The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 About the Staff
Jane Ma Jane Ma is a senior Biology and English double major in Golf Company, pursuing an honors gold seal track for both degrees. She holds the cadet rank of Human Affairs Officer. She hopes to attend medical school and eventually work in public health. She is the current editor-in-chief of The Gold Star Journal and has also served as the editor-in-chief of The Shako. She has been published multiple times, most notably in the online journal, “Congenital Cardiology Today”. Luis Miguel Parrado Miguel Parrado, a junior cadet from Sierra Company, is a Political Science major specializing in pre-law studies. He is the captain of the intercollegiate ethics bowl team, actively involved in the honors program, and currently holds the cadet rank of Regimental Operations NCO. He has received gold stars every semester attended at The Citadel, as well as President’s List. Miguel plans to attend law school upon graduation. Jennifer Burch Jennifer is a junior member of Victor Company from Myrtle Beach. She is a Criminal Justice major and a member of the Honors Program. Jennifer has received Gold Stars and Dean’s List for 5 semesters and is also a member of The Citadel Women’s Rifle Team, as well as head delegate for The Citadel’s Model Arab League team. She is currently an Army contract and hopes to pursue a career as a Military Intelligence Officer. Lauren Seedor Lauren is a graduate of Conestoga High School and is from Wayne, Pennsylvania. She is a Political Science major with a French minor. She has a 4 year Army ROTC scholarship here at the Citadel, with hopes of becoming a Military Intelligence Officer. This coming summer she plans to participate in the French department study abroad program, which will be based out of Nice, to immerse herself in the French language, to improve fluency as well as her understanding of the French culture.
“Into the Sunset”
ii iii The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 About the Staff
Ryan Leach Ryan Leach is a US Army Veteran and junior Political Science major The editors and advisor of The Gold Star Journal thank the following pursuing a minor in Southern Studies and an Honors Program gold seal. individuals and groups for contributing funds to the 2015 publication: In addition to being a Gold Star Journal Editor, he also is a member of the Honors Program Student Advisory Committee and NCHC’s Partners in the Parks Program. He is currently applying for a Rotary Scholarship to pursue a Masters in Sociology and Culture from the London School of Economics. The Citadel Foundation COL and Mrs. Abraham Goldfarb, Class of 1960 Dr. Suzanne T. Mabrouk BG Samuel M. Hines, Jr., SCM, Provost and Dean of The College Dr. Mabrouk is a Professor of Chemistry at The Citadel. She teaches organic Maj. David C. Leaumont, USAF, Class of 1996 chemistry, introduction to chemistry for non-science students, and the chemistry Dr. Suzanne T. Mabrouk and Mr. Stephen S. Jones of art. She earned her A.B. from Wheaton College and her Ph.D. from the Dr. Kaivon Madani, Class of 1997 University of Massachusetts at Amherst. She enjoys working with the editors of Mr. Thomas Rachelski, Class of 2004 The Gold Star Journal each year. Her hobbies include making soap and toiletries, Mr. Wilfred N. Richardson, Class of 1998 using the lathe and scroll saw, cooking, and reading. ENS Ronald Willis, Jr., USN, Class of 2012
Special thanks and acknowledgements to Cadet James If you would like to support this publication, please make a donation to McManus, winner of our award for “Best Photograph”, and The Citadel Foundation and specify your contribution to Mr. Russell K. Pace of Citadel Photography for their talents The Gold Star Journal. Thank you. and photographic contributions to this edition.
Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this publication are solely those of the authors and editors and do not necessarily reflect those of The Citadel.
iv v The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015
A Letter From the Editors Table of Contents As editors, we are exceptionally proud of our nineteenth installment of The Gold Star Journal. We hope you enjoy the featured papers submitted by some of the best minds the Citadel has to offer. For this year, as with others, we have selected an assortment of papers we found to be outstanding. Especially striking about this year’s papers was the ability of the authors to explore the ethical The Ebola Epidemic: An Ethical Dilemma and socially relevant dimensions of their subjects--demonstrating not only a deft intellectual grasp of the material but also a humanistic perspective that speaks to their characters and passions. Matthew Scalise 1
Matthew Scalise considers the Ebola epidemic in relation to ethical issues of public healthcare in developing countries. Erik Usher, winner of “best undergraduate paper”, presents Perceived Risk of Developing Cardiovascular Disease Among some of his research on healthcare disparities among African Americans. James McManus African Americans explores achievement gaps in education in relation to the controversial Affirmative Action policy. Michael Barkley offers a fascinating history of the technological transition from wood to steel Erik Usher 6 ships in the United States Navy and discusses why this shift has been so important. In a different historical vein, McKenzie Pepper, who won our award for “Best Overall Paper”, shows us the often Achievement Gaps and Affirmative Action: Social Responsibility? overlooked roles that women have played in the Hebrew Bible. Jane Ma discusses the idea of universal, ethically informed science and rejects the idea of separate sciences. Finally, Jennifer Burch analyzes the ethics of cloning and technology as presented in the novel, Never Let Me Go. James McManus 14
Recognition and appreciation are also to Karl Mack of the Sun Printing Co. for his continued help printing the journal, and to John Whitten of Citadel ITS for his assistance The New Navy: From Wood to Steel and expertise in developing the design of this year’s edition. We also wish to extend a heartfelt thank you to Colonel and Mrs. Abraham Goldfarb, whose contribution gave us the Michael Barkley 22 opportunity to publish the journal entirely in color this year. Additional thanks to our readers and their constructive feedback as to how we can make a stronger journal, year after year. Women in the Tanakh Finally, we would like to recognize our faculty advisor Dr. Mabrouk for her tireless patience and invaluable advisement in each year’s Gold Star Journals. Her dedication to the journal has helped McKenzie Pepper 30 us countless times, and we are sure that she will be a guide for future editors, long after we have left.
Jane Ma, editor-in-chief Sardar’s Islamic Science: Is Science Universal? Luis Miguel Parrado, editor Jane Ma 37 Jennifer Burch, editor Lauren Seedor, editor Ryan Leach, editor Science and the Soul in Never Let Me Go Jennifer Burch 42
vi vii The Gold Star Journal 2015 From smallpox to the common cold, The Ebola Epidemic: An viruses have both irritated and intrigued Ethical Dilemma mankind since they were first discovered in the late 19th century. By definition, a virus By Matthew Scalise is simply a small, non-living infectious agent containing genetic material and a protein coat with a lipid envelope surrounding it. 1 Among Matthew Scalise is the many viruses known to man, the Ebola pursuing a B.S. in virus is one of the deadliest. Biology and a minor The Ebola virus first appeared in 1976 in Spanish. He has in West Africa; the current outbreak in West Africa, however, is the largest Ebola outbreak received Gold Stars since it was first discovered. In all, the virus 5 semesters and is has spread to several West African nations. actively involved on The most affected countries include Guinea, campus, serving in Sierra Leone, and Liberia.2 Their lack of leadership positions on infrastructure and political instability has led to extreme inefficiencies in healthcare. As a a number of clubs. After graduation, he hopes to result, these countries, among others, have attend medical school. been entirely dependent on foreign medical aid to stem the growing Ebola epidemic that Abstract began in March 2014. The disease is transmitted and spread
through contact with blood, secretions, The Ebola virus first appeared organs, or bodily fluids of infected humans in 1976 in West Africa; the current or other mammals. Those that are infected outbreak in West Africa, however, is the remain infectious as long as their blood and largest Ebola outbreak since it was first bodily fluids contain the virus. The most discovered. The lack of infrastructure and common symptoms of the disease are fever, political instability within the countries vomiting, diarrhea, fatigue, impaired liver/ most affected by the virus have illustrated kidney function, along with internal and the extreme inefficiencies within their external bleeding. 2 If left untreated, a person respective health care systems. Due to who has contracted the virus generally has a the ease with which this virus can travel, poor prognosis with only several weeks or so the international community has stepped to live. As such, it is crucial that victims get in to provide medical aid and assistance. the treatment they need. Nevertheless, the In certain cases, experimental drugs have attention this virus has received has raised been given to those who have the virus a number of ethical questions regarding the despite improper testing and oversight. As handling and management of medical care a result, a number of ethical issues have for those exposed to Ebola. While in certain been raised. contexts, some actions may seem the most beneficial, it may be the opposite in others. Before these issues can be discussed,
1 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 the term “ethical” must first be defined. “Ethical criteria must guide the provision of properly tested, victims of the disease were their best effort in light of the pressing nature According to my interpretation of this concept such interventions.” They went on to say that unfairly stigmatized, etc. Most notably, the of the virus and the politics of the situation. (and what will be used for the purposes of any interventions can only be deemed ethical drug Zidovudine (AZT) was pushed through Likewise, the two missionaries gave informed this paper), an action is deemed “ethical” if it if they can have “transparency about all the FDA in a record time despite objections consent as per hospital records, knowing full confers basic human dignity to another with no aspects of care, informed consent, freedom of from health providers over its many terrible well the gravity of their situation (according bias or consideration of race, gender, religion, choice, confidentiality, respect for the person, side effects. 7 In talking about the Ebola to WHO’s definition of informed consent). etc. What follows is a list of some of the ethical preservation of dignity and involvement of the outbreak, the spokesperson of Doctor’s Because the two were in desperate times, questions that have been raised in light of the community.” 4 Thus, WHO made it clear that Without Borders (MSF) noted, “It is important they had to resort to desperate measures to Ebola epidemic: these criteria must be met in order for the two to keep in mind that a large-scale provision of avoid facing a painful death. I too would have Should unapproved, missionaries, or any patient for that matter, to treatments and vaccines that are in very early made the same decision if I were in their untested drugs be given receive treatment. Still, they stressed that they stages of development has a series of scientific shoes. Ultimately, researchers can study the did not want to establish a precedent in which and ethical implications.” MSF cites that it is a two Ebola survivors who received the vaccine to victims of Ebola? health officials, “start using untested drugs physician’s mandate to “do in order to incorporate it Due to the horrific and painful nature in the middle of an outbreak.” 5 Nevertheless, no harm” and, in fact, this into data that can undergo of the virus, medical some have disagreed drug may do more harm FDA scrutiny and approval. teams must work fast with this WHO panel, than good. While the two Health officials provided to help those who have citing that only a missionaries appear to be the most ethical treatment come into contact few of the panelists Ebola free, the long-term by respecting the wishes of with the virus, and “had anyprofessional effects of the drug are not their patients and providing prevent it from background in understood or even known. them with a high level of being transmitted bioethics or medical The adverse effects of the care at the forefront of to others. In the ethics.” What’s more, drug could be far worse scientific innovation. case of American no representatives than that of the virus. Who gets the missionaries, Dr. from countries Granted, it is difficult to drug? Who Kent Brantly and affected by Ebola weigh this idea in hindsight Countries Affected by Ebola 9 8 6 Nancy Writebol, Ebola Virus Under Microscope were represented. when both workers makes this Ebola was again close to Overall, the WHO along appear to be doing well. However, decision? adding another number with other international international condemnation of the decision to With a potential treatment shown to to its death toll. Upon knowing that they were health agencies have appeared haphazard in use untested drugs would most likely result be effective in Ebola patients, the next step infected, and the short period of time they had their commitment to fighting the virus, and if the interventions had not worked. Lessons in preventing the spread of Ebola is deciding to act, the two missionaries elected to receive a as a result, destroyed their credibility with of the AIDS crisis should be applied to the who gets the necessary drugs. As of today, over little-understood treatment by giving informed nations who already have distrust of foreign current Ebola outbreak. Caution, above all 1000 West African men, women, and children consent; informed consent can only be given aid. 6 else, should be paramount. have died as a result of the virus yet none if the patient has a “clear appreciation and The AIDS epidemic of the 1980s Having said this, it is my belief that have received any of the experimental drugs understanding of the facts, implications, and draws many similarities to the present Ebola WHO, in conjunction with the CDC and other tested in the United States. Addressing this consequences” of the intervention according epidemic that is sweeping West Africa. Like healthcare organizations, made the right issue, Dr. Philip Rosoff, director of clinical to the World Health Organization’s (WHO) the current Ebola outbreak, improperly tested decision in allowing the two missionaries to ethics at Duke University, noted, “The few 3 definition. While slight success had been drugs were pushed through federal agencies, receive treatment. Namely, WHO convened patients who have been treated with this first- seen in animal trials, nothing had been tested such as the FDA, and given to sick patients a panel of experts to discuss the ethical in-people drug for Ebola have all been white on humans. Therefore, questions were raised in order to stem public panic. Looking back, implications of treatment. While some may residents of Europe and of the United States, concerning whether the two missionaries the AIDS epidemic of the 1980s was an ethical argue that the panel did not have sufficient a fact that could raise issue of preferential truly knew the potential consequences of their nightmare; research papers about the virus resources—in terms of representation—to treatment.” 7 Undoubtedly, the resources of decision to receive treatment. Understanding were not adequately vetted, drugs were not come to its conclusion, I believe WHO made developed nations such as the United States the implications of intervention, WHO noted,
2 3 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 makes its citizens more applicable to receive drugs used on the missionaries are approved treatment; the question now, however, is by a regulatory agency, WHO should use how to develop an implementation strategy its international clout and resources in to test the viability and effectiveness of the conjunction with other non government drug. According to the Center for Disease organizations (NGO) to devise a double blind Control (CDC), some people who have Ebola clinical trial that tests the effectiveness of the will recover spontaneously. Therefore, if the drug on communities of Ebola patients; some drug is given to a sick Ebola patient and he will receive the drug while others will only or she dies, it is difficult to determine if he or receive the normal standard of care. This limits she simply died from the virus or if the drug the issue of one “deserving” treatment over did not work. Randomized clinical trials can another due to status, wealth, or other such be the only solution to determine the drug’s notions. Eventually, an approved, regulated effectiveness. 7 Still, this takes time, there can treatment can be agreed upon. Next, it would be inherent selection become the role of the bias, and it does not international community give the treatment to It is the role of a to devote its resources a portion of the people scientist to identify and to implementing this that need it the most. treatment because of Speaking to NBC news, understand ethical issues the political, social, and Dr. Rosoff explains that in areas of science and economic effects it may purporting a “miracle” address them as much as have on each country treatment can also be despite it possibly detrimental to patients. possible. being outside its own For example, a new borders. If a treatment is technique in treating properly implemented, 10 late stage breast cancer was published in 1986 the financial costs of the epidemic will be very Doctors in Africa and considered a “miracle” therapy at the much limited as it will ultimately help put time. 7 As a result, many sick women urged victims of the virus on the road to recovery. their health care providers for this treatment While the previous ethical concerns 6. “WHO Ebola Ethics Panel Excluded Those Most Endnotes Affected.” The Conversation. N.p., 12 Aug. 2014. Web. but, later data showed that the results of are very important, there are countless more 1. Koonin EV, Senkevich TG, Dolja VV. The ancient Virus 12 Nov. 2014.
