THEMISSINGLINK Issue 8 February 2008

UoB LIFE SCIENCES MAGAZINE THEMISSINGLINK Issue 8 February 2008

Feature: Butterﬂy larvae hitch a ride with the red ants New: In Focus Head ofMarketing: CarstenReinhard Supervisors: LauraSaez, NickEaston Proofreaders: Secretary and Art Editor:NadègeLaici Design Editor:EmmaClark Assistant Editor: Editor: Head ofProduction: Missing LinkEditorial

Ariane WHAT’S ON THIS MONTH? cyanobacteria Professor Platycercus elegans,MichaelPanagopulos Intra-retinal variationinthevisualphysiologyof Round Thurs 14th5:00StaffCommonRoom(BS) social cognition Dr ChristianKeysers,Groningen,Mirrorsystemsand W Lunchtime (BS) Shadows T recognition with hypotheses aboutelaboration,innovationandspecies Professor JohnEndler Mon 1 of calciumsignallinginaphotomotileresponse Light-induced (Spheniscus demersus),DrDeirdreMcLachlan population monitoringof Sherely Spottingthedif distributions intheCotswold T Thurs 7th5:00StaffCommonRoom(BS) Rees, UCL,DecodingConciousness W Lunchtime (BS) of Edinbur Ecology andBehaviour: 5:15pm speech recognition T T role ofintrinsicandextrinsicmechanisms. University of Research Seminar:ProfessorSteveRedpath, Mon 4th1:05B37 able alk: SvenMattys,Ef ue 12th1:002D24(PD) ue 5th ed 6th4:002D2(PD) ed 13th4:002D2(PD) Anita Singh,SarahHaigh, T Whitehead reasurer: SophieMor T 1th 1:05B37(BS) T Agata Staniewicz alks: ChloeOnoufriouCharophyte

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Dear Life Scientists,

Welcome to the ﬁrst issue of 2008. The New Year This new issue brings you fabulous articles from sees in a new editorial team and a new look for very talented writers within the life sciences that the magazine. can be both entertaining and controversial.

Firstly I would like to thank the previous edito- We hope that you enjoy rial team for all their hard work and, in particu- reading this issue as much lar, Laura Saez – founder of the Missing Link. as we’ve enjoyed putting it Had she not had such insight and dedication, together and hope that you the life sciences would certainly be lacking what will be inspired to join us has become an important magazine for all those as we expand our scope who have an interest in science communication, into new fields. and reading everything from the latest scientific research to people’s experiences of travel and working in the field. Ariane, Editor

CONTENTS FEBRUARY 2008

Features

The birds and the bees 4 Life insurance and life assurance 10 A fool’s guide on how to impress your mates Could we be facing higher insurance premiums as The scent trail 6 advances in genetics allow us to determine our fate? Hannah Welham discovers that the Alcon blue Psychological assumptions 14 butterﬂy dumps its babies on unsuspecting red The psychology behind experimenter bias ants Evolution 16 Global warming 8 What do people really know about the theory of Who cares about it anyway? evolution?

Regulars

News and events 2 Interview 20 How the Might Fall Dr Simon Braddy: The giant sea scorpion “1000 Genomes Project” Comment 22 Curried Bird Flu Arthur Goldsmith voices his opinions In focus 12 Review 23 Showcasing your favourite photographs “Elephantoms: Tracking the Elephant” by Lyall Cockatiels and cocktails 19 Watson Stories from the ﬁeld Entertainment 24

[1] News and events News The latest updates from Theo Webb How the Mighty Fall

During the last 5 months the Amazon rainforest in Brazil has suffered the worst deforestation on record. The announcement was made by the Brazillian government based on satellite imagery from the National Institute of Space Research, which shows that during the last 5 months of 2007, 1,250 square miles of rainforest were lost. It is suggested that increases in commodities such as soya have encouraged the illegal deforestation of areas to allow for the cultivation of these crops. This data comes after the success of pio- neering legislation in early 2007, which saw a signiﬁcant decrease in illegal logging. www.bbc.co.uk/news

“1000 Genomes Project”

Tuesday 22nd January 2008 saw the launch of the “1000 Genomes Project”, an international project aim- ing to sequence 1000 individuals’ genomes with the hope of guiding researchers to disease-associated regions on the genome and to hasten supplementary follow-on research. Although some observers have questioned whether the project is ambitious enough, the high number of people will allow scientists to look at a greater variation of structural differences than in previous studies and will compare areas of DNA deletion, duplication and rearrangement. www.nature.com/news

Curried bird-ﬂu

The much-forgotton bird-ﬂu virus is still continuing it’s spread across the world with the virus spread- ing through domestic fowl populations in India. The state of West Bengal in northeast India has seen the H5N1 virus spread into more of the state’s districts, however people are releuctant to hand over the birds for culling. It has been estimated that two million birds need to be destroyed to prevent further spread of the highly pathogenic virus, which can infect most birds and has been known to spread to humans. www.bbc.co.uk/news [2] The Missing Link News and events Events What’s on in and around Bristol this month

Shell Wildlife Photographer of the Year 2007 - Winning and commended images from this year’s competition. Until 27 April 2008: Natural History Museum, London. Nature in Art, Gloucester - www.nature-in-art.org.uk

It’s a bird’s life - Tuesday 5th February. Bristol Zoo. Ed Drewitt will give an intriguing insight into the wild antics and behaviour of birds on the Downs and in your gardens. 7.00pm – 8.00pm £3.00

Identifying mosses and liverworts - Saturday 23rd February. Delve into the wonderful world of mosses and liverworts with expert Justin Smith. We’ll venture into Nightingale Valley in Leigh Woods to learn how to identify these mar- vellous ﬂowerless plants. 10.00am – 4.00pm £15.00 Run jointly with the National Trust.

