil in a fertile state over long period. However, in the First

Year Plan, sufficient attention was not devoted to the development and increased production of local manorial resources in rural areas. Even in the Second Plan, only schemes for making town or urban composts found a place. It was later realized that there was considerable scope for developing manures of local origin from the wastes in National Extension Service and Community Development. Blocks and schemes for the production of night soil compost in the bigger Panchayats and smaller villages were formulated in 1956.

RURAL COMPOST

It was envisaged that the compost production per adult cattle per annum could be stepped up from one ton to two tons and the nitrogen contents of the manure increased from 0.5 per cent to one per cent. During the Second Plan period this scheme functioned in about 1,500 blocks. The rural compost production reported for 1960-61 works out to about 83 million tons against the agreed total target of 150 million tons for the Third Plan.3

NIGHT SOIL COMPOST

Under the night soil composting scheme for the bigger panchayats and smaller villages (with population ranging from 2,000 to 4,000), loan assistance was

85 extended at a maximum of ` 3,600 for the Panchayats having no conservancy arrangements and ` 2,000 for those having such arrangements. A subsidy of 25 per cent of the recurring costs was also offered. During the Second Plant, this scheme was taken up in about 1,200 bigger Panchayats and about 350 smaller villages.

During the Third Plan, no separate targets for extension of this scheme have been fixed for the States but a separate financial provision of about ` 89 lakhs figures in their programme for this purpose has been made.4

URBAN COMPOST

A scheme for the preparation of compost from city wastes, like garbage, nigh soil, sewage, sludge, slaughterhouse wastes, was sponsored as early as 1943-44 by the Indian Council Agricultural Research. Legislation has since been passed in some of the States making it obligatory on the part of the municipal committees to compost ll refuse wastes within their jurisdiction. The scheme on town composting now constitutes an important activity of the increased agricultural production programme. Both loans and subsidies are being to State Governments from the

Center for equipping the Municipalities with necessary transport needed for production and distribution of compost manure. The target of compost production by the end of the Second Plan was three million tons and the actual achievement has been reported to about 2.7 million tons. In the third Plan, a financial allocation of

180 lakhs has been made and it is programmed to cover all the urban centers (about

3,000) in the country to achieve production of town compost to its potential capacity of about five million tonnes.5

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GREEN MANURES

Green manure has become popular. In 1960-61, the total area green manure was estimated at 116 million acres. A financial provision of ` 105 lakhs has been made to achieve this objective.

FERTILIZERS

The consumption level of chemical fertilizers, which was very low about

10 years ago (only 55,000 tons of nitrogen were used), in terms of N, it was 1.05 lakhs tons and it was envisaged to rise this figure to about 5 lakhs tons in 1960-61.

The production and imports have fallen short of demand, and therefore, steps are being taken to set up a number of fertilizer factories under the Third Five Year Plan.

The consumption of phosphatic fertilizers (in terms of P2O2) has also increased from seven thousand tons in 1950-51 to 70 thousand tons in 1960-61. About 30 to

35 thousand tons of bone meal also being used annually.

VARIOUS TYPES OF FERTILIZERS

Farmers who have reaped profits from fertilizer use have realized that these plant food carriers have come to stay in their manuring schedule for increased agricultural production. Others who have yet to realize their bearing on production should be trained on proper fertilizer use through education and scientific demonstrations.

BALANCED FERTILIZERS

As compared with leading agricultural countries of the world, the acre yields in India are from one-third to one-sixth; thus, indicating scope for increasing the

87 yield with the improvement of soil fertility and other improved practices. The consumption of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash per acre in India is insignificant and highly unbalanced as compared to that of some of the progressive countries in the world. This is illustrated in Table 3.13

Table-3.13 The consumption of Nitrogen, Phosphoric acid and Potash in India and other countries (per acre)

Country N P2o5 K2o Total India 1.43 0.22 0.07 1.72 West Germany 36 38 62 136 Belgium 50 49 79 178 Netherlands 81 43 57 181 Japan 100 44 64 208

Source: Agricultural Production Manual, Government of India.

The above table has furnished the particulars about the consumption of

Nitrogen, Phosphoric acid and Potash in India and other countries the consumption of above fertilizers is very high in Japan and it has been using 208 kg per acre,

Netherlands has been using 181 kg, Belgium uses 178 kg, West Germany uses 136 kg and India uses only 1.72 kg Per acre. It clearly reveals Indian farmers are using less chemical fertilizers. This low uses fertilizers is due to poor condition of farmers and high price of fertilizers. It interesting to note that Indian farmers have been using lesser amount Nitrogen, Phosphoric acid and Potash compared to other countries.

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The necessity of adding plant nutrients, other than nitrogen alone, for balanced fertilization has arisen for two reason : (a) the need for both nitrogen and phosphoric acid and to some extent for potash in increasing agricultural production has been demonstrated; (b) the increased production by supplementing local manorial resources with nitrogenous fertilizers alone removes also the increased quantities of phosphoric acid and potash from soil and ultimately develops conditions where the soil content of these two elements is reduced to a level that becomes limiting to crop growth. As a result, the plants fail to respond profitable to further nitrogen fertilization unless provision is made also for other primary elements.

MIXED FERTILIZERS

The primary elements, either as individual ingredients or in the form of fertilizer mixture, may be applied to the soil. However, there is a growing tendency in the country to supply fertilizer mixtures to farmers on a prescription basis, according to their soil and crop needs. Certain ratios and grades are used generally for fertilization of various classes of soils and crops.

The common procedure adopted in the country in preparing fertilizer mixtures is to mix together a part of the total nitrogen and all the phosphatic and potassic materials. The remaining nitrogen is used as top-dressing when crops have developed their root systems. In cases where potash needs for some soils and crops have been demonstrated and where split applications of potash have given better results, a part of the potash may be included in fertilizer mixtures and the rest applied as top-dressing.

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FERTILIZER GRADE

A fertilizer grade indicates the percentage of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in a mixture. For instance, fertilizer grades of 8-8-8 and 9-9-0 indicate that the former contains 8 percent, each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash; while the latter contains 9 percent, each of nitrogen and phosphoric acid and no potash.

FERTILIZER MIXTURE OF A PARTICULAR GRADE

Fertilizer grade of 8-8-8 to be prepared with ammonium sulphate and urea

(2% nitrogen from urea and 6% from ammonium sulphate), superphosphate, and sulphate of potash will required 586, 89, 1000 and 320 lb, respectively, of the aforementioned raw materials. Thus, the total quality comes to 1995 lb. the balance of 5 lb. To make a ton of 8-8-8 grade may come from such make weight materials called filters as sand, saw-dust, dolomitic limestone, oilcakes, etc. in the preparation of fertilizer mixture by hand mixing the raw materials weighed in correct quantities are spread out on the floor in layers, the bulkier materials being put near or at the bottom. The materials are then worked with a shovel, leveled, a sufficient number of times to ensure thorough mixing.6

It is essential to see that the fertilizer mixtures contain as much plant food as practicable and that little or no filler is used. With their superphosphate containing only 16 percent phosphoric acid, high-analysis fertilizer grades are not possible.

However, in the not too distant future with the manufacture of treble superphosphate in our country, this limitation may be overcome. A high-analysis fertilizer mixture costs less to the farmers. When filler is necessary, it should consist

90 of dolomite, gypsum, or some other useful material, or a soil amendment or fertilizer conditioner rather than useful material.

On the basis of the results of their trials and experiments, almost all the

States have developed fertilizer grades for different soils and crops. These are available in the market through cooperative marketing societies and private dealers.

A minimum number of grade, which contains maximum plant food and meets the needs of largest number of soils and crops, should be the goal. This will also ensure satisfactory and efficient testing of fertilizer samples for quality control. The grade indicates to farmers as to how much of the mixture they have to use to meet the

State recommendations.

Nitrogenous fertilizers available for sale to the farmers are ammonium sulphate, ammonium sulphate nitrate, ammonium chloride, urea, calcium ammonium nitrate, and ammonium phosphate. Calcium ammonium nitrate contains half nitrogen in ammonium form and half in nitrate form; ammonium sulphate nitrate contains one-fourth nitrogen in nitrate form and three-fourths in ammonium form. Ammonium phosphate contains both nitrogen and phosphoric acid.

Ammonium form of nitrogen is absorbed by soil and protected against leaching by rains or irrigations. In a moist, warm and well-aerated soil it is rapidly transformed to nitrate, the form in which most crops absorb it. But nitrate is not absorbed by soil and is really lost by leaching. Under waterlogged conditions ammonium form of nitrogen is stable but the nitrate form is reduced to nitrate and finally to gaseous or elementary nitrogen. This explains why ammonium form of nitrogen is recommended for wetland paddy.

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Urea is a concentrated form of nitrogen material and contains about 43-45 percent nitrogen. It is not absorbed by soil and is subject to loss by leaching.

However, in moist and warm soil it is converted to ammonium carbonate in 2-3 days and family to nitrate. Hence, when urea has to be applied as basal dose to wet- land paddy, soils with medium to slow internal drainage should be irrigated within

2-3 days following urea application and immediately puddle for transplanting paddy, so as to avoid accumulation and loss of nitrate; soils with good to high internal drainage may receive urea conditions the timing of urea application with good to high internal drainage may receive urea during puddling and just before transplanting. Under rain-fed conditions the timing of urea application with rainfall beyond control and hence soils with medium to slow internal drainage may receive urea at the time of puddling, although effectiveness is slightly lowered.

Nitrogenous fertilizers being most mobile and subject to loss by leaching, their application is made in split doses for efficient utiliszation and maximum response. When required in small quantify, all the nitrogen may be used as top- dressing. When large quantities are to be used, a part of the nitrogen may be applied as basal dose and the rest as top-dressing and thoroughly mixed and then followed immediately by irrigation and puddling for transplanting. For other crops basal dressing of these fertilizers including urea is made when final tillage operations for sowing are done or, better still, 10-20 lb. nitrogen preferably from non-hygroscopic nitrogenous fertilizers excluding urea may be mixed with wheat or directly sown paddy seeds, and dibbled behind the plough or sown through the drilling tube. The higher lose for mixing with seeds for soils medium to heavy in texture or in organic

92 matter. Quite a number of farmers in irrigated belts of Northern Indian mix about 50 lb. of ammonium sulphate an acre (10 lb. nitrogen) with wheat seeds and sow the mixture through a drilling tube. This practice makes more efficient use of nitrogen.

Urea causes injury to germinating seeds or young seedlings and hence is not recommended for contact application with seeds.

Top dressing refers to fertilizer application on standing crops seasonal, annual, or perennial, and may be done with all forms of nitrogenous fertilizers including urea already described. Application to seasonal crops starts 3-4 weeks before flowering to obtain maximum effects on seed formation. When application is done over standing seasonal crops of cereals, millets, jute, etc., leaves should be dry and damp fertilizers mixed with some dry soil, so as to avoid leaf burning.

On row seasonal crops of vegetables, tobacco and other similar crops fertilizers may be broadcast on the rows but below foliage level or placed near crops at least 4 inches away from plants to avoid root damage. On widely spaced perennial plantation application may be made over the trees within one to two feet belt of soil starting from the outer perimeter to canopy and ending at least one to two feet away from the trunk.

Ammonium chloride is not recommended for tobacco, citrus, and white potatoes because of its chlorine content that reduces the quality of these crops. Soils which are highly acidic respond better to calcium ammonium nitrate, urea and ammonium phosphate that to ammonium chloride and sulphate. Chloride and sulphate forms of ammonium have rather adverse effects on crop growth on highly acid soils (pH 4.8-5.0) of North Bengal unless sol acidity is conditioned or corrected

93 by liming. On soils having sulphate injury to crops, nitrogen fertilizers with sulphate radical should be avoided. The same is true of potassic and phosphoric fertilizers, which carry sulphate radical. On alkaline soils rich in calcium create phosphate problem, since phosphates react with the surface of calcium carbonate particles and crops utilize them less rapidly. However, calcium ammonium nitrate has been as efficient as ammonium sulphate on wetland paddy when applied as top- dressing. When nitrogen hunger is detected on standing crops, it can be corrected by soil application of fertilizers. The nitrate form gives quicker results.

PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZERS

The phosphatic fertilizers used by the farmers are bone meal, hyper phosphate, and superphosphate and ammonium phosphate. Bone meal resources in the country are, however, limited and only 30,000-35,000 tons are consumed annually. Only 1500-2000 tons of hyper phosphate are imported annually from

French North Africa for Kerala. Annual availability of ammonium phosphate is

16,000 tons; this is consumed source of phosphate supply to their soils.

Both bone meal and hyper phosphate are insoluble forms of phosphates, the former is derived from animal bones and the latter from natural rock phosphate deposits. Hyper phosphate is ground rock phosphate with fineness of 300 mesh and contains about 30 per cent total phosphoric acid. In bone meal and hyper phosphate both total phosphorus and particle fineness determine their quality and availability.

Superphosphate produced in the country is powdery and contains about 16 per cent water-soluble phosphoric acid.

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Bone meal and hyper phosphate are recommended for acid soils and are to be broadcast over the field and thoroughly mixed. The same is true with regard to the method of application of dicalcium phosphate. The higher the acidity, the better and quicker are the results.

Soils, soluble or exchangeable iron, aluminium and manganese, which increase with increasing acidity, make water-soluble phosphates like super phosphate and ammonium phosphate less available to crops. However ammonium phosphate, because of its granular size, is more effective on highly acid soils than is superphosphate. Laterites and red loams rich in iron and aluminium oxides fix soluble added phosphates and reduce their availability to crops. In alkaline soils calcium carbonate particles decrease phosphate availability; on these soils phosphates with a high degree of water solubility such as superphosphate and ammonium phosphate have been superior to the less soluble ones like bone meal, hyper-phosphate, and dicalcium phosphate. Ammonium phosphate appears to be able to penetrate the soil for greater distances than the soluble portion of super phosphates, and does well on irrigated calcareous soils. Soils that are neither too acidic nor too alkaline and have pH in the range of 6.0 to 7.0, respond better to superphosphate or ammonium phosphate fertilization and maintain maximum phosphate availability.

Measures needed to influence maximization of response by crops to superphosphate fertilization are: adjustment of soil reaction to the pH range of minimum fixation, that is, maximum availability; use of granular instead of powdery form to reduce surface contact with the soil; band placement and

95 application at planting time; addition of fresh crop residues and green manures before field application.

Soil reaction influences the availability of phosphates more than that of any other nutrient elements. The pH range of 6.0 to 7.0, which has the maximum availability of soil or added phosphates, is also the optimum availability of almost all micronutrients. This is also the range which most of the crops people grow require for their optimum growth.

Superphosphate is available in the country is powdery form and lacks the property of granules to reduce surface contact with soil. Therefore, for efficient performance it is necessary to produce it in granular form.

Large-scale band placement and application at planting time will depend upon suitable bullock-drawn seed-cum-fertilizer drill but this is yet to come to the farmers. Unfortunately, progress in this field has been very slow. However, with ammonium phosphate an amount of 50-100 lb. of this fertilizer per acre may be mixed with seeds and sown in lines. The powdery form of superphosphate availability available in the country may also be mixed with seeds and sown in lines but it is better to work out the safe dose for mixing, although an amount of 100-125 lb. per acre mixed with wheat grains has been found satisfactory with little or no injury to seed germination in demonstrations carried out in Delhi. However, seed- superphosphate mixture because of its tendency to form lumps may not flow freely through the seed drill and may have to be sown behind the plough.

Application to the soil of fresh crop residues, including green manure, crops, increases the availability of phosphates of both fixed and native forms, as well as of

96 added phosphates. It is interesting to note that South India, which leads in green manure, used in 1961-62 about 50 per cent of the total phosphoric acid consumed in the entire country for agricultural crops, excluding tea, coffee and rubber. The four states, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Madras and Mysore accounted for nearly 45 per cent of the total nitrogen consumed in the whole country.

The mixing of superphosphate with organic manures before, field application has a much wider scope of use, since organic manures. Such as compost and farmyard manure, are common sources of plant - food carriers used by the farmers all over the country. Hence, incorporation of sulpher phosphate with them will not offer any practical problem.

Lack of response from superphosphate in highly acid soil regions, which lack available phosphates, indicates that the dosage and the technique of application used have not suited the soil characteristics. Liming, fresh crop residues and green manures, and superphosphate mixing with organic manures in those regions and also the last two practices elsewhere are measures which farmers should adopt to obtain better response from superphosphate application. Several areas, identified by their past trials and demonstrations conducted by the I.C.A.R. and State

Governments, which have given a profitable response to superphosphate, should intensity drive to increase consumption of superphosphate.

Information on the natural occurrence of large-scale commercial deposits of potassium salts in the country is not available. Almost all the potassic fertilizers needed for agricultural purpose are imported from Europe and comprise muriate of potash and sulphate of potash. Both forms are water soluble.

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In 1961-62, the total consumption of potassic fertilizers was 52,534 tons; of this, murate of potash constituted about 88 per cent. Potassium in the form of sulphate is used on tobacco for improved crop quality. Other crops for which non- chloride forms are preferred include citrus and white potatoes.

Potassium is absorbed by soil and stands against leaching. The amount adsorbed is held in an exchangeable form for crop use but not in a form that makes phosphate unavailable to crops. It is somewhat more mobile in soil than phosphate but less mobile than nitrogenous fertilizers. Mobility is greater in light-textured soils. Potassic fertilizers, like phosphatic fertilizers, are to be used as basal dose at the time of final tillage operations for sowing, or sometimes in split doses-partly as bsal and partly as top-dressing-especially on highly permeable soils and in high rainfall areas.

Potassic fertilizers may be mixed with seeds and sown in lines. But the safe does for mixing is 10-20 lb. potash (K2O) per acre. When both nitrogenous and potassic fertilizers are to be used for mixing with seeds for sowing, the dose of one or both in terms of nitrogen (N) and potash (K2O) should not exceed 10-20 lb. an acre. Larger doses of these fertilizers are more toxic to germinating and young seedlings than carriers of phosphoric acid (P2O5).

SECONDARY ELEMENTS

Sulphur, calcium, and magnesium constitute the secondary elements. Many of the fertilizers containing primary elements: nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, also carry some of the secondary elements. For instance, superphosphate contains calcium and sulphur in addition to phosphate; ammonium sulphate both nitrogen

98 and sulphur, and sulphate of potash, sulphur and potassium. Use of lime stones in acid soils is a source of calcium, and gypsum in alkaline soils a source of both calcium and sulphur. When dolomitic limestone is used, it supplies both calcium and magnesium. Rainwater is a source of sulphur to soil. Hence secondary elements should be added when their needs have been demonstrated.

MINOR ELEMENTS

These are required in traces but are as important as the major elements for some soils and crops. Much work has not been done in this field in our country.

However, reports of minor elements deficiencies from acid and alkaline soils have been forthcoming. Horticulture crops are more sensitive to minor elements deficiencies than our common cultivated field crops. Deficient levels of available minor elements may cause considerable reduction in yields or complete failures of horticultural crops.

Boron deficiency is widespread in highly acidic soils in the country and molybdenum deficiency of cauliflower also has been recorded on some of those soils. Boron deficiency in alkaline soils had also been reported from some parts of the country. Copper and zinc deficiencies of citrus are common in acid and alkaline soils and also and manganese deficiencies on the latter soils. Without having any visual symptoms of deficiency, crops like groundnut and cereals, and fodders like berseem and lucere have given increased yields on application of boron and some other minor elements.

Immediate attention to diagnose and correct minor elements deficiencies is required in intensive vegetable-and-fruit-growing areas of the country. The amount

99 needed is small and the cost also is small. But increased yields obtained by the use of minor elements on horticultural crops grown on deficiencies on acid soils can be corrected either by soil application or spraying and on acid on alkaline soils mainly by spraying. Spraying gives quicker results. In case of soils application, quantities of minor elements required being, small, they should be mixed with some suitable non-alkaline bulky materials for yield application. They should be used only when their need has been demonstrated for the soil and crop.

FERTILIZERS AND SOIL MOISTURE

Effective and profitable response from fertilizers depends upon continuous and assured supply of adequate soil moisture. Hence irrigated and assured rainfall regions in the country hold the greatest promise to use fertilizers in increasing quantities to enhance agricultural production. Irrigation without adequately enhancing soils’ fertility impoverishers soils faster in its existing nutrients and may eventually reduce yields. Cropping intensity also is limited by impoverished soil fertility. Hence, in such regions fertilizers will play an important role towards increasing acreage under crops and to obtain more yields.

In dry farming areas in semi-arid and sub-humid regions of the country, crop production is curtailed more often by limited moisture, or periodically by inadequate levels of nitrogen. In these areas nitrogen seems to be the element limiting production. Therefore, there is scope for balancing fertility with available soil moisture. Under limited soil moisture supply in these regions, fertilizers will be more effective than organic manures. Additional nitrogen, 10 lb. per acre, may often improve crop yields, though there may be risks during dry years-not so much with

100 fodder crops as with the grains. In the arid regions in Rajasthan West, and parts of southern Punjab and Gujarat, rainfall is too low and the use of either manures or fertilizers is a risk that can hardly be taken.

ORGANIC MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

Availability of nitrogen in organic manures depends on their carbon-nitrogen ratio. The narrower the ratio, the greater is the availability. Protein organics release their nitrogen more readily and rapidly than that released by bulky non-protein organic manures.

Organic manures decompose and mineralize in soil and produce salts of ammonium and nitrates, phosphates and potassium, etc., for mineral nutrition of plants. Moisture, temperature and reaction of soil influence their decomposition, which is fast in a soil that is warm, well, aerated, and adequately supplied with bases.

The average availability of nitrogen under normal conditions rated for organic manures is 75 per cent for protein organic and 50 per cent for non protein organics; and considerable residual effects are left in the soil for succeeding crops.

Fertilizers carry plant-food in readily available and concentrated forms. Soils and method of application influence their availability. Loams and clay soils stand single application of larger doses of fertilizer better than sandy soils or soils with low action exchange capacity.

All nitrogenous fertilizers are water-soluble and are maintained in the soil in available forms. Citrate-soluble but rather water-insoluble phosphatic fertilizers,

101 generally meant for acid soils, react with soil acidity and gradually becomes available to crops. Water-soluble potassic or phosphatic fertilizers are held by soil partly in fixed forms and partly in exchangeable or available forms. The fixed form of potassium differs from that of phosphate. The former, unlike the latter, is readily convertible to exchangeable potassium for crop use.