4 5 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 Perceived Risk of INTRODUCTION assessing the accuracy of perceived risk, 66% The specific aims for this study are to: of participants were inaccurate in reporting Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) has 1. Identify factors that have a significant Developing Cardiovascular their 5-year risk of developing CVD. This been the leading cause of death in the US independent association with perceived risk inaccuracy is mostly due to incorrect optimism for many years. It affects all demographics. of developing CVD. The focus of this aim is Disease Among African or underestimation of risk.7 In other studies Despite the overarching universal nature of the to establish the baseline perceived risk of the patients, regardless of socioeconomic status, Americans disease, education, socioeconomic status, and participants from the initial phone interview, improperly perceive their risk of CVD (both By Erik Usher income create disparities regarding clinical and to determine if any socio-demographic inappropriate optimism and pessimism). 8 In outcomes and risk factors. 1 Racial disparity is factors; such as age, gender, marital status, Erik Usher is Lima some cases, patients will report a low perceived well documented in the risk of death from CVD income, education and health insurance Company’s Academic CVD risk that can be linked to educational among white and black populations. African status; are significantly associated with risk levels and healthier lifestyle choices. This Officer, he will graduate Americans (AA) are between 30-50 percent perceptions. SAS software was used to perform suggests that more affluent patients, who in May with a Bachelor of more likely to die from CVD than whites. 2 all statistical analysis of data from TLCRES have better access to healthcare/preventive CVD is three times more likely to develop that is reported here. Science degree in Biology. measures, tend to believe that they are in AA men and women than in the white 2. Examine changes in risk perceptions He has earned a Citadel healthy. 9 Recognition and knowledge of the population.3 Within AAs, women are most at from baseline to 1-month follow-up. The Scholars Scholarship and dangers and risks associated with CVD is vital risk for CVD. However, the authoritative data focus of this aim is to conduct a longitudinal for the population. The is a member of the honors on the dangers of CVD does not translate to analysis of changes in risk Health Belief Model program. He and John the public. In a nationwide American Heart Despite the universal perceptions to determine states that altering Association (AHA) study from 1997, the data if any significant changes Overcash won the 2014 one’s patterns of nature of the disease, showed that a very small percentage (7%) in these beliefs occurred Citadel Student Research Conference with a behavior associated of women were aware that CVD was their education, socioeconomic from baseline to 1-month project assessing the wetland qualities in a Citadel with CVD risk requires principal health risk. While awareness is status, and income create after the counseling knowledge that one is owned property. Erik will be attending medical increasing (roughly 30% shift in 6 years), the intervention. Using subject to developing disparities regarding school at Campbell University in the fall and majority of women are not conscious of the statistical analysis, CVD. 3 Development of threat posed by CVD.4 Of the improvements clinical outcomes and risk changes in risk plans to become an interventional cardiologist. counseling strategies noted, AA and Hispanic women have made the perception between the Abstract for primary care factors. least progress with risk factor understanding.4 two intervention groups physicians to use with Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Many factors are thought to contribute to (integrated versus people who are at risk continues to be the leading cause of death in this disparity. Lower socioeconomic status, disease specific) were is crucial to stop their underestimation of risk. the United States. Racial disparities in CVD increased depression rates, discrimination and compared. incidence and mortality between African In this report, data from the hostility levels are psychosocial risk factors By understanding baseline perceived Americans and whites are well documented. Triumphant Living Collaborative Risk that disproportionately affect AA populations risk, any demographic factors that are CVD prevention includes healthy lifestyle Education Study (TLCRES) was utilized, which in comparison to whites. 2,5 These psychosocial associated with disparities may be identified. behaviors, but the extent to which individuals aims to evaluate the effect of integrated versus stressors have been shown to alter By comparing educational counseling believe that they are at risk for developing disease specific counseling on behavioral physiological pathways such as inflammatory techniques, primary caregivers can improve the disease is an important factor in health and psychological outcomes in AA men and risk education and develop more effective
cascades and the parasympathetic/ behaviors. Risk education that enhances women. TLCRES enlisted a sample size of 530 sympathetic nervous systems. This is thought intervention strategies. Identifying individuals knowledge and comprehension of risk factors AA men and women from the Philadelphia to be one of the reasons that socioeconomic who are most and least likely to believe that may address perceived risk of developing area. Many other large scale surveys of CVD status has been connected with higher death they are at increased risk for developing CVD. The purpose of this study was to risk had previously homogenized ethnic rates.6 CVD, we can determine which groups should compare the effects of alternate strategies for groups, reducing the specificity and obscuring Perception of CVD risk is poorly be targeted for risk education interventions, risk education on changes in perceived risk variations within races. 3 associated with actual risk. Inaccuracy in risk in order to reduce racial disparities in CVD of CVD in a community-based sample of morbidity and mortality. African American men and women. assessment is common. In Hussein et al’s study
6 7 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 METHODS status, income level, education, employment to 17.99% at follow up (McNemar=7.3673, p=0.0066) (Figure 1). Additionally, there was Study Population: All participants used from status, and marital status using chi-squared a significant increase in the proportion of TLCRES were self-reported AA or mixed analysis. Furthermore, a comparison of the participants who perceived that they were at race with at least one AA parent, no less baseline perceived risk to the one month risk for HD from baseline to one month follow- than 18 years old and no older than 75, and follow-up perceived risk was statistically up. At baseline, 13.81% of participants reported were residents of the Philadelphia area. analyzed using a McNemar test assessing Participants who did not meet these criteria the effectiveness of the education programs. were not included in the study. Additionally, A McNemar test was also run to determine individuals with a history of cancer (excluding if significant differences existed between basal cell skin cancer), myocardial infarction, counseling types (IRC or DSC). Controlling for stroke, heart disease, heart failure, eating disorder, schizophrenia, and anxiety were also excluded from the study. Participants of TLCRES were recruited through self-referral from advertisements in newspapers and flyers. A study line at the Table 2. P-values for Chi-Squared tests of association of demographic factors versus University of Pennsylvania was provided for accuracy of perceived risk. *significant at α=0.05 potential participants to receive additional perceived risk of developing heart disease information about the study. Researchers with (HD) or heart attack (HA) with the exception the TLCRES conducted a screening and with of smoking status and perception of HD eligible participants, administered a baseline (X2=8.1024, p=0.0044). telephone interview. The baseline telephone Figure 2. Percentages of subjects who self-reported to be at risk for heart disease There was a significant increase in interview collected data on risk exposure before and after counseling. the proportion of participants who perceived activities, perceived risk, and psychosocial that they were at risk for HA from baseline to be at risk compared to 20.08% at follow up variables. Following the baseline survey, Table 1. Sample characteristics for cohort of 530 African American participants to one month follow-up for all participants in (McNemar=3.9474, p=0.0469) (Figure 2). participants were invited to participate in the both counseling groups. At baseline, 10.04% of When risk perception was analyzed risk counseling program. Those who accepted demographic variables, a logistic regression participants reported to be at risk compared by counseling group, data did not support the invitation were randomly assigned to model was also utilized to determine factors a significant change in risk perception of receive either integrated risk counseling (IRC) that influenced reporting perceived risk. HA or HD after integrated risk counseling or disease specific risk counseling (DSC) with RESULTS (HA McNemar=0.9259 p=0.3359, HD a trained health educator. The counseling The sample of 530 African American McNemar=0.5714 p=0.5714). However within intervention began approximately 2-weeks participants was relatively diverse regarding the disease specific counseling group, there following the baseline assessment. Following socio-demographic factors (Table 1). A was a significant increase in the proportion the intervention, follow-up telephone majority of the participants were female (57%), of participants who reported to be at risk for assessments were conducted at 1-, 6-, and unmarried (88%), had not gone to college HA and HD. At baseline 5.83% of participants 12-months. (51%), were unemployed (66%), made less than reported to be at risk for HA whereas $20,000/year (52%), and had health insurance Data Analysis 17.50% reported at risk after counseling (78%). The average age of the participants was Utilizing SAS software, descriptive (McNemar=8.9091 p=0.0028) (Fig. 3). At 48.2 years, and participants had an average statistics characterized the participants baseline for perceived risk of HD, 10.83% of body mass index of 29.9 kg/m2. Chi-Squared based on socio-demographic and medical participants reported to be at risk compared analysis (Table 2) of baseline demographics history variables. Baseline perceived risk was to 20.00% after follow-up (McNemar=4.1727, showed that demographic factors did not have compared to variables such as gender, smoking Figure 1. Percentages of subjects who self-reported to be at risk for heart attack p=0.0411) (Fig. 4). significant independent associations with before and after counseling. The logistic regression model showed
8 9 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 group. Therefore, counseling should be utilized in all demographics to attempt to educate and eliminate racial disparity in perceived risk. 10 This data supports the idea that counseling provides positive educational benefits for perception of CVD risk in African American populations. A risk perception for a disease is the first step in changing lifestyle patterns to avoid the disease entirely. Risk counseling interventions at the primary care level could be used to educate and therefore to lower instances of CVD in African Americans. Studies have found that physician counseling plays an important role in health promotion and prevention of CVD. 10 Furthermore, the
Table 3. Logistic regression model for socio-demographic factors data supported disease specific counseling Figure 3. Percentages of subjects who self-reported to be at risk for heart and the effects on follow-up reporting to be at risk for heart Table 4 logistic regression model for socio-demographic as being a more effective method for raising attack before and after disease specific counseling (McNemar=8.9091 attack. factors and the effects on follow-up reporting to be at risk for p=0.0028). heart disease. the perception of CVD risk compared to the integrated counseling group. Disease risk of heart attack previously at the baseline variations in perceived risk existed among the specific counseling provides more detailed interview were significantly more likely cohort. Unlike previous studies that found and targeted descriptions of CVD rather than to report at risk at follow up (OR=3.010, income, education and gender to be factors presenting a broad spectrum of information p=0.0320) . Participants who perceived to be at that affected perception of risk, our study about CVD and Cancer. Literature supports risk of heart disease previously at the baseline found that with the exception of smokers, no the effectiveness of tailored counseling interview were significantly more likely other apparent demographic factors affected techniques for improving CVD prevention and to report at risk at follow up (OR=2.988, accuracy of baseline perception of CVD risk. 4,9 health outcomes that extended to the one year p=0.0154). The model showed that obese The lack of significant associations does follow up assessment. 11 Our study similarly participants perceived risk of heart attack not support Mosca and colleagues’ study found that counseling interventions on risk were more likely to report to be at risk after that noted a gender disparity in perception of factors for CVD can also be effective. 12 counseling than non-obese participants CVD risk in Hispanic and African American 4 The data also supports the idea that (OR=3.678 p=0.0278). Similarly, the regression populations. Similarly, the data did not those who perceive themselves at risk sustain model for perceived risk of heart disease support Alwan and colleagues’ study that low and increase this perception after participating showed that obese participants were more perception of risk is associated with income/ in a risk counseling program. The data likely to report at risk after counseling than educational levels. Smokers were more likely revealed that risk perception increased for all Figure 4. Percentages of subjects who self-reported to be at risk for heart non-obese participants (OR=3.720 p=0.0207) to report being at risk with the baseline socio-demographics and within both types of disease before and after disease specific counseling (McNemar=4.1724, (Table 4). questionnaire than non-smokers, which is p=0.0411). counseling groups, showing that educational expected due to widespread education on the programs on CVD are needed across the dangers of smoking. 9 Our data did not support that two underlying factors affected the board. Moreover, it is encouraging that obese DISCUSSION the need to target specific groups within chances of reporting to be at risk for heart This study examined perceived risk participants were 3.678-3.720 times more AA populations; however improvements in attack and heart disease at follow up: reporting of CVD before and after two types of risk likely to raise their perceived risk at follow-up. perceptions of CVD risk was noted from pre- to be at risk at baseline and obesity counseling interventions. Factors relating This shows that risk counseling is effective for to-post interventions overall controlling for to socio-demographics characteristics were those who are most at risk for developing CVD. both counseling groups despite insignificant (Table 3). Participants who perceived to be at explored to determine if significant increases found in the integrated counseling