Environmental Photogrpaher of the Year - Entries are now being welcomed for this annual competition. Closing date 31 July www.ciwem.org/awards/epoty

Biosoc Photography Competi- tion The theme is “Making the most of our time on Earth”. The limit is 3 photos per participant and you should send them to either Robin (rl5766) or Jeremy (jc6135). The deadline is the 7th of Feburary. www.bio.bris.ac.uk/biosoc

[3] Biology

The birds and the bees

A fool’s guide to how to impress your mate Agata Staniewicz Flowers, a romantic candle-lit dinner some less colourful species have or even just a heart-shaped card may to think of other ways to show off. for some people appear to be more Many birds sing but male manakins than enough effort put into celebrat- have gone one better and perform ing Valentine’s Day. Yet, none of a dance that would make Michael it seems very impressive when we Jackson proud. The main steps are as look at other species’ mating habits. follows: fly quickly up into the air, The purpose of life – reproduction swoop down and land on your perch, – has led to many interesting and then lean over and quiver your tail, extraordinary examples of mating flap your wings against your sides behaviour. So if you’re trying to and then start to moonwalk back- think of a new way to impress that wards – just like the King of Pop! special person, here are a few tips based on what has worked well for Bowerbirds have a different ap- birds and bees. proach. They do not dance but use twigs to build a very complex hut- Looking good is an obvious way to like structure called a bower. They attract a mate and the reason why then decorate it with various ‘gifts’: male peacocks have such huge col- stones, flowers, leaves, feathers, and ourful tails. The more beautiful the even pieces of glass or dead bee- tail is, the bigger the chance of the tles – all of which they arrange in male succeeding in finding a partner. separate, monochromatic piles. This However, there’s still hope for the gives them a slight advantage over less attractive peacocks as they often the species that display their feath- decide to join leks – groups of males ers: they can choose which colour displaying together. This is because they prefer to seduce the female peahens are often attracted to large with. Obviously, making a nice bow- groups rather than individual males, er takes time and indeed bowerbirds so as a lek there is more chance of spend hours arranging their huts and getting yourself more females. will only stop in order to go to other males’ bowers to steal things or Boogie on down mess up their rivals’ displays having This is all very well and good but potentially disastrous effects – we all displaying the plumage is only one know how ladies like to keep things of the ways to impress a girl and tidy! [4] The Missing Link Biology

. Love gardens the problem of finding a mate is to A similar behaviour can be observed create your own! A parasitic mite in red velvet mites – the tiny red of earthworm cocoons lays unferti- arachnids (you may know them as lized eggs that turn into male mites. ‘bloodsuckers’) that can sometimes She then copulates with them (after be spotted on stones and bricks. which they quickly die) and lays Male red velvet mites leave their another batch of eggs. sperm on twigs and stalks in what is called a ‘love garden’ and then Women Only perform a ‘mating dance’ leaving For some reptiles, no males are a silken trail leading to their place. necessary – whiptail lizards are all When the female finds the trail she female. They reproduce by parthe- will follow it to find the mite. If nogenesis – females lay unfertilized she likes his work, she will sit on eggs out of which hatch more baby the sperm in his garden. However, females. In other words – they clone if another male stumbles upon the themselves, which solves the prob- garden, he will destroy it in or- lem of finding a mate. However, der to place his own sperm there. the female needs sexual stimula- Sometimes it’s the female that leads tion to lay eggs – this can be a little the males to her. When the female difficult if there are no males. The red-sided garter snake emerges from lizards cope with this problem by hibernation, she releases a pherom- pseudocopulation: two lizards play a one that attracts hundreds of males sex game where they act out roles of to come and create a huge ‘mat- a male mounting a female. ing ball’. Each male snake has two hemipenises (left and right) and will I am not suggesting we try to copy use whichever one is more conven- all of the ideas found in nature but ient to try to mate with the female in I’m sure there are some useful tips the centre of the ball. to be found here for those who are a little less lucky in love! Moonwalk- In case of the barnacle – small ma- ing turned out to be a huge success, rine crustacean that sticks to stone though please take note that piles and boat surfaces – approaching a of dead beetles may not be the best female can be rather problematic. idea for a romantic Valentine’s gift It doesn’t have to compete with hun- even if they are colour co-ordinated dreds of other males, but once the to match her room. Especially barnacle sticks to a surface it won’t since in some cases mating can end move again (unless you kick it off… rather lethally – the male honey bee though of course we do not condone explodes during copulation leaving this kind of behaviour!). So in order its penis as a permanent reminder to mate, it evolved a huge inflatable inside the female. This approach penis that can reach the length up clearly has an advantage as the to seven times the barnacle’s body penis stuck inside the body will size. The barnacle will then reach prevent the female from copulating out probingly with its penis to mate with someone else, so even though with its neighbours. But what to do the male died, at least he can be sure if despite all our efforts there are no he will be the father of the offspring mates around? A good way to solve and rest in peace. [5] Biology