Under normal conditions recovery by crops of added primary nutrient elements of fertilizers in the year of application may be 65-75 per cent for nitrogen

(N), below 20 per cent for phosphoric acid (P2O5), and 40-65 per cent for potash

(K2O). Residual effects are largest with phosphatic fertilizers, considerable with potassic, and least with nitrogenous. Hence, there is build-up of soil fertility in phosphate and potash through fertilization. Periodic tests of soil samples from cultivators’ fields will indicate adjustments that may be necessary in the fertilizing schedule of farmers in course of time.

The most important amongst the primary nutrients, nitrogen, encourages the vegetative development of the plant and is responsible for the green coloration of the stems and leaves. Only when stems are healthy, the utilization of other two primary nutrients such as phosphorus and potassium is possible. Nitrogen deficiency in the plants exhibits itself in the yellow colour of the leaves. Moreover, there is stunted growth of the plants resulting in a very low yield of grains, oil- seeds, etc. Excessive supply of nitrogen results in luxuriant vegetative growth, which may result in lodging of the crop. This affects adversely the net yield.

Moreover, it might delay the ripening of the crop and increase its susceptibilities to

102 disease. Nitrogen, therefore, should be applied in correct quantities required by the specific crops.

PHOSPHORUS

Phosphorus is responsible for the growth of the plant encouraging the formation of new plant cells. It promotes root growth, helps in emergence of fruit pods, formation of grain, etc. it increases plant resistance to disease and pests and strengthens the stem of the cereal crops. Phosphorus in combination with nitrogen ensures a more balanced growth of plant. In the case of leguminous crops, it encourages the development of nitrogen-fixing module bacteria. Phosphorus deficiently exhibits itself in stunted growth of the plant and by reddish and purplish discoloration of the stems. Phosphoric fertilizers are available in the form of superphosphates. However, complex fertilizers have also started coming in the market recently.

POTASSIUM

Potassium, like nitrogen and phosphorus plays an important role in crop development. It increases the resistance of the crop against variable weather conditions. It also helps prevention of crop diseases and pests. In crops like sugarcane and potato, it helps in formation of carbohydrates. Excessive potassium, however, tends to delay the maturation of the crop. Potassium is available in the form of muriate of potash, which is imported from foreign countries.

In order to use fertilizers efficiently, the participating farmers must be explained carefully:

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 What fertilizers should be applied to a particular crop?

 How much fertilizer should be applied?

 How this fertilizer should be applied?

 When this fertilizer should be applied?

Only then would it be possible to reap the optimum benefit from these costly inputs. It is true that these questions are complex in nature and depends upon the physical and biological characteristics of the soils, which vary so much sometimes even at a small distance. To determine what fertilizers should be applied to the various crops, it will be necessary to know what should the nutrient removal of these crops in the Indian situation.

MANURE AND GREEN FERTILIZERS

In view of the acute shortage of chemical fertilizers, the production targets laid down appear to be difficult of achievement. Efforts have to be made to use available resources of manures and green fertilizers. Efforts have to be made to use available resources of manures and green fertilizers. Farmyard manure is an important source of nutrients to the soil. It is chiefly made of cattle dung and the bedding provided for them, which sucks the cattle urine. It is estimated one head of cattle given 35 kg of N, 12 kg of P2O5 and 5 kg of K2O per annum. Similarly, one sheep can produce 25 kg of N, 50 kg of P2O5 and 15 kg of K2O per annum. There are 41 million sheep in this country, it may, therefore, be realized how much of their manorial resources are being wasted at present. Programmes have to be charted for fuller utilization of farmyard manure and to reduce the quantity used for the purpose

104 of fuel as far as possible. Some states have adopted the system of Gobar gas to meet the fuel requirements of an average family, besides giving sufficient quantities of fertilizers for one acre of land per cattle. If it is realized that there is going to be serious global shortage of fertilizers due to the present energy crisis, the suggestions with regard to the use of farmyard manure and green manuring offer alternatives to chemical fertilizers to prevent starvation of the soil resulting in low productivity.

The authorities in their own area will have to implement schemes for making farmyard manure under the expert guidance of its staff. There is a need for strict supervision of the work, i.e., digging compost pits, utilization of cattle dung for purpose of fuel gas making plants, etc., as the figures generally reported have no relation with actual achievements. They will also have to ensure that the scientific methods are adopted by the participating farmers to avoid wastage occurring due to loss of cattle urine and other organic matter. In the present economic situation prevailing in the countryside, the use of dung as fuel is by and large unavoidable.

Till such time an organized attempt is made to supply coal or other fuel foods in the villages, the authorities should recommend use of maize studs or Rahar sticks for the purpose of fuel for which there is not likely to be much shortage.

EFFECT OF MANURE

Cattle manure is very valuable as fertilizer for increasing agricultural productivity. It has, though in small quantities, all the ingredients of plant food including the trace elements. The nitrogen in manure is largely in insoluble form but is released gradually in the form of nitrates by action of soil organism. This is, however, a slow process, which may not complete in one crop season. The manure,

105 therefore, has a residuary effect increases the capacity of the soil to retain moisture and use of chemical fertilizer for plant growth.

By the nature of things, it is not possible to fertilize all the plots with manure as the quantity available is much less than their requirements. Moreover, it would be uneconomic to transport large quantities of organic manure to the distant fields to the quantities required for optimum productivity. It is, therefore, suggested that manure should be used only for valuable crops and in rotation in other fields, if sufficient quantities are otherwise available. Manures, no doubt, add to our fertilizer resources, but singly they cannot meet the entire requirement for modernized crops.

They should be used, therefore, in combination with chemical fertilizers and green manure.

GREEN MANURE

Some time ago, great emphasis was being laid on green manure of the agricultural fields, but the results achieved so far have not been spectacular. There are obvious limitations of a massive programme of green manure, which exclude more than 70 per cent of the cropped area. However, in areas where water is available in abundance, green manure can be conveniently adopted as cheap method of fertilization of lands, under conditions:

 The green manure should be capable of being fitted in the existing crop

rotation. It should be capable of making quick growth within a limited period.

 The green manure crop should be capable of producing plenty of foliage and

should be free from thick stems. Its decomposition in the soil should be easy.

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 The green manure crop should be leguminous one, which would help in

nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere.

 Green manure crop should be cheap and the cost of cultivation should be low.

Dhaincha, cow-peas, red-gram, sunhemp are considered to be satisfactory crops for green manure. The authorities shall have to plan carefully for a programme of green manure: the requirement of seed, its distribution, availability of irrigation at the time of sowing and enough water for its decomposition a few days before transplantation of paddy. In view of the shortage of chemical fertilizers and the forecast that the gap between the supply and demand is likely to widen further, the authorities shall have to make use of green manure as an alternative or in addition to reduced doses of chemical fertilizers.

The experts of the Authority should take into account the contribution of green manure on this basis before recommending further doses of chemical fertilizers for the crop sown by the farmers.

It may be noted that the productive capacity of the land is influenced by the following important factors affecting the condition of the soil:

 The inherent capacity of the soil to supply plant nutrients.

 The physical condition of the soil.

 The activity of the soil micro-organisms.

 Moisture in the soil contributed by rains and irrigation.

 The inhibitory factors such as acidity, alkalinity or stagnation of water, etc.

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It is, therefore important that these factors are taken into consideration before a recommendation is made to the participating farmers. The inherent capacity of the soil to supply nutrients is strengthened very much by the green manures. They also improve the physical condition of the soil and its water retention properties.

In many soils the rate of removal of plant nutrients by crop uptake, leaching and de nitrification is well in excess on nutrient release by weathering and mineralization. A negative nutrient balance thus results unless nutrients are applied in the form of fertilizers or manures to make up the difference. Generally, the more intensive the cropping system and the higher the yields, the greater must be the amounts of nutrients applied to the soil in order to maintain soil fertility. For most soils the use of inorganic fertilizers is almost essential and a wide range of fertilizers of different grades and nutrient ratios are now marketed.

Fertilizers contain those nutrients such as N, P and K that are rapidly taken up and required in high quantities by crops. Nitrogen is mainly given in the from of nitrate, ammonium or urea. More specialized fertilizers contain nitrogen in a more insoluble form, such as urea formaldehyde and isobutylidene urea. These forms are slow release nitrogen sources, phosphorus fertilizers generally contain P mainly in the form of phosphate. In a small number of phosphate fertilizers P is present as polyphosphates. An important criterium of P-fertilizers is solubility. Super- phosphate for example is very soluble in water; ground rock phosphates, on the other are insoluble in water. Potassium is applied to soils mainly in the chloride or sulphate forms. Potassium nitrate and potassium polyphosphate plays only a minor role. Sulphur fertilizers can be obtained in the form of sulphate in ammonium,

108 superphosphate and potassium sulphate. In addition to supplying S, these fertilizers are also a source of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium respectively. Calcium and magnesium are applied as sulphates or in the form of carbonates or oxides. These two letter compounds have an alkaline reaction and are thus mainly used to increase soil pH.

Although most inorganic fertilizers, such as ammonium sulphate, calcium nitrate or potassium chlorite, are salts, which are neutral in reaction, they can affect soil pH by their physiological reaction. Nitrates, when assimilated (reduced)

– – by plant roots or microorganisms, yield one OH–(HCO3 ) for every NO3 reduced.

– A portion of this OH–(HCO3 ) is released into the root medium and thus increases its pH value. For this reasons nitrate fertilizers are known to be physiologically

+ – alkaline. For NH the reverse is true. The uptake of NH4 N results in the release of

H+. Ammonium fertilizers, such as ammonium sulphate therefore have a physiological acid reaction. The potassium fertilizers, potassium chloride and potassium sulphate, tend to be neutral in reaction.

Fertilizers containing only one of the three most important plant nutrients, nitrogen, phosphors or potassium, are called straight fertilizers. Typical examples of this group are super phosphate (P), muriate of potash (K), ammonium nitrate (N) and a mixture of ammonium nitrate with calcium carbonate (n), called “nitro- chalk”. Compound and mixed fertilizers contain two or three of the main plant nutrients N, P and K. NPK–fertilizers very commonly differ in their NPK-ratio. An

NPK compound 15-15015, for example, means that the ratio of N : P2O5:K2O is equal to 1:1:1 and that the concentration (grate) of these plant nutrients in the

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compound is 15% N, 15% P2O5 and 15% K2O. As this example shows, the nutrient content of straight and compound fertilizers is generally expressed in terms of

% P2O5 and % K2O and not as percentage of the element.

ORGANIC MANURES AND CROP RESIDUES

Organic manures mainly originate from the wastes and residues of plant and animal life. They are rich in water and carbon compounds but are usually comparatively poor in plant nutrients. One of the most important organic manures is farmyard manure (FYM). This is a mixture of partially decomposed straw containing fasces and urine. In recent years there has been a decline in its use as modern methods of livestock management tend to use little or no straw for bedding, the basis of FYM. The production of livestock slurries has thus increased.

The nutrient content of slurries is often difficult to assess, since slurries, can differ considerably in water content. For this reason Vetter and Klasink (1977)7 have proposed a calculation for the amount of plant nutrients ‘produced’ by farm animals on the basis of animal number. In this calculation 1 cow or 7 adult pigs or

100 hens are considered as one ‘animal manure unit’. The unit is such that each animal group ‘produces’ about the same amount of plant nutrients. It can be seen that the quantity of nitrogen ‘produced’ by one unit is about the same for the three animal groups, but there are differences for K, P and Mg resulting from the type of food fed to the animals. Roughages and green fodder are rich in K and thus these materials give rise to relatively high K contents in slurries. On the other hand cereals are rich in P, and since they are fed to hens and pigs in relatively high amounts, the slurries of these animals have a high P concentration. In areas of

110 intensive animal husbandry huge amounts of manure are produced, which may lead to over fertilization of soils and thus result in pollution problems.

MANURES AND COMPOSTS

Farmyard manures constitute the common source of manure all over the country. A farmer with a five-acre holding, a pair of draught animals and a milk cow or buffalo may expect an animal production of about 16 tons of raw manures at the rate of 30 lb. a day per animal. At present, at least half of it goes for fuel and the remaining half on decomposition gives about 50 percent mature manure. In other words, about four tons of well-rotted manures will be available annually from three farm animals.

Every ton manure may contain about 8 lb. nitrogen, 3 lb. phosphoric acid and

8 lb. potash-half of nitrogen (4 lb.), one-sixth of phosphoric acid (about 0.66 lb.), and a little more than half of potash (about 4 lb), being readily available to the crops in the year of application. Thus, four tons of mature farmyard manure can supply available plant-food of only 16 lb. nitrogen, 2.6 lb. phosphoric acid, and 16 lb. of potash to the crops to which it is applied. This quantity of primary nutrient elements is too inadequate for five acres of land. It can at best moderately manure an acre for cropping not more than once in a year and that too for cereals but not for vegetables and other high acre-value crops.

Our efforts to discourage farmers from burning cow dung as fuel will fail until a readily available and cheap source of fuel, or still better, production of quick- growing fuel trees on waste lands and common village lands, comes as a substitute that may appeal to the farmers. The cow dung gas-plant, preferably on community

111 basis, holds promise for providing domestic fuel; and at the same time saving the dung for manure. Cow dung now burnt as fuel has the potentiality of increasing agricultural production by at least 25 to 50 per cent or more, and the net grains from this increased agricultural production will more than pay for the fuel that may be purchased from outside or produced on a part of the waste or common village lands.

The quality of farmyard manure is variable. Addition of house-hold ash to the manure pits, quite a common practice in the country, should be discouraged, since it tends to liberate ammonia gas, the principal nutrient of manures, to escape into the atmosphere. It also tends to decrease the availability of phosphate in manure. Likewise, allowing farmyard manure to get too dry before field application should be avoided, as this process causes loss of ammonia.

Rural composts constitute other local manorial resources, but their preparation is not as universal as that of farmyard manure. Only the resourceful among the farmers have been producing such composts but their number is very limited. Whatever refuse from household or cattle-shed is available goes to the manure pits and adds to the bulk of farmyard manure. Urban composts are consumed within a radius of a few miles from the centers of production and hence are not expected to contribute to the improvement of soil fertility in the rural areas.

Bulky organic manures are invariably used as basal dressings during preparatory tillage operations. For wet-land paddy they should be broadcast over the field and mixed before pudding and transplanting, otherwise, nitrates will accumulate and may be subsequently lost by leaching, reduction, and de nitrification. For other crops their field application may be made a week or month

112 earlier before sowing or before growth commences as in the case of perennial plantations, or just before sowing. In humid regions subject to severe leaching process, it is better to apply such manures during final tillage operations for sowing especially for monsoon crops.

Bulky organic manures are unbalanced plant-food carriers especially with regard to their phosphate content. Hence they need to be supplement by suitable phosphatic fertilizers.

MANURE

Green manure is the practice of growing a crop and plough it in green to benefit a companion or succeeding crop. It also refers to adding to and plough in under soil any green leaf or green crop not growth in site. This is widely practiced in South India. Legumes are recommended for growing since they fix atmospheric nitrogen and also improve soil structure.

Seventy-nine million pounds of atmospheric nitrogen or 0.2 million tons equivalent ammonium sulphate occur over acre of land. Legumes can use this nitrogen with the help of microscope soil organisms known as Rhizobia and respond to phosphatic fertilizers. The amount of nitrogen added by green manure depends on the kind of legume grown and the amount of growth ploughed in one ton of green manure on fresh-weight basis may be expected to add about 0.5-0.7 per cent nitrogen, 0.1-0.2 per cent phosphoric acid and 0.6-0.8 per cent potash.

Availability of chemical fertilizers, increasing with every five year plan, should in no way makes us relax their efforts towards popularizing and extending

113 green manure in irrigated and assured rainfall areas which constitute more than 135 million acres and have the greatest potentialities for adopting this practice. The

Third Five Year Plan target of one million tons of chemical nitrogen when projected against the rate of 20 lb. nitrogen per acre is too inadequate to cover more than since vegetables, sugarcane per acre is too inadequate to cover more than since vegetables, sugarcane and other high acre-value commercial crops will consume more nitrogen per acre.

Hence the Third five Year Plant target figure of 41 million acres for green manure for the whole country must be achieved. Green manuring is the cheapest and widest method of enriching soil nitrogen and should be encouraged. No crop seasons has to be lost to farmers’ disadvantage since green manure crops suitable for different soil and climatic regions benefit companion crops like sugarcane, cotton, and perennial plantations as well as succeeding crops like paddy, wheat, potatoes, and vegetables.

Wet-land paddy prefers the ammonium form of nitrogen. Thus, handling of green manure for this paddy will differ from the practice recommended for other crops. On wet-land paddy, green manure crop should be allowed to undergo anaerobic rather than aerobic decompositions so as to void nitrification and subsequent loss of nitrogen by reduction and de nitrification. Fields should be flooded within a couple of days trampled or laddered and buried in standing water.

Paddy transplanting can start within a week of plough under the green manure crop without any unfavourable results. For other crops, green manures should be ploughed a fortnight or so before sowing.

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Legumes draw nitrogen from air but they also draw other nutrients from the soil. Their efficiency to fix increasing quantities of nitrogen depends upon adequate levels of phosphate and potash being present in the soil. They have been found to respond largely to phosphate and potash being present in the soil. They have been found to respond largely to phosphate fertilization and in some cases to potash, especially in sandy or highly leached and acid soils. Starter nitrogen, 10-12 lb. per acre stimulates legume growth. Dry farming areas, covering 77 million acres, can also benefit from atmospheric nitrogen by including legumes in rotations or crop mixtures will enrich soil nitrogen, just sufficient to balance soil fertility with available soil moistures in dry farming regions, but this practice needs to be more rigorously and widely adopted.

MANURE POLICY

Indian would need a minimum of 6 million tonnes of nitrogen by 1985 for self-sufficiency in agricultural commodities. People would need nutrients not only for food crops but for all domesticated plants and for fish production. Research carried out under the All-India co-ordinate project on the co-relation between soil test values and response of crops to fertilizer. He shown how people can maximize the return from fertilizer application. Based on this data, Ramamoorthy and his colleagues have calculated that to produce the food and other and other products people may need, by 2000 A.D., a minimum of 4.60, 3.94 and 1.92 million tonnes of the nutrients N, P and K respectively.8

If people are to converse cow-dung and bones for manorial purpose, people should popularizes the widespread use of cow-dung gas plants and bone digesters. If

115 quick-growing fuel trees can be developed, the rural population will have to rely so heavily on co-dung for fuel. In addition to the use of all such wastes, the cultivation of pulse and green manure crops both as a pure and as an inter-crop in rotations in irrigated areas will be very helpful both to get more pulses and to fix more nitrogen biologically.

There is a superabundance of nitrogen in nature, with about 87,000 tonnes in the atmosphere above each hectare. The contribution of legumes to nitrogen fixation in the soil is highest in Australia and least in India. Of more than two thousand million hectares of meadows, pastures and rough grazing in Australia, much of it arid, about one hundred million hectares have been improved by introducing legumes like Trifolium substerraneum, inoculated bacteria and usually sown with superphosphate, and sometimes with lime and minor elements. In the United States also, legumes provide the largest amount of nitrogen for primary production, soybeans alone contributing approximately 1.4 million tonnes of nitrogen. People will do well to emulate these examples.

In contrast to India, where interest in organic recycling of all wastes has been generally poor in spite of Mahatma Gandhi’s efforts to focus attention on its importance, much attention has been paid to the conservation and use of all wastes including human excreta in China. Azolla Pinnata - a floating fern - in China supplies upto 100 tonnes per hect. In its 100 days growing period. As much as two third of all plant nutrients there are provided from organic samies.9

One would remember Third Uncle on this subject, which rendered him prolix, for he was always aware of the earth, the sowing and planting and reaping of

116 it; ‘Three things are necessary, water, earth and manure. Water from the sky, soil of the earth, and manure of man and animal; the excremental waste confirms the harmonious cycle of life, since out of waste comes renewal’. In an agricultural society dung has its function and natural dignity; and even today, one can become engrossed in the relative merits of ‘green lush’ or ‘brown gold’. Dhar of the Sheila

Dhar Institute of Soil Science at Allahabad goes so far to say that artificial fertilizer was no solution to permanent agriculture. A moisture of organic matter and phosphates, which fixes atmospheric nitrogen in the soil itself and can supply all plant nutrients, is highly suitable to permanent agriculture all over the world.

In Europe and North America also human waste recycling systems are now under development and alternative methods, which do not involve water to flush excreta, are rapidly being standardized. It is high time people also started seriously working on the development of efficient recycling and nutrient supply systems, which will lead to the proper maintenance of soil structure and fertility. A good deal of organizational effort will have to be made to tap the available organic sources which alone have a potential source of as much as 14.0 million tonnes of nitrogen.

Organic manures, important as they are not only to improve the fertility of the soil but also to add humus, cannot possibly meet the full requirements for replenishing the soils at higher levels of production envisaged under the new technology. The only rational approach under the circumstances would be that the farmer is taught to plan his farming practices to produce the maximum of farmyard manure and compost through a planning of crop rotations and green manure. He has

117 at the same time to be educated to make a proper use of chemical fertilizers to enable to country to achieve higher levels of production.

Chemical fertilizers play an important role in any scheme for boosting agricultural output. Indian soils are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus - two plant nutrients, which together with organic manures influence crop, out-turn. Of late, there is an increasing awareness among administrators, planners and most importantly, the farming community, that with population rising at a fast rate, there is a need for increasing the use of fertilizer.

Most fertilizer applied in soil from and is broadcast or in other words distributed uniformly on the soil. For soils of poor nutrient status the application of fertilizer in a row are and, can often yield better results. The same is true for soils, which strongly fix plant nutrients. Broadcasting phosphate fertilizers allows maximum contact between the fertilizer and soil fixing particles so that it promotes

P fixation. If the fertilizer is applied in the form of a band (placed application), the extent of contact between the phosphate soil fixing particles is reduced. Soil fixation is thus depressed and if the band is near the seed, a zone of high phosphate concentration is accessible to developing plant roots. The effect of phosphate placement is particularly noticeable on soils where P is limiting reported that placing urea in the form of a band at a depth of 0.1 m into the soil improved

N utilization by the crop considerably as compared with application. On potassium deficient soils potassium placement is also often superior to broadcast application.