10 11 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 This is possibly the most important finding of counseling intervention. Therefore, it will 8. van der Weijden T, van Steenkiste B, Stoffers HE, Timmermans Endnotes DR, Grol R. Primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases the study. Studies show that increased body be important to examine the outcomes more in general practice: mismatch between cardiovascular risk fat increases frequency of CVD, severity and longitudinally to determine if the effects of and patients’ risk perceptions. Medical decision making 1. Hayes DK, Greenlund KJ, Denny CH, Neyer JR, Croft JB, death. 13 This is due to increases in blood risk counseling found at 1-month are sustained : an international journal of the Society for Medical Keenan NL. Racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in Decision Making. Nov-Dec 2007;27(6):754-761. pressure, ventricular hypertrophy, metabolic over time. Lastly, a comparison to actual risk health-related quality of life among people with coronary heart 9. Alwan H, William J, Viswanathan B, Paccaud F, Bovet using the Framingham model should also disease, 2007. Preventing chronic disease. Jul 2011;8(4):A78. P. Perception of cardiovascular risk and comparison syndromes caused by resistance to actions of 2. Clark CJ, Henderson KM, de Leon CF, et al. Latent constructs 13 with actual cardiovascular risk. European journal of insulin, and sedentary lifestyle choices. By be investigated. This is important because in psychosocial factors associated with cardiovascular disease: an cardiovascular prevention and rehabilitation : official journal raising the perceived risk of HA and HD in a research has shown that people, regardless examination by race and sex. Frontiers in psychiatry. 2012;3:5. of the European Society of Cardiology, Working Groups 3. Winham DM, Jones KM. Knowledge of young on Epidemiology & Prevention and Cardiac Rehabilitation group that is most at risk, risk counseling can of socioeconomic status, improperly perceive African American adults about heart disease: a cross- 8 and Exercise Physiology. Oct 2009;16(5):556-561. be viewed as an effective resource for those their risk of CVD. There is also a paucity sectional survey. BMC public health. 2011;11:248. 10. Gorig T, Mayer M, Bock C, et al. Dietary counselling for who perceive themselves at risk and for those of literature examining actual risk versus 4. Mosca L, Ferris A, Fabunmi R, Robertson RM, cardiovascular disease prevention in primary care settings: American Heart A. Tracking women’s awareness of perceived risk in minority populations. results from a German physician survey. Family practice. Jun with actual risk for CVD. heart disease: an American Heart Association national 2014;31(3):325-332. There are some limitations to this study. Thus, investigating the relationship between study. Circulation. Feb 10 2004;109(5):573-579. 11. Cox JL, Vallis TM, Pfammatter A, Szpilfogel C, Carr B, African Americans were the only racial group actual risk and perceived risk would provide 5. DeSalvo KB, Gregg J, Kleinpeter M, Pedersen BR, O’Neill BJ. A novel approach to cardiovascular health by Stepter A, Peabody J. Cardiac risk underestimation optimizing risk management (ANCHOR): behavioural included in the sample. Therefore findings information that could be translated into in urban, black women. Journal of general internal modification in primary care effectively reduces global risk. The from this study are limited in generalizability clinical settings to augment preventative medicine. Dec 2005;20(12):1127-1131. Canadian journal of cardiology. Nov 2013;29(11):1400-1407. 6. Redmond N, Richman J, Gamboa CM, et al. Perceived to other racial groups. Additionally, the cohort care and treatment protocols, and ultimately 12. Hardcastle SJ, Taylor AH, Bailey MP, Harley RA, Hagger stress is associated with incident coronary heart disease MS. Effectiveness of a motivational interviewing intervention was limited to one geographic location, improve health outcomes and decrease and all-cause mortality in low- but not high-income on weight loss, physical activity and cardiovascular disease limiting its transferability to other settings disparities in CVD. participants in the Reasons for Geographic And Racial risk factors: a randomised controlled trial with a 12-month Differences in Stroke study. Journal of the American post-intervention follow-up. The international journal of in the U.S. Future studies could expand the Heart Association. Dec 2013;2(6):e000447. behavioral nutrition and physical activity. 2013;10:40. geographic areas of the research to determine 7. Hussein HM, Harris-Lane P, Abdelmoula MM, Vazquez 13. Lavie CJ, Schutter AD, Archer E, McAuley PA, Blair SN. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS G. Accuracy of self-perception of cardiovascular if the outcomes are similar. The results of Obesity and prognosis in chronic diseases - impact of I would like to acknowledge MUSC’s summer risk in the community. Journal of vascular and cardiorespiratory fitness in the obesity paradox. Current this study only depict the 1-month follow-up undergraduate research program, thanking interventional neurology. Oct 2008;1(4):106-112. sports medicine reports. Jul-Aug 2014;13(4):240-245. outcomes. Follow-up assessments were also them for the funding for this research project. conducted by TLCRES at 6-and 12-months Special thanks also to Dr. Chanita Hughes- post the risk Halbert PhD and Melanie Jefferson MPH for providing the existing data, guidance, “Game Day” knowledge, and support.
12 13 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 Achievement gaps are a point of assignments. Joseph Robinson (2008) points be left fairly open-ended and allow or encourage Achievement Gaps and contention among educationalists today, out that part of this low-achieving group are ability group divisions, especially in a diverse particularly with the question of how to fix them Hispanic and language-minority students and student population. The curricula should be Affirmative Action: Social or reverse the process. Closing a gap requires that their performance in reading and math in tailored towards the school culture, including Responsibility? two sides of the divide coming together, moving early years (kindergarten, first grade) can be considering demographics and socioeconomic either half to the other side or both to meet improved through ability groupings. There are backgrounds of both students and the By James McManus in the middle. When dealing with curriculum, benefits for every student in an ability group, community at large. Well-trained teachers and Robinson (2008, p. 142) explains this is should write the curriculum (with input from James McManus is a students, and learning styles, the movement is more difficult. If a society wants to eliminate due to the “level-appropriate, small-group, administrators) because of their proximity junior Social Studies these gaps, regardless of the consequences, direct instruction children receive.” Robinson with the students and their knowledge of the Education Major in the they could simply cut curriculum down to (2008, p. 142) continues that language- school’s culture. Their proximity could make Honors Program from cater to the lowest achievement level: the minority students benefit greatly from the them pessimistic and lack confidence in their Mendham, New Jersey. ‘lowest-common-denominator’ approach. This “opportunities for exposure and practice of students’ abilities, which is why administrative reading in English,” which they would not get support would be useful. In fact, teachers He is heavily involved is not particularly appealing to a society that wants to grow and to encourage hard work as in “whole-class instruction... targeted to the should be provided with more all-around in extra-curricular it would essentially remove the incentive to average level of the class” because of a lack autonomy in regards to the implementation activities on campus, has excel. The preferable way to fix these gaps then of “direct-instruction accommodations.” If all of the curriculum. According to Linda Darling- received Gold Stars every is to bring all students to the highest levels of students were made to learn at the same pace Hammond and Laura Post (2000, p. 136, 143), semester at The Citadel, and studied at the achievement, no easy (or cheap) task, but the and level as students whose first or primary a lack of “professional autonomy” is one of the language is not English, it is obvious there main factors perpetuating teacher shortages University of Oxford in Spring 2014. James empowerment of all students is significantly better than the degradation of some. By would be a great deal of frustration and possibly in struggling schools, particularly because of plans to teach middle school and commission properly writing and implementing curricula, even resentment towards these minorities. over-prescriptive lesson plans and curricula as an officer in the US Coast Guard. schools can improve the performance of low- If ability groups allow struggling students which leave teachers little “adaptability.” achieving students while challenging all levels to be helped in a way that also benefits high- Darling-Hammond and Post (2000, p. 128) Abstract of capability, thus closing the achievement gap achieving students, it could be a reasonable also stress that “teacher effectiveness” is “an Education often does not receive by raising all students to the higher standard. alternative to lowest-common-denominator extremely strong determinant of differences as much publicity as other issues in the Since the ‘lowest-common-denominator’ curricula that simply lowers standards and in student learning” and a source of student public eye, but education concerns tend approach would technically solve achievement achievement. inequality and, therefore, achievement gaps. to divide the country. Achievement gaps gaps, one must examine costs and benefits When setting the curricula for a Increases in teacher autonomy would allow a among genders, races, and socioeconomic of this method and determine its feasibility. school district, both high- and low-achieving school to tailor a curriculum directly to their strata are often not discussed but are at the A good curriculum challenges all students, students should be taken into account in order students, providing teachers with enough heart of many of our nation’s issues, from but not to the point that they feel helpless to produce a challenging but manageable leeway and ability to adapt and suit individual unemployment numbers to average salary and cannot achieve results. Depressing all syllabus. Student achievement, Pianta et al. students’ needs, leading to an increase in and overall quality of life. Affirmative students to the lowest level of academic (2008, p. 366) argues, takes “the right mix of teacher effectiveness, and cutting down on action, favoring students with a certain performance could make struggling students curriculum, professional development, and achievement gaps. feature, characteristic, or situation in college feel more empowered as the tasks are now at instructional supports” into account. Relevant Beside this new, teacher-written placement, is a controversial way to fill a comfortable achievement level. According to and well-written curricula then, are crucial to curricula tailored towards providing each quotas in incoming college classes in an Pianta et al. (2008, p. 369), students learn best encouraging student development. In order student with individual support, there must attempt to close achievement gaps. Can while being challenged and while the lowest for curricula to be considered relevant to a be an increase in funding. According to we close achievement gaps by catering to a level of students may feel more comfortable, school, it should take into account the highest- Darling-Hammond and Post (2000, p. 127), “lowest-common denominator” in classes? many of the students accustomed to higher- and lowest-performing students and provide “the wealthiest 10 percent of school districts Is affirmative action an ethical and effective level work would become restless and appropriate material to cater to those skill in the United States spend nearly ten times way to eliminate achievement gaps? frustrated at the ease with which they complete levels (and everywhere in between). It should more than the poorest ten percent” which are
14 15 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 generally in “central cities” and have a high put towards training and teacher education. allocated for teachers must increase. argues that socioeconomic and cultural concentration of “poor and minority students,” According to Darling-Hammond and Post A ‘lowest-common-denominator’ mobility will not happen without being larger class sizes, “fewer and lower-quality” (2000, p. 133, 130), effective educators are approach to closing the achievement gap forced by strict government intervention. resources, and “less qualified and experienced better with “curriculum development, would only result in lowering standards across The other is adamant that if students of a teachers.” These poorer districts are generally classroom management, student motivation, the board. While this would technically narrow low socioeconomic status work hard enough, where the lowest achievement resides, and teaching strategies” and that “every the gap between the high- and low-achieving they will be afforded the same opportunity as particularly due to their lack of resources additional dollar spent on more highly qualified students, ability groups are a much more those who are more monetarily prosperous and inability to attract well-trained teachers. teachers netted greater increases in student efficient and successful way of doing so. Ability and that they should not be treated any These achievement gaps are not just in test achievement” than money spent on other groups do not have the adverse side-effects that differently. Policies intended to increase scores either: they have school resources. Therefore come from tailoring a curriculum specifically diversity through promotion of a minority, like far-reaching and damaging it is imperative that money towards struggling students, and they can racial or ethnic quotas, can sometimes cause effects, sometimes to be spent not just on more help students of all backgrounds, making it “positive discrimination” against the majority entire ethnic groups. As resources, but particularly a much fairer and more successful solution. and create or inflame tensions. While every Sean Reardon and Claudia on teachers’ training, hiring, Teachers should assist in writing curricula for country’s educational systems and cultures Galindo (2009, p. 854) and salaries. Each district their own school, particularly because they are different, both schools and universities highlight, educational needs to be sure that understand their students and the culture of should be penalized for any discrimination outcomes of Hispanic their teachers can handle the community. Any curricula designed should of socioeconomic status, either “positive” or students (often large classrooms diverse in take into account as many different student negative, in order to promote socioeconomic portions of populations in ethnicity, background, and achievement groups as possible and allow mobility. poorer schools) are “well ability, as well as a robust teachers to tailor aspects towards specific It is vital to prevent “positive behind” those of their white, curriculum, designed to individuals. For many minorities, especially discrimination” of minorities because to do Asian, and sometimes black afford them the opportunity Hispanics and language-minority students, otherwise would be unfair to all involved counterparts, especially to connect with each the achievement gap is not just in test scores, (Bibbings 2006, p. 74). One cannot and with regard to “high school student individually on both but in overall possible educational attainment. should not justify substituting one form of completion rates” and the instructional and emotional Many schools with large minority populations discrimination for another, which is reason numbers who “attend and levels. Pianta et al. (2008, are underfunded and in less affluent areas. enough why positive discrimination should graduate from college.” 