National and Regional Identities in an Age of Globalization

European Honors Program: National and Regional Identities In An Age of globalization

2014-2015

Final Essay

Lecturer: Prof. dr. Arnoud-Jan Bijsterveld

Date: 1st May 2015

Name: Moira Nardoni

Administration Number: 988169

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………...... 3

Introduction……………………………………………………………………….....4

A. Nationalism in An Era of Globalization ………………………………...4

B. Globalization. ……………………………………...... 4

C. Globalization and Nationalism are Different To One Other…………….5

D. Globalization and Nationalism are Equal To Each Other.……………....5

E. Nationalism As Opposed to Regionalism…………...... ………………...6

F. Regionalism As a Process of Globalization……………………………...6

G. Italy Lega Nord Case vs. The UK Decentralization of Power……….…..8

Conclusion………………………………………………………………..……….....9

Bibliography……………………………………………………..…………………..10

Essay Title: “How are regionalism, globalization and nationalism different, equal or overlapping to one other? Please refer to a specific country in order to support your reasoning.”

ABSTRACT

This paper is an attempt to address the ‘never-solved’ issue about the interaction among the three forces that shape world politics in the modern world: globalization, regionalization, and nationalism. These three forces correspondingly underline the same concept yet with different solution. As it will be studied throughout the paper, globalization, regionalization and nationalism should be captured and studied as forces, which are relative to and overlapping one another, yet they are never cooperative or in harmony. Thus, my reasoning will look at the end of regionalism and the beginning of nationalism; as well as if they have to be considered in opposition to globalization or if the concept of 'glocalization' will solve the issue, and whether they mutually reinforce each other and if so, what might be possible positive or negative outcomes.

INTRODUCTION

Nationalism, globalization and regionalism’s relations have been the core subject of many debates among scholars in international relations and history fields. All three forces stand at an important position in our interdependent modern societies and nation-states, especially in the shaping of current politics and our identity. Given the overload of critiques on the matter, two main contrasting perspectives have been put forward. Some theorists argue that nationalism cannot co- exist with globalization, while others strongly believe that regionalism and nationalism bring about a clearer concept of globalization. On top of this, it is also suggested that global forces will overpower the European regions, which is compared by the opposing view stating that the rise of a new localism will lead to a Europe of regions.1

A. NATIONALISM IN AN ERA OF GLOBALIZATION

In times of modernization, secularization and globalization, there appears to be a growing gap between elites and masses when it comes to nation-building. This means that the state and respectively the church no longer provide a set of values and idea of what the national identity is (or should be); instead only political, economic, and cultural/intellectual elites have a say.2 Moreover nation states, as argued by Keating, have not disappeared, but instead they have lost the abilities to international organizations, their components parts and the market as a whole.3 Given this issue, globalization is also needed to enclose political and social identities since they are too complex to be contained in a national identity itself defined by the borders of the state. Thus, nationalism promotes globalization as long as the latter is desirable for national power and security and does not essentially challenge the system of nation-states.4 Although the many difficult challenges faced for nationalism due to globalization, they still do not amount to any change or fundamental transformation; and as Hurrell put it “…much understandings of the road to power and plenty may have changed, the nationalist developmental state is alive and well.”5

B. GLOBALIZATION

Globalization is defined as a phenomenon, which affects people and states all around the world, by creating a more interdependent environment, not only economically, but politically and culturally as well.6 The process of independence together with advances in technology and communications, leads to a more deterritorialized world7 and unified since the geography restrictions diminish.8 Globalization has real consequences in terms of increased movement of

1 Chaminade, Cristina and Monica Plechero “Do regions make a difference? Exploring the Role of Different Regional Innovation Systems in Global Innovation Networks in the ICT industry” No 2012/2, Papers in Innovation Studies, Lund University, Research and Competences in the Learning Economy (2012) 2 Heinrich Best, “History Matters: Dimensions and Determinants of National Identities among European Populations and Elites”, Europe-Asia Studies 61 no. 6 (2009) 921-941 at p. 924 3 Michael Keating, ‘National and Regional Identities in Europe’, Contemporary European History 16 no. 3 (2007) 407-412, at p. 408, 410. 4 Ibid 5 Andrew Hurrell “On Global Order”, Oxford: OUP, p. 204 (2007). 6 Christian Von Campe “Globalization and Its Effects on Nationalism” PI2004 (2008) 7 Robertson, R. “Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture” London. Sage. 1992 8 Waters, M. “Globalization” Second Edition: Routledge, 2001. ISBN-13: 978-0415238540

goods, services, technology, borders, ideas, and people, of which some are weakening. 9 For example, the rise and development of international organizations (WTO) as well as the unification of all member states in the European Union took some of the decision-making from nation-states; this is because international organizations only grant membership if the states are willing to give away some of their sovereignty10. Such concept blurs the idea of national identities and gives rise to the idea of a “United States of Europe”, which for instance is emphasized by the idea of the economy’s globalization, since current economic nationalism is seen as outdated and harmful for the state.11 This notion of developing global cultures leads to a loss of nationalism within states, negatively shaping the relationship between globalization and nationalism.

C. GLOBALIZATION AND NATIONALISM ARE DIFFERENT FROM ONE OTHER

Nevertheless, many theorists suggest that globalization and nationalism cannot co-exist and they are not convergent to one other because the former influences the latter’s forms by suppressing it.12 Nationalist thinkers perceive the concept of globalization as the compression of the world as well as its strengthening of consciousness as there is an increasing trend towards interdependence.13 They believe that processes such as disintegration, separation and localization are the outcomes of the globalization trend, consequently explaining how the rise of statehood is a response to the forces of globalization.14 The latter is also recognized as a power to destroy the tradition and culture of different ethnic groups around the world; which is clearly exemplified by the Western cultural dominance over the rest of the world.15 As technology and science developed in the West, other regions of the world started borrowing their ideas and values, which subsequently began to shape those of poorer countries.16 This, together with other less desirable consequences lead to an increase in rootlessness and loss of stability “…as people experience the effects of capitalist development, media overflow, structural adjustment policies, privatization, urbanization, unemployment, forced migration and…”17 other forces.

D. GLOBALIZATION AND NATIONALISM ARE EQUAL TO EACH OTHER

However an opposing standpoint imply that globalization and nationalism have a ‘mixed relationship’ in which one has led to the other and one promotes the other.18 On one hand, many theorists believe that globalization has promoted nationalism, in cases where a national event or a state’s economy becomes a cultural resource in different global regions, influencing other nations in

9 Manners, I. (2000). Europe and the world: The impact of globalization. In R. Sakwa & A. Stevens(Eds.), Contemporary Europe (pp. 182–201). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave. 10 Heywood, A. “Political ideologies, An Introduction” 4th edition, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p.1 (2007) 11 Levitt, T. “The Globalisation of Markets”, Harvard Business Review May/Jun 1983 cited in de Wit, B & Meyer, R, “Strategy Process, Content Context, an International Perspective” 2nd Ed, West. Pp 733-741 (1998). 12 Peter Evans “The Eclipse of the State? Reflections on Stateness in an Era of Globalization. World Politics” 50, pp 62-87. (1997) doi:10.1017/S0043887100014726. 13 Supranote 3, pg. 8 14 Holsti, Kalevi J. 1996a. “Along the Road of International Theory in the Next Millennium: Three Travelogues.” Paper presented at the joint JAIR-ISA conference, Makuhari, Japan, 2–22 15 Godfrey, C. “The Struggle Between Nationalism And Globalization” 20008 16 Peter Evans “National Autonomy and Economic Development: Critical Perspectives on Multinational Corporations in Poor Countries,” International Organization 25(3): pg. 638 (1971). 17 Catarina Kinnvall “Globalization and Religious Nationalism: Self, Identity, and the Search for Ontological Security” International Society of Political Psychology Vol. 25, No. 5 (Oct., 2004), pp. 741-767 18 Drezner, Daniel. 1998. “Globalizers of the World, Unite!” The Washington Quarterly 21 (1, winter): 209–25.

a positive way. Globalization has also strengthened the support of nationalist movements by increasing the importance and the voices of small groups such as ethnic groups, religious groups, and ethno-language groups.19 On the other hand, globalization is understood as the result of nationalism, because each nation has participated and gives something to the globe in a successful collective way; implying the idea of how each independent nation has in one way or another been involved in making up the globe as it is now. As writer Sabanadze argued in her papers, both globalization and nationalism are in harmony with one other, because their coexistence is not seen as a fight where only one of them is the winner, but it is rather a mutually beneficial coexistence of two harmonious trends.20

E. NATIONALISM AS OPPOSED TO REGIONALISM

Nationalism and regionalism are seen as two similar, yet very contrasting forces. Most Nation States differ from one other; in fact some has a strong centralized administration, while others have been structures depending on the national government. The former was able to then transfer political power to its regions, such as the devolution of power in the UK to Scotland and Wales in 199821; whereas the latter (includes countries like Italy and France) tends to diminish its regional autonomy. However in order to avoid such process and to enhance the significance of regions as well as to represent them as the layer of the EU government administration right below the nation state level, in 1994 the European Union created a Committee of the Regions (CoR).22 This Committed was also ‘built’ with the principle to maintain regions’ historic autonomy as well as strengthening their political and economic situations.23 Nationalist thinkers strongly uphold that regionalism in this case is aiming to exceed the authority of the state in a supranational direction by setting limits and constraints to the development of a regional identity and supranational institutions. Yet, they do not recognize how nation-states can essentially be strengthened through regionalism since its main goal is not to transcend state’s authority, but to guarantee the region’s members greater security in their international relations in a context of increasing vulnerability of either the world economy or global security.24

F. REGIONALISM AS A PROCESS OF GLOBALIZATION

19 Vinsensio M.A. Dugis “Defining Nationalism in the era of Globalization” Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No.2, 1999, pg. 51-57 20 Natalie Sabanadze Chapter 6. “Globalization and Nationalism: the Relationship Revisited In: Globalization and Nationalism: The Cases of Georgia and the Basque Country” [online]. Budapest: Central European University Press, 2010 21 Willett, J. and Giovannini, A “The Uneven Path of UK Devolution: Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Regionalism in England – Cornwall and the North-East Compared.” Political Studies, 62: 343–360 (2014) doi: 10.1111/1467- 9248.1203 22Wagstaff, Peter (1999). Regionalism in the European Union. United Kingdom: Intellect Books. p. 185. ISBN 1- 84150-001-1 23 Scully, Roger, and Richard Wyn Jones. “Europe, Regions and European Regionalism.” Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. 24 Axline, W. Andrew. “Conclusion: External Forces, State Strategies, and Regionalism in the Americas” in Gordon Mace and JeanPhilippe Therien, eds., Foreign Policy and Regionalism in the Americas (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner), pg. 199 (1996)

As the last force, new regionalism25 gained importance on the assumption that it is important for the cultural and social backgrounds to economic growth.26 It may be understood in many different ways, which vary from being a threat to, or protest against the State, a potential separation danger, fragmentation, or otherwise as a way to modify the State authority, in order to gain more autonomy.27 The new concept of regionalism is also based on the idea that “…despite globalization, places and regions still matter…”28 as well as being a process where states, institutions and non- states interact under an economic, cultural, diplomatic, political, and military field.29 This phenomenon is believed to be in harmony with both nationalism and globalization since it is best known as the ability to recognize regions as an ‘intermediate form of community,’ between the national community of the state and the global community of humankind, for example regarding pluralistic security communities.30 Yet, regionalism still faces unanswered questions, such as whether it is a newly created political discourse, a provisional phenomenon, or a serious and lasting consequence of and challenge to the flaws of the nation-state and hence a new form of political modernity.31 Under this context, regionalism can then be recognized as a socio-political development aimed to restore past ethnic and cultural identities and autonomies; however it is also perceived as a creation of the present, often being based upon distorted histories and contemporary claims to specific ethnic identities.32 Thus, in certain cases the process of regionalism helps legitimizing and giving scope to the emergence of autonomous ethnic groups;33 whereas in other cases regionalism represents those units that may be located within or across the borders of a nation-state but are irrelevant regarding nationalistic identities.34

Nevertheless, regionalism brings about societal problems to its populations, which it has never introduced. These defects mostly concern the delineation of its exact territorial borders,35 which lead to consciousness of geographical contiguity, interaction, and the lack of belonging to a specific community and having a collective regional identity.36 Its main concern is regional security complex, which as stated by Barry Buzan37, is a set of states continually affected by one or more

25 Keating, Michael “The New Regionalism in Western Europe” (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1998 26 Kees Terlouw, “Rescaling Regional Identities: Communicating Thick and Thin Regional Identities” Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 9 no. 3 (2009) 452-464 27 B. Jones, M. Keating (Eds.), “The European Union And The Regions” Clarendon Press, Oxford (1995) 28 Raagma, G. “Regional Identity in Regional Development and Planning” European Planning Studies, pg. 55–76. (2002) 29 Mace, Gordon and Jean-Philippe Therien. “Introduction: Foreign Policy and Regionalism in the Americas” (1996) pg. 6 in Gordon Mace and Jean-Philippe Therien, eds., Foreign Policy and Regionalism in the Americas (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner), pg. 1-17 30 Whiting, Van R. “The Dynamics of Regionalization: Road Map to an Open Future?” 1993 in Peter H. Smith, ed., The Challenge of Integration: Europe and the Americas (Miami, FL: North-South Center), 17–49. 31 T.O. Hueglin “Regionalism in Western Europe: Conceptual Problems Of A New Political Perspective” Comparative Politics, pg. 440 (1986) 32 Storm, Eric “Regionalism in History, 1890-1945: The Cultural Approach”, European History Quarterly 33 (2003) 251-266. 33 Arie M. Kacowicz “Regionalization, Globalization, and Nationalism: Convergent, Divergent, or Overlapping?” Alternatives: Global, Local, Political Vol. 24, No. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1999), pp. 527-555 34 K. Ohmae “The End of the Nation State, the Rise of Regional Economies” Harper Collins, London pg. 5 (1995) 35 Haas, Michael. 1970. “International Subsystems,” American Political Science Review 64 (March): pg. 100-123 36 Russett, Bruce. 1967. International Regions and the International System: A Study in Political Ecology (Chicago: Rand McNally). Pg. 7 37 Buzan, Barry. “Third World Regional Security in Structural and Historical Perspective” in Brian L. Job, ed., The Insecurity Dilemma (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner), 167–89 (1991)

security externalities; which may include security power restraining power; collective security; pluralistic security communities;38 and integration in an ascending order of institutionalization.39 Despite these flaws, as Holm and Sorensen40 have argued, regionalism can be seen as a chapter of globalization because by helping national economies to become more competitive in the world market, integration between regions will lead to mutual cooperation on a global scale and the emergence of regional economies.41

G. ITALY LEGA NORD CASE vs. THE UK DECENTRALIZATION OF POWER

In a country like Italy, for instance, where there are several regionalist parties; there is also the emergence of the Northern League (Lega Nord, also known as LN) political party42, in the North of Italy. This party has given a new incentive to debates about the significance of regionalism in Italy as well as across Europe; yet it differs from other regionalist European parties.43 This is because it does not protest against foreign rule but against common economic interests of the region,44the political class, the immigrants and the underdeveloped South.45 The region of ‘Padania’ has never ‘existed’ as an administrative and political region, hence why LN has attempted to construct its geography borders and its history in order to justify its territorial and political claims.46 Globalization in this sense helped regionalism, because thanks to the use of modern technology as well as its cultural symbolism and political publicity it is possible to ‘artificially’ invent the existence of a new political identity. 47 I strongly believe that the invention of Padania illustrates the way that a ‘new’ political identity can appeal in a harmonizing rather than competing way with other political identities at other scales, such as the nation state Italy and the EU at the global level. The creation of a new ‘Padanian’ political identity underlines the idea that in Italy, both local and national identities are easily able to co-exist with one other, instead of making the old ones disappear. On the contrary to the Italian Lega Nord Case, there is the case of the UK, where the increase of regional autonomy led to a huge decrease in nationalism occurs. The UK government has been going through various changes, such as going from a centralized government to a system of governance and later on through different locations of power from the supranational to the local, ‘raising eyebrows’ to the extent of how efficient and justifiable the older forms of institutional

38 Morgan, Patrick M. 1997. “Regional Security Complexes and Regional Orders” in Lake and Morgan pg. 32-41 39 Lake, David A. “The New Regionalism in Security Affairs” in Lake and Morgan, 3–19 (1997) 40 Holm, Hans-Henrik and Georg Sorensen. 1995. “Introduction: What Has Changed?” in Hans-Henrik Holm and Georg Sorensen, eds., Whose World Order? Uneven Globalization and the End of the Cold War (Boulder, CO: Westview), 1–17 41 Mittelman, James H. 1996a. “Rethinking the “New Regionalism” in the Context of Globalization,” Global Governance 2: 189–213 42 Lipset, S.M., “The Revolt Aganst Modernity”, in Mobilzation, Center Periphery Structures and Nation Building ed. by P. Torsvik. Bergen: Universitetforlaget; pg. 472 (1981) 43 Spektorowski, Alberto "Ethonregionalism: The Intellectual New Right and the Lega Nord" The Global Review of Ethnopolitics 2 (3–4): 55–70, (2003) doi:10.1080/14718800308405144 44 Benito Giordano “Italian Regionalism or ‘Padanian’ Nationalism — the Political Project of the Lega Nord in Italian Politics” Political Geography, 19; pg. 445-71 (2000) 45 Poche, B. “The Lombard League: From Cultural Autonomy to Integral Federalism”, TELOS 90, pg.75 (1992) 46 Ibid. 47 J. Agnew, C. Brusa “New Rules for National Identity? The Northern League and political Identity in Contemporary Northern Italy” National Identities, 1 (2) pp. 117–133 (1999)

structure are.48 In fact, England devolved its power to both Wales and Scotland, who both have long had their own territorial institutions, such as government offices, secretaries of state and development agencies.49 Unlike other autonomous regions, both Wales and Scotland were able to gain forms of directly elected government following a referendum in 1997, where they used claims to national identity as a legitimizing device. This consequently gave them regional autonomy, however it left England void of any directly accountable structures of territorial governance. Both examples clearly underline two dissimilar outcomes of the concept of ‘glocalization’ and the idea of regionalism, and how the outcome of a harmonious regionalism trend with nationalism and globalization may lead to an increase in regional autonomy and national autonomy as well as a lack of sovereignty for both.

CONCLUSION

On the surface, the message conveyed throughout this paper has been one of complexity between glocalization and the other trends. All three forces, globalization, nationalism, and regionalization are central in shaping world politics, though their main importance is relative to one another through complex relations of convergence, divergence, and uneasy coexistence or overlapping. As seen throughout, nation states still remain the basic political units for the analysis of world politics; 50 however they are continuously affected by new and recent trends of regionalization and globalization, which have ‘pooled’ the nation states in undefined and unfamiliar directions, including the chance of creating ‘megastates’ of trade.51 Given this concept, it is better to regard to the three forces as having different types of regionalism and nationalism, and even to several shapes and dimensions of globalization, rather than a single, ‘global’ one. Their existence is dependent to one other in terms of convergence and divergence, yet they do not seem to overlap each other, since they are completely contrasting forces with a possible similar outcome.