On sites deficient in either phosphate or potassium, fertilizer application should be

118 made in the sprint when crop demand is high. Autumn application favours nutrient fixation because at this time the roots do not provide a nutrient sink.

FERTILIZER PRACTICE

The amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium or other nutrients applied to a banana plantain to achieve high yields will differ from one location to another.

Actual practice varies significantly according to the climate, cultivars being grown, yield, resources of the grower, and his soil and management practices.

What needs to be borne in mind is the large requirement for nitrogen and potassium, but this does not mean that these elements always have to be applied.

For example, in the Jordan Valley of Israel almost no potassium is applied, but in the Coastal Plain (only 50 km away), 1500 kg K/ha is applied annually. In this case differences in soil potassium supply dictate differences in potassium application rates.

PLACEMENT

Most banana plantations are not ploughed for many years. Therefore the only time to incorporate insoluble fertilizers such as rock phosphate in the soil is during the preparatory year. This practice ensures maximum utilization at least for the first period of growth. Incorporating fertilizer or manure in the soil after planting is impractical because of the dense growth in the plantation and the shallow root system of the banana.

The banana root system is normally very extensive. Very young suckers may have roots extending out 2 m and more. Thus, unless some factor interferes with

119 root development, placement of fertilizer in close proximity to the pseudo stem, as practiced in many growing areas, is probably an inefficient use of fertilizer. The ideal method of fertilizer placement is via the irrigation water, which reaches the full root volume.

TIMING

Much has been written about the importance of balanced nutrition during the early stage of banana growth. The first stages of growth are of critical importance because fruiting depends upon the development of meristematic tissue during the early months of the plant’s life. This emphasis is justified despite some doubt about the importance of potassium is nitrogen during early growth stages. Potassium

Application at the 20th leaf stage (4-5 months after planting) significantly increased bunch weight and stimulated proliferation of suckers, irrespective of the quantity applied. Nevertheless, it is probable that the developing bunch depletes the potassium accumulated during the vegetative phase.

In ‘Robusta’ banana total uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium was proved to be 7 to 10-fold higher at the vegetative stage than after flowering. This was also true for phosphorus uptake in plantain ‘Poovan’, but nitrogen and potassium uptake in this cultivator was uniform before and after flowering. This justifies increased fertilizer application at the early stages of growth. However, in practice it is almost impossible to differentiate between fertilization seasons according to the physiological development stage of the plant, as in common with many other cultivated plants. Mother plant and followers of various sizes are grown side by side in the same stool. These plants, at both the vegetative and reproductive

120 stages, share a common pool of nutrients in the soil as well as in the united corm.

Therefore, to fertilize specifically for one phase of growth is simply impossible.

This approach might be changed in the future with the introduction of in vitro single-cycle plantations. In such a form of cultivation, only extremely physiologically uniform mother plants are grown, while following suckers are destroyed. The time of fertilizer application and its relation to growth and yield of plantain were studied. When fertilizer application was delayed by 4 months plant growth was significantly retarded, and leaf production reduced when fertilizer application was delayed beyond 5 months. Following a delay of 6 months, fruits matured very late and yield was reduced by 42 per cent. Remarkable effects were obtained also in the first ration, where a delay of 6 months in fertilizer application reduced bunch weight by 30%. After a 3 month delay in application, recovery from the fertilizer stress became increasingly difficult, while recovery after 6 months was almost impossible despite application of the recommended fertilizer level.

FREQUENCY

Nutrient uptake is a relatively slow and continuous process, and therefore fertilizers should be applied frequently. Frequent applications are much less important where soil and plant reserves are high, although there may be difficulty in assessing soil reserves, especially of nitrogen. In many banana growing areas, nitrogen is applied manually (especially on steep slopes) three or four times a year.

This is the custom both in the tropics and subtropics. Exceptions occur where rainfall is very high or with irrigation and then additions are required. Since nitrogen does not accumulate in the plant it is always preferred to apply this element

121 frequently. Whenever possible, nitrogen is applied with irrigation water. This method is ideal since nitrogen supply can be accurately matched with expected demand. The change in fertilization practices with the change in irrigation methods are well demonstrated by the Israeli banana experience. Consequently, when shortening the irrigation interval due to the change from flood to sprinkler and subsequently to drip irrigation, also to the change from flood to sprinkler and subsequently to drip irrigation, also the fertilization interval was shortened. From three fertilizer application during the season in the early 1960s, the growers changed to monthly and later to weekly applications, and even to continuous fertilizer injection into the irrigation system. The parallel yield increase may be closely related to this factor.

Weekly fertilizer application may have a lesser effect than continuous application because of the gradual decrease with time in nutrient concentration, mainly nitrogen, in the soil solution following fertilizer application. However, no marked differences in the soil-nitrogen concentration were found during the interval between one fertilizer application and the next. This may have resulted from the drip irrigation regime, which reduces NH4 nitrification to NO4. Under Israeli conditions figure 10.23 relationship between yield, number of fertilizer applications per year and the potassium nutritional regime in banana plantations in Western

Galilee, Israel. Where slow-release fertilizers such as urea formaldehyde are used, two applications annually appear satisfactory in the subtropical conditions of Israel.

A factor limiting widespread use of urea formaldehyde is that, once applied, the release of nitrogen cannot be changed. Fertilizer is a powerful resource to the man

122 who wrests his living from the soil. The farmer in the pursuit of profits who can produce as well as the Hoshangabad Station will apply fertilizer far beyond the presently recommended rates. Should he be restricted by rationing or other devices in his access to supplies, he will find it profitable to approach those who are less efficient or less aggressive producers with an offer to share his profit in return for the use of their rights to the scarce nutrients. His offer will be in the form of a price bid above the prevailing market rate. If this price is high enough many person will find it more profitable to sell their rights for the offered price difference than to use them directly in farming.

MEASURES OF SUPPORT FOR FERTILIZERS

For sustained agricultural growth and to promote balanced nutrient application, it is imperative that fertilizers are made available to farmers at affordable prices. With this objective, urea being the only controlled fertilizer, is sold at statutorily notified uniform sale price, and decontrolled phosphatic and potassic fertilizers are sold at indicative maximum retail prices (MRPs). The problems faced by the manufacturers in earning a reasonable return on their investment with reference to controlled prices, are mitigated by providing support under the New Pricing Scheme for urea units and the Concession Scheme for decontrolled phosphatic and potassic fertilizers.

Measures of Support for Urea

Until 31st Marcy 2003, the subsidy to urea manufacturers was being regulated in terms of the provisions of the erstwhile Retention Price Scheme (RPS).

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Under RPS, the difference between retention price (cost of production as assessed by the Government plus 12% post tax return on networth) and the statutorily notified sale price was paid as subsidy to each urea unit.

The High Powered Fertilizer Pricing Policy Review Committee (HPC), in its report submitted to the Government on 3rd April 1998, inter-alia, recommended that unit-wise RPS for urea may be discontinued and, instead, a uniform Normative

Referral Price be fixed for existing gas based urea units and also for DAP and a

Feedstock Differential Cost Reimbursement (FDCR) be given for a period of five years for non-gas based urea units.

The Expenditure Reforms Commission (ERC), headed by Shri K.P.

Geethakrishnan, had also examined the issue of rationalizing fertilizer subsidies. In its report submitted on 20th September 2000, the ERC recommended, inter-alia, dismantling of existing RPS and in its place the introduction of a Concession

Scheme for urea units based on feedstock used and the vintage of plants.

New Pricing Scheme (NPS) for urea was introduced with effect from

1st April, 2003. The Stage-I of NPS was of one year duration from 1st April, 2003 to 31st March, 2004 and Stage-II was of two year duration from 1st April to

31st March, 2006. With the Stage-III of NPS being implemented with effect from

1st October, 2006, the Stage-II of NPS stands extended upto 31st September, 2006.

PHASED DECONTROL OF UREA DISTRIBUTION

As per the New Pricing Scheme for urea units, it was also envisaged that decontrol of urea distribution/movement will be carried out in a phased manner.

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During Stage-I, i.e. from 1st April 2003 to 31st March 2004, the allocation of urea under the Essential Commodities Act 1955 (ECA) was restricted up to 75% and

50% of installed capacity (as reassessed) of each unit in Kharif 2003 and Rabi

2003-04, respectively. It was further envisaged that during Stage-II commencing from 1st April 2004, urea distribution will be totally decontrolled after evaluation of

Stage-I and with the concurrence of the Ministry of Agriculture.

The total decontrol of urea distribution was deferred initially for a period of six months with effect from 1st April 2004 i.e., up to Kharif 2004, which has been subsequently deferred up to Rabi 2005-06 i.e., up to 31st March 2006. The existing system of 50% ECA allocation and 50% outside ECA allocation has been extended upto 31st March 2010.

The pricing policy for urea units for Stage-III of New Pricing Schemes

(NPS) which is effective from 1.10.2006 to 31.3.2010 has been formulated keeping in view the recommendations of the Working Group set up under the Chairmanship of Dr. Y. K. Alagh. The salient features of the proposed Stage-III Policy which is aimed at promoting further investment in the urea sector, are to maximize urea production from the Urea units including through conversion of non-gas based

Units to gas, incentivising additional urea production and encourage investment in

Joint Venture (JV) projects abroad. It is also aimed at establishing a more efficient urea distribution and movement system in order to ensure availability of urea in the remotest corners of the country.

The availability of gas is critical to the growth of urea industry in the country. Presently, the indigenous availability is not sufficient to meet the demand

125 of existing gas based urea units in the country. To this end, the Department of

Fertilizers constituted a Committee under the chairmanship of Secretary (P&NG) with Secretary (Fertilizers), Secretary (Expenditure), Secretary (Planning

Commission) as its members to deliberate upon various issues relating to connectivity and assured supply of gas to the fertilizer sector.

The Government will continue to regulate movement of urea up to 50% of production depending upon the exigency of the situation. The monitoring of movement and distribution of urea throughout the country up to the district level will be done by an On-line Web based monitoring system. Further to ensure availability of fertilizer in all parts of the country, the freight regime on all subsidized fertilizers including urea has been revised with effective from 1st April,

2008 through Uniform Pricing Policy for freight subsidy.

Policy for encouraging production and availability of fortified Fertilizer

Department of Fertilizers has notified on 2nd June 2008 a policy for encouraging production and availability of fortified and coated fertilizers in the country. In terms of this policy, the indigenous manufacturers/producers of the subsidized fertilizers are allowed to produce fortified/coated subsidized fertilizers up to a maximum of 20% of their total production of respective subsidized fertilizers.

Policy for Uniform freight subsidy on all fertilizers

To ensure easy availability of fertilizers in all parts of the country, the

Department of Fertilizers has notified on 17th July 2008 a uniform freight subsidy regime for all subsidized fertilizers, wherein freight subsidy will be paid separately

126 on receipt of all subsidized fertilizers in the districts/blocks. The freight subsidy will constitute of two components, namely, rail freight and road freight.

Concession scheme/nutrient based subsidy policy for decontrolled fertilizers

Government of India decontrolled Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers with effect from 25th August 1992 on the recommendations of Joint Parliamentary

Committee. Consequent upon the decontrol, the prices of the Phosphatic & Potassic fertilizers registered a sharp increase in the market, which exercised an adverse impact on the demand and consumption of the same. It led to an imbalance in the usage of the nutrients of N, P & K (Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potash) and the productivity of the soil. Department of Agriculture & Cooperation started announcing rates of concession based on the cost plus approach on quarterly basis with effect from 1st April 1999. The total delivered cost of fertilizers being invariably higher than the MRP indicated by the Government, the difference in the delivered price of fertilizers at the farm gate and the MRP was compensated by the

Government as subsidy to the manufacturers/importers for selling the fertilizers at the MRP indicated by the Government. The Expert Group under Prof. Abhijit Sen, submitted its report in October 2005. The recommendations of the Expert Group were considered by an Inter-Ministerial Group (IMG). Tariff Commission conducted fresh cost price study of DAP/MOP and NPK complexes and submitted its report in December 2007. Based on the examination of the Tariff Commission

Report and the long term approach suggested by the Expert Group under the

Chairmanship of Prof. Abhijit Sen, the Government approved the Concession

Scheme with effect from 1st April 2008 for DAP/MOP/NPK Complexes/MAP,

127 which continued upto 31st March 2010 with certain modifications. From 1st

December 2008, payment of concession has been made to the manufacturers/importers of the Decontrolled fertilizers (except SSP) on the basis of arrival/receipt of fertilizers and certificate of receipt by the State

Government/statutory auditor of the company subject to final settlement on the basis of sale of the quantity.

Nutrient Based Subsidy Policy for decontrolled Phosphatic & Potassic

A Group of Ministers (GoM) constituted to look into all aspects of the fertilizer regime, recommended that Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) may be introduced based on the contents of the nutrients in the subsidized fertilizers.

Procedure for Payment of subsidy under NBS

Department of Fertilizers releases 85% (90% with Bank Guarantee) ‘On

Account’ payment of subsidy month-wise to the manufacturers/importers of P&K fertilizers (SSP) based on receipt of fertilizers in the districts/States.

Freight under NBS

In addition to Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS), freight for the movement and distribution of the decontrolled fertilizers by rail and road is being provided to enable wider availability of fertilizers in the country. Subsidy under the NBS on decontrolled P & K fertilizers (except SSP) is being paid as per the actual claim.

Impact of Nutrient Based Subsidy

The MRP of fertilizer, which was indicated by the Government and has been constant since 2002, has now been decontrolled with effect from 1st April 2010

128 under the Nutrient Based Subsidy Policy. However, the Government has decided to fix subsidy in such a manner that the MRP of the fertilizer does not affect the farmers adversely.

Direct Subsidy to the farmers under NBS

Under the present subsidy regime, fertilizers are provided to the farmers at the Maximum Retail Price, which is much below the actual cost of fertilizers.

Accordingly, the farmers pay 25-40% of the actual cost of fertilizers and rest of the cost is borne by the Government.

Subsidy Released

The amount of subsidy provided by the Government during 2001-02 was

‘12695.02 crore, which has increased upto ‘99494.71 crore in 2008-09. It was

‘64032.29 crore during 2009-10. The budget estimate for fertilizer subsidy for

2010-11 is ‘52840.73 crore.

Ban on Export of Fertilizer

The Government has received complaints of smuggling of subsidized fertilizers to the neighboring countries. Keeping in view the availability of the fertilizers in the country and the subsidy paid thereon, in addition to urea, the

Government has decided to put the export of DAP/MOP in the restrictive category in order to discourage the exports and smuggling. The DGFT has been requested to place all other subsidized fertilizers also in the restricted category.10

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Chapter-III Notes

1. Expressed as phosphoric acid these percentages are from 0.05 to 0.27, and from 916 to 5496 pounds to the acre. 2. Ibid., p. 7. 3. Sarad Chandra Jain, Price Behaviour and Resource Allocation in Indian Agriculture, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, 1968, p. 12. 4. Ibid, p. 12. 5. Ibid, p. 13. 6. Ibid, p. 15. 7. Vetter, H. and Klasink, A., Nutrient contents on Slurries and Faeces. In: Wieviel Dungen? DLG-Verlag Frankfurt, 1977, pp. 189-194. 8. P. C. Basil, Agricultural Problems of India, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1975, p. 116. 9. Ibid., 116. 10. Government of India, Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers, Department of Fertilizers, 2010. pp. 26-41.

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CHAPTER - IV METHODOLOGY . .

This chapter presents a brief account of the methodology followed in this

study. It consists of a statement about the choice of the study area, followed by the

period of study, Measurement of variable, the data, the sample, tools of analysis and

statistical tests used. Finally there is a brief description of the study area to provide

the background for the discussion in the next chapter

4.1 THE CHOICE OF THE STUDY AREA

Given the specific objectives noted in Chapter-I, this study aims at

economics of fertilizers consumption in the cultivation of paddy and Banana in

Lalgudi Block of Tiruchirappalli District, Tamil Nadu. The area chosen for study is

Lalgudi Block, Tiruchirappalli District. Basically, Tiruchirappalli District is

agriculturally rich due to the availability of fertile lands and presence of perennial

rivers Cauvery and Coleroon (Kollidam). Cauvery with numerous tributaries forms

the basis of sustained paddy cultivation on an extensive scale throughout the year.

Cereals, pulses and oil seeds are the major crops cultivated in the district and

majority of the area is used for the production of cereals, pulses, oil seeds and

coconut are the most important crop followed by groundnut. Contributions of pulses

are also marked significant in the district. Banana is the major fruit cash crop and

the cultivation of land under plantation extends an area of 10136 hectares.

Tobacco and onion covers more than 60 per cent of the total area under

vegetable crops. Chillies and coriander are the predominant crop under the species.

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Nearly 2358 hectares of lands are used for cultivation of species in the district. The consumption of chemical fertilizers are high (68400 tonnes) when compared to biofertilizers for agricultural production in the district. An analysis of trend utilization of fertilizers pesticides and bio fertilizers suggest that the consumption of fertilizers had shown fluctuations, through not significant between 1981 and 1996.

While that of bio-fertilizers is showing an upward trend.

Agricultural is the main occupation of the Lalgudi block of Tiruchirappalli

Distict. Lalgudi lies close to Coleroon River. Ayyan vaikal is the river passing through Lalgudi. The total geographical area of the block is 20646 hectares and the total population of the area is 1, 43,454. Major crops are paddy (81.20 %) banana

(6.04 %) and total cropped area is 17,718 hectares of the area.

The research study focuses on consumption of fertilizers and to examine the cost and benefits of the farmers using fertilizer. The greater use of fertilizer has been one of the important developments in agriculture over the past decades which have contributed to the increase in agriculture production offers a good scope for the study.

4.2 PERIOD OF STUDY

This study analyses the economics of fertilizer consumption in agriculture at

Lalgudi Block of Tiruchirappalli district, Tamil Nadu. For this purpose the primary data have been collected from the farmers for the years 2008 and 2009 and secondary data have been collected for the period of 2001 to 2011.

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4.3 THE DATA

The study is primarily based on the data collected from sample households with the help of an Interview schedule. To make the study more comprehensive the secondary data were also collected regarding crops raised, cropping pattern, soil structure and land tenure system existing in the sample villages in Lalgudi Block.

4.4 THE SAMPLE

The area selected for the study is Lalgudi Block in the District of

Tiruchirappalli which forms the universe of the study. This block is situated on the bank of River Coleroon. The study proposes to examine impact of fertilizer consumption on two important crops raised in Lalgudi Block namely Paddy and

Banana. There are 45 Panchayats in the study area out of these 10 Panchayats are selected by random sampling method. Then the farmers in the selected Panchayats are classified as small, marginal and large farmers on the basis of land holdings.

Then they are divided as Paddy farmers and banana farmers on the basis of the major crops cultivated. If a farmer cultivates both paddy and banana, then the major crop cultivated is considered for the classification. After stratification 75 farmers from each category are selected as sample for the purpose of the study. Thus a total sample of (3275=450) 450 farmers is selected comprising 225 farmers cultivating

Paddy and 225 farmers cultivating Banana. This stratification is needed to know the use of chemical fertilizers among different farm size groups in one crop compared to similar farm size groups for another crop. This will also highlight the increase in productivity for the size group and the crop. In this study, each farmer cultivating either paddy or banana is considered as a sample unit.

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4.5 MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLE

This study mostly based on the cross section data collected from 450 respondents. During the year 2008 and 2009, income, expenditure, prices, savings, loans and input prices are measured in terms of current prices for the year 2008 and

2009. The physical output of paddy and banana are expressed in terms of kilograms.

Similarly the consumption of chemical fertilizers by sample farmers like Nitrogen,

Phosphate and Potassium are measured in Kilograms.

4.6 TOOLS

Rank order scaling techniques is used to quantify the qualitative data. Likerts five point scaling is used for extracting the opinion of the sample respondents. The statistical tools one way ANOVA, Chi square test, Kruskal-Wallis test, and t’ test are applied in this study for finding out the various objectives related to the use of fertilizers Graphical representation, charts and diagrams are used to represent the data in pictorial method for clarity.

4.7 BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE STUDY AREA

Location

Lalgudi is situated at 21 km away from Tiruchirappalli. It is on the northern bank of the river Coleroon surrounded. Mannachanallur on the west and Pullambadi on the North east. Geographical area of Lalgudi block is 20558 hec. Lalgudi block contains 53 revenue villages and town panchayats. All villages but two are blessed with plenty of water supply due to adequate ground water. Paddy is raised in the area in three seasons. Apart from paddy they raise banana and sugarcane. Lalgudi is

134 connected with bus and rail transport. There are two rain gauge stations in Lalgudi.

Nationalized banks and Agricultural co-operative societies help the farmers to improve their agriculture operations.

Topography and Soil

Tiruchirappalli town, situated on the banks of the beautiful river Cauvery region of the state was even considered fit to be the second capital of the state. It lies between the 77 and 77.45 of the eastern longitudes. It is bounded by the

Pudukkottai district on the east, Madurai district on the south, Erode and Dindigul districts on the west. Cauvery river is the major sources of irrigation to this area.

Alluvial, Sandyloam and loamy soil constitute major portion of the deltaic region bordering the river Cauvery. In Lalgudi block, loamy soils are predominant followed by black soils.

Geographical Features

Lalgudi is a taluk in Tiruchirappalli District in the Indian state of Tamil

Nadu. Lalgudi town lies close to Coleroon river. Ayyan vaikal is the river passing through Lalgudi. Lalgudi Assembly Constituency is part of Perambalur Lok Sabha constituency. Lalgudi is situated at 21 km away from Tiruchirappalli district headquarters. It is on the northern bank of Coleroon river. Mannachanallur is situated on the west and Pullambadi on the north east (Scheme 3.1).

The geographical area of Lalgudi Block is 20558 hectare. Lalgudi Block consists of 53 revenue villages and two town panchayats. All villages but two are blessed with plenty of water supply due to adequate ground water. Majority of the

135 area is utilized for paddy cultivation in two seasons. Apart from paddy, sugarcane and banana are raised.

Scheme 3.1: Location of Lalgudi Panchayat Union

Perambalur

North

West East Musiri Lalgudi Ariyalur

South

Tiruverumbur

Demography

The total population of the Lalgudi Block is 143454 (2009-10). Among them male population is 71230 and female population is 72224. The density of the population is 697 per sq.km. It shows that more than 70 per cent of the people engaged in agriculture and allied activities of agriculture and the rest are engaged in various occupations like households, construction, industrial works, etc.