369) explain that teachers In order to successfully implement an be avoided. A student’s socioeconomic Darling-Hammond and Post should integrate emotional achievement gap-closing curriculum in these status is based almost solely on aspects (2000) are adamant that Classroom Achievement Gaps vii aspects into “instructional schools, more funding and better trained of life outside their control, like “parental educational outcomes of these activities, discussions, and teachers are necessary. If curricula is properly finances and employment histories as well minority populations in poorer schools can be even transitions” in order to create an written (to challenge all students) and as their experience of (higher) education,” improved through more resources and better environment with “personal relationships, implemented appropriately (with increased a community’s overall wealth and political teachers, both of which require more money high expectations, a productive learning funding and by well-trained teachers), it can and religious attitudes, and the “existence of allocated to education. Lisa Guisbond and orientation, engaging activities that stimulate tackle achievement gaps better than could a schools” (Bibbings 2006, p. 76; Kravdal 2004, Monty Neill (2004, p. 13) point out that “good thinking as well as social interaction, and ‘lowest-common-denominator’ policy. p. 180). If a student works hard, they should be teachers already know which students are regular critical feedback and questioning.” What if schools did not just have to afforded the opportunities which accompany falling behind,” but even if they are ‘good’ (well- A great deal of training and experience is close achievement gaps, but were able and their efforts. Forcing schools into academic trained and effective), many lack the resources required to achieve successful integration of required to facilitate socioeconomic mobility “dumbing down” or any lowering of admissions or support to solve the problem themselves. each aspect mentioned by Pianta et al. (2008), among students? The American and indeed standards is also unacceptable as it “unfairly Simply purchasing better textbooks but in order to create a safe and productive British political spectrums have recently discriminates against applicants from good and other materials fixes the problems with learning environment, connect with a diverse been consumed with debate regarding schools” and those who work hard and come insufficient resources, but ensuring the group of students, implement the curriculum, “affirmative action” and other similar policies from less privileged backgrounds (Bibbings presence of “good teachers” requires money and close the achievement gap, the funding to increase diversity in schools. One extreme 2006, p. 74). The culture of the United States
16 17 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 ensures one can improve one’s life with procedures to provide a “contextual approach” 2006, p. 80-1). This would “raise confidence, make the decision to not attend college, which hard work and perseverance. Therefore, any to all applications, therefore focusing on the aspirations, and attainment” of students, is also an option for students. No student, policies regarding increasing diversity in whole student. If they find it necessary to particularly those who may not be comfortable regardless of socioeconomic background, American (or indeed in any) schools should examine grades and standardized test scores, in the new setting (Bibbings 2006, p. 81). If should be forced or persuaded to attend post- not remove incentives for hard work. “Positive they should be considered in the context of universities change their selection criteria compulsory education against their will. The discrimination” of any kind is unacceptable each school (Bibbings 2006, p. 81). It is also (while still rewarding hard work) and provide student should be informed of all of his or hers in promoting socioeconomic mobility of crucial that non-academic achievements more merit- and need-based financial aid, options and helped to choose one that suits students as it essentially promotes vengeful are put into perspective; many wealthier they can prevent any discrimination towards their ideal career path. Primary and secondary discrimination and leads to the “dumbing applicants may be able to afford to complete student backgrounds in their selection schools should also provide the tools required down” of academic and acceptance standards “relevant unpaid work experience,” while process. to enhance socioeconomic mobility, especially for all students, removing incentives for hard poorer students may have to work “for fast food Primary and secondary schools can helping to develop skills using “information work. companies or in the family business” in order also take steps to and communication Colleges and universities should avoid to provide for their families (Bibbings 2006, p. improve and promote What if schools did not just technology (ICT)” positive discrimination at all costs as there 81). Universities should require “written work, socioeconomic which are essential are other ways in which additional testing, or mobility in both have to close achievement to the use of “social they can facilitate interviews” in order their student body gaps, but were able and services” and crucial “to socioeconomic mobility. to “identify merit and and their community required to facilitate be competitive in labor Florencia Torche (2005, aptitude regardless at large. One big markets and secure p. 316) determined of background” and problem among socioeconomic mobility higher earnings” (Mo that “inequality of select candidates students of low among students? 2012, p. 3). Programs educational opportunity who can perform and socioeconomic status like One Laptop per (IEO)” is widespread have “the ability to is that there is a Child help to narrow and leads to “persistent succeed” (Bibbings certain level of mystery about higher education: the “digital divide” between students with inequality,” requiring 2006, 82). These they tend to think they are not “good enough” and without access to technology, but simply “massive educational selection methods nor is it “for the likes of them,” and regarding exposing students to the use of computers can expansion and a varied would continue to it as “highly risky and/or impossible” at least slightly improve skills (Mo 2012, p. 20). set of policy interventions emphasize hard work (Bibbings 2006, p. 77). This is more of a Unfortunately, giving students computers also to reduce.” Many of the while removing the social problem than anything else, one which requires better trained teachers and a well- “‘widening participation’ barrier that economic starts with the community and the students’ tailored classroom structure in order to make policies” of which Lois Cadet McManus in classroom. viii or social backgrounds parents. Therefore the key is to de-mystify a sizeable impact on computer skills, all of Bibbings (2006, p. 74) speaks may provide an applicant. higher education by pairing universities with which can be expensive. Schools can improve are diverse and would be acceptable for use Second, offering more financial aid schools, encouraging community outreach the socioeconomic mobility of their pupils (and as most do not cause positive discrimination. opportunities, both merit- and need-based, is activities (“visits to universities, student- their communities) by providing opportunities She splits these policies into two groups: important and can lead to a much more diverse pupil mentoring”) and creating a school-wide to interact with and learn about colleges and “hard” options, which include “quotas or school population. An even simpler solution to culture that values education (Bibbings 2006, universities, assisting in decisions regarding preferential selection methods,” and “soft” providing financial aid in America is lowering p. 80-1). While it is important to remove the all post-secondary education possibilities, and options, also termed “assistance measures” the rsing costs of attending higher education, mystery from post-secondary education, enhancing ICT skills with proper equipment (Bibbings 2006, p. 83). While hard options can which here tripled and in some cases almost it is equally as vital to inform the student and support. cause positive discrimination and for reasons quadrupled in the past 40 years (CollegeBoard (and the parents) of the many options he or The practicality of such measures stated previously should be avoided, soft 2013, p. 15). Third, universities and colleges she has available, including two- and four- to increase socioeconomic mobility can be options provide widely applicable and effective should offer more support, both academic year vocationally- and academically-oriented questionable, as they can be costly in time and alternatives to discrimination of any kind. and emotional, to all students, regardless of schools (Alon 2009). Schools should also resources, and may be deemed unnecessary First, universities should change admissions economic background or ability (Bibbings provide students the information necessary to by certain cultures. For example, if a country
18 19 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 were to mandate that universities remove may be an issue (what with high costs in both all economic and social discrimination from money and time), schools and universities their selection processes, they would have should be penalized for not eliminating to give the institutions time to implement socioeconomic discrimination, therefore these systems, and then develop some way to promoting socioeconomic mobility. test them. “ICT adoption is costly,” so many schools would need a budget surplus or large government grants in order to implement the curriculum effectively (Mo 2012, p. 3). Different countries also have different views on socioeconomic mobility. For example, in Bibliography the United States, social class is determined i. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ by the amount one is worth monetarily, so commons/8/86/Paradise_Lost_1.jpg providing students with a way to work hard ii. http://www.blackgate.com/wp-content/ and achieve their dream job is important to uploads/2011/01/faustus-study.jpg iii. Coetzee, J. M. Disgrace. New York: Viking, 1999. Print. the culture. However, in many other nations, iv. The Latin Vulgate. Mental Systems, n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2013. social status is determined at birth and v. Marlowe, Christopher, and David Scott. Kastan. therefore social or economic mobility may Doctor Faustus: A Two-text Edition (A-text, 1604; B-text, 1616) Contexts and Sources Criticism. not be culturally as important (or one may New York: W.W. Norton, 2005. Print. be more important than the other). While vi. Milton, John, and Gordon Teskey. Paradise Lost: Authoritative Text, Sources and Backgrounds, each country must determine the amount Criticism. New York: W.W. Norton, 2005. Print. “Golden” of money, time, and emphasis they place on vii. “Classroom Achievement Gaps” : http://www.quickanded. socioeconomic mobility, it is important for com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/ag.jpg viii. “Cadet McManus in Classroom”, people to be able to achieve their own personal provided by James McManus. goals, regardless of social or economic class. While all countries and cultures are different, it is important to prevent all types of discrimination in order to promote all-around socioeconomic mobility. Discrimination, positive or negative, does not promote hard work or personal betterment. Universities should adopt admissions procedures that emphasize these abilities and a student’s potential, while also taking into account each applicant’s individual situation, lowering costs, and providing both merit- and need- based financial aid for students. Primary and secondary schools can de-mystify higher education, providing students with personalized options for post-compulsory education opportunities, and enhance ICT skills with equipment and support from well- trained staff and parents. While practicality “Sky Over Second”
20 21 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 The United States Navy prior to the cuts, there was not enough money in the The lack of functionality and new technology The New Navy: From Wood Civil War was one of the top navies in the budget for new technology to be introduced would prove vital in the coming years in the world behind Great Britain. Post-war, however, into the fleet. Worldwide other navies were 1870s and would catapult the efforts of those to Steel the United States Congress cut funding for quickly surpassing the United States because who were in favor of increasing the size of the the Navy, and it began to decline. While other they had the budget to experiment and the Navy. By Michael Barkley countries were experimenting and expanding leeway to “have expensive failures.” 7 Congress Despite the Navy’s lack of size and their navies, the U.S. Navy stagnated. Other justified this and thought that they were wise technology it was performing its “American” issues were made a priority for the United by allowing the European navies to experiment missions that the government required of Michael Barkley is a States and maintaining a top-tier navy was and have all the “expensive failures” on their them. However two events, the first in 1873, senior Army contract not one of them. It took the realization of dime. 8 To many Americans and those in demonstrated to not only the United States, in Palmetto Battery the need to protect American commerce and Congress, the Civil War was a confirmation but the world how far the Navy was behind of the American perception that commerce the rest of the world. In 1873, an Old Civil from Indian Land, the embarrassment the Navy underwent for the institution of the Navy to transform and was what fueled War vessel, the South Carolina. He will evolve in the 1880s. Some would argue there wars. The Navy’s Virginius, was commission in May as was no need to expand since the Navy at required job caught by the a quartermaster. He is that time met the nation’s needs. Regardless, was to patrol Spanish gun- a history major and has the evolution into a steel navy led to further the coast and running weapons educational and theoretical advancements in protect American the United States a minor in law and legal 9 naval warfare, which led to the broadening of commerce. were sending to the studies. He has earned the American influence on the global scale. Aaron F. Cuban insurgents Dean’s List 6 semesters and Gold Stars 3 The United States prior to the Civil Stevens, who was to try to overthrow semesters. War had one of the best navies in the world, a member of the the Spanish. The second only to Great Britain. During the House Committee Spanish executed Civil War, the Union Navy’s mission was to on Naval Affairs, 49 sailors, Abstract blockade the Confederacy and her ports. The did not agree with which led to the Naval War College 54 Confederacy did not have any allies; therefore, the United States having a large mobilization of the US Navy This paper examines the impact the battles were fought on American land and Navy. Stevens argued that the in Key West, Florida. Despite of steel on the United States Navy. not on the sea. 1 Despite this the Navy during “American Navy” was simply that, “American.” the mobilization, the Navy war did not Fueling advancements in Naval thought the war grew to about 700 ships. 2 Like after The Navy did the job it was required to do, ensue because of the inabilities to carry out and strategy, the introduction of steel most wars, the military downsized, and the and it did not need to be competitive on the maneuvers with old outdated ships. 12 The broadened the influence of the United Navy was the first to get drastic budget cuts. global scale with the European powers. 10 Navy was embarrassed again by its inability States all over the world. The impact Between the years 1868-1883, Congress cut on Without funds from congress who did not in 1879. Chile attacked Bolivia and Peru; the of steel upon the US Navy cannot be average $20 million from the Navy’s budget want to compete, there were no plans to build latter who with the US had financial interests underestimated because of the profound each year. 3 This annual budget cut saw the or to upgrade the naval fleet. Head of the ties. The US tried to bring an end to the war effect it had upon the training of US Navy transition from a premier coastal defense Navy Department Admiral David Porter did to protect American interests in Peru. The Naval Officers and the evolution of Naval force into a second-rate Navy power. 4 The Navy not encourage or push for newer technology Chilean Navy, with state of the art British warfare. The continued success of the US shrank from about 700 ships to 45 ships about for the Navy’s ships. He believed that the warships, was not fazed by the wooden vessels Navy requires that its officers understand 15 years after the Appomattox surrender. 5 In change into steamships caused the Navy in the US Pacific Squadron. They told the US the technological transition which 1870, the Navy only had one ironclad, and about to regress and stressed to ship captains to to back off and to ‘mind their own business.’ drastically altered fighting capabilities. 2/3 of American cruisers were not operational use sail whenever possible in order to save The Navy was overmatched and forced to back or functional. Three years later in 1873, the money. The money that the Navy did have for off and as a result was not taken seriously on Navy ranked 7th in the world. 6 Because the ship repairs went to repairing outdated ships the global scale. 13 These embarrassments, Navy was shrinking annually with budget whose capabilities were minimal at best. 11 both within the US sphere of influence, raised