48 Willett, J. and Giovannini, A “The Uneven Path of UK Devolution: Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Regionalism in England – Cornwall and the North-East Compared.” Political Studies, 62: 343–360 (2014) doi: 10.1111/1467- 9248.1203 49 Tomaney, J. “End of the Empire State? New Labour and Devolution in the United Kingdom”, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 24 (3), 675–88 (2000). 50 Mayall, James “Nationalism and International Society” (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) pg. 152, 1990 51 Kacowicz M. Arie, “Regionalization, Globalization, and Nationalism: Convergent, Divergent, or Overlapping?” Alternatives: Global, Local, Political Vol. 24, No. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1999), pp. 527-555

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Catarina Kinnvall “Globalization and Religious Nationalism: Self, Identity, and the Search for Ontological Security” International Society of Political Psychology Vol. 25, No. 5; pp. 741-767 (2004) Chaminade, Cristina and Monica Plechero “Do regions make a difference? Exploring the Role of Different Regional Innovation Systems in Global Innovation Networks in the ICT industry” No 2012/2, Papers in Innovation Studies, Lund University, Research and Competences in the Learning Economy (2012) Christian Von Campe “Globalization and Its Effects on Nationalism” PI2004 (2008) De Wit, B & Meyer, R, “Strategy Process, Content Context, an International Perspective” 2nd Ed, West. Pp 733-741 (1998). Drezner, Daniel; “Globalizers of the World, Unite!” The Washington Quarterly 21 (1, winter): 209– 25 (1995)

Godfrey, C. “The Struggle Between Nationalism And Globalization” (2008)

Gordon Mace and Jean-Philippe Therien, eds., Foreign Policy and Regionalism in the Americas (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner), pg. 1-17

Haas, Michael; “International Subsystems,” American Political Science Review 64 (March): pg. 100-123 (1970)

Heinrich Best, “History Matters: Dimensions and Determinants of National Identities among European Populations and Elites”, Europe-Asia Studies 61 no. 6 (2009) 921-941 at p. 924

Heywood, A. “Political ideologies, An Introduction” 4th edition, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p.1 (2007)

Holm, Hans-Henrik and Georg Sorensen; “Introduction: What Has Changed?” 1995 in Hans-Henrik Holm and Georg Sorensen, eds., Whose World Order? Uneven Globalization and the End of the Cold War (Boulder, CO: Westview), 1–17

Holsti, Kalevi J. “Along the Road of International Theory in the Next Millennium: Three Travelogues.” Paper presented at the joint JAIR-ISA conference, Makuhari, Japan, 2–22 (1996)

J. Agnew, C. Brusa “New Rules for National Identity? The Northern League and political Identity in Contemporary Northern Italy” National Identities, 1 (2) (1999), pp. 117–133

Kacowicz M. Arie, “Regionalization, Globalization, and Nationalism: Convergent, Divergent, or Overlapping?” Alternatives: Global, Local, Political Vol. 24, No. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1999), pp. 527-555 Keating, Michael “National and Regional Identities in Europe” Contemporary European History 16 no. 3 (2007) 407-412, at p. 408, 410. Keating, Michael “The New Regionalism in Western Europe” (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1998 Kees Terlouw, ‘Rescaling regional identities: Communicating thick and thin regional identities’, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 9 no. 3 (2009) 452-464

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Lake, David A. “The New Regionalism in Security Affairs” in Lake and Morgan, 3–19 (1997)

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Scully, Roger, and Richard Wyn Jones. “Europe, Regions and European Regionalism.” Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

Spektorowski, Alberto "Ethonregionalism: The Intellectual New Right and the Lega Nord" The Global Review of Ethnopolitics 2 (3–4): 55–70, (2003) doi:10.1080/14718800308405144

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Vinsensio M.A. Dugis “Defining Nationalism in the era of Globalization” Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No.2, 1999, pg. 51-57

Wagstaff, Peter “Regionalism in the European Union” United Kingdom: Intellect Books. p. 185. (1999) ISBN 1-84150-001-1

Waters, M. “Globalization” Second Edition: Routledge, 2001. ISBN-13: 978-0415238540

Whiting, Van R. “The Dynamics of Regionalization: Road Map to an Open Future?” (1993)

Willett, J. and Giovannini, A “The Uneven Path of UK Devolution: Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Regionalism in England – Cornwall and the North-East Compared.” Political Studies, 62: 343–360 (2014) doi: 10.1111/1467-9248.1203