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Land Holding Pattern

The following table shows the land holding of the district.

Table 4.1: Land Holding Pattern

Sl. No. of holding Category Percentage No. (in lakhs)

1. Less than 1 hectare 4.03 63.2

2. Between 1 and 2 hectare 1.28 20.0

3. Between 2 and 4 hectare 0.72 11.4

4. Between 4 and 10 hectare 0.30 4.8

5. 10 hectare and above 0.04 0.6

Source: Record with the district, Statistical Office Department of Statistics, Tamil Nadu, 2009-2010 hectare

The above table reveals that about nearly 83 per cent of the land holdings fall in the category of less than 2 hectares each. The small and marginal farmers own the maximum amount of land in the district. Only 17 per cent of the land holding are medium and large farmers

Rainfall

The average annual rainfall of the Tiruchirappalli is 842.6 mm which is lower than the state 943 mm. The following table shows that monthly rainfall of the

Lalgudi block.

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Table 4.2: Rainfall - 2009-10

Month Rainfall in mm April 42.9 May 77.0 June 30.3 July 37.4 August 91.6 September 114.0 October 183.0 November 149.7 December 62.0 January 28.1 February 12.4 March 14.1

Sources: Lalgudi block statistical hand book- Tiruchirappalli District, 2009-2010

The above table shows that highest rainfall are the months of October was

(183.0 mm) and November (149.7 mm) and the lowest rainfall of the Lalgudi block in the month of February (12.4 mm) and March (14.1 mm).

River

Cauvery is the major river in the district. It originates from the western ghats of Coorg of Karnataka state, and enters the district near Kattalai and Kattuputhur. It is then bifurcated near . Its Southern branch is called Cauvery and it flows through Tiruchirappalli town. Its Northern branch is Coleroon which runs eastward and forms the southern boundary of Lalgudi and Udayarpalayam Taluks.

The river Cauvery divides the district into two regions consisting of Musiri,

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Thuraiyur, Perambalur, Lalgudi, Ariyalur and Udayarpalayam taluks on the

Northern side of the river.

Flora and Fauna

Tamarind, Teak, Vanni and Coconut are the tree crops widely grown in the district. Wolves, Bears and spotted deer aboard in its forests

Occupational pattern

Agriculture is the most important occupation in Lalgudi block. The following table shows the occupational distribution of the people in the block.

Table 4.3: Occupational pattern

No. of S. Per- Occupation workers No. centage (in lakhs) 1. Cultivators 7.59 43.3 2. Agricultural labourers 6.06 34.6 3. Persons engaged in activities allied to agriculture 1.68 9.6 4. Others 2.19 12.5 Total 17.52 100.0

Source: Record with the district, Statistical office department of statistics, Tamil Nadu, 2009-10

It clearly shows that more than 43 per cent of the people were engaged in agricultural cultivators and 34 percent of the people engaged in Agricultural laborers that is coolie farmers, only 12.5 per cent of the people were engaged in other occupations like households construction and industries. The remaining 9.6 per cent of the people were depend on agricultural allied activities

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Land use pattern

The land use pattern of the district is prescribed below. The total geographical area in the Lalgudi block is 20558 hectares and total cropped area is

17718 hectares in the year 2010.

Table 4.4: Land Utilization (Area in hectares)

Sl. Classification 2008-09 2009-10 No. 1. Forest 594 594 2. Barren and Uncultivable Land 95 95 3. Land put to Non-Agricultural Uses 4763 4763 4. Cultivable Waste 15 15 5. Permanent Pastures and other Grazing Land 62 62 6. Land Under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves not included in Net area Sown 78 88 7. Current Fallows 306 1405 8. Other Fallow Lands 1804 1805 9. Net Area Sown 12371 11260 10. Unclassified area 471 471 11. Total Geographical Area 20588 20588 12. Total Cropped Area 19338 17718

13. Area Sown More than once. 6967 6459

Sources: Lalgudi block statistical hand book- Tiruchirappalli District, 2009-10

The net area sown is 11260 hectares of the total geographical area and area sown more than once constitutes 6459 hectares. And total cropped area is 17718 hectares of the area.

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Cropping Pattern

The cropping pattern of block is presented below. The principal crops are cultivated viz. Paddy, Banana, Sugarcane, Cholam, Cumbu, Groundnuts and other crops.

Table 4.5: Important Crops cultivated in the study area

Crops Area cultivated in hectare Percentage Paddy 12623.995 81.20 Banana 939.710 6.04 Sugarcane 753.740 4.85 Cholam 35.055 0.23 Cumbu 6.685 0.04 Groundnut 3.195 0.02 Others 1184.400 7.62 Total 15546.780 100.00

Sources: Lalgudi block statistical hand book- Tiruchirappalli District, 2009-2010

The above table shows that paddy is the most important crop cultivated in study area. It is cultivated in 12623.995 hectares. Banana is cultivated about

939.710 hectares and 753.740 hectares is sugarcane cultivation. Other crops namely, Cereals and Pulses are cultivated about 1184.400 hectares.

Irrigation

The Lalgudi block has total irrigated area of 10602 hectares. The following table shows the sources and areas of irrigation.

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Table 4.6: Irrigation

Net Area irrigated Sl. No. Source Percentage (in ha) 1. Canals 8849 83.46 2. Wells 1710 16.13 3. Tanks 25 0.24 4. Others 18 0.17 Totals 10602 100.00

Sources: Records with the Lalgudi block statistical hand book- Tiruchirappalli District, 2009-2010

The table given above shows clearly that 83.46 per cent of total area in the

Lalgudi block is irrigated by canals. Canal irrigation is the most important source of irrigation. Cauvery River along with her tributaries irrigated in the district.

There are 16.13 per cent of the total area is irrigated by wells having electric motor pump sets.

Fertilizers

The following table shows that quantity of fertilizers viz., Nitrogen,

Phosphorous and Potassium distributed in the Lalgudi block in recent years.

Table 4.7: Fertilizers

Quantity Distributed (MT) Nutrients 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 Nitrogen 5829 5833 7347 5575 5798 Phosphorous 3345 3401 2503 3017 3640 Potassium 2698 4614 4887 2748 3721

Sources: Records with the Lalgudi block statistical hand book- Tiruchirappalli District, 2010-2011

142

The above table reveals that nutrient nitrogen distributed is 7347 mt. for the year 2008-09 and it decreased to 5798 mt. for the 2010-11. And the nutrient phosphorous used in the year 2008 -09 is 2503 mt. but increased for the year

2010-11 i.e. 3640 mt. and the potassium nutrients was high in the period 2007-08 i.e. 4614 mt. and it decreased to 3721 mt. for the year 2010-11.

Pesticides

The following table shows that quantity of pesticides distributed in various years.

Table 4.8: Pesticides

Quantity Distributed (MT)

Pesticides 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11

Lquid (Litres) 5137 4995 2707 1732 3981

Dust (MT) 5.64 3.01 11.26 8 344.88

Sources: Records with the Lalgudi block statistical hand book- Tiruchirappalli District, 2010-2011

The given above table reflects that the liquid pesticides used very high in the year 2006-07 i.e., 5137 litres and it decreased 3981 litres for the year 2010-11 and the pesticides dust it was very minimum for the year 2009-10 i.e. only 8 mt. and very high for the year 2010-11 i.e. 344.88 mt.

General Features

The following table shows the various facilities available in the Lalgudi block in 2009-2010.

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Table 4.9: General Features

Sl. No. Name of the Institutions In number/branches 1. No. of Primary schools 77 2. No. of Middle schools 15 3. No. of High schools 8 4. No. of Higher Secondary Schools 10 5. Libraries 3 6. Banks 8 7. Public Health Centres 31 8. No. of Revenue Villages 53 9. No. of Hamlets 22

Sources: Records with the Lalgudi block statistical hand book- Tiruchirappalli District, 2009-2010

The above table shows that Lalgudi is well served by a number of

Educational and financial institutions. The credit needs of farmers are met by these

Central co-operative Bank, Land Development Bank, Primary co-operative credit societies and commercial Banks. There are 77 primary schools, 15 middle schools ,

8 High schools and 10 Higher Secondary Schools are in the Lalgudi block and there are 3 common libraries, 31 public health centres serving in the Lalgudi block for the good health of the farmers

Transport and Communications

Transport and communication play an important role in the development of agriculture and industries. They facilitate the movement of goods from their places of production to the places of their sales. The following table presents the transport and communication infrastructure available in the Lalgudi block.

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Table 4.10: Transport and Communications

Sl. No. Roads/Post Office Lalgudi

1. Pacca Roads 123 km

2. Kutcha 6 km

3. Railway Line 18 km

4. Post Office 8 km

Sources: Records with the Lalgudi block statistical hand book- Tiruchirappalli District, 2009-2010

The table given above reveals that Lalgudi block is better equipped with transport facilities than other blocks in Lalgudi Taluk. Lalgudi block has a well- knitted road transport which enables the farmers to transport their products like,

Paddy, Banana, Sugarcane and the other crops to the nearby factories and markets.

Sample Villages

There are 45 village panchayats. Among them 10 village panchayats are selected for study. They are Angarai, Easanaikorai, Kokoor, Pamparamsuthi,

Punchai Sangenthi, Sembarai, T Valavanoor, Thirumanamedu, Thirumangalam and

Valadi.

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Map 4.1

Tiruchirappalli District - Boundaries

Soil

146

Map-4.2

Map showing Taluks of Tiruchirappalli District

147

Map-4.3 Map showing Blocks of Tiruchirappalli District

148

Map-4.4

149

Name of the Lalgudi block Villages (45)

1. Agalanganallur 16. Koppavali 31. PudukudiPudur

2. Alangudi 17. Madakudi 32. Uthamanur

3. Mahajanam 18. Mahilambadi 33. R.valavanur

4. Angarai 19. Manakkal 34. Sathamangalam

5. Appadurai 20. Mangammalpuram 35. Sembarai

6. Ariyur 21. Mangudi 36. Seventhinathapuram

7. Athikudi 22. Maruthur 37. Sirumaruthur

8. Edayathumangalam 23. Mettupatti 38. Sirumayankudi

9. Esanakorai 24. Nagar 39. T. Kalvikudi

10. Jengamarajapuram 25. Natham 40. T.Valavanur Thalakudi

11. KeelaPerungavur 26. Neikuppai 41. Thatchankuruchi

12. Keelaanbil 27. Nerunjalakudi 42. Thinniyam

13. Khookur 28. Pallapuram 43. Thirumanamedu

14. Komakudi 29. Pambaramsuthi 44. Thirumangalam

15. Konnaikudi 30. Peruvalanallur 45. Valadi

_____

CHAPTER - V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . .

Fertilizer consumption by the farmers in the present day environment is of

greater importance. Fertilizer is one of the important input for the production of

crop. Lot of controversies is going on with regard to the use of chemical fertilizers

Many institutions are strongly advocating the use of bio-fertilizers instead of

chemical fertilizers. Periodically health care takers also notify the dangers of using

chemical fertilizers for agricultural products.

The present day farmers are using all types of fertilizers such as Nitrogen,

Phosphorous and Potash. Many biological fertilizers are also used by the farmers

The pattern of use of chemical and bio- fertilizers may change due to various factors

Some of the factors are the size of farm, type of crop, adoption of varieties, status of

land ownership, age of the farmer, educational level of the farmer, size of family of

the farmer, knowledge about fertilizers etc.

In this chapter, the sample data collected from the paddy and banana farmers

are analyzed with reference to various aspects in-depth. The selected comparative

factors are age of farmers, number of members in the family, additional occupation

of the farmers, ratio of chemical and bio-fertilizers used, gross output value, gross

output in quantity, gross expenditure for cropping, expenditure for fertilizer and net

income. The factors are compared and analyzed with respect to the pattern of

fertilizer use. The impact of factors on the use of fertilizer is also studied. Further

the various tests to study the hypotheses of this research are presented.

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This chapter focuses on the statistical analysis of the research data. Findings are presented in the tabular format with relevant interpretations. The socio demographic data of the respondents like, age, sex, the religion, the community they belong to, educational level of the respondents, family size, their annual income etc. are presented in Section-I, and Section-II deals with cultivation and utilization patterns of fertilizer for paddy (in the three season’s viz. Kuruvai, Samba, and

Thaladi) and banana on annual basis. It also presents the various tests used to test the hypotheses of this research study.

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Section-I

SOCIO DEMOGRAPHIC DATA OF RESPONDENTS

Table 5.1 Gender-wise Distribution

S. No. Gender No. of Respondents Percentage

1 Male 415 92.2

2 Female 35 7.8

Total 450 100.0

Source: Primary data

The above table shows that most of the respondents were males (92.2%) and the rest were females. The smaller number of females is explained by the socio- cultural values of Indian society, which do not encourage females.

153

Figure 5.1 Gender-wise Distribution

154

Table 5.2 Age-wise distribution

Sl.

Age Group No n n Paddy) n Banana) i i No. of Respondents ( Percentage No. of Respondents ( Percentage Total Respondents Percentage

1. Below 30 yr 32 14.2 35 15.6 67 14.9 2. 31 to 40 yr 49 21.8 47 20.8 96 21.3 3. 41 to 50 yr 63 28 62 27.6 125 27.8 4. 51 to 60 yr 55 24.4 56 24.9 111 24.7 5. 61 yr and above 26 11.6 25 11.1 51 11.3 Total 225 100 225 100 450 100

Source: Primary data

The table shows the age wise classification of overall total respondents and the percentage of respondents in each crop viz., Paddy and Banana. The Percentages of farmers with age groups of below 30 were 14.9 per cent. In this age group 14.2 per cent were paddy cultivators and 15.6 were banana cultivators. The age groups of

31 to 40 were 21.3 per cent. In this age groups 21.8 per cent were paddy cultivators and 20.8 per cent were banana cultivators. The percentages of farmers with age group of 41 to 50 were 27.8 of whom 28 per cent were banana cultivators 24.7 per cent of the farmers belonged to the age group 51 to 60, in this age group 24.4 per cent were paddy cultivators and 24.9 per cent were banana cultivators The age groups of 61 and above were 11.3 per cent. In this age group 11.6 per cent were paddy cultivators and 11.1 per cent were banana cultivators.

155

Figure 5.2 Age-wise distribution

156

The table shows that there is not much difference in the percentage of farmers cultivating paddy and banana in a particular age group of the study area.

 Mean of Respondents in Paddy: 45 and Mean of Respondents in Banana: 45

 Standard Deviation of Respondents in Paddy: 15.57

 Standard Deviation of Respondents in Banana: 15.12

Mean age of the paddy cultivators is 45 years with standard deviation 15.57 and mean age of the banana cultivators is also 45 years with standard deviation 15.12.

Hypotheses Testing -1

H0 - Age of the sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers.

Fertilizer Test used Result Inference utilization Fertilizer Chi- P = 0.619 > P is greater than the significance level utilization square 0.05 = 0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is (Kuruvai) test accepted. It has been concluded that there is no significant association between the age of the respondents and the fertilizer utilization during Kuruvai cultivation. Fertilizer Chi- P = 0.722 > P is greater than the significance level. utilization square 0.05 Hence the null hypothesis is accepted. (Samba) test It is concluded that there is no significant difference between the age of the respondents and the fertilizer utilization pattern among the Samba cultivator respondents.

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Fertilizer Chi- P = 0.725 > P is greater than the significance level. utilization square 0.05 Hence the null hypothesis is accepted. (Thaladi) test It has been concluded that age of the sample respondents has no influential effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers Fertilizer Chi- P = 0.037 < P is less than the significance level. utilization square 0.05 Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected. (Banana) test It is concluded that age of the sample respondents has significant effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers by the banana cultivating respondents.

(Vide Annexure-III)

H0- Age of the sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption pattern of bio fertilizers

Fertilizer Test used Result Inference utilization Preference One way P = 0.229 > P is greater than the significance value. to use bio- ANOVA 0.05 The null hypothesis is accepted. fertilizer test Hence, it is concluded that there is no (Paddy) significant difference among the different age group of paddy cultivating respondents in their willingness to use bio-fertilizer Preference Chi- P = 0.078 > P is greater than the significance level. of bio- square test 0.05 Hence the null hypothesis is accepted. fertilizer It is concluded that the age of the (Banana) sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption pattern of bio fertilizers (Vide Annexure-III)

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Table 5. 3 Religion-wise Distribution

S. Religion No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Hindu 383 85.1

2. Christian 55 12.2

3. Muslim 12 2.7

Total 450 100.0

Source: Primary data

The role of Religion in building a better society has been one of the most challenging aspects in the recent past. It has become more relevant in diverse- religious and multicultural states like India.1 Majority (85.1 %) of the respondents belonged to Hindu religion; 12.2 per cent were Christians and only 2.7 per cent of the respondents were Muslims in the study area.

159

Figure 5.3 Religion-wise Distribution

160

Table 5.4 Community-wise distribution

S. No. Community No. of Respondents Percentage 1 SC 97 21.6 2 ST 15 3.3 3 BC 322 71.5 4 FC 16 3.6 Total 450 100.0

Source: Primary data

Community wise distribution of respondents show a majority (71.5%) of the respondents belonged to Backward Community (BC). Next to that 21.6 per cent were of Schedule Caste (SC) community people. About 3.3 and 3.6 per cent of the respondents were of Scheduled Tribes (ST) and Forward Community (FC) respectively.

161

Figure 5.4 Community-wise Distribution

162

Table 5.5 Distribution based on Educational level

Sl. Educational No. Level n n Paddy) n Banana) i i No. of Respondents ( Percentage No. of Respondents ( Percentage Total Respondents Percentage 1. Illiterate 39 17.3 36 16.0 75 16.7 2. Primary 58 25.8 61 27.1 119 26.4 3. Secondary 67 29.8 70 31.1 137 30.4 4. HSC 40 17.8 35 15.6 75 16.7 5. Degree 21 9.3 23 10.2 44 9.8 Total 225 100 225 100 450 100

Source: Primary data

Educational qualification may influence the farmers to prefer a certain type of crop. Some may go in for paddy and some others may go in for banana. The data collected in this regard are shown in Table-5.5.

Educational level of the respondents was studied under five categories, viz.

Primary, secondary, Higher Secondary (HSC), Degree, and illiterates. Most of

(30.4 %) the respondents studied up to Secondary level. Followed by 26.4 per cent of the respondents had primary level education. About 16.7 per cent had studied

HSC. Only 9.8 per cent were graduates and the remaining 16.7 per cent of the respondents were illiterates. Almost similar trend prevails among paddy cultivators and banana cultivators.

 Mean of Respondents in Paddy: 45 and Mean of Respondents in Banana: 45

 Standard Deviation of Respondents in Paddy: 17.96

 Standard Deviation of Respondents in Banana: 19.66

163

Figure 5.5 Distribution based on Educational Level

164

Hypotheses Testing

H0- Educational qualification has no significant relationship between the uses of different types of fertilizers

Educational qualification Test used Result Inference and types of fertilizers Paddy Chi-square P = 0.564 > P is greater than the significance farmers test. 0.05 level. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that educational qualification has no significant relationship among the uses of different types of fertilizers Banana Chi-square P = 0.243 > P is greater than the significance level. farmers test 0.05 Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted. It is concluded that educational qualification has no significant relationship among the uses of different types of fertilizers

165

Hypotheses Testing

H0- Educational qualification has no significant relationship between the uses of different types of fertilizers

Educational qualification Test and Result Inference used preference of fertilizer Educational Kruskal DAP, The P values of Urea and qualification Wallis P = 0.137 > 0.05 Gypsum are less than the and Test Urea, significance level. Hence the preference of P = 0.002 < 0.05 null hypothesis is rejected in chemical Potash, the case of Urea and Gypsum fertilizer P = 0.219 > 0.15 only. On all other cases the Sulphate, null hypothesis is accepted. It P = 0.157 > 0.05 is concluded that there is Gypsum, difference of preferences due to P = 0.000 < 0.05 educational qualification in NPK, utilizing Urea and Gypsum. P = 0.564 > 0.05 But there is no difference of preference in using DAP, Potash, Sulphate, and NPK. Educational Kruskal Azospirillium The P value of Kuppai qualification Wallis P = 0.305 > 0.05 (composed manure) is found and Test Veppampunnakku, to be less than the significance preference of P = 0.531 > 0.05 level. Hence the null bio-fertilizer Kuppai, hypothesis is rejected in the P = 0.034 < 0.05 case of kuppai only. On all the Green Manure, other cases the null hypothesis P = 0.502 > 0.05 is accepted. It is concluded that Cow-dung, there is difference of P = 0.795 > 0.05 preferences due to educational Panjakaviam, qualification in utilizing P = 0.129 > 0.05 Kuppai. But there is no difference of preference in using Azospirillium, Veppaon- naku, Green manure, Cow dung and Panja kaviam. (Vide Annexure-III)

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Table 5.6 Distribution of the family size and type of crop

Sl. Number of No. Members n n Paddy) n Banana) i i No. of Respondents ( Percentage No. of Respondents ( Percentage Total Respondents Percentage 1. Below 4 members (Small) 73 32.4 75 33.3 148 32.9 2. 4 to 5 members (Medium) 125 55.6 120 53.4 245 54.4 3. 6 members and above (Large) 27 12.0 30 13.3 57 12.7 Total 225 100.0 225 100.0 450 100.0 Source: Primary data Some crops may require more manpower and some may require less manpower. The number of member in the family may influence the type of crop grown by the farmer. The data collected in this regard are shown in Table-5.6.

Family size of the respondents was categorized as small (Below 4), medium

(4 to 5) and large (6 members and above). Nearly half (54.4 %) of the respondents were of medium size family about 32.9 per cent were of small family and the remaining 12.7 per cent of the respondents were of large size. In the case of paddy cultivators 55.6 per cent with a family size of 4 to 5 members where as the percentage of farmers of banana were 53.4 in family size. And 12 per cent with a family size of 6 and above members in paddy farmers whereas the percentages of farmers of banana were 13.3 per cent in family size.

 Mean of Respondents in Paddy: 75 and Mean of Respondents in Banana: 75

 Standard Deviation of Respondents in Paddy: 49.03

 Standard Deviation of Respondents in Banana: 45.

167

Figure 5.6 Distribution of the Family Size and Type of Crop

168

The farmers need not be in their single occupation as farmer. Some may be in government service, some may be working in private sector or in public sector, some may be doing business or some may be doing agriculture with other occupation such as cattle rearing etc., the data collected in this regard of the sample farmer are shown in Table 5.7.