22 23 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 the question of whether or not the US could who replaced Garfield after his assassination, propelled and revolutionized Naval thought: that every “consideration of national safety, uphold the Monroe Doctrine. At this point the initial recommendation made by the the US Naval Institute, the Office of the Naval economy, and honor imperatively demands a in the history of the US Navy, they were not board of 68 ships was disapproved. It was not Intelligence and the Naval War College.21 thorough rehabilitation of” the US Navy. 25 capable of being able to prevent any potential until August of 1882, after negotiations, that The United States Naval Institute was the The last institution that influenced efforts of European powers in Latin and South Congress did authorize the building of two first of the three founded in 1874 before naval thought was arguably the most America. 14 steel ships. 18 Production however was stalled Congress granted the important and that In 1881 James Garfield was elected because with midterm elections coming up authorization of steel. was the Naval War President at a time when US manufacturing both parties wanted to take credit for passing The institution served College. It was there was on the rebound from a brief panic in 1877. the Harris Bill which funded construction. 19 In as a platform for the that a new approach 15 It was not until the Garfield administration 1883, the board recommended the construction controversy’s that on how to utilize the that serious steps towards Navy advancement of four steel cruisers, Atlanta, Boston, Chicago reflected the changes steel vessels, and the begun to take place. After Garfield’s election, and the steel dispatch boat Dolphin. The in technology. Many tactics underwent Secretary of the Navy William H. Hunt construction of the ‘ABCD’ boats ended the age of these controversies development. appointed fifteen men to an advisory board of sail in the Navy and propelled the Navy into that arose with the Founded by Rear chaired by Admiral John Rodgers, which the age of steel. 20 Technology was starting to technology were Admiral Stephen Luce became known as the Rodgers Board. 16 This outpace the Navy and innovations in tactics products of status in 1884, the college’s board would call for the elimination of wooden and training had to be made to adjust to these struggle between the purpose was to ships and the construction of steel ships. 17 changes. not yet integrated educate Navy Officers Despite the approval of President Chester, There were three institutions that staff and line officers. and bring “order to Previously heavily the chaos the new debated discussions technology brought.”26 were elevated by the The location chosen professionalism the was Newport, institute offered. 22 Rhode Island The Office of Naval where fundamental Institution, which principles of warfare was the brainchild were taught and how of Secretary of the to apply those lessons 27 Navy Hunt, and was RDM Stephen B. Luce 56 on both land and sea. established in 1882. The primary Rear Admiral Luce did for the Navy function of the Office of Naval what General Emory Upton did Intelligence was to collect data about for the Army. Luce had Navy officers study foreign fleets, policies, tactics and strategies. past Navy engagements and strategy and This institution regulated the flow of new used these historical examples to show the information into the US Navy, which had not underlying principles. 28 Luce as the founder yet grasped how to utilize steel vessels. 23 The of the War College was the first president and idea behind the Office of Naval Intelligence was tasked to create a curriculum that would came from the War of the Pacific because a teach the Navy officers all of these things. To center became needed for information to be come up with these lectures and lessons Luce gathered and evaluated properly before being selected Admiral Alfred Mahan. 29 Both these sent back to the fleet. President Arthur was a men were critical for the evolution of naval full supporter of these programs; he believed strategy and thought that is still being taught strongly in a strong Navy. 24 Arthur believed today. USS Atlanta 55
24 25 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 Luce saw the naval officer as a profession, most well-known lectures given at the War imperialistic policy. 45 One of the focal points shipbuilders only to use domestic steel. Even such as doctors or lawyers that require and College, later published, Mahan declares of Mahan’s policy he wanted to implement though it took steel producers, such as Andrew demand further education and certifications. “control of the sea is and has been a great was the control of the Isthmus Canal. He Carnegie and other manufacturers, years to be 30 He believed that the most important factor in the history of the world.” 39 Mahan’s argued that if the United States did not take able to have steel producing capabilities in their education naval officers could receive was arguments and lectures went hand in hand full advantage of the opportunity the canal plants, it was an important step solidifying the that which developed their understanding with the viewpoints of Secretary of the Navy, presented, and did not defend the Monroe United States Navy as ‘American.’ 51 the nature of the world’s navies and how they at the time, Benjamin Tracey. They viewed Doctrine; the canal could become dangerous The solidification of the new American steel changed because of technology. 31 He helped that it was a necessity for the United States to the United States. Controlling the canal Navy became evident in 1898 by the routing start the War College with the vision to raise to have a great navy, in order to be considered would add to the strength of the United States of the US Navy over the Spanish Armada. The “Naval Warfare from the empirical stage to the a serious actor on the world stage. Mahan as not only a sea power, but an imperial one results of the Spanish-American War gave dignity of a science.” 32 Luce developed many of argued against coastal defense philosophy and by being able to control trade routes better vindication to those who had pushed for and his early ideas of reform from his experiences was in favor of a more pro-active “deep water from ocean to ocean. Not everyone, however, helped to develop the new navy. 52 The war at the Naval Academy and his tours of duty, strategy.” 40 Mahan’s pro-active perspective on supported Mahan and his ideas about the justified the viewpoint held by many that realizing that the Navy the role of the Navy went Navy’s expansion. There were some that held the danger to the United States was at sea education system needed Three institutions against the opposition to the isolationist perspective and did not see and that a strong navy was needed to protect reform. 33 In a lecture of those who opposed the need for these new strategies and policies against European foreign powers. 53 given to the War College, propelled and a larger Navy, such as that were brought on by the new steel navy.46 Post-Reconstruction the United States Luce accredited the “Civil revolutionized Naval Stevens and his notions These isolationists feared being drawn into military downsized like militaries have done War demonstrat[ing] thought: US Naval of an ‘American Navy’. foreign conflicts and thought involvement historically after wars at home or abroad. conclusively the necessity Mahan demonstrated would undermine American values. 47 The Navy at this point was used domestically of a War College.” 34 Institute, The Office of an ideological shift not What drove the naval arms race between and from an isolationist perspective. The Despite Luce’s early Naval Intelligence, and only for the Navy but the France and Great Britain was spearheaded innovation that steel brought to the Navy not beliefs about the need for the Naval War College. nation as a whole to a by the rise of technology and steel. That only affected the ships that were built using it, higher education for the more British perspective. competition did not exist within the United but also foreign policy and naval thought. The Navy’s officers, it would 41 He saw the “influence… States, and the argument was made that with Naval War College revolutionized policy with not be until 1877 that Luce devoted his efforts the little British islands” had on the world as a no European threat in the west there was no the intellectual contributions of Admiral’s to the establishment of the War College. model to follow. 42 If a small island could have a strategic importance for the US to have steel Luce and Mahan. The Navy transformed in In a letter to the Secretary of the Navy, the great Navy and be an imperial force, then the ships. 48 They argued that the coastal defense the 1880s as a result of steel, but it was those Honorable R.W. Thompson, he proposed the United States sure had the capabilities with and commerce protection could be done with intellectual contributions that transformed establishment of a school where officers could borders on both oceans. the ironclads and other traditional cruisers the United States’ role in the world. be offered higher education in their naval Mahan popularized imperialistic that they already had. 49 It was also argued training. He stated that the “leading feature of themes and sought to have the Navy as the that the US steel manufacturers were not Endnotes the post graduate course would be the carrying focal point for the split away from previous well-equipped enough to handle the demands of the young officers through a course of isolationism. He argued in a journal article 1. Paolo E. Coletta, A Survey of U.S. Naval Affairs 1865- that building a steel navy entailed. Opponents 1917 (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 9. 35 instruction in the Art of War.” The year after published in 1890 in the Atlantic Monthly that did not want to have to rely on foreign steel 2. Ben Baack and Edward Ray, “The Political the War College opened, Luce handed over the the United States had to “take her rightful for American ship building. The two main Economy of the Origins of the Military-Industrial Complex in the United States,” The Journal of presidency of the college to the head lecturer place in the world as a major commercial, proponents in the House, Charles Boutelle and Economic History vol. 45 no. 2 (1985): 370. Admiral Mahan. 36 industrial, military and diplomatic power.” 43 Henry Cabot Lodge, argued that a steel navy 3. In Peace and War: Interpretations of American Admiral Mahan was selected by Luce This policy would be a break from the “inward- would stimulate the US economy and steel Naval History, 1775-1984. Ed. Kenneth J. Hagan (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1984), 146. 37 to be “the principal and leading lecturer.” looking capitalism, isolationism” that the industry with a greater demand for steel and 4. Kurt Hackemer, The U.S. Navy and the Origins Mahan, using historical examples, argued the United States practiced. 44 The Naval Act of other ship materials. 50 The use of American of the Military-Industrial Complex 1847-1883 “effect of sea power upon the course of history 1889 demonstrated this departure from the made steel became solidified in 1886 with (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2001), 119. and the prosperity of nations.” 38 In one of his old way of thinking, into the new ‘American’ the Democrats passing an act that required
26 27 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015
5. Ben Baack and Edward Ray, “The Political 34. Admiral Luce to Captain J.S. Barnes, August 5, 1889. Economy of the Origins of the Military-Industrial In Life and Letters of Rear Admiral Stephen B. Luce, Complex in the United States,” The Journal of (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1925), 267-268. Economic History vol. 45 no. 2 (1985): 370. 35. Admiral Luce to Captain J.S. Barnes, August 5, 1889. 6. Paolo E. Coletta, A Survey of U.S. Naval Affairs 1865- In Life and Letters of Rear Admiral Stephen B. Luce,( 1917 (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 10. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1925), 267-268. 7. In Peace and War: Interpretations of American 36. John B. Hattendorf, “Stephen B. Luce: Intellectual Leader Naval History, 1775-1984. Ed. Kenneth J. Hagan of the New Navy,” in Admirals of the New Steel Navy, ed. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1984), 148. James C. Bradford (Annapolis: Naval Institute, 1990), 15. 8. Ibid., 148. 37. Admiral Luce to Captain J.S. Barnes, August 5, 1889. 9. Ibid., 167. In Life and Letters of Rear Admiral Stephen B. Luce,( 10. Ibid., 152. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1925), 268. 11. Kurt Hackemer, The U.S. Navy and the Origins 38. In Peace and War: Interpretations of American of the Military-Industrial Complex 1847-1883 Naval History, 1775-1984. Ed. Kenneth J. Hagan (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2001), 120. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1984), 175. 12. Ibid., 125. 39. Ibid., 175 13. Ibid., 125. 40. Paolo E. Coletta, A Survey of U.S. Naval Affairs 1865- 14. Robert W. Love, Jr., History of the U.S. Navy Volume I 1917 (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 30. 1775-1941 (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1992), 345. 41. In Peace and War: Interpretations of American 15. Robert W. Love, Jr., History of the U.S. Navy Volume I Naval History, 1775-1984. Ed. Kenneth J. Hagan 1775-1941 (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1992) 345. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1984), 176. 16. Kurt Hackemer, The U.S. Navy and the Origins 42. Alfred Thayer Mahan, “Practical Words: An Address of the Military-Industrial Complex 1847-1883 Delivered at the Naval War College” (1892), In Letters (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2001), 126. and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan: Volume III 1902- 17. Paolo E. Coletta, A Survey of U.S. Naval Affairs 1865- 1914, ed. Robert Seager II and Doris D. Maguire 1917 (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 32. (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1975), 579. 18. Kurt Hackemer, The U.S. Navy and the Origins 43. Paolo E. Coletta, A Survey of U.S. Naval Affairs 1865- of the Military-Industrial Complex 1847-1883 1917 (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 42 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2001), 126. 44. Ibid., 42. 