of the nest site. Cleverly, Alcon blue grubs have adapted to produce the same hydrocarbon molecules on their surfaces, generat- The scent trail ing perfect chemical matches to the ant larval scent. Unsuspecting Cover feature Myrmica adults are then easily duped as they carry what they be- Hannah Welham discovers that lieve to be a vulnerable member of their own colony straight into the Alcon blue butterfly dumps its the thriving, energy rich nest. The babies on unsuspecting red ants – higher the degree of scent match- ing achieved by the Alcon blue how come they’re so easily fooled? grubs, the more likely they are to reach the heart of the nest. Here, Alcon blue grubs act as unforgiv- ing social parasites, receiving Causing chaos and commotion an unusual life cycle for the food before nest natives and even throughout the animal kingdom, butterfly, who starts life as an killing Myrmica larvae to ward mimicry is a process that biolo- egglain deftly on such marsh off competition. gists the world over are fasci- gentian plants as Gentiana pneu- nated by. Of course, as humans monanthe. Here, it comfortably Decline in numbers we can often be found guilty of lives out its first three larval Despite having developed such some spiteful imitation and it is stages, feeding on these abun- clever survival mechanisms, the all too easy to assign the anthro- dant marsh plants. On reaching Alcon blue is rapidly dwindling pomorphic trait to the rest of its fourth larval stage, the Alcon in its European and Asian strong- the animal kingdom. However, blue drops to the unwelcoming for many species the manipula- ground, where its trickery begins. holds, making it the perfect target tive phenomenon lies at the very The marsh floor is also home to for conservation efforts. Working heart of survival and persistence. two species of red ant, Myrmica on one such conservation project Hopefully by now most of us will rubra and Myrmica ruginodis, from the University of Copenha- be aware of the usual suspects, which carpet the ground in gen’s Centre for Social Evolution in particular the cuckoo trick- densely populated colonies. In (CSE), Danish scientists David sters who manage to be reared by such large and busy communi- Nash and Jacobus Boomsna unwitting songbirds, often at the ties, communication is key and is have recently uncovered some expense of four or five true prog- achieved by the ants through the fascinating evolutionary history eny. A not so common example formation of colony-specific hy- within the Alcon blue’s mimicry. is that of the Alcon blue butterfly drocarbon odours. These scents Whilst mapping out locations in grub, Maculinea alcon, who de- lie as fatty residues on the surface Denmark where the rare butter- ceitfully mimics its neighbouring of the ants’ bodies and act as fly can be found, the scientists ant larvae to earn a feeding place friendly markers. Normally, adult noticed that the Alcon blue have in the underground colony of the workers of the Myrmica genera an even smaller geographic range adult Myrmica ants. identify their larvae by recognis- than expected, living in small ing these hydrocarbon molecules. patches on the Jutland peninsula. Smelly fats Once identified, the young are Here, their habitats only overlap This unusual habit is fuelled by swiftly carried away to the safety with those of the Myrmica [6] The Missing Link Biology

environment is changing, the Alcon blue parasites then adapt their hydrocarbon secretions to once again match those of their hosts. This concept of alternating success for opposing populations is a very common one in biology.

By mapping out the habitat regions of both the Alcon blue and the Myrmica species so specifi- cally, Nash and his colleagues were able to go one step further with their evolutionary analysis. They have been able to show that due to the relatively small overlap of host-parasite populations, the Alcon blue is not in imminent danger of extinction as long as it can keep up in the arms race. While the Myrmica populations remain more widespread than those of their social parasites, they will never be able to achieve full resistance. Nash explains that resistance can only work in the Myrmica colonies when a parasitised ant queen mates locally with males that are also under pressure to develop resistance. As it stands, males from “The matter of attack versus resistance colonies that are free from social isn’t that simple” parasitism migrate to mate with these same queens, diluting any species in small areas, meaning matter of attack versus resistance potential resistance. In this way, that where you find the host, you isn’t that simple, as both species the next generation of Myrmica don’t normally find the parasite. become locked in an evolutionary workers must always start from arms race. As the number of para- the drawing board in terms of The arms race sites in an ant colony increases, fighting the Alcon blue. With numbers of Alcon blue but- the selection pressure for resist- terflies falling and ant colonies ance within the Myrmica colony Whilst the Alcon blue appears to continuing to thrive, you might also rises. The workers quickly be at no immediate risk, Nash’s be surprised that the Myrmica adopt new ways of smelling, groundbreaking work shows just workers put up with the parasit- literally sniffing out the intruders how important an understanding ism at all. Of course, despite the within their midst. Sensing that of evolutionary theory can be in differences in population size, the their once unwittingly hospitable aiding a conservation interest. [6] [7] Devised by Ariane Whitehead, Illustrated by Louisa Steaton.

Who cares about global warming anyway? Anita Singh delves into our psyche to try to understand why no-one seems to get the urgency of ‘climate change’

The effects of global warming are be familiar to most people, all of typically comes either from per- becoming increasingly difficult us have used the excuse “Well no sonal experience of what will hap- to ignore. The extreme weather one else is doing anything, why pen if we take the risk (the same patterns, the melting ice caps, the should I?” at some point in our way that you’ll never go back rising sea levels. It’s hard to find a lives. So what if global warming to that Chinese take-away place climate scientist these days (apart is threatening our planet? Why that gave you food poisoning) or from perhaps those funded by oil should I give up my cheap flights from simply thinking about what companies) who will deny global to Europe or my imported clothes/ might happen if we take the risk. warming and it’s potentially cata- food/gadgets? If it is so important Obviously personal experience strophic consequences; even your why isn’t someone else doing is far more effective (it takes the average-Joe knows there’s some- something about it? This rather full painful ordeal of a 9 o’clock thing going on. So why is no one depressing human trait seems to lecture with a hideous hangover doing anything significant about be unavoidable, but surely we, to make you think twice next it? Why aren’t our governments creatures so praised for our free time you want a night out, a mere giving this crisis the attention will, should be able to override thought experiment never works) it requires? Without wanting to this initial reaction. Well, there but sadly in the case of global launch into a full scale rant about may be more to it than simply warming we don’t have enough how we are slowly killing the skipping out on a sense of per- personal experience of what will planet we are living on, here are a sonal responsibility. happen if we take the risk not few psychological explanations of to do anything about it. And of why the world insists of being so Incentives course, the irony is that although blasé in the face of global warm- It seems that in order for us to one day we may have very per- ing. react appropriately to what is es- sonal experience of exactly how sentially a risky situation we need bad it can get, by that point it will The bystander intervention (or a negative emotion, e.g. fear or be far too late. So what can we do lack there of) phenomenon should anxiety, to motivate us. This fear to make people care? [8] The Missing Link