Table 5.7 Additional occupation and type of crop

Number of Farmers with the Additional Percentages Total Occupation Paddy Banana Government service 9 (4%) 17 (7.6%) 26 (5.78%) Public sector 8 (3.6%) 7 (3.1%) 15 (3.33%) Private sector 30 (13.3%) 23 (10.2%) 53 (11.78%) Business 15 (6.7%) 18 (8%) 33 (7.33%) Agriculture and others 163 (72.4%) 160 (71.1%) 323 (71.78%) Total 225 (100%) 225 (100%) 450 (100%) Source: Primary Data

H0- Additional occupation of the sample farmers does not differ with respect to the type of crop

Additional Test used Result Inference occupation Additional occupation Chi-square P = 0.440 The above table shows that P of the sample farmers test > α= 0.05 is greater than the significance does not differ with level. Hence, the null respect to the type of hypothesis is accepted. It has crop been concluded between Additional occupation of the sample farmers does not differ significant with respect to the type of crop

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The size of farm held by the farmer may have influence on the additional occupations of the farmers. If the farm size is very large, the farmer may have no time to go in for other occupations. The data relating to the size is very large; the farmer may have no time to go in for other occupation. The date relating to the size of farm and additional occupations of the farmers are shown in Table 5.8.

Table 5.8 Size of farm and additional occupations

Size of farmer and additional S. Additional occupation occupations No. Small Medium Large 10 13 3 1. Government (6.8%) (5.3%) (5.2%) 7 6 2 2. Public sector (4.7%) (2.4%) (3.5%) 22 27 4 3. Private sector (14.9%) (11%) (7%) 10 21 2 4. Business (6.8%) (8.6%) (3.5%) 99 178 46 5. Agriculture and other (66.9%) (72.7%) (80.8%) 148 245 57 Total (100%) (100%) (100%) Source: Primary Data

The above table shows that 6.8 per cent of small farmers, 5.3 per cent of medium farmers, and 5.2 per cent of large farmers are employed in government services. 4.7 per cent of small farmers, 2.4 per cent of medium farmers, and 3.5 per cent of large farmers are employed in public sector organizations. 14.9 per cent of small farmers, 11 per cent of medium farmers, and 7 per cent of large farmers are

170 employed in private sector. 6.8 per cent of small farmers, 8.6 per cent of medium farmers, and 3.5 per cent of large farmers are doing business. 66.6 per cent of small farmers, 72.7 per cent of medium farmers, and 80.8 per cent of large farmers are doing agriculture and other occupations such as cattle farming, sheep rearing, etc.,

H0- Size of farm of the sample farmers has no significant influence on the other occupational pattern

Additional Test used Result Inference occupation Size of farm of the Chi-square P = 0.527 > The above table shows that P is sample farmers has test α= 0.05 greater than the significance no significant level. Hence, the null influence on the hypothesis is accepted. It has other occupational been concluded that the size of pattern farm of the sample farmers has no significant influence on the other occupational pattern.

171

Table 5.9 Annual Income of the family

S. No. Annual Income No. of Respondents Percentage

1. Below ` 25,000 275 61.1

2. ` 25,001 to 50,000 149 33.1

3. ` 50,001 and above 26 5.8

Total 450 100.0

Source: Primary data

From the above table it can be inferred that 61.1 per cent of the family had income of less than ` 25,000 per year. About 33.1 per cent had an income between

` 25,001 and ` 50,000. The remaining 5.8 per cent of the respondents’ family had an income of above ` 50,001. This indicates that the per capita income of agriculturists in this region is low.

172

Table 5.10 Distribution of respondents by their source of loan

S. No. of Source of Loan Percentage No. Respondents 1. Cooperative bank 225 50.0 2. Mortgage 102 22.7 3. Bank 64 14.2 4. Others 59 13.1 Total 450 100.0 Source: Primary data

A recent National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) report on the indebtedness of farmers provides important information on the extent and nature of cultivators’ debt. The report highlights, that 65.1 per cent of farmers, holding 2 to 4 acres of land, has an average loan outstanding of ` 23,456.2 The same report points out that about 74.5 per cent of farmers in Tamil Nadu are indebted.

Here the study probes the sources of borrowing loans. Half of the respondents (50%) avail loan from Cooperative banks, 22.7 per cent get loan through mortgage, 14.2 per cent of the respondents seek loan from banks and the remaining (13.1%) from other sources respectively.

173

Table 5.11 Water Sources used by the respondents

S. No. Water source No. of Respondents Percentage

1. Bore well 223 49.5

2. Canal 178 39.6

3. Open Well 49 10.9

Total 450 100.0

Source: Primary data

Canal irrigation is one of the principal methods of irrigation after open wells and bore-wells. Well irrigation is the second popular method of irrigation. Open well irrigation and bore-well irrigation is more popular, where there are very few canals.3

These sources of water were available for the respondents under this study for irrigation. Nearly half (49.6%) of the respondents took water by using Bore wells. Followed by 39.6 per cent who get water from canals; and the remaining 10.9 per cent are using open wells as their source of irrigation.

The channel of irrigation depends on the nature of water table. Since the place of location of the study is on the banks of Coleroon river, Bore wells (49.5%) and canal irrigation (39.6%) are dominant than open well (10.9%).

174

Figure 5.7 Source of Irrigation

175

Table 5.12 Distribution of respondents by the method of applying fertilizer

S. No. Method of Application No. of Respondents Percentage

1. Hand spray 302 67.1

2. Machine spray 51 11.3

3. Sprinkler methods 38 8.4

4. Other methods 59 13.2

Total 450 100.0

Source: Primary data

Generally, fertilizer is applied by three methods. Hand spray method was adopted by 67.1 per cent of the respondents. Machine spray method was used by

11.3 per cent and 8.4 per cent used sprinkler methods. But 13.1 per cent of the respondents applied fertilizer by some other methods other than the above three. Hand spray method is most prevalent in this area.

176

Table 5.13 Distribution of respondents by their Domicle

S. No. Name of Village No. of Respondents Percentage 1. Angarai 45 10.0 2. Easanaikorai 45 10.0 3. Kokoor 45 10.0 4. Pamparamsuthi 45 10.0 5. Punchai Sangenthi 45 10.0 6. Sembarai 45 10.0 7. T. Valavanoor 45 10.0 8. Thirumanamedu 45 10.0 9. Thirumangalam 45 10.0 10. Valadi 45 10.0 Total 450 100.0

Source: Primary data

Equal sample sizes (45 each) were selected from the following ten villages in the Lalgudi Taluk of Tiruchirapalli District using random sampling procedure. They are Angarai, Punchai Sangenthi, Pamparamsuthi, Thirumanamedu, Sembarai,

Valadi, T.Valavanoor, Thirumangalam, Kokoor, and Esanaikorai.

177

Table 5.14 Distribution of respondents by the cultivated crop

S. No. Crop No. of Respondents Percentage

1. Paddy 225 50.0

2. Banana 225 50.0

Total 450 100.0

Source: Primary data

The study was about two crops viz. paddy and banana. Paddy is the principal crop extensively cultivated in all the districts of Tamil Nadu having a unique three- season pattern. Banana the third trinity of fruits and most widely consumed is cultivated in all seasons. Equal sample size, from the cultivators of both crops

(50 per cent each) is considered.

178

Table 5.15 Area of land under paddy cultivation

S. No. Area of cultivation No. of Respondents Percentage 1. One acre 72 32.0 2. Two acres 94 41.8 3. Three acres 25 11.2 4. Four acres 8 3.6 5. Five acres 26 11.6 Total 225 100.0 Source: Primary data

DACNET (Department of Agriculture and Cooperation) the productivity is classified into five categories viz. high productivity (2,500 kg/Ha); medium productivity (2,000-2,500 kg/ha); medium-low productivity (1,500-2,000 kg/ha); low productivity (1,000-1,500 kg/ha); and very low productivity (less than 1,000 kg/ha).4 As per statistics available with DACNET, Tamil Nadu has 25 rice growing districts, out of which 27 lies under high productivity category and only one district falls under low productivity category.

Out of the total number of respondents (450), 225 respondents were paddy cultivators (Table 5. 13). Among these 225, 32 per cent of the respondents used one acre of land for paddy cultivation; 41.8 per cent cultivated paddy in two acres of land; 11.2 per cent in three acres; another 3.6 per cent in four acres; and the remaining 11.6 per cent of the respondents cultivated paddy in five acres of land.

Most of the farmers in this area are small farmers

179

Hypothesis Testing

H0- There is no statistically significant difference of opinion among farmers preferring the bio fertilizer for paddy.

Farmers preferring the bio fertilizer Test used Result Inference for paddy Paddy in acres Chi- P = 0.457 > The value of P is greater at square test 0.05 the significance level. Hence, the null hypothesis was accepted. It is concluded that there is no statistically significant difference of opinion among farmers preferring the bio fertilizer.

(Vide Annexure-III)

180

Table 5.16 Distribution of respondents by the seasons of paddy cultivation

S. No. of Season Percentage No. Respondents 1. Samba (Aug to Jan) 127 56.4 2. Kuruvai (June to Sep) 51 22.7 3. Thaladi (Oct to Feb) 47 20.9 Total 225 100.0 Source: Primary data

The respondents were studied according to the seasons in which they cultivate paddy. Within the 225 paddy cultivator respondents, nearly half (56.4%) of the respondents cultivate during Samba season, 22.7 per cent during Kuruvai season, and 20.9 per cent during the Thaladi season.

Table 5.17 Distribution of area of cultivation during Kuruvai season

S. Area of cultivation in Kuruvai No. of Percentage No. Season Respondents

1. One acre 33 64.7

2. Two acres and above 18 35.3

Total 51 100.0

Source: Primary data

The national practice shows that about 7 per cent crop is grown in Kuruvai/ kar/Sornavari season. The varieties grown during this season are mostly varieties of short duration ranging from 90 to 110 days.5

181

As per the previous Table 5.14, the number of respondents who cultivated paddy during the Kuruvai season was only 51. Within these 51 respondents a majority (64.7 %) cultivated less than one acre of land and the remaining 35.3 per cent did cultivation in two acres and above of land.

Hypothesis Testing

H0- The consumption pattern of fertilizers does not significantly differ among the size of the farm.

Size of land under Kuruvai season and Consumption of Fertilizer

Size of land under Test used Result Inference Kuruvai season

Paddy in acres t- test P = 0.007< The calculated P value less 0.05 is than the significance level 0.05. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected and concluded that there is statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents. This shows that the consumption increases as the landholding increases.

(Vide Annexure-III)

182

Table 5.18 Paddy yield per acre during Kuruvai season cultivation

S. Yield in Kuruvai Season per No. of Percentage No. Acre Respondents 1. 2,000 to 2,100 kg 19 37.3 2. 2,100 to 2,200 kg 17 33.3 3. 2,200 to 2,300 kg 15 29.4 Total 51 100.0 Source: Primary data

The yield quantity during Kuruvai cultivation shows that 37.3 per cent harvested 2,000 to 2,100 kg per acre; 33.3 per cent got 2,100 to 2,200 kg and 29.4 per cent harvested 2,200 to 2,300 kg per acre of their cultivated land.

The average paddy yield per acre is 2142 kg.

Table 5.19 Expenditure on Land Preparation during Kuruvai Season

S. Land Preparation Expense per No. of Percentage No. Acre Respondents 1. ` 4,000 to 4,500 32 62.7 2. ` 4,500 to 5,000 19 37.3 Total 51 100.0 Source: Primary data

Land preparation is a very crucial factor in cultivation. The study shows that during the Kuruvai season, 62.7 per cent of the respondents spent ` 4,000 to

` 4,500 and 37.3 per cent incurred an expenditure of ` 4,500 to ` 5,000 per acre towards land preparation. The average expenditure for land preparation per acre during Kuruvai is ` 4436.

183

Table 5.20 Expenditure towards Fertilizer during Kuruvai Season

S. Expenditure on Fertilizer No. of Percentage No. per Acre Respondents 1. ` 3,500 to 4000 20 39.2 2. ` 4,000 to 4500 17 33.3 3. ` 4,500 to 5000 14 27.5 Total 51 100.0 Source: Primary data

During the Kuruvai cultivation 39.2 per cent of the respondents incurred an expenditure of about ` 3,500 to ` 4,000 towards fertilizer; 33.3 per cent spent

` 4,000 to ` 4,500; and 27.5 per cent spent ` 4,500 to ` 5,000 per acre for fertilizer.

The average expenditure on fertilizer per acre during Kuruvai is ` 4191.

Table 5.21 Net Income per acre during Kuruvai Cultivation

S. No. Net Income per Acre No. of Respondents Percentage 1. ` 13,000 to 15000 19 37.3 2. ` 15,000 to 17000 19 37.2 3. ` 17,000 to 19000 13 25.5 Total 51 100.0 Source: Primary data

The net income of the respondents from the Kuruvai crop shows that 37.3 per cent earned ` 13,000 to ` 15,000; another 37.3 per cent earned ` 15,000 to

` 17,000; and 25.5 per cent managed to earn a net income of ` 17,000 to ` 19,000 per acre from the Kuruvai crop. The average net income of paddy per acre during

Kuruvai cultivation is ` 15764.

184

Table 5.22 Distribution of area of cultivation during Samba season

S. Area of cultivation in No. of Percentage No. Samba Season Respondents

1. One acre 76 59.8

2. Two acres 27 21.3

3. Three acres 5 3.9

4. Four acres 8 6.3

5. Five acres 11 8.7

Total 127 100.0

Source: Primary data

About 84 per cent of the country’s rice crop is grown in Samba/Thaladi season. Generally medium to long duration varieties are grown in this season.6

The total number of respondents who cultivated paddy in Samba season was 127 (Table 5.14). Among them 59.8 per cent cultivated in one acre; 21.3 per cent in two acres; 3.9 per cent in three acres; 6.3 per cent in four acres; and 8.7 per cent in five acres of land during Samba cultivation season.

185

Hypothesis Testing Size of land under Samba season cultivation and consumption of fertilizer

Size of land under Test used Result Inference Samba season

Paddy in acres One way P = 0.000 P is less than the significance ANOVA < 0.05 level. Hence the null hypothesis test is rejected. It is concluded that there is statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents during Samba cultivation period. As the land size increases the consumption is also increasing.

(Vide Annexure–III)

H0- There is no statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents.

186

Table 5.23 Paddy yield during Samba season cultivation

S. Yield in Samba No. of Percentage No. Season per Acre Respondents 1. 2,000 to 2,100 kg 59 46.5 2. 2,100 to 2,200 kg 37 29.1 3. 2,200 to 2,300 kg 18 14.1 4. 2,300 to 2,400 kg 10 7.9 5. 2,400 to 2,500 kg 3 2.4 Total 127 100.0 Source: Primary data

Among the 127 Samba cultivator respondents 46.5 per cent got an yield of

2,000 to 2,100 kg per acre; 29.1 per cent got 2,100 to 2,200 kg; 14.2 per cent got

2,200 to 2,300 kg; 7.9 per cent got 2,300 to 2,400 kg; and 2.4 per cent managed to get an yield of 2,400 to 2,500 kg per acre.

The average paddy yield per acre during Samba season is 2140 kg.

187

Table 5.24 Expenditure on Land Preparation in Samba Season

S. Land Preparation Expenses No. of Percentage No. per Acre Respondents

1. ` 4000 to 5000 112 88.2

2. ` 5,000 to 6000 11 8.7

3. ` 6,000 to 7000 4 3.1

Total 127 100

Source: Primary data

Land preparation expenditures incurred by 127 Samba season cultivators is shown in the above table. A majority (88.2%) of the respondents spent ` 4,000 to

` 5,000 towards initial land preparation; 8.7 per cent spent ` 5,000 to ` 6,000; and

3.1 per cent incurred an expenditure of ` 6,000 to ` 7000 per acre on land preparation.

The average land preparation expenses of paddy per acre during Samba cultivation is ` 4649.

188

Table 5.25 Expenditure on Fertilizer in Samba Season

S. Expenditure on Fertilizer No. of Percentage No. per Acre Respondents

1. ` 3,500 to 4,500 98 77.2

2. ` 4,500 to 5,500 24 18.9

3. ` 5,500 to 6,500 5 3.9

Total 127 100

Source: Primary data

The expenditure incurred on account of fertilizer during the Samba cultivation is presented in the above table. A majority (77.2 %) of the respondents spent ` 3,500 to ` 4,500 per acre towards fertilizer expense; 18.9 per cent spent

` 4,500 to ` 5,500; and 3.9 per cent spent ` 5,500 to 6,500 per acre for fertilizer.

The average expenditure on fertilizer per acre during Samba is ` 4267.

189

Table 5.26 Net Income per acre in Samba Season

No. of S. No. Net Income per Acre Percentage Respondents 1. ` 12,000 to 14,000 72 56.7 2. ` 14,000 to 16,000 33 26.0 3. ` 16,000 to 18,000 12 9.4 4. ` 18,000 to 20,000 7 5.5 5. ` 20,000 to 22,000 3 2.4 Total 127 100.0 Source: Primary data

The net income study shows that 56.7 per cent of the respondents earned

` 12,000 to ` 14,000 as net income per acre of cultivation; 26 per cent earned

` 14,000 to ` 16,000; 9.4 per cent earned ` 16,000 to ` 18,000; 5.5 per cent earned

` 18,000 to ` 20,000; and 2.4 per cent managed to make a net income of ` 20,000 to ` 22,000 per acre of land cultivated during Samba season.

Average Net Income per acre during Samba Season Cultivation ` 14417.

190

Table 5.27 The area of cultivation during Thaladi Season

S. Area of cultivation in Thaladi No. of Percentage No. Season Respondents 1. One acre 44 93.6 2. Two acres and more 3 6.4 Total 47 100.0 Source: Primary data

In general, the area under paddy cultivation in Navarai (Thaladi) season is only 9 per cent and only early maturing varieties are mostly grown in this season.7

As per Table 5.14, only 47 respondents engaged in paddy cultivation during

Thaladi season and within this an absolute majority (93.6 %) cultivated paddy in one acre of land and only 6.4 per cent of these respondents cultivated in two acres and more of land.

Hypothesis Testing Size of land under Thaladi season cultivation and fertilizer consumption Size of land under Test used Result Inference Thaladi season Paddy in acres t-test P = 0.000 P value is less than the level of < 0.05 significance, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. That is, there is statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer (Vide Annexure–III)

H0- There is no statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents.

191

Table 5.28 Paddy Yield during Thaladi season

S. No. of Yield per Acre Percentage No. Respondents

1. 1,800 to 2,000 kg 33 70.2

2. 2,000 to 2200 kg 12 25.5

3. 2,200 to 2400 kg 2 4.3

Total 47 100.0

Source: Primary data

The yield per acre during the Thaladi season shows that a majority (70.2 %) of the respondents got 1,800 to 2,000 kg per acre; 25.5 per cent harvested 2,000 to

2,200 kg of paddy; and only 4.3 per cent managed to get 2,200 to 2,400 kg per acre of land cultivated.

Average yield per acre during thaladi season is 1968 kg.

192

Table 5.29 Expenditure on Land Preparation during Thaladi Season

S. Expense per Acre on Land No. of Percentage No. Preparation Respondents

1. ` 3,500 to 4,500 42 89.4

2. ` 4,500 to 5,500 5 10.6

Total 47 100.0

Source: Primary data

Cost of land preparation study shows that an absolute majority (89.4 %) of respondents spent ` 3,500 to ` 4,500 on account of land preparation before cultivation and 10.6 per cent of the respondents incurred an expenditure of ` 4,500 to ` 5,500 per acre towards land preparation.

The average expenditure for land preparation per acre during Thaladi is

` 4106.

193

Table 5.30 Expenditure on Fertilizer during Thaladi Season

S. No. of Fertilizer Expense per Acre Percentage No. Respondents

1. ` 3,000 to 4,000 31 66.0

2. ` 4,000 to 5,000 14 29.8

3. ` 5,000 to 6,000 2 4.2

Total 47 100.0

Source: Primary data

During the Thaladi cultivation 66 per cent of the Thaladi cultivating respondents spent ` 3,000 to ` 4,000 for fertilizer; 29.8 per cent spent ` 4,000 to

` 5,000; and 4.2 per cent spent ` 5,000 to ` 6,000 per acre towards fertilizer.

The average expenditure on fertilizer per acre during Thaladi is ` 3882.

194

Table 5.31 Net Income from Paddy Cultivation during Thaladi Season

S. No. of Net Income per Acre Percentage No. Respondents

1. ` 14,000 to 16,000 36 76.6

2. ` 16,000 to 18,000 9 19.1

3. ` 18,000 to 20,000 2 4.3

Total 47 100.0

Source: Primary data

The above table 5.42 shows the net income earned in the Thaladi season.

A majority (76.6 %) of the respondents earned ` 14,000 to ` 16,000; 19.1 per cent earned ` 16,000 to ` 18,000; and 4.3 per cent managed to earn ` 18,000 to ` 20,000 per acre during the Thaladi season.

Average Net Income per acre during Thaladi Season is ` 15553.

195

Figure 5.8 Profile Analysis

196

Interpretation

From the figure, it is learned that the expenses during Thaladi season is comparatively lower than the other two seasons but the net income is higher. With regard to Kuruvai season the expenditures are less but the net income is more than

Samba season.

Table 5.32 Distribution of Area of Land under Banana Cultivation

S. No. of Area of Land Percentage No. Respondents 1. One 147 65.3 2. Two 54 24.0 3. Three 13 5.8 4. Four 2 0.9 5. Five acres 9 4.0 Total 225 100.0 Source: Primary data

In India, banana crop accounts for 2.8 per cent of agricultural GDP. In terms of area under cultivation, Tamil Nadu ranks first. It is an important crop for subsistence farmers, and ensures year-round security for food or income.8

Out of the 225 banana cultivating respondents, 65.3 per cent of the respondents cultivated banana in only one acre of land; 24 per cent cultivated in two acres; 5.8 per cent in three acres; 0.9 per cent in four acres of land; and four per cent of the respondents cultivated banana in five acres of land.

197

Hypothesis Testing

Area of land under banana cultivation and consumption of fertilizer

Area of land under banana Test used Result Inference cultivation

Banana in acres One way P = 0.007 < P value is less than the and fertilizer ANOVA 0.05 significance level .Hence, the test null hypothesis is rejected. It is concluded that there is statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the banana cultivation.