19. Robert W. Love, Jr., History of the U.S. Navy Volume I 45. In Peace and War: Interpretations of American 1775-1941 (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1992), 351. Naval History, 1775-1984. Ed. Kenneth J. Hagan 20. Paolo E. Coletta, A Survey of U.S. Naval Affairs 1865- (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1984), 177. 1917 (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 34. 46. Ibid., 177. 21. Ibid., 25. 47. Sidney E. Dean, “ New Navy, New Power,” 22. In Peace and War: Interpretations of American Naval History vol. 27, no. 1(2013): 56. Naval History, 1775-1984. Ed. Kenneth J. Hagan 48. Kurt Hackemer, The U.S. Navy and the Origins (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1984), 149. of the Military-Industrial Complex 1847-1883 23. Robert W. Love, Jr., History of the U.S. Navy Volume (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2001), 4-5. 1775-1941 (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1992), 346. 49. Ibid., 124. 24. Paolo E. Coletta, A Survey of U.S. Naval Affairs 1865- 50. In Peace and War: Interpretations of American 1917 (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 26. Naval History, 1775-1984. Ed. Kenneth J. Hagan 25. Ibid., 27. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1984), 158-159. 26. In Peace and War: Interpretations of American 51. Robert W. Love, Jr., History of the U.S. Navy Volume I Naval History, 1775-1984. Ed. Kenneth J. Hagan 1775-1941 (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1992), 358. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1984), 175. 52. Sidney E. Dean, “ New Navy, New Power.” 27. Robert W. Love, Jr., History of the U.S. Navy Volume I Naval History vol. 27, no. 1(2013): 56. 1775-1941 (Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1992), 353. 53. “Give Us A Mighty Navy,” Weekly Indiana 28. Paolo E. Coletta, A Survey of U.S. Naval Affairs 1865- State Journal, November 29, 1899. 1917 (Lanham: University Press of America, 1987), 29. 54. “Naval War College”: http://thesaltysailor.com/rhodeisland- 29. John B. Hattendorf, “Stephen B. Luce: Intellectual Leader philatelic/rhodeisland/postcard/19-Navy-War-College.jpg of the New Navy,” in Admirals of the New Steel Navy, ed. 55. “USS Atlanta”: http://upload.wikimedia.org/ James C. Bradford (Annapolis: Naval Institute, 1990), 13. wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Atlanta_ 30. Ibid., 14. (protected)._Port_bow,_1891_-_NARA_-_512894. 31. Ibid., 12. tif/lossy-page1-300px-Atlanta_(protected)._Port_ 32. Admiral Luce to Captain J.S. Barnes, August 5, 1889. bow,_1891_-_NARA_-_512894.tif.jpg In Life and Letters of Rear Admiral Stephen B. Luce, 56. “RDM Stephen B Luce”: http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/ (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1925), 268. OnlineLibrary/photos/images/h02000/h02323.jpg 33. John B. Hattendorf, “Stephen B. Luce: Intellectual Leader of the New Navy,” in Admirals of the New Steel Navy, ed. “Early Morning Inspection” James C. Bradford (Annapolis: Naval Institute, 1990), 5-7.
28 29 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 and given authority over the land with the The roles and responsibilities of women Yahweh). The standard Wellhausian School of exception of the tree of the knowledge of good Women in the Tanakh in ancient Hebrew culture are explicitly differentiation for various sources will be used and evil. This older Yahwistic source focuses defined and traceable through the Hebrew and to denote distinct narratives (J for Yahwistic, more on the mortality of human beings and Christian scriptures. To be sure, the ancient D for Deuterocanonical, P for priestly, and E ByMcKenzie Pepper their mundane nature, being crafted from Hebrew culture was thoroughly patriarchal for Elohist). the dust of the earth, than having dominion from its clan society all the way through the In following the chronological timeline, over others. The deity then determines that kingship of Israel to the Roman conquest. the creation story of Genesis 1.27-2.28 sets “it is not good that man should be alone” and Women were systematically subjugated to the context in which humans first came McKenzie Pepper is a subsequently creates a “helper as his partner”. male authority and as such, were subject to into existence. The deity spoke and created A woman is created out of man as a seemingly senior cadet from F-Troop the whims of their caretakers. However, that is humankind: “Let us make humankind in our subordinate helper, and the man uses his majoring in Political not to say that individual women never rose to image, according to our likeness; and let them superiority of language and names the creation prominence or held authority in the patriarchal have dominion…” (1.26). In the aforementioned Science. Cadet Pepper is “woman.” As the narrative progresses the man culture. The Hebrew Bible is peppered with verse, the deity refers to multiple humans but scheduled to commission and woman fall into enmity in stories of individual women who rebelled does not differentiate according in the United States Army relation to the deity in that they against the chauvinistic bondage experienced to gender nor enumerate disobey the commands of the as an infantry officer and in the culture. A word of caution must be said precisely how many humans deity by eating the fruit of the plans on pursuing a juris about the instances where women gained are created. Later in verse 27 tree o f the knowledge of good social significance and consolidated authority. the deity creates humankind doctorate upon completion and evil. Genesis 3 describes The tendency to perceive a progressive gain in in his image and differentiates of his military service. His future goals include the events surrounding the social and political rights is natural and the between the sexes: “God working for the Center for Strategic and disobeying of the divine edict and urge must be resisted for the historiographical created humankind in his sheds light on one conception International Studies as an analyst of ideological work does not lend evidence to the tendency. image, in the image of God he of the original relationship movements and reading The Collected Works of While it may be desirable to trace a clear created them; male and female between man and woman. path of social gains in females’ relationship he created them”. Following Eric Voegelin in its entirety. Eve and Adam are wandering to society, where precedence is set and social the creation the deity blessed through the Garden of Eden gains build upon previous gains, the literature humankind and gave them when they encounter a talking does not support this notion. The isolated dominion over the whole of serpent that speaks to them and Abstract instances where women gain significance is earth. The significance here portrays the deity as selfish and precisely that—isolated. The object of this is that he gave dominion to scared of humankind’s power. In Women have played a pivotal study will be to highlight instances in the them over his other creations iv Genesis 3.4-5 the serpent says and often underappreciated role in the Old Testament where women attain some without regard to splitting Adam and Eve to the woman, “you will not die; for development of ancient Hebrew culture sort of significance—whether through moral authority between male and female. God knows that when you eat of it your eyes and indeed throughout history. The superiority or military might—in the literature This is important in that it sets the original will be opened, and you will be like God”. Eve and discuss the context surrounding the conditions in which mankind first entered object of this study will be to highlight uses her intellectual capacity to reason to the instances. Perhaps a pattern other than the existence. From this original standard, other instances in the Hebrew Bible where conclusion that it is desirable to eat from the typical linear progression might reveal itself narratives can be judged in accordance to their women attain some sort of significance— tree and quite easily convinces her husband to through an analysis of the literature. This study level of derailment from the natural, original whether through moral superiority, indulge as well. She exercises her will over her will roughly follow the chronological order of order. Chronologically, the earlier creation military might, or intellectual capacity— apathetic husband who was with her: “So when appearance in the literature. In reference to story of Genesis 2.7, a J source, differentiates and discuss the context surrounding the the woman saw that the tree was good for food…. the transcendent God of the Hebrews the word the role of women in many aspects from the instances. The documentary hypothesis She took of its fruit and ate; and she also gave deity will be used exclusively for clarity issues chronologically later parallel in 1.26-28, which will be utilized in analyzing the depiction some to her husband, who was with her, and he (as opposed to Ba’al the Hebrew word for is a P source. In Genesis 2.7 a solitary male is of women throughout the various sources ate” (3.6-7). The deity soon realizes what has physically formed from the dust of the earth and stories. Lord also an early distinct deity, Elohim, and
30 31 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 happened and punishes the first humans with whom Sarah convinced Abraham to lie with to deity. In this narrative, both Sarah through in many respects but staying within the scope a curse that has been used as justification for fulfill the deity’s promise. Abraham went into Isaac and Hagar through Ishmael become of this study the tribute is rich in potentiality the subjugation of women into modernity. The Hagar and conceived a son then; the angel of mothers of nations. Here both men and women for concrete societal gains by women in ancient deity says to the woman, “yet your desire shall the lord appeared and commanded Hagar to are equally important in the fulfillment of the Hebrew culture. The fact that the deity uses be for your husband, and he shall rule over name him Ishmael. Sarah grew jealous and deity’s covenant. a woman to transmit his desires to the clans you” (3.16). This role reversal stands in stark contempt swelled in her bosom for her utility in As the Hebrew culture developed from is extremely significant in that it places a contrast to the earlier episode where the man the social structure was diminished by Hagar’s a nomadic pre-clan society to a full-fledged solitary female as the supreme spiritual, and is utterly passive to the women’s intellectual ability to produce a son for her husband. Hagar confederacy of distinct, and sometimes feuding, therefore matriarchal authority of the land. persuasion. Thus we have a creation narrative and Abraham incurred the wrath of Sarah to clans, a peculiar system of governance developed She chastises the various men of the tribes that places the dominion of man over women the point that Hagar was cast out from the to manage the fledgling culture. Judges for failing to fully participate in Yahwism and as a result of a transgression against the house of Abraham. Here a husband submits ruled the confederacy as semi-autonomous successfully repels the Canaanite resistance deity. It is interesting to note that the raison to his wife’s jealous outburst. Abraham is cast sovereigns. The judge to the Israeli infiltration. d’être for the subjugation in the pathetic role of a also served as a prophet The context in which she is the communal sinning husband who discards his or prophetess that “The evidence that becomes the Judge of of both the man and the concubine and discharges speaks for the lord and Israel again lends to the woman against the deity’s his patriarchal duties to has spiritual authority supports the subjugation significance of her rise decree and the subjugation a member of his house in over the society. The of women as a derailment to power. To be sure, the is a curse or a derailment order to have his peace fourth judge to govern from the natural order clans of Israel where a from the natural order of at home. There are two the confederacy was confederacy but lacking existence. Whereas the accounts of Hagar’s a prophetess named manages to survive a permanent political older Yahwistic source exodus from Abraham’s Deborah and her countless editors, structure or organization has man and woman house, one in Genesis 16 appearance in Judges redactions, and oral they were almost relatively equal the later and the other in Genesis 5 presents a fairly clear exclusively organized by priestly source has women 17. In Genesis 16 Hagar picture of the Yahwistic traditions to make it into men. The song reveals subordinate to man. The is an independent nomad order of Israel in that it the Hebrew and Christian the haphazardness in Yahwistic source would woman who has a deep is lacking significant Bible as we know it which Deborah is thrust be the starting point or disapprobation to her redactions. Deborah is into the role of a Judge natural order and the curse mistress’s chicaneries. a warrior prophetess today.” to save the clans from that ensues is different She voluntarily wanders that speaks directly for a possible extinction from the natural source. It off into the desert and the deity in spiritual matters and pragmatic by the Canaanites. She becomes a savior fundamentally alters the manages quite well for governance. At this time the Hebrew tribes’ for the fledgling confederacy and shows the relationship of man and Hagar and Ishmael v herself when the angel of infiltration into Canaan had caused serious Israelites their wrongness in doubting the women the lord appears and reveals her son’s military conflicts with Canaanites, which deity. A state of emergency had to be declared Further along in the Book of Genesis great destiny. The desert is an inhospitable resulted in sporadic raids and attacks on and a prophetic authority had to issue a war after the deity’s destruction of the earth by environment where even the most stalwart Hebrew settlements. The Song of Deborah call to assemble the armies of the tribes. flood, he enters into a covenant with Abraham of men are at the mercy of the elements yet describes the prophetess’s rallying of the The charismatic Judge must have sufficient and his wife Sarah. Sarah is barren and unable Hagar is able to thrive. In contrast, Genesis tribes’ men against the coalition of Canaanites authority to summon the men to action. This to produce an offspring for Abraham though 17 the conditions are less favorable for Hagar and their leader Sisera of Harosheth-goiim in and of itself stands in stark contrast to the the deity had promised if Abraham upheld and she is vulnerable to the whims of society (Voegelin 247). Deborah’s rallying cry “awake, generally held view of a subjugated woman the covenant Sarah would produce a son. In and the perils of the wilderness. However, the awake, Deborah…. Awake, awake, utter a song!” at the mercy of her caretaker. Other biblical Sarah’s possession was an Egyptian slave parallel in Genesis 17 should not diminish aroused a male military leader with the name of scholars contend that the Deborah song is one girl named Hagar—presumably a gift from the importance of her achievement of Barak who went to defeat the Canaanite Sisera of the most “unencumbered by interpretations Pharaoh after their experience in Egypt— independence and self-acquired favor in the (Judges 5.12). The Deborah Song is important and redactions of the later historical schools…
