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Title: the Response of the Labour Government to the “Revolution of Carnations” in Portugal, 1974-76

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Title: the Response of the Labour Government to the “Revolution of Carnations” in Portugal, 1974-76 1 Title: The Response of the Labour Government to the “Revolution of Carnations” in Portugal, 1974-76 Name: Simon Cooke Institution: UCL Degree: PhD History 2 I, Simon Justin Cooke confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 3 Abstract This thesis examines the response of the Labour Government to events in Portugal following the coup d’état in April 1974. Britain, as Portugal’s traditional ally and largest trading partner, with close partisan ties between the Labour movement and Portuguese Socialist Party, was a leading player in the international response to developments in Lisbon. The Portuguese Revolution also had wider implications for British foreign policy: the presence of communist ministers in government threatened both the cohesion of NATO and detente with the Soviet Union; West European leaders sought to influence events in Lisbon through the new political structures of the EEC; the outcome of events in Portugal appeared to foreshadow a political transition in Spain; and decolonisation in Angola and Mozambique made Rhodesia’s continued independence unlikely. This study therefore contributes to historical debate concerning the Labour Government and its foreign policy during the 1970s. It considers the extent to which the domestic, political and economic difficulties of the Labour Government during this period undermined the effectiveness of its foreign policy. This thesis also considers the relative importance of, and interplay between, the factors which shaped post-war British foreign policy: the Cold War, membership of NATO and the EEC; relations with newly independent states in the developing world and the Commonwealth; and the relationship with the United States. It also examines how those within the government who play a role in foreign policy- principally the Prime Minister, Foreign Secretary, Cabinet, Treasury and the Foreign Office- interpreted the national interest and sought to influence policy-making accordingly; the role of outside groups, such as the political parties, Trade Unions and the media, are also considered. 4 Contents Acknowledgements 5 Abbreviations 6 Chapter I Introduction 8 Chapter II The April Revolution and Spinola Government 35 (25th April – 30th September, 1974) Chapter III Britain and Portuguese Decolonisation 72 (25th April – 30th September, 1974) Chapter IV The First Crisis: Portugal’s lurch to the left 107 (September 30th, 1974 – April 25th, 1975) Chapter V The Second Crisis: The Hot Summer 148 (April 25th – September 9th, 1975) Chapter VI The Consolidation of Democracy 193 (September 8th, 1975 – July 23rd, 1976) Chapter VII Conclusion 233 Bibliography 253 Appendix 1: Persons 271 5 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisors Kathleen Burk and Christopher Abel for their support, encouragement and generosity with time throughout my studies, for reading my thesis chapter by chapter and providing valuable comments. I would also like to acknowledge their professionalism in continuing to do so after each retired. I would like to thank other academics at UCL and the Historical Institute with whom I have been able to share ideas. Acknowledgement is also due to the UCL History Department for their financial support during several research trips and language courses, in particular with my invaluable visit to Lisbon during the summer of 2011. Many thanks to those who have taught me Portuguese during my PhD: Regina Asprey and Rui Almeida for private tuition, the excellent staff at the UCL Languages Centre, particularly Roosevelt de Paula, those at the Universidade de Lisboa Summer School (both teaching and library staff), and finally to Barbara Dresner for checking the accuracy of all translations in this thesis. I would like to thank the staff at the many libraries and archives where I conducted my research: the National Archives at Kew, the Labour Party Archive in Manchester, the Modern Records Centre at Warwick University, the Bodleian Library, the British Library and Senate House Library. I would also like to thank Pedro Aries Oliviera and Rui Lopes for explaining the Portuguese historiography of the Carnation Revolution. Many thanks are due to my colleagues and friends: Katharina Rietzler, Charlotte Riley, Matthew Edwards, Justin Brummer, Chris Jeppeson, David and Nicola Reid, Elliott and Krysta Grady, Spencer Grady, Faiz Petra, Steven Lewis, Amanda Missell, Adrian Von Werde Jervis, Dawn Ford, Steven Jeffrey, Pamela Mansell and Barbara Dresner. I would finally like to thank my family for their support and encouragement throughout my studies. 6 List of Abbreviations AFM Armed Forces Movement (Movimento das Forças Armadas) CBI Confederation of Business Industry CDS Social Democratic Centre Party (Centro Democrático e Social - Partido Popular) COPCON AFM military command (Comando Operacional do Continente) Coremo Revolutionary Committee of Mozambique (Comité Revolucionário de Moçambique) CSCE Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe EIB European Investment Bank FNLA Angolan Liberation Front (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola) Frelimo Mozambique Liberation Front (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) G77 Group of 77 (loose grouping of developing nations) ICFTU International Confederation of Free Trade Unions ILO International Labour Organisation JIC Joint Intelligence Committee MBFR Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions MPLA Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola) NEC National Executive Committee OAU Organisation of African Unity ODM Ministry for Overseas Development PAIGC African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (Partido Africano para a Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde) PCP Portuguese Communist Party (Partido Comunista Português) PSP Portuguese Socialist Party (Partido Socialista Português) 7 SED Southern Europe Department TUC Trades Union Congress UDI Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia) ZANLA Zimbabwean African National Liberation Movement 8 Chapter I – Introduction Britain’s role and status as a world power, following its rapid decolonisation and gradual economic decline, had effectively ceased by the late 1960s. The 1956 Suez crisis had signalled that Britain was no longer an independent power, and the 1960s Rhodesia crisis ended initial optimism that global influence might be retained through the Commonwealth. The decision in January 1968 to withdraw British military forces from ‘East-of -Suez’ confirmed its decline as a world power, leading to the conclusion of the 1969 Duncan Report that Britain had become “a power of the second order.’1 During the 1970s, the country sought to reinvent its global role as a regional power through membership of the European Economic Community. This was also a period of significant change in the nature of power within international politics following the rise of global energy prices, superpower détente and the emergence of a multi-polar world order. However, Britain’s worsening economic difficulties during the 1970s world recession, alongside domestic political instability resulting from minority governments, led many to question its continued relevance in international affairs. The Labour Government elected in February 1974 faced very different circumstances from those of its 1960s predecessors. These had begun with great optimism, but there was now widespread cynicism towards a government which had not been expected to win the election and appeared to lack a clear strategy for addressing Britain’s problems. Harold Wilson sought to learn from his previous experience of Cabinet divisions by adopting a new style of government where ministers had greater independence. He appointed James Callaghan as Foreign Secretary, a previous rival but an able politician with experience of every other major ministerial role (including being his predecessor’s shadow since 1972). His brief was to renegotiate Britain’s membership of the EEC and restore a close Anglo- American relationship. Despite initial successes, including the referendum on EEC membership and a settlement of the industrial disputes which undermined the previous government, global recession led to worsening economic conditions in Britain which alongside the failure to achieve a Parliamentary majority in the October 1974 election, led to a steady erosion in the effectiveness of the Labour Government. Throughout its remaining period in office, the Labour Government struggled to pass legislation and was in almost permanent crisis. Harold Wilson’s surprising and unexpected resignation in February 1976 1 Report of the Review Committee on Overseas Representation, 1968-9 (Duncan Report) (HMSO, 1969). 9 led to his replacement by James Callaghan, but Britain’s domestic and economic difficulties continued, culminating in its humiliation during the IMF crisis in 1976. The revolution in Portugal was one of the most important foreign policy crises faced by the 1970s Labour Government. The removal of the Caetano regime on the 25th April 1974 led to a two-year power struggle which brought “six provisional governments, two presidents, a failed right-wing coup attempt, a failed left-wing coup attempt, three elections, countless seizures of land and housing, bombings, strikes, demonstrations and still more turmoil.”2 By 1976 parliamentary democracy was established in Portugal, but in the immediate aftermath of the April coup d’état this had seemed the least likely outcome; the presence of
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