Bio fertilizer for Chi-square P = 0.553 > The above table shows the P banana. test 0.05 value is greater than the significance level. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted. It is concluded that there is no statistically significant difference of opinion among farmers preferring the bio fertilizer for banana.

(See Annexure-III)

H0 - There is no statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents.

198

Table 5.33 Yield of Banana

S. No. of Yield per Acre Percentage No. Respondents

1. 600 to 650 thars 116 51.6

2. 650 to 700 thars 44 19.6

3. 700 to 750 thars 9 4.0

4. 750 to 800 thars 28 12.4

5. 800 to 850 thars 28 12.4

Total 225 100.0

Source: Primary data

Banana yield is studied in number of “thars” per acre. A thar is a bunch of bananas on a single stem. About 51.6 per cent of the banana cultivators got 600 to

650 thars; 19.6 per cent got 650 to 700 thars; four per cent got 700 to 750 thars;

12.4 per cent got 750 to 800 thars; and another 12.4 per cent managed get 800 to

850 thars per acre of banana cultivation.

Average yield of banana per acre is 682 thars (bunch of banana).

199

Table 5.34 Expenditure on Land Preparation for Banana Cultivation

S. Expense per Acre on Land No. of Percentage No. Preparation Respondents

1. ` 28,000 to 30,000 133 59.1

2. ` 30,000 to 32,000 22 9.7

3. ` 32,000 to 34,000 44 19.6

4. ` 34000 to 36,000 26 11.6

Total 225 100.0

Source: Primary data

Prior to planting banana, the field is ploughed 4-6 times and allowed to weather for two weeks. Then the field is leveled by passing a blade harrow to renew the soil fertility. Plough furrows are formed lengthwise and breadth wise of the field at the required spacing.9

Here too, the land preparation cost shows that 59.1 per cent of the banana cultivators spent ` 28,000 to ` 30000; 9.8 per cent spent ` 30,000 to ` 32,000;

19.6 per cent spent ` 32,000 to 34,000; and 11.6 per cent spent ` 34,000 to ` 36,000 per acre towards land preparation cost per acre.

The average expenditure for land preparation per acre for banana is ` 30671.

200

Table 5.35 Expenditure on Fertilizer for Banana Cultivation

S. No. of Expense on Fertilizer per Acre Percentage No. Respondents

1. ` 17,000 to 19,000 200 88.9

2. ` 19,000 to 21000 15 6.7

3. ` 21,000 to 23,000 6 2.6

4. ` 23000 to 25,000 4 1.8

Total 225 100

Source: Primary data

Expenditure on fertilizer in banana cultivation shows that an absolute majority (88.9 %) of banana cultivators spent ` 17,000 to ` 19,000; 6.7 per cent spent ` 19,000 to ` 21,000; 2.7 per cent spent ` 21,000 to ` 23,000; and 1.8 per cent of the respondents spent ` 23,000 to ` 25,000 per acre on fertilizer.

The average expenditure of fertilizer for banana cultivation is ` 18346.

201

Table 5.36 Net Income for Banana Cultivation

S. No. of Net Income per Acre Percentage No. Respondents

1. ` 28,000 to 30,000 114 50.7

2. ` 30,000 to 32000 52 23.2

3. ` 32,000 to 34,000 39 17.3

4. ` 34000 to 36,000 20 8.8

Total 225 100

Source: Primary data

The net income accrued by banana cultivation shows that 50.7 per cent of the banana cultivating respondents earned ` 28,000 to ` 30,000; 23.2 per cent earned

` 30,000 to ` 32,000; 17.3 per cent earned ` 32,000 to ` 24,000; and only 8.8 per cent of the respondents managed to get a net income of ` 34,000 to ` 36,000 per acre by way of banana cultivation.

The average net income of banana cultivation is ` 30688.

202

Figure 5.9 Profile chart comparing Revenue and Expenditure

203

The above figure reveals the fact that banana yields very high income when compared with paddy. The level of consumption of fertilizer for banana is less than the paddy. It is also one of the reason for the high profit.

Table 5.37 Level of satisfaction due to the utilization of fertilizer in the increasing yield

S. No. of Level of Satisfaction Percentage No. Respondents

1. Satisfied 286 63.5

2. Highly satisfied 34 7.6

3. Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied 105 23.3

4. Dissatisfied 16 3.6

5. Highly dissatisfied 9 2.0

Total 450 100.0

Source: Primary data

More than 70 per cent (63.5 +7.6) of the respondents were satisfied in using fertilizer, 5.6 per cent of the respondents were not satisfied in using fertilizer and the remaining 23.3 per cent of the respondents did not register any opinion at all.

204

Table 5.38 Distribution of respondents by their reason for not using Bio-fertilizers

S. No. of Reason Percentage No. Respondents

1. Costly 169 56.1

2. Shortage 104 34.6

3. Time 28 9.3

Total 301 100.0

Source: Primary data

Global data on organic farming reports that organic fertilizers have a low

NPK ratio and may take more time to release the nutrients as they need some microbial activity to get them working.10

Among the 450 respondents, 301 were not using bio-fertilizer (Table 5.39).

The reasons for not using bio-fertilizer are observed in the above table. Nearly 34.6 per cent of the respondents argued that bio-fertilizers were always in shortage. But

56.1 per cent of the respondents claimed that the price of bio-fertilizers was very high and unaffordable. The remaining 9.3 per cent said that bio-fertilizers take some time to react.

205

Table 5.39 Distribution of respondents by bio-fertilizer usage

S. No. of Using bio-fertilizer Percentage No. Respondents

1. Bio fertilizer only 0 0

2. Bio fertilizer and chemical fertilizer 149 33.1

3. Chemical fertilizer only 301 66.9

Total 450 100

Source: Primary data

The study found that 33.1 per cent who were using both bio-fertilizers and chemical fertilizers. The study reveals that no respondent was using only bio- fertilizer. Further 66.9 per cent were using only chemical fertilizer. Hence, most of the sample respondents were using chemical fertilizer. In this study though the farmers were motivated to use the bio fertilizers, the non availability of bio fertilizer in time is the main reason for not using bio fertilizer only (0 %).

206

Table 5.40 Distribution of respondents according to the motivation to use bio-fertilizer

S. No. of Motivated Percentage No. Respondents

1. Yes 378 84.0

2. No 72 16.0

Total 450 100

Source: Primary data

A majority of the respondents (84%) agreed that they were motivated to use bio-fertilizers, whereas, the remaining 16 per cent were yet to be motivated.

207

Table 5.41 Preference of chemical fertilizers

DAP Urea Potash Sulphate Gypsum Mix (NPK) Rank Recorded № Score № Score № Score № Score № Score № Score

1st 6 395 2370 26 156 7 42 23 138 28 168 32 192 2nd 5 16 80 396 1980 27 135 7 35 11 55 20 100 3rd 4 12 48 11 44 397 1588 25 100 8 32 4 16 4th 3 10 30 10 30 12 36 304 912 53 159 54 162 5th 2 8 16 1 32 6 12 68 136 305 610 33 66 6th 1 9 9 6 6 1 1 23 23 45 45 307 307 Total 450 2553 450 2248 450 1814 450 1344 450 1069 450 843 Preferential order I II III IV V VI Source: Primary data

208

209

The preference of the respondents regarding the chemical fertilizers was studied using ranking table shown above. DAP was the first preference by a vast majority (2553 score points) of the respondents. The second preference was urea by getting 2248 points of the respondents. Potash was the third level of preference by

1814 points of the respondents. Sulphate took fourth level of preference, Gypsum in the 5th level. And NPK is least preferred.

Table 5.42 Brands of Chemical fertilizer used

S. No. of Brand Name Percentage No. Respondents

1. SPIC 164 36.4

2. Parry / Corramandal 72 16.0

3. MFL 52 11.6

4. Kothari 42 9.3

5. Factambas 40 8.9

6. IFFCO 38 8.4

7. Nagarjuna 34 7.6

8. Others 8 1.8

Total 450 100

Source: Primary data

Use of fertilizer may differ with regard to factors such as soil, plant and other socio economic conditions.

The respondents were classified under seven fertilizer brands and those who use some other brand other than the seven specified. SPIC seemed to be more

210 popular than all other brands and used by 36.4 per cent of the respondents. The second popular brand was Parry/Corramendal with the usage of 16 per cent of the respondents. The third popular brand was MFL with 11.6 per cent. The fourth was

Kothari with 9.3 percent of the respondents’ support. The fifth level goes to

Factambas having 8.9 per cent of the respondents. The sixth popular brand was

IFFCO with 8.4 per cent respondents. The seventh level of popularity went to

Nagarjuna with a 7.6 per cent of the respondents’ usage. The remaining 1.8 per cent of the respondents used some other brands.

The Pareto chart categorically shows that the top preferred fertilizer in this area is SPIC followed by Parry / Corramendal. Their market share is 53%.

211

Figure 5.11 Brands of Chemical fertilizer used

212

Table 5.43 Respondents and Agricultural Awareness Programme

Awareness programme No. of Farmers Percentage

Co-operative Societies 251 55.77

Private Organization 132 29.33

Own experience 43 9.56

Others 24 5.34

Total 450 100.00

Source: Primary Data

The above table shows that the farmers of sample respondents are attending the agricultural awareness programme by various sources. Table 5.15 reveals 55.77 per cent of the farmers from co-operative societies, 29.33 per cent of the farmers from private organization, 9.56 per cent of the farmers from own experience and

5.34 of the farmers are attending other sources.

213

Table 5.44 Supply source of chemical fertilizer

S. No. of Source of Supply Percentage No. Respondents

1. Co-operative society 271 60.2

2. Private dealers 163 36.2

3. Others 16 3.6

Total 450 100.0

Source: Primary data

The source of supply of chemical fertilizers was grouped into three categories as shown in the above table. A majority (60.2%) of the respondents purchase from cooperative societies. Another 36.2 per cent purchase from private dealers, and the remaining 3.6 per cent of the respondents purchase their chemical fertilizer from other sources.

This indicates that the cooperative society plays a dominant role as a supply source of fertilizer.

214

Table 5.45 Opinion on the advantages of chemical fertilizer

S. No. of Advantages Percentage No. Respondents

1. Increase in Quantity of yield 215 47.8

2. Quality of yields 77 17.1

3. Easily available 76 16.9

4. Minimum cost 10 2.2

5. Other 72 16.0

Total 450 100

Source: Primary data

Chemical fertilizers are equally rich in three essential nutrients

(phosphorous, nitrogen, and potassium) that are needed for crops and always ready for immediate supply of nutrients to plants if situation demands.

Most of them (84%) claimed that chemical fertilizers were less expensive and easily available and increased the quantity of output. The remaining 16 per cent offered varied reasons.

The main reasons for the purchase of chemical fertilizers are quantity and quality of yield, easy availability and minimum cost. They together form 84 per cent.

215

Figure 5.12 Opinion on the advantages of chemical fertilizer

216

Table 5.46 Opinion about the problems of using chemical fertilizers

S. No. of Problems Percentage No. Respondents

1. Decline soil fertility 213 47.3

2. Hazards to health 186 41.4

3. Low quality 38 8.4

4. Poor quantity 13 2.9

Total 450 100.0

Source: Primary data

“Chemical fertilizers may not replace trace mineral elements in the soil which become gradually depleted by crops. This depletion has been linked to studies which have shown a marked fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in the produce”.11 The study analyzed the disadvantages of chemical fertilizers About 47.3 per cent of the respondents said that chemical fertilizers deteriorate soil fertility; 41.3 per cent claimed that application of these chemicals is dangerous from health point of view. About 8.4 per cent claimed that these chemical fertilizers give low quality of yield and 2.9 per cent advocated that the output is low.

The study reveals the fact that the respondents agree that the two harmful effects of chemical fertilizer are (i) decline of soil fertility and (ii) hazards to health.

These are very serious matters to look into.

217

Table 5.47 Opinion about the using mixed form of chemical fertilizer

S. No. of Opinion Percentage No. Respondents

1. Highly satisfied 87 12.0

2. Satisfied 118 30.0

3. Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied 136 38.2

4. Dissatisfied 94 19.5

5. High dissatisfied 15 3.3

Total 450 100

Source: Primary data

Opinion about the using mixed form of chemical fertilizer was studied. The study revealed that, the satisfaction level of respondents about using the mixed chemical fertilizers is 42 per cent whereas the dissatisfaction level is 23 per cent

Remaining 38 per cent are in indecisive status for which the reasons are to be explored.

218

Figure 5.13 Opinion about the using mixed form of chemical fertilizer

219

Table 5.48 Order of preference of Bio-fertilizers

Kuppai Vappam- Panja- Green manure Cow dung Azospirillium manure punnakku kaviyam Rank Recorded № Score № Score № Score № Score № Score № Score

1st 6 307 1842 165 990 15 90 1 6 2 12 4 24 2nd 5 7 35 195 975 156 780 64 320 16 80 85 425 3rd 4 35 140 3 12 210 840 101 404 80 320 29 116 4th 3 50 150 62 186 25 75 199 597 83 249 21 63 5th 2 44 88 21 42 34 68 67 134 242 484 17 34 6th 1 7 7 4 4 10 10 18 18 27 27 294 294 Total 149 2262 149 2209 149 1863 149 1479 149 1172 149 956 Preferential order I II III IV V VI Source: Primary data

220

221

Out of the 450 respondents, 149 were using bio-fertilizers (Table 11).

Among these 149, the preference level of various bio-fertilizers was studied. Six types of bio-fertilizers were found to be used by the respondents as shown in the above table. First preference went to “Kuppai manure” and “green manure” followed by “Cow dung”. The remaining bio fertilizers namely “Vappum punnakku”, “Azospirilium” and “Panjakaviyam” are least preferred. This is also supported by Pareto chart analysis

Table 5.49 Distribution of respondents according to the actual use of the bio-fertilizers

S. No. of Preference Percentage No. Respondents

1. Kuppai Manure 53 35.6

2. Green Manure 44 29.5

3. Cow Dung 22 14.8

4. Veppam Punnakku 16 10.7

5. Azospirillam 14 9.4

Total 149 100.0

Source: Primary data

The type of bio-fertilizer used by the 149 respondents is presented above.

About 29.5 per cent of the respondents used ‘green manure’; 14.8 per cent used

‘cow dung’; 35.6 per cent applied ‘Kuppai’. Only 9.4 per cent used ‘Azospirillam’ and the remaining 10.7 per cent applied ‘Veppampunnakku’%.

222 Figure 5.15 Distribution of respondents by actually using the bio-fertilizer

223

This shows that the farmers prefer the biofertilizers ‘kuppai’ (Composite manure) and ‘green manure’ over others.

Table 5.50 Supply source of bio-fertilizer

S. No. of Source of Supply Percentage No. Respondents

1. Private dealers 67 45.0

2. Co-operative society 34 22.8

3. Others 48 32.2

Total 149 100.0

Source: Primary data

The source of supply of bio-fertilizers for the 149 respondents who were using bio-fertilizers was also grouped into three categories as shown in the above table. Nearly quarter (22.8 %) of the respondents purchased fertilizer from cooperative societies. Another 45 per cent purchased from private dealers, where as the remaining 32.2 per cent of the respondents purchased their bio fertilizer from some other sources.

In the case of chemical fertilizer the main source of suppliers are cooperative societies but in bio fertilizer it is private dealers.

224

Table 5.51 Source of knowledge about bio-fertilizer

S. No. of Source Percentage No. Respondents

1. Those who are already using 89 59.7

2. Friends 44 29.6

3. Relatives 13 8.7

4. Government 3 2.0

Total 149 100

Source: Primary data

More than half (59.7 %) of the respondents came to know about the usage of bio-fertilizer from experience by already using. 29.5 per cent know through their friends. Mere 8.7 per cent came to know from their relatives and 2 per cent through government sources.

225

Table 5.52 Opinion on the advantages of using bio-fertilizer

S. No. of Advantages Percentage No. Respondents

1. Fertility of the soil 77 51.7

2. Environment friendly 47 31.5

3. Increase in Quantity of yield 11 7.4

4. Quality of yields 10 6.7

5. No Hazard 4 2.7

Total 149 100

Source: Primary data

Bio fertilizers are natural and organic that helps to keep in the soil with all the nutrients and live micro-organisms required for the benefits of the plants.

According to a survey report presented by the Foundation Ecology and Faring

(SOEL), Germany, currently more than 31 million hectares of farmland are under organic management worldwide, a gain of around five million hectares in a single year. The study points out that a major increase of organic land has taken place in

China.12

Farmers and gardeners are now starting to use bio-fertilizer for it has many benefits when it comes to cultivating plants. Studies have proved that this form of fertilizers help replace as much as 25 per cent of chemical nitrogen and phosphorus used in cultivating crops. Since bio-fertilizers are live micro-organisms, they do not cause any harm on the environment. “Organic fertilizers have been known to improve the biodiversity (soil life) and long-term productivity of soil”.13

226

According to this study, half (51.7 %) of the respondents, who are using bio- fertilizer, opined that it sustains and improves the fertility of soil. Nearly 31.5 per cent agreed that bio-fertilizers are environment friendly; 7.4 per cent mentioned that the quantity of yield was increased by the usage of bio-fertilizer. Bio-fertilizer results in quality of yields – so responded 6.7 per cent. Only 2.7 per cent of the respondents advocated that the produce by the application of bio-fertilizer has no hazard for health.

227 Figure 5.16 Opinion on the advantages of using bio-fertilizer

228 MEASUREMENT

H Sl. Test P Significance O Significant/ H Result Accepted/ No. O applied value level Not significant Rejected

1. The consumption pattern of One way 0.066 0.05 P = 0.066 > 0.05 Accepted Not significant fertilizers does not significantly ANOVA differ among size of the farm. test (Paddy in kuruvai)

2. The consumption pattern of One way 0.006 0.05 P = 0.006 < 0.05 Rejected significant fertilizers does not significantly ANOVA differ among size of the farm. test (Paddy in samba)

3. The consumption pattern of One way 0.053 0.053 P = 0.053 > 0.05 Accepted Not significant fertilizers does not significantly ANOVA differ among size of the farm. test (Paddy in thaladi)

4. HO - Banana One way 0.007 0.05 P = 0.007 < 0.05 Rejected significant ANOVA test

5. (Bio-fertilizer vs. chemical fertilizer Chi-square 0.457 0.05 P = 0.457 > 0.05 Accepted Not significant for Paddy). test

6. (Bio-fertilizer vs. chemical fertilizer Chi-square 0.553 0.05 P = 0.553 > 0.05 Accepted Not significant for Banana). test

7. Age of the sample respondents has Chi-square 0.619 0.05 P = 0.619 > 0.05 Accepted Not significant no significant effect on the test consumption pattern of fertilizers (Paddy in Kuruvai)

229 H Sl. Test P Significance O Significant/ H Result Accepted/ No. O applied value level Not significant Rejected

8. Age of the sample respondents has Chi-square 0.722 0.05 P = 0.722 > 0.05 Accepted Not significant no significant effect on the test consumption pattern of fertilizers (Paddy in Samba)

9. Age of the sample respondents has Chi-square 0.725 0.05 P = 0.725 > 0.05 Accepted Not significant no significant effect on the test consumption pattern of fertilizers (Paddy In Thaladi)

10. (Bio-fertilizer and chemical Chi-square 0.226 0.05 P = 0.226 > 0.05 Accepted Not significant fertilizer for Paddy). test

11. Bio-fertilizer and chemical fertilizer Chi-square 0.078 0.05 P = 0.078 > 0.05 Accepted Not significant for Banana test

12. Educational qualification has no Chi-square 0.570 0.05 P = 0.570 > 0.05 Accepted Not significant significant relationship between the test uses of different types of fertilizers (Paddy farmers)

13. Educational qualification has no Chi-square 0.570 0.05 P = 0.570 > 0.05 Accepted Not significant significant relationship between the test uses of different types of fertilizers (Banana Farmers)

14. Chemical Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.137 0.05 DAP, P = 0.137 Accepted Not significant Wallis test > 0.05

15. Chemical Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.219 0.05 Potash, P = 0.219 Accepted Not significant Wallis test > 0.15

230 H Sl. Test P Significance O Significant/ H Result Accepted/ No. O applied value level Not significant Rejected

16. Chemical Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.157 0.05 Sulphate, P = Accepted Not significant Wallis test 0.157 > 0.05

17. Chemical Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.564 0.05 NPK, P = 0.564 Accepted Not significant Wallis test > 0.05

18. Chemical Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.000 0.05 Gypsum, P = Rejected significant Wallis test 0.000 < 0.05

19. Chemical Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.002 0.05 Urea, P = 0.002 Rejected significant Wallis test < 0.05

20. Bio Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.305 0.05 Azospirillium Accepted Not significant Wallis test P = 0.305 > 0.05

21. Bio Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.531 0.05 Veppam- Accepted Not significant Wallis test punnakku, P = 0.531 > 0.05

22. Bio Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.502 0.05 Green Manure, Accepted Not significant Wallis test P = 0.502 > 0.05

23. Bio Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.795 0.05 Cow-dung, Accepted Not significant Wallis test P = 0.795 > 0.05

24. Bio Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.129 0.05 Panjakaviam, P = Accepted Not significant Wallis test 0.129 > 0.05

25. Bio Fertilizer Kruskal- 0.034 0.05 Kuppai, P = Rejected significant Wallis test 0.034 < 0.05

231

Chapter - V Notes

1. S. Sankaran, Indian Economy, Margham Publications, Chennai, 2009, pp. 6-7. 2. C. P. Chandrasekhar and Jayati Ghosh (2005). “The Burden of farmers’ debt”. Business Line.Internet Edition. From http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2005/08/30/stories/ht m Last accessed on 3rd March, 2011. 3. S. Sankaran, Agricultural Inputs and Methods, Indian Economy, Margham Publications, Chennai, 2009, pp. 22. 4. “Rice in India: A Status Paper” - Rice Growing seasons. From http://dacnet.nic.in/rice/ Status.htm. Last accessed on March 11, 2011. 5. Rice in India: A Status Paper” – Rice Growing Seasons. From http://dacnet.nic.in/rice/ Status.htm. Last accessed on March 11, 2011 6. “Rice in India: A Status Paper” – Rice Growing Seasons. From http://dacnet.nic.in/ rice/ Status2002.htm. Last accessed on March 11, 2011. 7. “Rice in India: A Status Paper” – Rice Growing Seasons. From http://dacnet.nic.in/rice / Status.htm. Last accessed on March 11, 2011. 8. Satya Sundaram. Why are bananas a good export crop? Retrieved from http://ffymag. com/admin/issuepdf/Banana-Feb09.pdf. Last accessed on March 17, 2011. 9. N. Jeyakumar, Agricultural Economics, Vista International Publications House, Delhi, 2010, p. 32. 10. D. M. Hegde, B. S. Dwivedi and S. N. Sudhakara Babu, ‘Biofertilizer for Central Production in India: A Review’ Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 69, No. 2, 1997, p. 73. 11. Vance, Uhde-Stone and Allan (2003). “Phosphorus acquisition and use: Critical adaptations by plants for securing a non renewable resource”. New Phythologist, Vol. 157(3), pp. 423-447. 12. “Global Data on Organic Farming”. The Foundation Ecology & Farming (SOEL), Germany. From http://biofertilizer.com/. Last accessed on March 08, 2011. 13. Enwall, K., Laurent, P., and Sara Hallin (2005). “Activity and composition of the denitrifying bacterial community respondent differently to long-term fertilization”. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. American Society for Microbiology. Vol.71(2), pp. 8335-8343. ______

CHAPTER - VI FINDINGS, POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION . .

A study on the economics of consumption of fertilizer at a block level is of

utmost importance in the present day environment. In this study, an in-depth

analysis is done with reference to the consumption pattern of fertilizer at Lalgudi

Block in Tiruchirappalli District in the state of Tamil Nadu. Analysis has been done

with the crops such as paddy and banana. Various types of consumption pattern are

also studied in detail. Major findings of the study are given in the chapter

6.1 MAJOR FINDINGS

6.1.1 Socio-Demography of the Respondents

 It is to observe that sample respondents were selected from the ten villages

randomly out of 45 villages in the Lalgudi Taluk of Tiruchirappalli District .

Each village is represented by 45 respondents. Among the study sample, 14.9

per cent were below 30 years; 21.3 per cent belonged to 31 to 40 years age

group; 27.8 per cent were 41 to 50 years; 24.7 per cent were 51.70 years; and

11.3 per cent were 61 years or above.

 It is found that a majority of 92.2 per cent of the respondents involved in

agriculture are males. This reflects the cultural setup of India.

 A majority of 85.1 per cent of the respondents are found to be Hindus, as the

practice of Hinduism is the way of life for most of the Indians.

233

 The community wise distribution of ST, SC, BC and FC shows that BC

community is the dominant community in the Indian social set up.

 It is observed that the educational level of the respondents was studied under

five categories, viz. illiterates’ primary, secondary, Higher Secondary (HSC)

and Degree. From the related chart, it is known that the educational level

follows negatively skewed distribution with major chunk on left side. That is,

still most of the people are illiterate and primary level education.

 It is found from median, the average size of the family is between 4 and 5.

6.1.2 Economic Status of the Respondents

 It is found that 95 per cent of the family had income of less than ` 50,000 per

year. This indicates that the per capita income of farmers in this region is very

low.

 It is observed that most of them avail loans from different sources. About a half

of the respondents (50%) borrow loan from Cooperative banks, 22.7 per cent

through mortgage and the rest from banks and other sources.

6.1.3 Agricultural activities

Irrigation

 The channel of irrigation depends on the nature of water table. Since the place

of location of the study is on the banks of Coleroon river, Bore wells (49.5 %)

and canal irrigation (39.6 %) are dominant than open well (10.9 %)

234

Fertilizer Usage and Preferences

 It is observed that one third of the respondents were using bio-fertilizer,

whereas, two third of the respondents were using chemical fertilizer. However,

the above one third, were using bio-fertilizer, also uses chemical fertilizer. The

data reveals that no respondent is using only bio-fertilizer.

 A majority of the respondents (84%) agreed that they were motivated to use

bio-fertilizers, whereas, the remaining 16 per cent did not get any motivation.

Among the motivated only 40 percent actually practicing it. The hesitation for

using the bio fertilizer are (i) costly and (ii) shortage

6.1.4 Findings relevant to chemical fertilizers

 Various chemical forms of chemical fertilizers are available in the market. So

the researcher is interested to know the most popular chemical component. DAP

(di-ammonium phosphate) is preferred as the first preference by a vast majority

of the respondents. The second preference is Urea. Potash was the third level

of preference. Sulphate as the fourth level of preference. Gypsum in the 5th

level and NPK mix was least preferred.

 The researcher is also curious to know the popular brand of manufactured

product of chemical fertilizers. It is found that SPIC is more popular brand than

all other brands and used by 36.4 per cent of the respondents. The second

popular brand was Parry/Corramendal with the usage of 16 per cent of the

respondents. The third popular brand was MFL with 11.6 per cent. The fourth

was Kothari, the fifth level goes to FACT. The sixth popular brand was IFFCO

with 8.4 per cent respondents. The seventh level of popularity went to

235

Nagarjuna with a 7.6 per cent of the respondents’ usage. The remaining 1.8 per

cent of the respondents used some other brands.

 With respect to the source of purchasing, a majority of the respondents that is

60.2 per cent purchase from cooperative societies. Another 36.2 per cent

purchase from private dealers, and the rest from other sources.

 The reasons behind using the chemical fertilizers are (i) high yield (47.8%);

(ii) quality of yield (17.1%), (iii) easy availability (16.9%) and (iv) less

expensive (about 2.2%). The remaining 16.0 per cent offered some other

reasons.

 But at the same time they also agree the negative aspects of using chemical

fertilizers as (i) deteriorate soil fertility (47.3 per cent of the respondents) , (ii)

Leads to health hazards ( 41.3%). About 8.4 per cent claimed that these

chemical fertilizers give low quality of yield and 2.9 per cent advocated that the

output is low.

 About the level of satisfaction using the mixed chemical fertilizers 42 per cent

were satisfied , 23 per cent expressed their dissatisfaction, About 35 per cent

were neither satisfied nor dissatisfied.

6.1.5 Findings relevant to bio fertilizers

 It is found that out of the 450 respondents, 149 were using bio-fertilizers. Five

types of bio-fertilizers were found to be used. The preference level of various

bio-fertilizers in use was studied by the researcher. First preference went to

“Azospirillum” followed by “Veppampunnakku” (Neam cake) as the second

preference. “Kuppai” (composed manure) was the third level preference. The

236

respondents ranked “Green manure” as the fourth level of preference. “Cow

dung” was preferred as the 5th level. Sixth level of preference was

“Panjakaviyam”.

 Though they express their preference in the above said rank order but in reality,

it is found contradicting. In the usage ‘kuppai’ takes the first position followed

by ‘green manure’. They together form 65 percent. The rest are preferred in the

following order as ‘cow dung’, ‘veppam punnakku’ and ‘Azospirillam’.

 The major supply source of bio fertilizers is ‘private dealers’ (45%)

Cooperative societies are helpful to certain extend (23%). The role of ‘other

sources’ are significant (32%).

 Regarding the source of information about the usage of bio-fertilizer, almost

half of the respondents (80%) came to know from the previous experiences

(either by themselves or by their peer). Mere 8.7 per cent came to know from

their relatives and 2 per cent through government sources.

 About the opinion on the advantages of using bio fertilizers, a good number of

the of the respondents agree on (i) it sustains and improves the fertility of soil

(ii) environment friendly. The advantageous factors are (iii) the quantity of

output was increased (iv) quality of yields and (v) least health hazard.

6.1.6 Method of application of fertilizers

 It is found that hand ‘Spray method’ was popular. It is adopted by 67.1 per cent

of the respondents. ‘Machine spray method ‘was used by 11.3 per cent and 8.4

per cent used ‘Sprinkler method’. But 13.1 per cent of the respondents use some

other methods other than the above three.

237

6.1.7 Cultivation Practices

 The major cultivation practice in the study region is paddy and banana. It may

noted that the study gives equal importance to these two crops by selecting

equal number of cultivators (225).

 From the land holdings, it is observed that majority of the farmers are small

farmers and marginal farmers.

6.1.8 Paddy Cultivation

 Paddy is cultivated in the three seasons namely ‘Kuruvai’, ‘Samba’ and

‘Thaladi’. It is observed that nearly half (56.4%) of the respondents cultivate

during Samba season; 22.7 per cent during Kuruvai season; and 20.9 per cent

during ‘Thaladi’ season.

 The averages of yield per acre 2142 kg, expenditure for land preparation

` 4436. Expenditure on fertilizer ` 4191 and net income ` 15764 during the

Kuruvai seasons.

 The averages of yield per acre 2140 kg, expenditure for land preparation

` 4649. Expenditure on fertilizer ` 4267 and net income ` 14417 during the

Samba seasons.

 The averages of yield per acre 1968 kg expenditure for land preparation ` 4106

expenditure on fertilizer ` 3882. And net income ` 15553 during the Thaladi

seasons. From the figure, it is learned that the expenses during Thaladi season is

comparatively lower than the other two seasons but the net income is more.

238

With related to Kuruvai season the expenditures are less but the net income is

more than Samba season.

6.1.9 Banana Cultivation

 It is found that banana is cultivated between one and six acres in the study

group.

 The averages of yield per acre 682 thars (bunch of bananas), expenditure for

land preparation ` 30671. Expenditure on fertilizer ` 18346, and net income

were calculated ` 30688. The figure reveals the fact that banana yields very

high income when compared with paddy. The level of consumption of fertilizer

is less than the paddy. It is also a reason for the high profit

6.2 FINDINGS WITH REGARD TO RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

 Whether the consumption pattern of fertilizer for paddy significantly varies due

to the size of the farm during all the three seasons is tested using One-way

ANOVA test.

 The test showed that the consumption pattern of fertilizer for paddy do not vary

significantly due to the size of the farm in Kuruvai and Thaladi seasons. But it

significantly varies in Samba season, the same test was conducted about

consumption pattern of fertilizer for banana cultivation. The conclusion drawn

is, consumption pattern of fertilizer varies significantly due to land holding.

 Chi square test was applied to know whether the size of the land under paddy/

banana cultivation influences the respondents’ preference of using bio-fertilizer

under the significance level of 0.05. It is revealed through Chi Square test that

239

the size of the land under paddy/ banana do not influence the respondents’

preference of using bio-fertilizer.

 Again, Chi-square test was applied to know whether the age of the respondents

influences the fertilizer utilization pattern during all the three seasons of paddy

cultivation. The inferences categorically said that the age of the respondents has

no say in fertilizer utilization pattern during the three seasons of paddy

cultivation and banana cultivation.

 Association between Educational qualification and the usage of different types

of fertilizers were studied for both paddy and banana using Chi Square test for

independence of attributes. Educational qualification of the cultivators and their

application of bio-fertilizer are independent in both the cases. That is

educational qualification has no role in the usage of fertilizers.

 The above problem is approached in another angle by considering the

educational qualification as a factor which has components and the application

of fertilizers. So ‘One way ANOVA’ test was applied. The test explicitly said

that all levels of education behave alike in the usage of fertilizers. No

educational group has any significant difference of opinion about using

fertilizers.

 Kruskal-Wallis test mainly for rank order data which is analogue of one way

ANOVA (scale variable) was applied to analyze any significance on the

preference pattern (as it is given of rank) of chemical fertilizers due to the

various educational levels of respondents. (a) In the case of chemical fertilizers,

it was found that educational qualification has statistically significant

240

association on the preference of Urea and Gypsum but not in the other chemical

fertilizers. (b) In the case of bio-fertilizers , a statistically significant association

was found with the usage of “Kuppai” only and with all other types of bio-

fertilizers, no statistically significant association was found.

6.3 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

This section presents the possible directions and suggestions for further research in the area of fertilizer utilization pattern by the farmers. On the basis of the findings of the present study some of the suggestions are presented here below:

1. Manure collected in the village and other areas may be collected and utilized

by the localized fertilizer manufacturing companies for effective utilization of

bio-technology.

2. The government can think in terms of going in for extensive cultivation

instead of practicing intensive cultivation. This may minimize the problems

related to fertilizer usage and may also provide employment to millions of

rural poor.

3. The government can open some bio-fertilizer factories so that the use of

chemical fertilizer is minimized in the present stage.

4. Massive advertisements may be given in villages about the type of mix of

chemical and bio-fertilizers according to the cropping pattern so that the

farmers are benefited by these advertisements. Also Agricultural officers or

block level officers can advice the farmers about the profitability in using the

mix of chemical and bio-fertilizers.

241

5. Farmers need more motivation regarding the usage of bio-fertilizer.

6. The non-availability has been cited as a major reason by the respondents for

not using bio-fertilizers. Hence efforts may be taken up to ensure the

availability with increased number of outlets.

7. Model farms based on bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides can be set up to

educate and to instill confidence among the potential farmers.

8. The farmers should be sensitized on the optimum level of usage of fertilizers

to prevent over and under usage of fertilizer through simple charts to be

distributed through fertilizer outlets and agricultural departments.

6.4 CONCLUSION

Agriculture is the primary occupation of majority of the people in India. The productivity in agriculture depends on the social, technological and economic factors. These factors are significantly influenced by the yield of the farmers and their income generating activities. Fertilizer is the prime factor to change the yield and the income level of the farmers. The perfect mix of chemical and bio-fertilizers may change the lifestyle of the farmers. Hence this study has brought to light the consumption pattern of fertilizer at Lalgudi Block. The plight of farmers can be minimized only if the government ensures the availability of required fertilizers, seeds and other input materials in time to the farmers.

The aim of the research was to find out the utilization pattern of fertilizer among the farmers in Lalgudi Block of Tiruchirappalli District in Tamil Nadu

State. This dissertation is not the last word. It just unravels a few of the visible and

242 hidden facets of fertilizer utilization. Overall, the data analysis showed that the results were reliable and indicated a good measure of sampling accuracy.

6.5 SCOPE FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

 Further comparative research may be conducted by examining farmers using

exclusively bio-fertilizers vs. chemical fertilizers.

 It would be feasible to conduct further in-depth research on the consumption

pattern of fertilizers in other locations as well.

 Similar study may be conducted taking sample at the district and/or state level.

_____

BIBLIOGRAPHY . .

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APPENDICES . .

Appendix-I

TESTING OF HYPOTHESES

1. Age of the paddy cultivating respondents and the fertilizer utilization during Kuruvai cultivation The below table shows the Chi-square test results to study the significance between the age of the respondents and the fertilizer utilization pattern during Kuruvai cultivation period.

Hypotheses

H0- Age of the sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers

Fertilizer utilization (Kuruvai) Statistical Age ` 4000 ` 4500 ` 5000 inference (n = 20) (n = 17) (n = 14) Below 30 yr 4 3 2 (20%) (17.6%) (14.3%) 31 to 40 yr 1 3 4

(5%) (17.6%) (28.6%) 2 41 to 50 yr 6 4 4 X = 6.254 (30%) (23.5%) (28.6%) Df = 8 51 to 60 yr 7 3 2 P = 0.619 (35%) (17.6%) (14.3%) 61 yr & above 2 4 2 (10%) (23.5%) (14.3%)

Result P = 0.619 > α = 0.05, the significance level

Inference The above table shows that P = 0.619 is greater than the significance level at 0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that there is no significant association between the age of the respondents and the fertilizer utilization during Kuruvai cultivation.

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2. Age of the paddy cultivating respondents and the fertilizer utilization in Samba season cultivation

Chi-square test was applied to find any significance between the age group of respondents and the fertilizer utilization during Samba cultivation season.

Hypotheses

H0- Age of the sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers.

Fertilizer utilization (Samba) Statistical Age ` 4000 ` 4500 ` 5000 ` 5500 ` 6000 inference (n = 60) (n = 38) (n = 14) (n = 10) (n = 5) Below 30 yr 7 8 1 2 0 (11.7%) (21.1%) (71%) (20%) 31 to 40 yr 8 4 3 2 9 (15%) (21.1%) (28.6%) (30%) (40%) X2 = 12.313 41 to 50 yr 21 8 2 2 1 Df = 16 (35%) (21.1%) (14.3%) (20%) (20%) P = 0.722 51 to 60 yr 13 10 6 2 1 (21.7%) (26.3%) (42.9%) (20%) (20%) 61 yr & above 10 4 1 1 1 (16.7%) (10.5%) (7.1%) (10%) (20%)

Result P = 0.722 > α= 0.05, the significance level

Inference The test shows the P value 0.722, which is greater than 0.05. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted. It is concluded that there is no significant difference between the age of the respondents and the fertilizer utilization pattern among the Samba cultivator respondents.

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3. Age of the paddy cultivating respondents and the utilization of fertilizer during Thaladi season To know whether the age has any influence on the fertilizer utilization during thaladi season. It was analyzed using chi-square test for independence of attributes.

Hypotheses

H0- Age of the sample respondents has no influential effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers.

Fertilizer utilization (Thaladi) Statistical Age ` 4000 ` 4500 ` 5000 inference (n = 31) (n = 14) (n = 2) Below 30 yr 4 4 0 (12.9%) (28.6%)

31 to 40 yr 9 3 0 (29%) (21.4%) X2 = 5.303 41 to 50 yr 8 3 1 Df = 8 (25.8%) (21.4%) (50%) P = 0.725

51 to 60 yr 6 2 0 (19.4%) (14.3%) 61 yr & above 4 2 1 (12.9%) (14.3%) (50%)

Result P = 0.725 > α= 0.05, the significance level

Inference As per the table P is greater than the significance level. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that age of the sample respondents has no influential effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers.

iv

4. Age of the paddy cultivating respondents and their application of bio-fertilizer

The significance between the age of the paddy cultivators and their application preference of bio-fertilizer is studied by chi-square test. Among the 225 paddy cultivators, only 73 applied bio-fertilizer along with chemical fertilizer. The highest age group among those who use bio-fertilizer was 41 to 50.

Hypotheses

H0- Age of the sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers.

Usage of bio-fertilizer Statistical Age Yes (n = 73) No (n = 152) inference Below 30 yr 8 27 (11%) (17.8%)

31 to 40 yr 12 34 (16.4%) (22.4%) X2 = 5.654 41 to 50 yr 20 40 Df = 4 (27.4%) (26.3%) P = 0.226

51 to 60 yr 23 29

(31.5%) (19.1%) 61 yr & above 10 22 (13.7%) (14.5%)

Result P = 0.229 > α= 0.05, the significance level

Inference The study shows that P is greater than the significance level. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that age of the sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers.

v

5. Age of the paddy cultivating respondents and their pattern of willingness to use bio-fertilizer

One way ANNOVA test was applied to find any significant different among the different age group of paddy cultivating respondents in their willingness to use bio- fertilizer. G1 to G5 represents the different age groups as mentioned just below the table. The mean values found were 1.77, 1.74, 1.67, 1.56, and 1.69 respectively. Here there are five groups. They are: G1 = Below 30 yr, G2 = 31 to 40 yr, G3 = 41 to 50 yr, G4 = 51 to 60 yr, G5 = 61 yr & above

Hypotheses

H0- Age of the sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers.

Usage of Statistical Mean S.D SS Df MS bio-fertilizer inference Between Groups 1.239 4 .310

G1(n=35) 1.77 0.426

G2(n=46) 1.74 0.444 F = 1.418 G3(n=60) 1.67 0.475 P = 0.229 G4(n=52) 1.56 0.502

G5(n=32) 1.69 0.471

Within Groups 48.076 220 .219

Result P = 0.229 > 0.05, the significance level

Inference The study outcome shows the P is greater than the significance value. Hence, it is concluded that there is no significant difference among the different age group of paddy cultivating respondents in their willingness to use bio-fertilizer.

vi

6. Age of the banana cultivating respondents and fertilizer utilization

The significance between the age of the banana cultivators and their fertilizer utilization was studied by chi-square test. The result is shown in the above table.

Hypotheses

H0- Age of the sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers.

Fertilizer utilization (banana cultivators) Statistical Age `20000 `21000 `22000 `23000 inference (n=200) (n=15) (n=6) (n=4) Below 30 yr 27 5 0 0 (13.5%) (33.3%) 31 to 40 yr 43 5 2 0 (21.5%) (33.3%) (33.3%) X2 = 22.022 41 to 50 yr 60 2 3 0 Df = 12 (30%) (13.3%) (50%) P = 0.037 51 to 60 yr 51 3 1 4 (25.5%) (20%) (16.7%) 100%) 61 yr & above 19 0 0 0 (9.5%)

Result P = 0.037 < 0.05, the significance level

Inference The test result shows that P is less than the significance level. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected. It is concluded that age of the sample respondents has significant effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers by the banana cultivating respondents.

vii

7. Age of the banana cultivating respondents and their preference of bio- fertilizer

The significance between the age of the banana cultivators and their application of bio- fertilizer utilization was analyzed by chi-square test. The result is shown in the above table. Out of the 225 banana cultivating respondents only 76 respondents used bio- fertilizer along with other chemical fertilizers. The remaining 149 respondents never used bio-fertilizer.

Hypothesis

H0- Age of the sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers.

Application of bio-fertilizer Statistical Age Yes No inference (n=76) (n=149) Below 30 yr 6 26 (7.9%) (17.4%) 31 to 40 yr 14 36 (18.4%) (24.2%) X2 = 8.402 41 to 50 yr 21 44 Df = 4 (27.6%) (29.5%) P = 0.078

51 to 60 yr 26 33

(34.2%) (22.1%)

61 yr & above 9 10 (11.8%) (6.7%)

Result P = 0.078 > 0.05, the significance level

Inference The above table shows that P is greater than the significance level. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted. It is concluded that the age of the sample respondents has no significant effect on the consumption pattern of fertilizers.

viii

8. Educational qualification of the paddy cultivating respondents and their application of bio-fertilizer

Educational qualification of the paddy cultivators and their application of bio-fertilizer is studied by chi-square test.

Hypotheses

H0- Educational qualification has no significant relationship between the uses of different types of fertilizers.