32 33 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 and is so early that it has not yet suffered from the claim that The Song of Deborah is indeed sometimes physically and sexually, violently, chauvinistic stories of the Hebrew Bible is Israelite-Canaanite syncretism” (Voegelin a pristine picture of Yahwist Israel, and that chauvinistic, that is not to say women or the emergence of heroic women, and their 250). This may be evidence that the patriarchal the social environment of the clan society was rather specific women never gained societal potentiality for development into significant society was not the natural order of existence a progression, the notion that women were and spiritual significance. While it is hard to actors in the older stories. The evidence but a purely pragmatic institution created by indeed making social progress significance trace a tangible progressive social experience that supports the subjugation of women as a one sex to exert influence over another. can be held. for women in ancient Hebrew culture, it is derailment from the natural order manages The song celebrates a victory at war These three instances covered from not beyond reason to suggest that the women to survive countless editors, redactions, and that is won by the deity but facilitated by a the book of Genesis and Judges of the Hebrew of the tribes’ experiences resembled that oral traditions to make it into the Hebrew and prophetess who commands the tribes and Bible stand as testaments to the authority of a cyclical trough and crest model. In the Christian Bible as we know it today. establishes a general, Barak, who is obedient and significance of women. However, these are beginning, in accordance to the deity’s will, to the deity. Midway through the song another not the only instances where women exercise man and women were of the same significance woman is celebrated; Jael, authority or superiority in the mundane reality. The tables turned as Bibliography a Kenite woman, extends over their male man is commanded to exert authority over hospitality to the fleeing counterparts. It is beyond i. HarperCollins. The HarperCollins Study Bible: Canaanite prince Sisera. the scope of this study to women as a punishment for the first New Revised Standard Version. Ed. Harold W. Attridge. HarperCollins, n.d. She offered him hospitality, create a comprehensive transgression against the deity. Later the ii. Smith, Mark S. The Origins of Biblical Monotheism. and when he felt safe, she analysis of all the stories deity raises Sarah, Hagar, and Deborah New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. drove a tent peg through in the literature. They to spiritual prominence, and this could iii. Voegelin, Eric. Order and History: Israel and Revelation. Ed. Maurice P. I. Hogan. Vol. 1. Baton Rouge: his skull. do deserve mentioning conceivably translate into societal significance Louisiana State University Press, 1956. 5 vols. as they contribute to the for women. Finally, as explicitly found in iv. “Adam and Eve”: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/8/8f/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder_-_Adam_und_Eva_ Most blessed of women be understanding of the other narratives, women are confined to the im_Paradies_(S%C3%BCndenfall)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Jael, relationship of women to home and in all respects subjugated to their v. “Hagar and Ishmael”: http://www.goodallartists. The wife of Heber the men in ancient Hebrew male counterparts. The various books of ca/Hagar%20&%20Ishmael%20Augo4.jpg vi. “Deborah as a Judge of Israel”: http://upload.wikimedia. Kenite… culture. The goddess the Hebrew Bible experienced significant org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Deborah.jpg She put her hand to the Asherah from earlier editing and redaction, which helps explain the tent peg Asiatic theogony is inconsistencies of the mores in the literature. And her right hand to the described as the consort The specter haunting the younger, workman’s mallet; of El and personified She struck Siser a blow, in Proverbs: “Does not She crushed his head, wisdom call out? Does She shattered and pierced not understanding his temple…. Deborah as a Judge of Israel vi raise her voice? On the (Judges 5.24-26) heights along the way, where the paths meet, she takes her stand; The demise of Sisera clearly brings beside the gates leading into the city at the praise upon Jael for her horrendous murder entrances, she cries aloud…” (8.1-3). The deity’s of Sisera. The act of Jael, by earlier nomadic infinite wisdom manifest itself in mundane standards, was a barbaric violation of the laws reality as a woman. Ruth, Esther, the daughter of hospitality. However, the creator of the of Jephtah, and Rizpah all stand as moral hymn praised the brutal murder committed exemplars in relation to the male protagonist by the Kenite. The discrepancies in mores in their respective narratives. While it is most espoused in the Hebrew Bible is indicative of a certainly true that the literature as a whole peculiar social progress. If we take for granted presents a Hebrew culture that is deeply, and “Palmetto Morning”
34 35 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 In his manuscript “Arguments for Is- Sardar’s Islamic Science: Is lamic Science”, Ziauddin Sardar lays out his Science Universal? schematic for what he calls Islamic science, both what it is and why it is absolutely neces- sary. In it, he argues for a distinctly Islamic brand of science, one that he claims is not di- By: Jane Ma vorced from a religious and holistic context Jane Ma is a senior Biology but is driven by Islamic values to serve Islamic needs. Further, Sardar asserts that modern and English double major science or western science is “inherently de- in Golf Company, pursuing structive and it cannot fulfill the needs of Mus- an honors gold seal track for lims societies” (Sardar 1985). While there’s both degrees. She holds the certainly a measure of truth within certain ele- cadet rank of Human Affairs ments of his argument and a good deal to con- sider throughout the entire work, ultimately Officer. She hopes to attend it fails to demonstrate the need for an Islamic medical school and eventually science. It fails in two ways, first through some work in public health or internal medicine. She logical contradictions within his argument is the current editor-in-chief of The Gold Star and second through oversights within a broad- Journal and has also served as the editor-in-chief er and more generalized philosophical frame- work that delves into the relationship between of The Shako. She has been published multiple science and culture or science and religion as times, most notably in the online cardiology well as the nature of science itself. This essay journal, “Congenital Cardiology Today”. will endeavor to explain the four arguments of Sardar’s paper as well as his definition of Abstract an ethics-driven Islamic science that is both differentiated from other sciences and neces- Ziauddin Sardar, a prominent sary in the face of such sciences; and then to Islamic scholar, presents a lengthy analyze where he falls short of his goals while manuscript arguing for the concept of acknowledging some of his better points; and a purely Islamic Science. This paper finally to step back and discuss the idea of a outlines and analyzes his arguments, universal science in a globalized context. both its strengths and weaknesses. Sardar’s theory of a separate Islamic Ultimately it will conclude that while science is based on four arguments: first, that each civilization necessarily and naturally de- some aspects of the type of science he velops its own brand of science—therefore, advocates for are worth considering science is decidedly not universal; second, that and incorporating, science is ultimately Islamic science has historically already pos- a universal construct that should not sessed a style and identity all its own; third, be culturally categorized--a process that so-called Western science is inherently that in fact impedes the progress of destructive and is a threat not only to Islamic true science. science as an entity but also to the world/man- kind in general; and fourth, that “Western sci- “Lost Cover”
36 37 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 ence cannot meet the physical, spiritual, and he makes some factual errors; for example, he blocks on which the rest of his arguments rest; However, it would seem fair to state that Sar- cultural needs of Muslim societies” (Sardar cites a Christian (not Islamic) physician who and upon closer inspection, they are shown to dar is right in saying that Islamic science at its 1985). After presenting these four arguments, refuses to make poisons because it would be be bursting, swollen, overstuffed--and not as zenith had a distinctive identity--one of mul- he then advocates a progressive path forward in violation of both his profession and his re- sturdy or homogenous as they might original- tiplicity and plurality based on sources from for Islamic science: reject Western science and ligion as proof that Islamic scientists are ethi- ly seem. Even within a single civilization, there several different cultures, sources which were forge a new scientific identity by participating cally superior (Grierson 1990). is always an extreme diversity in attitudes, internalized and built upon. in a science informed by Islamic ethical prin- What is perhaps more worrisome about approaches, and motives...towards science or Therefore, Islamic science--and, it is my ciples, most importantly that of Tawhid, mean- this part of his argument are the generaliza- otherwise. To try and base an argument on the contention, all science--is a global, fluid, cross- ing unity or oneness. This binding principle of tions that he makes about two extensive and idea that all Chinese people (1.35 billion and cultural, and shared experience, a collective Islam translates to the following traits of Is- complex civilizations in order to achieve his counting) or Muslims possess a particular rev- endeavor. Abdus Salam, 1979 Nobel Laureate lamic science: first, that there is “no distinction point. He characterizes the allegedly sepa- erence for life and also notably between subject and object in Islamic science” rate sciences of these two civilizations and and a syner- the only Paki- (Sardar 1985); second, that there should be no consequently makes a statement about each gistic and har- stani to receive division of science into arbitrary subjects— civilization. It is his contention that Greek monious world a Nobel Prize such divisions are science is reductionist view that in addition to false; and third, that Is- and separatist, break- Western civili- the only Mus- lamic science does not Therefore, Islamic Science- ing things down into zations do not lim to have been differentiate between -and, it is my contention, smaller and smaller is quite a bold awarded the facts and values— all science--is a global, pieces to study them claim. This prize in science, that knowledge, or iln individually; whereas statement is writes this: (in Arabic) , is insepa- fluid, cross-cultural, Chinese science focuses not intended “My own view rably married to ethi- and shared experience, a on harmony and synthe- to demonize, has always been cal values. collective endeavor. sis: “by concentrating but merely to that science is I will initially on relation rather than point out the the shared cre- examine some prob- substance, Chinese error in rever- ation and joint lems that arise in his thought emphasized ing/advocat- heritage of all first four arguments, as these conclusions the interconnectedness of man and nature as ing on the mankind and are the foundation of his call for a defined Is- well as individual and society” (Sardar 1985). basis of such that as along as Islamic Science v lamic science. He spends the bulk of his first He sets both of these sciences as diametri- broad and careless gen- a society encourages it, argument discussing the differences between cally opposed, two poles at different ends of a eralizations. science will continue to flourish in that soci- Chinese science and Greek science, which he spectrum. He clearly wishes to align Islamic S. Irfan Habib, an Indian historian, also ety.” (Salam 1988) draws from outdated sources, according to his science with Chinese science and reject Greek comments on Sardar’s assertion that Chinese, Salam also saw no problem reconciling his notes. Roderick Greierson (of the Near East science, which is acting as a representative for Western and Islamic sciences are concrete and identity as a relatively modern theoretical University in Cyprus) also points this out in all of Western science. separate entities. Habib states that the histor- physicist and his identity as a devout Muslim. his short article critiquing Sardar’s piece. Gri- Basing his arguments on such “naive ic Islamic science that Sardar glorifies (partic- He seems to agree with Sardar in the sense erson writes: “the source listed for his [Sar- generalizations” (Grierson 1990) is a mistake. ularly in Sardar’s third major argument) in the that Islam as a religion and Islam as a science dar’s] account of Greek science is a Penguin What is disconcerting is the unsophisticated golden age was actually due to the high rate are one and the same, from the same sources paperback that...has been dropped from its list yet wholly confident aggregation on Sardar’s of state sponsored interchange of culture and and informed by the same ethics. But the dif- as antiquated.” He further adds that Sardar’s part of multifaceted and complex ideas such knowledge encouraged at the time. Habib fur- ference is that Sardar closes the gates of cross- basis for his assertions about Chinese science as science and religions, or massive and di- ther comments that “it is unfortunate that... fertilization, isolating his rigid conception seem to be based on a volume of Joseph Ned- verse populations/civilizations, as well as vast Islamic civilization, including its science, is be- of Islamic science as a self-created construct ham’s Science and Civilization in China, a text tracts of both history and geography. All of ing proudly projected as a monolith, solely de- and mandating that the influences of other which is now over 60 years old. Additionally, these are pressed close together to form the pendent on Quranic revelation” (Habib 2014). sciences, particularly those of the destructive
38 39 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 West, be rejected. This is an impossible idea, search should be conducted freely, in pursuit and some might say reminiscent of Al Ghaz- of new discoveries and for no other reason. zadi, who declared the gates of itjihad closed They complain that scientists are forced to towards the end of the golden age of Islamic justify their research in non-scientific terms, Science--a defensive response to the Crusades for funding and in deference to public pres- and their Western threat. sure to find cures for certain popular diseas- That is not to say that there aren’t es yet not others--in short, scientists have to certain useful or meaningful elements in Sar- bend their research to public interest. dar’s work. Sardar presents so much so hast- Addressing issues like these are not ily, leading to some destabilizing missteps, confined to any one civilization or culture. It but there are some ideas worth consider- is the responsibility of all scientists every- ing. If we strip away the generalized labels where, just as Islam does not have an exclu- and the diametric juxtaposition of Western sive claim to value-driven science and others science vs. others and examine the charac- do not have an exclusive claim to fully empiri- teristics of Islamic science, we’d find that a cal science. Science is universal; therefore it lot of these traits hold merit. He describes is necessary to develop a cross-civilizational Islamic science as ethically informed and and inclusive perspective. Such a perspective places a particular emphasis on practicing banishes unbalanced and Eurocentric (for an conscientious type of science built upon such an inclination does exist) renderings of the principles of istislah (public interest), backwards-looking historiography but also khilafa (trusteeship as God’s stewards on levels the playing field for forward-looking Earth), and adl (social justice). Taken out of progress. a strictly Islamic context, this is a model that non-Islamic scientists could also emulate to a degree--certainly the desire to help people Bibliography (particularly the less fortunate) and the call i. Habib, S. Irfan. “Modern Science and Islamic Essentialism.” Economic and Political Weekly 43.36 for a environmentally conscious approach, in (2008): 55-61. JSTOR. Web. 19 June 2014.
40 41 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 Science and the Soul in In Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel Never Let Me the other. However, modern day society has they go to the Cottages, was described by Go, contemporary British society has decided seen the divorce between popular holidays Kathy as “talking a lot about things like re- Never Let Me Go to clone human beings in order to provide organ such as Christmas and its deeper religious incarnation” (Ishiguro 142). It is never ex- transplants, presumably, to allow the continu- meaning. Some aspects of religion still bleed plained where the characters get these re- By: Jennifer Burch ation of life even when medically unnecessary. through, such as Kathy asking Tommy if he ligious ideas, or what they actually believe However, ethical qualms still remain among “had found God concerning the sub- the population, namely, do these clones have or something” ject. The characters (Ishiguro 23). have been informed Jennifer is a junior member of souls and, if so, what does society owe them as possessors of souls? One would think that the Kathy says this regarding religion Victor Company from Myrtle possession of a soul would hypothetically place after witnessing in the same man- Beach. She is a Criminal these clones on the same ethical footing as the a change in Tom- ner that they were Justice major and a member average human. However, actual humans such my’s behavior. He informed of dona- of the Honors Program. as Miss Emily and Marie-Claude believe that goes from angry tions- “told, but not and immature to told.” (Ishiguro 64) Jennifer has received Gold the clones have souls and yet still in the end support the donation program. In the end, per- a calm, balanced On a surface level Stars and Dean’s List for 5 haps the bigger question is why does British individual. Kathy the old religious semesters and is also a society care? In a seemingly secular period of somehow got an ideas are recog- member of The Citadel Women’s Rifle Team, as British history, why, in the end, does it matter idea that Tommy nized by the clones well as head delegate for The Citadel’s Model if they have souls? Why has society assumed had changed his as existing but behavior because there is no deeper Arab League team. She is currently an Army that non-clones have souls? The question of soul-hood is a strangely antiquated one in a he had experi- understanding that contract and hopes to pursue a career as a society so consumed with prolonging life that enced religion. It would lead to be- Military Intelligence Officer. they would create an entire program to clone is strange that lief regarding God, organs. Much of the appeal of the afterlife to she would bring the soul, or some- humans is that death will resemble life, so that this up consider- thing like reincar- in a way you will never die. If death for clones ing that religion nation. Keffers, the Abstract is like life, it is cruel to present them with the is not a big part old caretaker at This paper examines the conflict concept of the soul and the afterlife, because of anyone’s life at the Cottages, was between the pursuit of science and the basic then their suffering will never end. It would that point. Addi- “rumored to be re- traits that all humans are said to possess, seem more beneficial to the clones to believe tionally, as Hailsh- ligious” (Ishiguro 133). This implies including having a soul. In this case, the that after death there is nothing, so that they am students they Organ Donation viii humans are actually clones, created in can finally be at peace. The proving of the soul are extremely isolated in that belief in religion is seen as order to provide organ transplants to also has large implications for the non-clones regards to modern society. It is possible that, old fashioned as well as a something primar- wealthy non-clones. In the novel Never Let and their system of beliefs. If in fact the clones like many of the other students, Kathy had ily middle class and rough around the edges. Me Go, author Kazuo Ishiguro tackles this do have souls, then man has successfully tak- simply picked this phrase or idea out of a In families and communities that do not possess many material goods, there is often issue with grace. With this paper I intend en the role of God himself. In this way, humans magazine or a book and used it without think- a body of folklore that fills the vacuum that to further examine the question of what have themselves become deities. ing about the deeper meaning. There is no further explanation given for Kathy’s reason- tangible possessions would normally fill. Re- should be more important- the desires of In the novel, religion seems to have ing behind the statement, and throughout ligious beliefs are often a part of this, as well the few or the good of the collective? The largely fallen by the wayside in British society. the novel there is no mention of the religious as superstitious ideas. In a way, this parallels clones are unusually preoccupied with This makes the obsession concerning the ex- beliefs of Kathy, Tommy or Ruth. the experiences of the clones, particularly religion, while the non-clones believe them istence of a soul confusing, because the idea of a soul is so intertwined with religious ide- Other religious aspects also bleed at Hailsham. They do not have many things to be soulless and expendable. als that one would not be able to exist without through. Rodney, who the trio meets after that truly “belong” to them, but they do have
42 43 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 a system of traditions, stories and rumors wanted you to look a certain way or for your clones were being made but being made to be has. However, when slave owners, the church that are passed down, such as the stories lifespan to continue or end a certain way, he genetically superior to the regular humans. and other individuals heavily invested in about the escaped Hailsham students that would have made it so. This is also evidence The British society described in the novel has the slave trade finally accepted the fact that met grisly ends. that in the novel the humans have in a way no problem with clones being used for trans- slaves were human and had souls, they still There is also evidence throughout become deities because they are deciding planted organs as long as the clones have no did not refrain from enslaving them. This the novel that organized religion has fallen who lives, who dies and ultimately how long way to take a larger role in regular society. mirrors the actions of Marie-Claude and Miss by the wayside, such as the conversation be- everyone’s lives are. Miss Emily states that “a generation of cre- Emily, who believe that the clones have souls tween Ruth, Tommy and Kathy at the aban- Ultimately, the question of the soul was ated children who would take their place in but in the end still support the donation pro- doned church. It is strange that a church has one that only emerged after the scientific ad- society? That frightened people” (Ishiguro gram. Having a soul does not save you from been left to become a ruin, because normally vances that allowed cloning had already been 264). The clones being enslaved or churches, even when disused, are treated in use for some time. In Tommy and Kathy’s are always ex- from making your with some manner of respect and not sim- conversation with Madame, she states this pected to sub- donations, which ply completely abandoned. It would take an succinctly. When “the great breakthroughs vert themselves makes it seem as if extremely secular in science followed one to the whims of the real argument society to leave a Perhaps it was only after another so rapidly, society as lower is not between church without any there was no time to take class citizens those who believe sort of repurpose. natural that with a stock, to ask the sensible who by some are the clones have Strangely enough, preoccupation regarding questions” (Ishiguro 262). not considered souls and those Kathy, Tommy and the preservation of life The world jumped into the human at all. Ti- who don’t, but be- Ruth do not seem cloning process without tus Levy states tween those who surprised or curi- would emerge even more taking the time to think that “Kathy [and believe the clones ous regarding the of a preoccupation of about the consequences. the others] must should have a hap- church being there, “By the time people be- sacrifice the per- py life before do- only pleased to have death. came concerned about sonal freedoms nations and those found somewhere students...it was too late” she has enjoyed who don’t think it to talk uninterrupted. Tiffany Tsao states (Ishiguro 263). Why did society suddenly look to the demands matters. that “even though the clones and guardians back in terms of what they valued? Perhaps it of society” (Levy The end result is express belief in human beings’ possession was only natural that with a preoccupation re- 3). always the same, of souls, their understanding of the concept garding the preservation of life would emerge The strug- because every lacks any reference to any supernatural cre- even more of a preoccupation with death. It is gle of clones mir- Hailsham House, from the film adaptation of the novel. ix clone must donate. ator of these souls” (Tsao 219). This is because impossible to stop thinking about death if so rors that of the This makes the fact for the clones, their creator is man himself as much is being done to prevent it, and natural- struggle of African that the clones are opposed to God. The desire for the citizens ly thoughts of death lead to thoughts about slaves in the 19th century. It was easier for invested so heavily in the idea of a soul all the of British society to live longer lives (at the the afterlife and the existence of a soul. It is slave owners and traders to not consider the more cruel, because if in fact the soul does con- expense of others) through transplanted or- interesting in the novel that in the case of the slaves humans at all, rather than accept the tinue on after death, the clones have nothing gans also speaks to the declining influence of clones, society would rather not think about fact that they were treating human beings to look forward to. Many clones fear that the religion within their culture. The Bible states the implication of having a soul than actually with such brutality. The idea of having a soul afterlife will simply be a continuous routine that “For we are God’s workmanship, created have to answer the question. In Miss Emily’s and being human transfers upon the per- of donations. This is illustrated during Tom- in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God conversation with Kathy and Tommy, she son some measure of dignity. Dignity must my and Kathy’s conversation regarding what prepared in advance for us to do” (New Inter- states that “people did their best not to think be removed if one is to be truly enslaved, ei- happens after the fourth donation. Tommy national Version, Eph. 2:10). This means that about you” (Ishiguro 263). However, the issue ther in 19th century America or 21st century states that the clones are scared of the last you should be happy with how you were cre- quickly came to light due to the Morningdale Britain. Dignity means that the mind has donation “because they’re not sure they’ll re- ated, because you were created by God. If God Scandal, when it was discovered that not only not been enslaved even if the physical body ally complete. If you knew for certain you’d
44 45 The Gold Star Journal The Gold Star Journal 2015 2015 complete, it would be easier. But they never when scientific advances are so numerous tell us for sure” (Ishiguro 279). For the clones, and so rapid, leaving many individuals bewil- they would rather be sure that after death dered and feeling left behind in a world they there is nothing at all, rather than more do- no longer understand. Much of the good (or nations. Kathy describes in harm) from these advances more detail the fears of the happens before society can clones, stating that “maybe, Some things are really stop and think about after the fourth donation, too good to be true, potential issues. Some things even if you’ve technically are too good to be true, or completed, you’re still con- or might lead you might lead you down a road scious in some sort of way; down a road you you never intended to go. how then you find there are never intended to It might be sooner than we more donations, plenty of think that the issues present- them, on the other side of go. ed in the novel will have to be that line; how there are no considered. more recovery centers, no carers, no friends, how there’s nothing to do Bibliography except watch your remaining donations until they switch you off” (Ishiguro 279). Marie- i. Ishiguro, Kazuo. Never Let Me Go. New York: Claude and Miss Emily seemed to have only Random House, 2006. 23-264. Print. meant well with their intentions of proving ii. iii. Levy, Titus. “Human Rights Storytelling and Trauma that clones have souls, but they inadvertently Narrative in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Never Let Me Go.” imparted ideas upon the clones that only pro- Journal of Human Rights. (2011): 3. Web. vide a measure of hope for normal people. iv. v. The New International Version Bible. Colorado In the end, the attempts of British Springs: International Bible Society, 1984. Print. society to escape death through the use of vi. vii. Tsao, Tiffany. “Religion and Biotechnology in transplanted organs has only served to make Ishiguro’s Never Let Me Go.” Literature and society, and the characters of Kathy, Ruth Theology. 2012 219. Web. 9 Dec. 2013. and Tommy, more aware of the fact that for viii. “Organ Donation”: https://m1.behance. net/rendition/modules/77396819/disp/ some to live others must die. Predators must f4b6d98ee15d669cea998128170e4ce5.jpg hunt prey, sacrifices must be made and even- ix. “Hailsham House”: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/ tually everyone must die. That much is sure, archive/01833/hamhouse_1833041i.jpg but the question of what happens after still remains. The novel speaks to the desire of man to have control over his life, even at the expense of another man. It also serves as a warning, particularly in this day and again
“The Inspector”
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