We can try to make the costs of taking the risk not to do anything Feeling inspired to make a difference? about global warming more vivid and conceivable to people, but unfortunately governments around Join Earth Hour Ariane Whitehead the world appear to be doing the opposite to this, insisting on the use of the much less threatening Yes – even though you thought consumption for this one city was term ‘climate change’. We could it was futile and that we were all immense and, according to the try to redirect people’s worry about doomed to an unimaginable de- WWF, amounted to a reduction terrorism towards a more global struction as the planet spirals un- by 10.2% in Sydney’s energy threat, as it is claimed we have a controllably down into an abyss expenditure during the switch- ﬁnite pool of worry and tend to of nasty globally-warmed goop… off. They went on to reveal that worry about a limited range of it turns out you actually can make this was “double the anticipated things. The media could step in and a difference. It will take you only energy saving and represents make the world as concerned about one hour, and you needn’t leave a reduction of 24.86 tonnes of global warming as it was about the the comfort of your own home. carbon dioxide – the equivalent ‘Millennium Meltdown’ only a few of taking 48,613 cars off the road years ago. But still we would face All you need to do is turn off the for an hour.” the problem of bystander inter- lights. Really – it’s as simple as vention which leaves us with no that! Earth Hour 2008 is being This year Earth Hour is not con- one willing to commit to a change hosted by the WWF and will ﬁned to Sydney alone, but is a in lifestyle. Perhaps it’s too late take place on Saturday March the global event in which you need to and we should just live what life 29th at 8pm. It is the successor to be involved. Please sign up and there is left to the full? Or perhaps an incredibly successful energy encourage all your friends to join the governments should institute switch-off in Sydney last year you in perpetual darkness (or for laws, effective immediately, to cut where the whole city turned off at least an hour of it) on March carbon emissions? Globally no one its lights for just one hour – indi- 29th, and be instrumental in sav- can agree on what steps to take viduals and businesses alike were ing your planet from the brink of and this opens up an entirely new united in their cause as the city destruction. can of worms – I could go on but I was plunged into darkness. shall cease my rant for now before For more information visit it gets from me... The resulting dip in energy http://www.earthhour.org/ [9] Could we be facing higher insurance premiums as advances in genetics allow us to determine our fate? Sophie Morgan Life insurance and life assurance

Life insurance has existed since of people, some suffering from a way to see if a woman was likely Roman times, when families paid particular illness, and some who to develop it. While every woman monthly contributions to funeral are judged to be healthy. Any over the age of fifty should have directors to ensure an impressive genetic differences on certain por- regular mammograms, younger ceremony. Most people in the tions of DNA could signify a gene women with a family history of UK today will have some sort of that causes the illness, or makes breast cancer often face a lifetime policy, funded by their employer, the illness more likely to occur in of worry. Genetic testing has their partner or themselves. In the combination with other factors, discovered four genes that make past, life insurance was almost like smoking. This process used breast cancer more likely. Women always a gamble. Who could pos- to take months or even years, but carrying the BRCA1 and BRCA2 sibly know when the inevitable now anyone worried about their genes have a 50 to 80% chance would eventually happen? Today family history can achieve peace of developing breast cancer at however, science has raised some of mind, or decide upon preventa- some point in their lives. Women awkward questions for large com- tive treatment, within days. carrying the TP53 or PTEN genes panies, and some financial dilem- are slightly more likely to develop mas for individuals. Four main breast cancer genes breast cancer than the average have been identified in this way. woman. Until 2011 however, Genetic Disease Around one in nine women will anyone who has been genetically Genetic testing is now relatively be affected by this cancer in their tested and found to carry these simple. Geneticists can compare life time, and previously, the pres- genes, will not have to declare DNA samples from large numbers ence of a tumour was the only their results when taking [10] The Missing Link

“People with “high-risk” genes may now have to pay huge premiums for life insurance”

out a life insurance policy. ance, or even be refused a policy in order to protect their family Life insurance altogether. financially. Illness Penalty After 2011 it seems likely that Of course, a woman carrying a What will the next step be? If insurance companies will raise gene that makes breast cancer insurance companies have the premiums for people who have more likely may never have a right to the results of predictive and life assurance had a positive predictive test. tumour, and a woman who is genetic tests, employers Certain illness have faced raised negative for all four high-risk may soon follow. It is possible premiums for life insurance. genes could develop breast can- that people carrying a “high- Now, with genetic testing, they cer early in her life. risk” gene for a certain illness can reduce the cost of their It could also be possible that will be unable to find a job, policies if they are negative for people with a predicted genetic as employers may not wish to “high-risk” genes. However illness who opt for a preventa- financially support people who there are many ethical issues sur- tive treatment, such as a mastec- may become ill in the future. rounding this. For years, people tomy, will now be rewarded with with a poor family history of a lower premiums, while people Ultimately it is the right of the certain illness have faced raised who do not will be refused individual to decide whether premiums for life insurance. insurance. This could result in they should undergo a predictive However, people with “high- people feeling forced into major genetic test, but the decision on risk” genes may now have to pay invasive surgery for an illness what to do with the results may huge premiums for life insur- that they may never develop, soon be taken out of their hands.

“Around one in nine women will be affected by breast cancer in their lifetime” [11] In focus

In focus is a new feature we are introducing next month to give you a chance to show off your talent. We would like to encourage you to send us a photograph with a small piece telling us what it is about, where it was taken, what camera was used and what it means to you. Photo- graphs will be chosen by vote by the Editorial team and will appear here in colour. So be inspired, get snapping and send your entries to our Art Editor Nadège ([email protected]) with a separate word ﬁle with your description. Good luck!

“I took this photo one year ago at the Vancouver aquarium on a rainy day. Be- cause they’re so active and playful, Sea otters are amazing but also very difﬁcult to photograph.” Nadège Laici

“This photograph was taken in a small park in the middle of Bristol, one of my favourite spots in the city.” Emma Clark

[12] The Missing Link In focus

“I took this photo one year ago at the Vancouver aquarium on a rainy day. Be- cause they’re so active and playful, Sea otters are amazing but also very difﬁcult to photograph.” Nadège Laici

"”This Leatherback Turtle hatchling was photographed by Claudio, our vol- unteer coordinator, in Gandoca - Costa Rica. On one of my hatchery shifts, we released two hundred and ﬁfty hatchlings into the Carribean Sea!” Emma Clark ! “I photogrpahed this Green Page Moth hatchling in the garden of Cano Palma Biological Field Station in the coastal rainforest of Costa Rica. They hatched and died within a few days. I was hanging my washing out in the garden when I noticed that the trees were literally swarming with these beautiful moths.” Ariane Whitehead

[13] Psychology

Psychological Assumptions

Sarah Haigh explores the psychology behind experimenter bias and the way our brains process information.

When studying psychology there 1963. This interesting finding has they influence one another. Since are certain issues which arise. At led perceptual psychologists like Psychology is trying to explain first, they appear redundant and Marr and Nishihara to conclude human behaviour, this argument detract from what the experiment- that edges are one of the main can be troubling. And yet these er is trying to say, but after several features we look at when build- studies illustrate that the physical years of intensive study, these is- ing the full representation of the does affect the mental, establish- sues begin to nag away at the back object. The problem is that Marr ing a connection. Perhaps then, it of the mind. I am being vague and Nishihara have jumped from is only a matter of time until we on purpose at this point because neurons firing in the physical discover the reasons for what we I do not want to single out psy- brain, to a mental representation call consciousness in a neurologi- chology as the only contradicting with top-down processing (where cal sense, which will resolve the and philosophically inconsistent the individual looks at the whole dualist argument. In fact studying subject, but as it is the only one I picture as a unit, instead of indi- the brain itself causes a few con- am studying at degree level, you vidual features), which the per- tractions because its structure is so will have to bear with me. ceiver can manipulate. complicated. Neuropsychologists wanting to find out which part I will give an example of how We frequently talk about the of the brain serves what func- these inconsistencies can slowly ‘mind’s eye’ and generally agree tion carve up the brain to do so. nag away at the argument pro- that we can view a video screen The problem is that there are 1010 posed by the experimenters and of our memories, yet there is no potentially hinder the scientific physical evidence that there is neurons in the brain, each with 3 understanding. When studying a TV screen in our heads that 10 connections, which means that perception there is an issue com- facilitates this operation – so every part of the brain is commu- monly known as the ‘binding where does this idea come from? nicating with the others, making problem’. This is when scientists From a cognitive perspective, modulation very difficult indeed. jump from the biological ‘brain’ these theories are not to be taken Many studies which have ‘discov- to the metaphysical ‘mind’. literally but as a result corner ered’ the roles played by different Biologists talk about the brain psychologists into a dualist argu- parts of the brain have been due to in terms of neurons firing when ment. Dualism is referring to the double dissociations in brain dam- certain stimuli are presented to the physical and the mental world as aged patients. These occur when perceiver, for example, neurons two separate worlds but the prob- a patient with damage to part A of that fire for edge detection in cats lem arises when we try to connect their brain is unable to do task 1 discovered by Hubel and Wiesel the two in order to find out how but is able to do task 2, [14] [15] TheThe Missing Missing Link Link Psychology

“Dualism” - Drawing by Sarah Haigh. tion between smoking and lung cancer but that this was not a causal relationship – there was also a genetic inﬂuence. This is an interesting discovery, but the fact that he was supported by ‘R J Reynolds Tobacco Company’ strongly suggests Eysenck may have been biased in his interpre- tation.

The media often have a habit of dramatising scientific studies, for example referring to genetic discoveries as causal and deter- ministic for certain behavioural traits. In 2004 Yudkin found that a mutation in the dopamine D2 receptor in the brain could make it more difficult for women to give up smoking when using nicotine replacement patches. whereas another patient with It is not to say that the results of This was reported by the BBC as damage to part B of their brain these studies aren’t useful – in ‘Genes could stop women quit- is able to do task 1 but not task fact they are incredibly useful for ting’, which is not what the study 2. An example is a lesion in the those who have or may poten- was showing. In fact, this head- dorsal pathway leads to patient A tially have brain damage in these line is determinist (i.e. makes it a being unable to reach for ob- specific areas, but can we really fact that these women will never jects (the ‘where’ system in our generalise for normally function- be able to quit smoking and so brains), but they are still able to ing brains? are less likely to try as a result), tell what the object is. However, and so is not only producing patient B has a lesion in their Even when results have been potentially damaging effects for ventral pathway and as a result published, there are also publi- women but is also misrepresent- they cannot tell what an object cation biases with studies that ing the study. is (visual agnosia) but can still have shown unusual findings. It reach for objects, i.e. the reverse is often more interesting to find By no means are these issues ex- of what patient A can do. From something unusual rather than clusive to psychology, but when this, we are able to determine that to find that nothing significant reading about psychological part A of the brain is responsible is happening, even though non- studies it is worth bearing them for task 2 and part B is responsi- significant results can be just as in mind. Sometimes there can be ble for task 1. It may seem like a useful as significant findings. other explanations for behaviour- reasonable assumption but does The financial support for studies al tendencies and so analysing the the fact that the person is brain may sometimes also influence methodology and results in the damaged make their brain funda- how the experimenters interpret light of the assumptions or biases mentally different from a nor- their results. In 1985 Eysenck on the experimenter’s behalf can mally func tioning brain? claimed that there was a correla- help highlight potential problems. [15] Psychology

Evolution What’s that?

Anna Leon asks: What do people really know about the theory of evolution?

Most of the readers and grouped taxonomically – is writers of the Missing Link something we are all trained are students in the life sci- to do. ences. The ﬁeld is so huge that I cannot possibly argue But what about everyone that I know anything about else? What happens when the whole of its scope. As a you leave the Biological psychologist, I have no clue Sciences building and enter what palaeontologists learn the realms of the Arts or about (and I would suspect Engineering departments? that there are not many And what happens when you palaeontologists that know leave the University precinct anything about sex differ- altogether? What do people ences in social cognition) but know about evolution? Well, I do know that we all share as you might suspect, the one common piece of knowl- best way to learn that is to edge: it is very basic, simple, simply ask them, and that is well-known, and extremely what I did. I asked everyone important. It is the theory of in my family, and amongst evolution. Studying anything my friends (including Face- in the life sciences without book contacts) what evolu- taking into account evolution meant to them. Their tion is almost pointless, and answers turned out to be thinking in terms of phyl- as interesting as the theory ogeny – how organisms are itself. [16] The Missing Link Psychology

Misconceptions This idea seems to deduce Let’s start with the basics: from our knowledge that what does the theory of evolu- useful characteristics tend to tion say? Although several be passed on, the unfounded people blatantly admitted thought that evolution is an that they had no idea, most almost teleological mecha- of my interviewees gave an nism – that it is a means to acceptable deﬁnition of it. a particular, pre-determined They seemed to have a good end. Many answers I received general idea of the concept implied that many people do of evolution, but this idea not realise that evolution is was incomplete. Things like not the result of conscious natural selection, a common choice, and interpret “passing ancestor of all species, gene on useful traits” as a somehow mutations, changes from one purposeful choice for better generation to the next, the adaptation to the environ- ability to survive and repro- ment. Furthermore, almost duce, and adaptation to dif- all my interviewees believed ferent environments were all that useless characteristics mentioned, but not once in a will disappear throughout the single answer. course of evolution: people overlooked the fact that if These answers indicated that something has no disadvan- people with no training in tage to survival and reproduc- the life sciences learn about tion then, theoretically, it has evolution mainly by passively no reason to disappear. It picking up information from a seems that people see evolu- number of sources – popular tion as a purposeful process, magazines, maybe the odd one that is in some weird Biology class they remem- ber from school – but this sense aware of its own results. does not provide them with a What does this mean? Lack of thorough understanding, es- complete scientiﬁc knowledge pecially of the role genes play is acceptable, but misinterpre- in the evolutionary process. tation viewed as knowledge is After talking to many people, not. Evolution was not meant I saw that the gaps in their to lead to a perfect being, and knowledge are due to the fact this will certainly not be the they are learning about evolu- end point either. Seeing a goal tion without learning how it in the evolution of our own actually works. species is a view that may give rise to eugenics – where For example, a major mis- humans will be selectively conception turned out to be bred to produce the perfect that evolution is regarded as specimen. This was certainly a process of “improvement”. not implied >> libizblog.wordpress.com [16] [17] Psychology

“Lack of complete scientific knowledge is acceptable, but misinterpretation viewed as knowledge is not.” by Darwin – misinterpretation that it has sparked a lot of debate, technology. And yes, I got a brief of science can lead to dangerous especially when contrasted with account of “Darwing’s” theory. conclusions, and the worst part of religious accounts of the crea- And yes, I also got an account of this process is that science is then tion of humans. It is one of those evolution referring only to hu- blamed for those conclusions. things that you might be aware mans and not to other species. But of, but not accept – and, indeed, a overall, my (admittedly) small Demographics of knowledge few people told me that evolution sample did quite well – evolu- Moving on from what people was only one possibility, and that tion is widely known about, very know, it was interesting to see they would prefer the theory to fit much in the same way that the who knew what: when I started in with the Bible story (it has to be force of gravity is. But gravity the interviews, I had expected that noted here that teleological views is not socially relevant, whereas more mature people would have of evolution are very likely to be evolution may have serious social been less exposed to Darwin’s caused by the idea of humans as consequences if misinterpreted. theory, and would not understand perfect beings created by God). It is obvious that education must it as well as younger, fresher However, most of the people I involve an account of the theory minds. Surprisingly, age turned asked, including all of those under of evolution as it really is: a out to be a completely irrelevant the age of thirty, said that they theory that explains what happens factor when it came to the state of believed that the theory of evolu- in nature, and how. A description people’s knowledge. Seventy- and tion was true because it gives us of a natural process should not in- eighty-year-olds gave complete the best explanation for how we clude any normative claims about answers to questions for which became what we are. what evolution should lead to, fifteen-year-olds’ answers made or the implication that by under- me wince. I am happy to report, Education required standing it we can control it – just however, that having a university So what do we get out of this all? the importance of understanding degree (or studying for one) was a Yes, some people thought evolu- what we are, as part, and result of very good indicator of awareness tion referred to the progress of nature. of the theory. This of course is not to say that university students and “Evolution is a tricky subject, in graduates are more knowledge- able – many students know abso- that it has sparked a lot of debate, lutely nothing outside their own field, and many people without especially when contrasted with re- formal qualifications could make University Challenge finalists ligious accounts of the creation of look like idiots. Evolution is a tricky subject, in humans” [18] The Missing Link

The Glowing Worm

1 unit vodka 1 unit blue Curacao # unit cream Squeeze of lemon

Stir all the ingredients together then pour into a large shot glass. Garnish with a mayfly…or not. From these waters hatch adult mayfly, frantically looking for mates. Although their urge to mate is innately massive, they find the temptation of the pretty blue lights just far too alluring and fly straight into the threads Cockatiels and Cocktails of glue-laden silk! As its victim struggles to free itself, the fungus gnat slides Glow Worms, Waitomo, New Zealand – slowly yet purposefully within its lube-tube and in the direction Andy Wakefield explores a starry cave of the vibrations, anticipating a Taking care to avoid being are the larval displays of a small feed. It then reels in its unfortu- temporarily blinded by one of insect known as a fungus gnat, nate prey and devours it to sat- the many drops of water fall- found in a few caves near the isfy its hunger. Once the capture ing from above, I tilted my head small town of Waitomo in New has been made the gnat eats the backwards as our guide switched Zealand. silk filaments on which off the lights that had previously illuminated the path leading to “I was gazing at several thousand miniature, the cave. It took a moment or glowing buttocks!” two for my eyes to adjust to the darkness, but as soon as they Each light is produced by phos- the prey was entrapped, to did they were greeted with what phorescent chemicals in a spe- save its supplies of silk; it also must surely be one of the most cialised compartment that opens switches off its light to save magical illuminations in the from the side of the insect’s energy. natural world. intestine. As the matchstick-sized beast lies suspended from the The supply of silk comes from It seemed as though I was look- ceiling by silken threads in its the larva’s mouth and each ing up at the night sky crammed transparent tube of mucus, it uses downward hanging lure may full of neon-blue stars, each its remarkable light source to reach up to a metre in length. twinkling and shimmering si- fatally attract its prey. With as many as several hundred lently in the dark. In fungus gnat larvae in only one reality I was gazing at several Below, invisible in the dark- square metre of cave roof, it was thousand miniature, glowing but ness, a stream was cutting its no wonder that the display above tocks! These elaborate moonings way through the cave’s soft rock. my head was truly awe-inspiring. [19] Interview

The giant sea scorpion An interview with Dr Simon Braddy: Written by Ashley Canning

Dr. Simon Braddy, MSc Palaeobiology tutor at the University of Bristol and specialist in arthropod palaeontology, tells Ashley Canning all about the recent discovery of a two and a half metre long scorpion in Germany

species Jaekelopterus rhenaniae sionate about dinosaurs, and that lived between 460 and 255 this continued right through million years ago. my undergraduate degree, but Scorpions are scary enough crea- it wasn’t until I started my PhD Eurypterids are believed to be tures at their modern proportions. at the University of Manchester the marine ancestors of modern However, a recent discovery has that I developed a fascination for arachnids – the scorpions and unearthed a giant sea scorpion these giant creepy crawlies. It was spiders. It has been known for there that I was introduced to the that could have reached 2.5 m in some time that during the Earth’s length! This new discovery was eurypterids (giant sea scorpions) history, arthropods, particularly of the same ilk as this new dis- announced on the 21st of Novem- the insects, have grown to phe- covery. ber in a paper in the journal Biol- nomenal proportions, such as ogy Letters and describes a huge Meganeura, the dragonﬂy with a So just how big was this sea eurypterid (commonly known as wingspan reaching 70 cm. How- a sea scorpion) from rocks dated ever, palaeontologists have been scorpion? at 390 million years old. The unable to resolve the cause of this The size estimate is based on the description is based on the ﬁnding ancient gigantism. Dr. Braddy discovery of a 45 cm claw. The of a 45 cm long claw in a quarry tells us more: size of the claw can be used in near Prüm, Germany, by Markus calculations to scale up to the Poschmann – co-author of the What was it that interested whole body size of an eurypterid. paper with Dr Simon Braddy of you about, and ‘got you into’ These calculations gave us a size our very own Earth Sciences de- palaeontology, particularly the range, so we decided to use the partment. The claw belongs to an arthropods? average of these which turned out exceptionally large member of the As a child I was always pas- to be 246 cm in length. [20] [21] TheThe Missing Missing Link Link Interview

“Scorpions are scary enough creatures at their modern proportions. However, a recent discovery has unearthed a giant sea scorpion that could have reached 2.5 m in length! This new discovery was announced on the 21st of November in a paper in the journal Biology Letters and describes a huge eurypterid (commonly known as a sea scorpion) from rocks dated at 390 million years old.”

This exceeds the maximum size shallow seas were the perfect about arthropod size being re- for any other fossil arthropod. environment. lated to increased oxygen levels in the past, in fact this has What sort of environment What role would Jaekelop- almost become the fashionable would such a monster have terus rhenaniae have played in explanation, and it is probable occupied? this environment? that this was a driving factor This ﬁnd is around 390 mil- Eurypterids were the top preda- for large body size in terrestrial lion years old, so it is from the tors of their day. They would arthropods, but this peak in oxy- Devonian Period. During the have preyed upon a wide range gen levels is during the Carbon- Devonian, a succession of rocks of other animals, such as the iferous Period. However, giant known as the Old Red Sandstone Agnatha, the early jawless arthropods are not limited to were being laid down in North- armoured ﬁsh, as well as other the Carboniferous and most are ern Europe in a hot dry envi- types of marine arthropod, and actually marine, for instance, the ronment. Further south, from there is even evidence of can- largest trilobites were from the the Welsh borderlands down to nibalism. Ordovician Period a good 140 what is now Germany, the rocks million years or so before the show a swampy succession of There are many theories as Carboniferous. The constraints rivers and lakes and shallow to why arthropods evolved on body size for marine organ- seas. South of this was the open such huge size in the past, for isms are not the same as those ocean. As mentioned before, example elevated oxygen levels for terrestrial organisms, so the Jaekelopterus rhenaniae belongs in the atmosphere; could you elevated oxygen theory is not as to a group of giant sea scorpions explain why Jaekelopterus applicable here. known as the eurypterids. They rhenaniae was particularly lived in marine massive? There is no single answer as to settings, and the swampy Yes there are several theories why Jaekelopterus rhenaniae got so big, but it is likely to be re- lated to competition. There sim- “I developed a fascination for ply was none from vertebrates during the Palaeozoic, and so the these giant creepy crawlies.” eurypterids had ecological space to become large predators. [21] Comment

Photograph by Nadège Laici Dr. Arthur Goldsmith Careers events in Bristol this month CAREERS IN SOCIAL CARE Monday 11 Feb, 5.30-7, Hawthorns Come along to this event and hear about the employers, jobs and roles within this sector. As well as general information you will also hear from a social worker, probation ofﬁcer and counsellor. Numbers are limited so sign up via the following link: https://www.bris.ac.uk/cas/events

CAREERS IN HEALTHCARE Tuesday 12 Feb. 5.15-7.15, Hawthorns This session will focus on speech therapy, occupa- tional therapy, physiotherapy, and careers in NHS Management. Come and meet some of those em- ployed within the above areas and ﬁnd out how they were recruited, the selection process and what they actually do on a day to day basis. Sign up via:

CAREERS IN DEVELOPMENT Tuesday 5 Feb, 5.30-7.30, Hawthorns Coming soon: The next issue of The Missing Come along to this event and hear about this sector. Link will feature a brand new and exciting col- Speakers include Medecine Du Monde, One World umn by a lecturer and researcher from the School Trust and Motivation. Numbers are limited so sign of Biological Sciences: Dr Arthur Goldsmith. up via the following link: https://www.bris.ac.uk/ cas/events Familiar to many second and third year biologists form his lectures on evolution and Acquisition of RUNNING YOUR OWN BUSINESS Behaviour, Dr Goldsmith will provide us with an Wednesday 13 Feb, 5.30-7, Hawthorns insight to current research, offering his own com- Come along to this event and hear how to go about ments and opinions on the subject. it. Sign up via https://www.bris.ac.uk/cas/events Reading any news section in a science magazine you’ll immediately ﬁnd there is a lot of contro- INSIGHT INTO MEDIA versial and sometimes outright bizarre research 16-18 April. Arts Faculty going on. A critical commentary of these may A three day course designed to give you a taste of a turn out to be rather provocative but also highly variety of careers within the media industry. Peo- entertaining. As Dr Goldsmith said: “There’s ple currently working in advertising, TV produc- nothing I love more than having a pop at anyone tion, PR, radio, publishing and journalism help you who seems to be falling into the trap of taking discover what their jobs are all about through talks themselves or their research too seriously”. and case studies. You also get a great chance to gain If you’ve ever wondered whether some new ‘dis- contacts that can lead to work experience place- coveries’ make any sense and would like to know ments and further your career in a sector which it is what experts have to say on that matter or even notoriously difﬁcult to get into. This event is over- if you just want an interesting read, look for the subscribed every year so it is very important to sign new column in March issue. up early. To book go to: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/ Agata Staniewicz careers/insightintomedia/index.asp [22] The Missing Link Book Review

“Elephantoms: Tracking the Elephant” by Lyall Watson

Nowadays, conservation and safari trips to the wilds of Africa take millions to see elephants in one of their native continents. As a child growing up there before the tourist boom, Lyall Watson was able to explore Africa’s beaches and forests without distur- bance. His memories of his experiences are lyrically recorded in “Elephantoms”.

As a ‘strandloper’, Watson spent his childhood sum- mers living with friends on a beach in the Cape.

Looking back on his youth, Watson writes of word- less meetings with Khoi tribeschildren, discoveries of illusive species, and of course, encounters with elephants.

While still a boy, Watson sees a bull elephant up close. The creature is seemingly unaware of its awestruck visitors and the atmosphere is described tangibly as the children watch the animal’s every move. As this happens early on in the book, a ﬂow- ing narrative depicting a lifelong fascination with the Photograph by Emma Clark majestic species ensues.

Watson has most certainly done his homework and A review by Hannah Welham the book overﬂows with intriguing facts and descrip- tions that will surely capture the imagination of any naturalist. The behavioural ecology and evolution of the species are portrayed in detail, often based on “They are models of reﬁne- personal sightings, and are cleverly intertwined with the archaeological, philosophical and religious links ment, nature’s archangels, held between the elephants and mankind. the oldest and largest land This refreshingly honest and simple account of a animals, touchstones to our species is a must read for any life scientist.

imagination.” Hannah Welham

[23] Entertainment

TV and Radio Researched by Emma Clark TV highlights: Life In Cold Blood – starts Monday 4 February at 9pm on BBC One

PACIFIC ABYSS BBC1, Three-Parter, Sundays from 20 Janurary, 7pm.

NATURAL WORLD: WHITE FALCON, WHITE WOLF BBC2, Friday 1 February, 8pm. Repeated Sunday.

“Sir David Attenborough brings viewers the NICK BAKER’S WEIRD CREATURES 2 ﬁnal chapter of his epic overview of life on Animal Planet, Wednesdays, Earth as he transforms perceptions of cold- from 6 February, 9pm. blooded animals in this landmark BBC One series Life In Cold Blood.”

NATURAL WORLD: SAVED BY “Now, using the very latest in ﬁlming technology from the BBC’s DOLPHINS world-renowned Natural History Unit – including ultra-high-speed, BBC2, Friday 8 February, thermal, miniature and on-board cameras – David reveals the surpris- 8pm. Repeated Sunday. ing and intimate lives of the cold-blooded reptiles and amphibians, discovering the secret of their success. After all, they have ruled the Earth for nearly 200 million years and, today, there are well over 14,000 species.” NATURAL WORLD: BADGERS - http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressofﬁce SECRETS OF THE SET BBC2, Friday 15 February, 8pm. Repeated Sunday. Radio highlights:

WORLD ON THE MOVE - Begins Tuesday 12 February, 9am NATURAL WORLD: SPACE CHIMP (11am thereafter) throughout 2008. BBC Radio 4 92-95FM BBC2, Friday 15 February, 8pm. Repeated Sunday SHARED EARTH - Fridays from 15 February, 3pm. BBC Ra- dio 4 92-95FM.

[24] The Missing Link Entertainment Fact or Fiction? Sally Snow and Eloisa Noble

• Sigmund Freud was one of 8 children.

• Warm olive oil dropped into the ear sooths earache.

• By law Idaho residents may not ﬁsh from a giraffe’s back.

• Recent ﬁndings suggest that the Velociraptor was actually closer to magenta in colour, than the widely popularised brown.

• We experience muscular paralysis during REM sleep.

Answers:

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1. sperm 14. acid 15. arabidopsis 16. elephant 19. genus 20. lungs Down - 2. topo 4. anther 5. 5. anther 4. topo 2. - Down lungs 20. genus 19. elephant 16. arabidopsis 15. acid 14. sperm 1. 1 hawthorn 9. diploi 7. quagga 3. 1.gecko - Across Crossword:

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e saw them with with them saw e W pink. are they that fact a for know we as , elociraptor V the about one the not s it’ Obviously false? is think you do which ell W Fiction: or Fact

[25] SPONSORS With thanks to...

School of Biological Sciences Psychology Department