Educational Application of bio-fertilizer Statistical qualification Yes (n=73) No (n=152) inference Primary 23 39 (31.5%) (25.7%) Secondary 22 45 (30.1%) (29.6%) X2 = 2.963 HSC 10 29 Df = 4 (13.7%) (19.1%) P = 0.564 Degree 7 9 (9.6%) (5.9%) Illiterate 11 30 (15.1%) (19.7%)

Result P = 0.564 > 0.05, the significance level

Inference The test result shows that P is greater than the significance level. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that educational qualification has no significant relationship between the uses of different types of fertilizers.

ix

9. Educational qualification of the paddy cultivating respondents and their application of bio-fertilizer

One way ANNOVA test was applied to find any significant difference among the different educational levels of paddy cultivators in using bio-fertilizer. G1 to G5 denotes the levels of education as primary, secondary, HSC, Degree, and illiterate respectively. There are five groups: G1 = Primary, G2 = Secondary, G3 = HSC, G4 = Degree, G5 = Illiterate.

Hypotheses

H0- Educational qualification has no significant relationship between the uses of different types of fertilizers

Educational Statistical Mean S.D SS Df MS qualification inference Between Groups 0.650 4 0.162

G1(n=62) 1.63 0.487 F = 0.734 G2(n=67) 1.67 0.473 P = 0.570 G3(n=39) 1.74 0.442

G4(n=16) 1.56 0.512

G5(n=41) 1.73 0.449

Within Groups 48.666 220 0.221

Result P = 0.570 > 0.05, the significance level

Inference The test result shows that P is greater than the significance level. Hence, it has been concluded that there is no significant difference between the different categories of educational qualification of the respondents and the application preference of bio-fertilizer.

x

10. Educational qualification of banana cultivators and their application of bio-fertilizer

Chi-square test was applied to study the significance between the educational qualification and the application preference of bio-fertilizer.

Hypotheses

H0- Educational qualification has no significant relationship between the uses of different types of fertilizers.

Application of Educational bio-fertilizer Statistical qualification inference Yes (n=76) No (n=149) Primary 20 37 (26.3%) (24.8%) Secondary 24 46 (31.6%) (30.9%) X2 = 5.459 HSC 14 22 Df = 4 (18.4%) (14.8%) P = 0.243

Degree 12 16

(15.8%) (10.7%) Illiterate 6 28 (7.9%) (18.8%)

Result P = 0.243 > 0.05, the significance level

Inference The test shows that P is greater than the significance level. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted. It is concluded that educational qualification has no significant relationship between the uses of different types of fertilizers.

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11. Educational qualification of banana cultivators and their application of bio- fertilizer

One way ANOVA test was also applied to find any significant difference between different educational levels of respondents and their application of bio-fertilizer. The means of different educational levels was tabulated in the above table. There are five groups, they are: G1 = Primary, G2 = Secondary, G3 = HSC, G4 = Degree, G5 = Illiterate.

Hypotheses

H0- Educational qualification has no significant relationship between the uses of different types of fertilizers.

Educational Statistical Mean SD SS Df MS Qualification inference Between Groups 1.221 4 0.305 G1(n=57) 1.65 0.481

G2(n=70) 1.66 0.478 F = 1.368 G3(n=36) 1.61 0.494 P = 0.570 G4(n=28) 1.57 0.504 G5(n=34) 1.82 0.387 Within Groups 49.108 220 0.223

Result P = 0.570 > 0.05, the significance level

Inference The test shows that the value of P greater than the significance level. Hence, it is concluded that there is no significant difference among the different educational levels of banana cultivating respondents and their application preference of bio-fertilizer.

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12. Educational qualification and preference of chemical fertilizer Kruskal-Wallis test was applied to analyze any significance on the preference pattern of fertilizers and the various educational levels of respondents. The Kruskal-Wallis test is the nonparametric test equivalent to the one-way ANOVA and an extension of the Mann-Whitney test to allow the comparison of more than two independent groups. It is used here to compare six sets of scores (chemical fertilizers) that come from different groups on the basis of educational level.

Hypotheses

H0- Educational qualification has no significant relationship between the uses of different types of fertilizers.

S. No. Educational Qualification Mean Rank 1. Dap Primary (n=119) 230.14 Secondary (n=137) 235.40 HSC (n=75) 218.69 Degree (n=44) 207.98 Illiterate (n=75) 217.15 2. Urea Primary (n=119) 234.96 Secondary (n=137) 207.50 HSC (n=75) 244.51 Degree (n=44) 234.30 Illiterate (n=75) 219.19 3. Potash Primary (n=119) 234.04 Secondary (n=137) 225.04 HSC (n=75) 209.25 Degree (n=44) 223.36 Illiterate (n=75) 230.28 4. Sulphate Primary (n=119) 209.39 Secondary (n=137) 242.81 HSC (n=75) 217.41 Degree (n=44) 228.11 Illiterate (n=75) 225.99

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S. No. Educational Qualification Mean Rank 5. Gypsum Primary (n=119) 196.23 Secondary (n=137) 243.93 HSC (n=75) 241.09 Degree (n=44) 258.07 Illiterate (n=75) 203.59 6. Mix (NPK) Primary (n=119) 216.13 Secondary (n=137) 225.43 HSC (n=75) 222.59 Degree (n=44) 247.41 Illiterate (n=75) 230.54

The mean rank for each educational group is presented against each chemical fertilizer type in the above table.

Test Statisticsa, b

Dap Urea Potash Sulphate Gypsum Mix (NPK) Chi-Square 6.983 16.442 5.745 6.634 21.501 2.966 df 4 4 4 4 4 4 Asymp. Sig. 0.137 0.002 0.219 0.157 0.000 0.564 a. Kruskal Wallis Test; b. Grouping Variable: Educational qualification

Result In case of DAP, P = 0.137 > 0.05 In case of Urea, P = 0.002 < 0.05 In case of Potash, P = 0.219 > 0.15 In case of Sulphate, P = 0.157 > 0.05 In case of Gypsum, P = 0.000 < 0.05 In case of NPK, P = 0.564 > 0.05 Inference The P values of Urea and Gypsum are less than the significance level. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected in the case of Urea and Gypsum only. On all other cases the null hypothesis is accepted. It is concluded that there is difference of preferences due to educational qualification in utilizing Urea and Gypsum. But there is no difference of preference in using DAP, Potash, Sulphate, and NPK.

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13. Educational qualification and preference of type of bio-fertilizer In the same way Kruskal-Wallis Test was applied to study the significance on the preference level of bio-fertilizers among the different educational levels of the respondents.

Hypotheses

H0- Educational qualification has no significant relationship between the uses of different types of fertilizers.

S. No. Educational Qualification Mean Rank 1. Azospirillium Primary (n=43) 71.43 Secondary (n=46) 79.04 HSC (n=24) 81.25 Degree (n=19) 80.18 Illiterate (n=17) 58.47 2. Veppaonnaku Primary (n=43) 69.12 Secondary (n=46) 73.89 HSC (n=24) 85.38 Degree (n=19) 81.39 Illiterate (n=17) 71.09 3. Kuppai Primary (n=43) 88.14 Secondary (n=46) 76.85 HSC (n=24) 69.65 Degree (n=19) 63.08 Illiterate (n=17) 57.65 4. Green manure Primary (n=43) 81.17 Secondary (n=46) 74.04 HSC (n=24) 62.23 Degree (n=19) 76.39 Illiterate (n=17) 78.44 5. Cow dung Primary (n=43) 70.79 Secondary (n=46) 77.40 HSC (n=24) 77.90 Degree (n=19) 68.71 Illiterate (n=17) 82.09

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S. No. Educational Qualification Mean Rank 6. Panjakaviam Primary (n=43) 68.30 Secondary (n=46) 85.47 HSC (n=24) 76.75 Degree (n=19) 74.26 Illiterate (n=17) 61.97 The mean rank for each educational group is presented against each bio-fertilizer type in the above table.

Test Statistics ab Green Cow Panja Azospirillium Veppaonnaku Kuppai manure dung kaviam Chi-Square 4.828 3.163 10.433 3.342 1.679 7.140 df 4 4 4 4 4 4 Asymp. Sig. 0.305 0.531 0.034 0.502 0.795 0.129 a. Kruskal Wallis Test; b. Grouping Variable: Educational qualification

Result In case of Azospirillium P = 0.305 > 0.05 Veppampunnakku, P = 0.531 > 0.05 Kuppai, P = 0.034 < 0.05 Green Manure, P = 0.502 > 0.05 Cow-dung, P = 0.795 > 0.05 Panjakaviam, P = 0.129 > 0.05

Inference The P value of Kuppai (composed manure) is found to be less than the significance level. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected in the case of kuppai only. On all the other cases the null hypothesis is accepted. It is concluded that there is difference of preferences due to educational qualification in utilizing Kuppai. But there is no difference of preference in using Azospirillium, Veppaonnaku, Green manure, Cow dung and Panja kaviam.

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14. Size of land under Kuruvai season and Consumption of Fertilizer t- test for two independent samples is applied to find significant difference between the size of the land under Kuruvai cultivation and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents. The two groups are: G1 = One acre, and G2 = Two acres and above

Hypotheses

H0- There is no statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents.

Group Statistics q17 a1 Kuruvai N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Below 1 acre 33 1.76 0.867 0.151 2 to 4 acres 18 2.28 0.461 0.109

Independent Sample Test Levene’s 95% of Test for Confidence t-Test for Equality of Means Equality of Interval of the q17 a1 Kuruvai Variances Difference Sig. Mean Std. Error F Sig. t df Lower Upper (2 tailed) Difference Difference Equal variances assumed 17.584 .000 -2.362 49 0.022 –0.52 0.220 -0.963 -0.078 Equal variances not assumed -2.797 48.993 0.007 –0.52 0.186 -0.894 -0.146

Result P = 0.007< 0.05, the significance level

Inference The calculated P value less is than the significance level 0.05. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected and concluded that there is statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents. This shows that the consumption increases as the landholding increases.

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15. Size of land under Samba season cultivation and consumption of fertilizer

One way ANNOVA test was applied to find any significant difference between the size of land under Samba cultivation and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents. Here , there are five groups of land holdings. They are: G1 = One acre, G2 = Two acres, G3 = Three acres, G4 = Four acres, and G5 = Five acres.

Hypotheses

H0- There is no statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents.

Source SS Df MS Table value P value Between Groups 100.458 4 25.114 F = 53.203 0.000 Within Groups 57.590 122 0.472 Total 158.047 124

Result P (= 0.000 ) < 0.05, the significance level.

Inference Hence the null hypothesis is rejected. It is concluded that there is statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents during Samba cultivation period. As the land size increases the consumption is also increasing.

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16. Size of land under Thaladi season cultivation and fertilizer consumption t-Test for two samples was applied to find any significant difference between the size of land and the fertilizer usage pattern under Thaladi season cultivation. The two groups are: G1 = One acre, and G2 = Two acres .

Hypothesis

H0- There is no statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents. t-Test Group Statistics q17 a1 Thaladi N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Below 1 acre 44 1.32 0.601 0.091 2 to 4 acres 3 2.00 0.000 0.000

Independent Sample Test Levene’s 95% of Test for Confidence t-Test for Equality of Means Equality of Interval of the q17 a1 Thaladi Variances Difference Sig. Mean Std. Error F Sig. t df Lower Upper (2 tailed) Difference Difference Equal variances assumed 5.213 .027 -1.944 45 0.058 –0.68 0.351 -1.388 0.025 Equal variances not assumed -7.522 43.000 0.000 –0.68 0.091 -0.865 -0.499

Result P (= 0.000) < α (=0.05), the significance level

Inference As per the above table the value of P less than the level of significance, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. That is, there is statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer.

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17. Area of land under banana cultivation and consumption of fertilizer

One way ANNOVA test was applied to find any significant difference between the size of land under banana cultivation and the utilization of fertilizer. There are five groups namely: G1 = One acre, G2 = Two acres, G3 = Three acres, G4 = Four acres, G5 = Five acres.

Hypotheses

H0- There is no statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the respondents.

Banana Land SS Df MS Statistical inference Between Groups 5.695 4 1.424 F = 5.008 Within Groups 62.545 220 0.284 P = 0.007 Total 68.240 224

Result P = 0.007 < 0.05, the significance level

Inference P value is less than the significance level .Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected. It is concluded that there is statistically significant difference between the size of the farm and the consumption pattern of fertilizer by the banana cultivation.

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18. Area of land under paddy cultivation and preference of bio-fertilizer

Chi square test was applied to analyze the respondents’ preference of bio-fertilizer. It investigates whether there is any change of opinion due to the size of land holding at the significance level of 0.05.

Hypotheses

H0- There is no statistically significant difference of opinion among farmers preferring the bio fertilizer for paddy.

Application of bio-fertilizer Paddy acres Statistical inference Yes (n=73) No (n=152) One acre 21 51 (28.8%) (33.6%) Two acres 36 58 (49.3%) (38.2%) X2 = 3.638 Three acres 8 17 Df = 4 (11%) (11%) P = 0.457 Four acres 1 7 (1.4%) (4.6%) Five acres 7 19 (9.6%) (12.5%)

Result P = 0.457 > 0.05, the significance level

Inference The value of P is greater at the significance level. Hence, the null hypothesis was accepted. It is concluded that there is no statistically significant difference of opinion among farmers preferring the bio fertilizer.

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19. Area of land under banana cultivation and preference of bio-fertilizer

Chi-square test was applied to find any significance between the size of land under banana cultivation and the preference of bio-fertilizer by the respondents.

Hypotheses

H0- There is no statistically significant difference of opinion among farmers preferring the bio fertilizer for banana.

Application of bio-fertilizer Banana acres Statistical inference Yes (n = 76) No (n = 149) One acre 46 101 (60.5%) (67.8%)

Two acres 19 35 2 (25%) (23.5%) X = 3.030 Df = 4 Three acres 7 6 P = 0.553 (9.2%) (4%) Four acres 1 1 (1.3%) (0.7%) Five acres 3 6 (3.9%) (4%)

Result P = 0.553 > 0.05, the significance level

Inference The above table shows the P value is greater than the significance level. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted. It is concluded that there is no statistically significant difference of opinion among farmers preferring the bio fertilizer for banana.

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20. Additional Occupation and Type of Crop

The below table shows the Chi-square test results to study additional occupation of the sample farmers does not differ with respect to the type of crop.

Hypotheses

H0- Additional occupation of the sample farmers does not differ with respect to the type of crop

Additional Nature of cultivation Statistical Occupation Paddy (n=225) Banana (n=225) inference 9 17 Government (4%) (7.6%) 8 7 Public sector (3.6%) (3.1%) X2 = 3.753 30 23 Df = 4 Private sector (13.3%) (10.2%) P > 0.05 15 18 Not Significant Business (6.7%) (8%) 163 160 Agriculture (72.4%) (71.1%)

Result P = 0.440 > α= 0.05, the significance level

Inference The above table shows that P is greater than the significance level. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that the additional occupation of the sample farmers does not differ significant with respect to the type of crop.

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21. Size of Farm and Additional Occupations

The below table shows the Chi-square test results to study Size of farm of the sample farmers has no significant influence on the other occupational pattern

Hypotheses

H0- Size of farm of the sample farmers has no significant influence on the other occupational pattern.

Size of farmer Additional Statistical Small Medium occupation Large (n=57) inference (n=148) (n=245) 10 13 3 Government (6.8%) (5.3%) (5.2%) 7 6 2 Public sector (4.7%) (2.4%) (3.5%) X2 = 7.092 22 27 4 Df = 8 Private sector (14.9%) (11%) (7%) P > 0.05 10 21 2 Not Significant Business (6.8%) (8.6%) (3.5%) 99 178 46 Agriculture (66.9%) (72.7%) (80.8%)

Result P = 0.527 > α= 0.05, the significance level

Inference The above table shows that P is greater than the significance level. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted. It has been concluded that the size of farm of the sample farmers has no significant influence on the other occupational pattern.

____

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Appendix-II

QUESTIONNAIRE

A STUDY ON ECONOMICS OF FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION IN AGRICULTURE AT LALGUDI BLOCK OF TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU

Dr. A. Jebamalai Raja Mr. A. Justin Thiraviam Research Advisor Ph.D. Research Scholar Urumu Dhanalakshmi College Tiruchirappalli – 620 019

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

1. Name :

2. Gender : Male  Female 

3. Religion : Hindu  Muslim  Christian 

4. Community : SC  ST  BC  FC 

5. Age in years : 1-20  21-40  41-60  61 & above 

6. Educational Qualification : Illiterate  Primary  Secondary  Higher Secondary  Graduate 

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7. Name of the Block : 8. Name of the village : 9. Nearest Agriculture Office : 10. No. of Members in the Family : 11. No. of Members engaged in Agriculture : 12. Income from Agricultural activities : 13. Details of land, area owned and cultivation :

Area owned Area cultivated Nature of Land (in acre) (in acre)

Wet (areable)

Dry

14. Farm size owned : Less than one acre  1 to 5 acre  5 and above 

15. Farm size Lease : Less than one acre  1 to 5 acre  5 and above 

16. Main crops cultivated and its area : Paddy  Banana  Sugar cane  Others 

17. Main crops grown (rank) : Paddy  Banana  Sugar cane  Others 

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18. Details of crops:

Area in Period in Once/ Type of crop acre months twice/thrice Paddy Banana Sugar cane Others

19. Secondary occupation : Government  Public sector  Private sector  Business  Agriculture only  Others  20. Total income per annum from all sources :

21. Fertilizer use pattern- chemical and bio fertilizers:

S. No. Chemical fertilizers Bio fertilizers i. DAP Azospirillium ii. UREA Veppamponnaku iii. Potash Kuppai iv. Sulphate Green manure v. Gypsum Cow dung vi. Mix (NPK) Panja kaviam

22. Sources of fertilizers:

S. No. Chemical fertilizer Bio fertilizer i. Co-operative Society Co-operative society ii. Private dealers Private dealers iii. Own Own iv. Any other, if yes……………… Any other, if yes………………

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23. Brand name of chemical fertilizer used : Parry or Corramandal  SPIC: Urea  SPIC: DAP  MFL  Kothari  Nagarjuna  Factambas  IFFCO 

Any other, if yes......

24. Do you use bio fertilizer? : Yes  No 

25. If yes, what bio fertilizers do you apply? : Green manure  Cow dung  Kuppai  Azospirillium  Veppamponnaku 

26. How do you come to know about bio-fertilizer : Relatives  Friends  Already used  Government 

Any other......

27. Advantages of bio fertilizer : Fertility of the soil  Quality of yield  Quantity increased  Good for health  Environment friendly 

28. If you don’t use, what are the difficulties in applying it? : Costly  Shortage  Time  Not available 

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29. If it is avail will you apply? : Strongly agree  Agree  Never  Disagree  Strongly disagree  30. Do you get enough quantity of bio fertilizer? : Yes  No 

31. Do you use chemical fertilizer : Yes  No 

32. Advantages of using chemical fertilizer : Quantity increased  Quality of yield  Easily available  Minimum cost 

If any ......

33. Problems of using chemical fertilizer : Decline soil fertility  Hazards to health  Low quality  Poor quantity 

Any other...... 34. Season wise fertilizer used for Paddy:

Paddy Quantity Seasonal and Days Total acre kg/bag Samba Kuruvai Thaladi

35. Annual fertilizer used for Banana:

Banana Quantity Period per acre kg/bag

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36. Subsidies for fertilizers: Quantity Actual Subsidy Total Fertilizers purchased Price rate Subsidy (kg/bag) (in `) (in `) (in `) DAP UREA Potash Sulphate Gypsum Mix (NPK) Azospirillium Veppamponnaku

37. Total Expenditure, Output and Revenue for Paddy:

Samba Kuruvai Thaladi

Output

CO43 /CO43 IR20 ADT36 Ponni /CO43 IR20 ADT36 Ponni /CO43 IR20 ADT36 Ponni 1. Expenses Preparing Ploughing Budding Transplantation Weeding Rat Cap Pesticide Watering Dusting Seed Harvest Fertilizer Exp – Chemical & Bio Other Expenses Total Expenses (`)

xxx

Samba Kuruvai Thaladi

Output

CO43 /CO43 IR20 ADT36 Ponni /CO43 IR20 ADT36 Ponni /CO43 IR20 ADT36 Ponni

2. Output Output in kg / Bag Rate per kg Paddy output – value in ` Value of Straw (`) Total Output value (`)

3. Net Revenue (`) (Total output – Total Expenditure)

38. Total Expenditure, Output and Revenue for Banana:

Type of Banana Particulars Green Nei- Nend- Poovan Robusta Banana poovan ram 1. Expenditure Kothu – I Kothu – II Weeding Packing Labour – Bund Remove Unwanted Sucker Thar Induce Dose Traveling Exp. Misc+ Suckers Propping Carrying Cost Cutting

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Type of Banana Particulars Green Nei- Nend- Poovan Robusta Banana poovan ram Packing Rent Fertilizer Exp – Chem & Bio Total Expenses (`)

2. Output Output in kg Rate per kg Output – Value in ` Value of Straw (`) Total Output value (`)

3. Net Revenue (`) (Total output – Total Expenditure)

39. Crop income and expenditures:

Total Expenditures Total output Total Net Crops Expenditure for fertilizers in quantity income income (in `) (in `) (kg/bag) (`) (`)

Paddy

Banana

40. Do you get any motivation in using bio fertilizer? : Yes  No 

41. If yes, what type of motivation :

42. If no, what are reasons :

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43. Opinion about the use of Chemical fertilizers : Very High  High  Normal  Low  Very low  44. Opinion about the use of Bio-fertilizers : Very High  High  Normal  Low  Very low  45. Opinion about the use of Mix of Chemical fertilizers : Very High  High  Normal  Low  Very low  46. Method of mix :

47. Level of satisfaction in the type of mix used : Highly satisfied  Satisfied  No opinion  Not Satisfied  48. In what manner you recommend the mix to others? : Strongly  Frequently  Usually  Occasionally  Never 

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49. Opinion about the use of fertilizer to increase the output in quantity : Very High  High  Normal  Low  Very low 

50. Level of satisfaction in increasing the output : Very High  High  Normal  Low  Very low 

51. Do you attend any Agricultural awareness programme? : Yes  No 

52. If yes, How do you come to know the awareness programme? : Cooperative Societies  Private Organisation  Own Experience  Any other (specify): ______

53. Any other information :

______

CHAPTER - I INTRODUCTION AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY

CHAPTER - II REVIEW OF THE PAST STUDIES

CHAPTER - III FERTILIZER USE ON AGRICULTURE - A FRAME WORK

CHAPTER - IV METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER - V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

CHAPTER - VI FINDINGS, POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDICES