Ariane Whitehead Head Ofproduction: Anna Leon Missing Linkeditorialteam

Web Designer:Katherine Dallal Head ofMarketing: CarstenReinhard Supervisors: Laura Saez,NickEaston Proofreaders: Anita Singh,SarahHaigh, Angharad RolfeJohnson,KatyBlatch. Secretary andTreasurer: SophieMorgan Art Editor:NadègeLaici Design Editor:EmmaClark Assistant Editor: Agata Staniewicz Editor: Ariane Whitehead Head ofProduction: Anna Leon Missing LinkEditorialTeam

WHAT’Sbehaviour’ ‘Spatial memory:from neurons tolearningand sor NeilBurgess (UniversityCollegeLondon), Wed 12th4:002D2(PD) details Lunchtime (BS retrieval processes’ relationship betweenperceptual processes and Tue 11th 1:002D24(PD)Talk: ChrisKent,‘The crosstalk inplantenvironmental adaptation’ light ofthecold:Lightandtemperature signal ONsearch Fellow, UniversityofLeicester),‘Making Kerry Franklin(RoyalSocietyUniversityRe Mon 10th1:05B37(BS)Research Seminar:Dr TBA the group-living piedbabbler,’ DrSteveSoffe tive territorydefenceorselfishadvertisementin THISGolabeck, ‘Shoutingattheneighbours:coopera Round Table Talks: Amy Chen TBA,Krystina Thurs 6th5:00Staff CommonRoom(BS) selective attention’ don), ‘Neuralsynchrony, visualgrouping and Marius Usher(Birkbeck-UniversityofLon Wed 5th4:002D2(PD) MONTH?Tubes Evening (Java)BEBallhostedbyBioSocand details Lunchtime (BS) schizotypy’ ness: differentiating betweenhealthyandat-risk (PD) Talk: KerrySchofield,‘Sometouchofmad Tue 4th1:002D24PsychologyDepartment frogs (Xenopus)’ and expression regulation inpolyploidclawed University, Canada),‘Duplicategeneevolution Research Seminar:DrBen Evans(McMaster Mon 3rd1:05B37BiologicalSciences(BS) ) BioSocfilm:checkemailfor BioSoc, Film:checkemailfor ExternalTalks: Professor External Talks: Profes-

- - - - sor DavePerrett (St.Andrews), TBA Wed 19th4:002D2(PD) and behaviourinbees’ de Ibarra,(UniversityofExeter),‘Colourvision Ecology and Animal Behaviour:NatalieHempel 5:15 Staff CommonRoom(BS) el ‘Motionmatters’ Tue 18th1:002D24(PD)Talk: NickScott-Samu- dust mitecontrol’ Tropical Medicine),‘Future measures forhouse Mary Cameron (LondonSchoolofHygiene& Mon 17th1:05B37(BS)Research Seminar:Dr money from theBBSRC’ Keith Edwards, ‘A personalviewonhowtoget for foodwebs,’EllieWhittaker(TBA),Prof dation andseeddispersalbybirds -anewuse Round Table Talks: RubenHeleno,‘Seedpre- Thurs 13th5:00Staff Common Room(BS) External Talks: Profes- Workshop in The Missing Link

Dear Life Scientists,

Welcome to The Missing Link, March 2008. This issue is humans can’t help but place on these packed full of exciting themes from a discussion of green creatures’ abilities. Some topical debates politics to the thermodynamics of lava lamps (this month’s ensue – such as the examination of cover feature), and the psychology behind false memories; whether it is not only economically, including, of course, all of our fabulous regulars. This but ethically viable to produce bio-fuels. month we also have a guest extended feature of ‘Cockatiels In a time when the importance of and Cocktails’, where a gripping story of hyena feeding time developing ways to feed the world and feed our insatiable in Harar, Ethiopia is so eloquently told. And, another new appetite for energy is paramount, the little known topic of feature appears this month: The Weird and Wonderful – an mass wastage is broached. For those naturalists out there, a account outlining the discovery of a new mammal in Tanza- critical review of Sir David Attenborough’s latest and last nia’s Eastern Arc Mountains. BBC series, ‘Life in Cold Blood’ reminds us why we will miss Attenborough so much when he leaves our screens. I’m also very pleased to have Dr. Arthur Goldsmith of the School of Biological Sciences’ Behavioural Biology doing Of course, there is plenty more to whet your appetites so I a new regular in our ‘Comment’ section. His début as a won’t keep you any longer from what I promise will be an Missing Link columnist is, I hope you will agree, touché. A educational, controversial and, above all, fantastic read. fantastic piece describes some of the animals to have become famous in the world of animal behaviour, and highlights the Ariane anthropomorphic twist of the Theory of Mind, that we as Editor

Co n t e n t s Ma r c h 2008 Features

Abaracadabra-Abacus 4 Neurological disorders 15 Organic Farming vs. bio fuel 6 Ever wondered how a lava lamp The tricky question of Tuberculosis works? 16 and the BCG 8 Ker-ching! Money for maths 19 Where have all the Quaggas gone? 10 Evolutionary Epistimology 20 Suggestibility Effect 12 It’s all in the past, man: A Teleological Impulsive Minds 14 account of the content of mental representation. 22

Regulars

News 2 Comment: The Cult of the Individual 28 Events 3 Weird and Wonderful 29 BS Research News 5 Reviews 30 Living Geen 11 PD Research News 13 TV and Radio Highlights 31 Cockatiels and Cocktails 24 Games 32 Comment: Green Fever 26 In Focus 33 News and events News and events News Kate Weatherall tells us what’s new to science this month

Mummy, Mum & Dad? Men get more reward from compu- Ice shelf collapse not due to climate ter games than women change alone Doug Turnbull and his team in New- castle have developed a human em- It seems an obvious claim to make bryo with three parents in an attempt but research now officially proves to prevent women passing on heredi- that men get more out of their tary diseases through their mitochon- XBox360 than women. A recent dria. Over one in 5,000 people suffers article in the ‘Journal of Psychiatric from such untreatable conditions Research’ shows that the mesocorti- including fatal liver failure, stroke- colimbic system, the area of the brain like episodes, blindness, muscular responsible for emotions related to dystrophy, diabetes and deafness reward and addiction, is significantly [doi:10.1016/j.bbabio.2004.09.005]. more active in males than females Turnbull successfully transplanted a when playing computer games donor egg with its nucleus removed [doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.11.010]. and the nucleus of a newly fertilised Functional magnetic resonance egg inserted, making an embryo with imaging recordings were made from When a 500 bn tonne, 656 ft thick, the mitochondrial DNA of the donor eleven young men and eleven young 1,255 sq mile ice shelf in Antarctica egg. Mitochondria contain only women as they played a computer broke apart in March 2002, it was 0.0005% of the genetic information in game. The male participants showed seen as a dramatic sign of the effects humans, encoding just 37 genes for much more activity as they succeed- of global warming. In 1998 the British reproduction of its own proteins. The ed, with the three structures within Antarctic Survey predicted that the human embryos developed normally the reward circuit – the nucleus ac- ice shelves were in danger but the but, due to restrictions on ethical cumbens, amygdala and orbitofron- speed an d severity of the loss of the grounds, were killed after 6 days. tal cortex – having more influence on shelf, known as Larsen B, was shock- Similar work on mice however pro- each other. So next time you tell your ing. New studies claim that climate duced healthy adults. This technique, male flatmates they are addicted to change was not the only cause: involving the genetic modification computer games, you actually have “A number of other atmospheric, of humans, has huge ethical implica- proof! oceanic and glaciological factors are tions, as Josephine Quintavalle of the involved” says Professor Neil Glasser pro-life group ‘Comment on Repro- of Aberystwyth University. The large ductive Ethics’ points out – “It is amount of meltwater on the shelf human beings they are experiment- before its collapse led many to being with…we should not be messing lieve that an increase in atmospheric with the building blocks of life.” For temperature was to blame; however, campaigners who are seeking a cure other factors such as the location and for these untreatable diseases it may spacing of fractures on the ice shelf be a glimmer of hope but a long ethi- indicate that it had probably been in cal battle is sure to ensue before the distress for decades before its final procedure reaches the clinics. < demise. 2 Nadège Laici The Missing Link

News and events News and events Events What’s on in and around Bristol this month, by Ariane Whitehead.

Fairtrade Fortnight 15th Feb – March 9th There will be a variety of events across Bristol to raise awareness and celebrate Fairtrade Fortnight and there will also be a Fairtrade marketplace in the foyer of the Colston Hall. http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/

Bristol Zoo Gardens 23rd March – 11th May: Night, by the Royal West of England ! Academy of Arts An exhibition themed around night, with photography, film, drawing, painting and live performance. http://www.rwa.org.uk/index.htm

Avon Wildlife Trust Thursday 27th March: Behind the scenes at the BBC Natural History Unit Talk by Peter Brownlee, editor of wildlife films. Millen- nium Hall, Chew Magna, 7.45pm. http://www.avonwildlifetrust.org.uk/

Avon Gorge & Downs Wildlife Project Sunday 9th March: Tree gazing along the Avenue Join Tony Titchen for a Sunday stroll along the tree-lined Avenue, on the Downs and learn how to identify the trees you meet along the way. 2.00pm – 4.00pm, £3.00. http://www.bristolzoo.org.uk/

The Bristol Astronomical Society Observing at Failand on Saturday Nights. Sessions are held every clear Saturday night at their observatory just south of Bristol. http://www.bristolastrosoc.org.uk 3 Biology Biology Abracadabra-Abacus

The molecular abacus is an exciting new tool available to molecular scientists. Mehdi Houshmand explores how this instrument will enhance our ability to manipulate tiny particles, and the wider implications of this research.

Then and now molecular manipulation and utilised two ways. Firstly, because the bucky In terms of the social and physical to transport molecules across the ball is weakly bonded to the cop- evolution of man, our ability to cre- surface of a substrate (the material per substrate, it means the step acts ate tools is one of the key differences the molecules are on). The molecules as a rail for the bucky ball to slide between humans and our animal used are called bucky balls (C60, across, constricting its movement to counterparts. First there was fire, carbon atoms arranged into a ball, one dimension (1D) – much like a then the wheel – both were and are you may remember from GCSE small ball on the rail of an abacus. fundamental to improving quality of Chemistry as Buckminsterfullerene), Secondly, once the bucky ball has life – and then there was the abacus. and can be displaced on the surface been displaced, it is prone to diffu- of a copper (Cu) substrate to create a sion (the spontaneous and random Thought to be invented as long as nanoscale abacus. motion of all atoms and molecules) 3000 years ago, the abacus is still be- and the kinks in the step help fix the ing used in many parts of the world molecule in place. When the bucky and has proven the test of time, as “The abacus has ball is relocated using the STM tip, it one of the key inventions of man. can create kinks in the step, and these Nevertheless, science, since its birth, returned to the help keep the molecule stay at the has drastically improved, and yet the fixed position. This 1D translation abacus has returned to the forefront forefront of of molecules, shows that controlled of modern science… though not as molecular manipulation is not only we know it. modern science… possible but with the right tools, quite easily performed. So, with sev- Pioneering research by both the though not as we eral steps, relating to each rail of an Japanese and IBM’s Department of abacus, the molecular abacus can be Research in Switzerland, has seen the know it.” created and used for simple addition development of a new application and subtraction. of Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy (STM), otherwise known as the mo- Tiny molecular balls A bright future lecular abacus. STM is a non-optical The bucky balls are evaporated onto Obviously, this isn’t the only applica- scanning tool that scans the surface the atom clean copper surface in an tion of this tool; the possibilities of of a sample using a sharp tip, with an ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) at room single molecular manipulation on electric current flowing between the temperature, and then a scan is taken this scale can be used in anything tip and the sample surface. So when of the appropriate surface area. To from data storage to nanomachines. the tip “feels” a current, this means keep the bucky ball from moving in a An especially important feature of that there’s an electron cloud, and random direction when the STM tip this work is that the experiment was therefore an atom, and by scanning attempts to manipulate it, a step or conducted at room temperature, the surface you can create an image groove in the copper surface is used. making it not only far more adapt- down to atomic resolution. How- This step is the thickness of an atom able as a tool, but also cheaper to op- ever, STM can also be used for (monatomic) and works in erate. However, because of the nature 4 The Missing Link

Biology Biology

of molecular interactions, technology allows only one ball to be moved with any accuracy at a time; previous attempts to move more than one ball have resulted in the separation between the rows being distorted. The technique is still in its infancy, and has a long way to go before it can be considered as a commercial application. However, a similar experiment using cyclodextrin on a polyrotaxane substrate has shown that this can be conducted without the UHV environment and still at room temperature.

The molecular abacus: each of the peaks represents a bucky ball.

UoB Departmental Research News Biological Sciences Ariane Whitehead

Money for new microscope will enhance genetics research

Researchers in the School of Biological Sciences have been awarded a quarter of a million pounds for a new microscope through a grant from the Bio- technology and Biological Science Research Council (BBSRC). The confocal laser scanning microscope facility will be used by many laboratories in the department. including the groups of Keith Edwards, Claire Grierson, How is this technology going to actu- Alistair Hetherington, Simon Hiscock, and Daniel Robert. Others include ally help us? How could this seem- the Bailey, Foster, Roberts and Viney labs. In fact, any project in the depart- ingly abstract experiment actually do ment that can benefit from high quality images and movies of the smallest anything apart from play the muse visible objects could benefit from the new microscope. of a physicist? Well, the answers to both questions aren’t simple, and are When asked about the uses of this microscope Claire Grierson said that really only something time will tell. “with confocal microscopes we can use light to see inside cells at the high- Nanotechnology is still in its infancy est possible magnifications. By using fluorescent probes like jellyfish fluo- and has a long way to go before it rescent proteins or dyes that fluoresce, we can capture images and mov- will become commercially available. ies of molecules in live cells as they produce and react to signals, change Nevertheless, with computer chips shape, flex, and grow.” The microscope will be able to be used to look at continuing to obey Moore’s law and samples that have been prepared in specialist conditions, for example, the becoming ever smaller, technology development of plant root hairs can be observed without disturbing them. continues to push the limits of science. The question really becomes: as The implications of the new arrival mean that the researchers can “expect technology improves allowing us to the results to tell us many exciting things about how molecular machines manipulate the smallest particles… assemble, and collect and respond to environmental signals, such as light, are we able to control things even sound, and carbon dioxide levels” says Claire Grierson. smaller than this? 5 Biology

Organic farming vs. bio-fuel

In January 2007 a scandal hit Europe that was largely ignored due to other, more pressing concerns at the time: The return of food mountains. More specifically, it became public knowledge that overpro- duction by continental farmers had produced stores of 265 million bottles of wine and more than 13 million tonnes of cereal, rice, sugar and milk products. Robert Taylor Williams discusses how we might overcome the issue of enormous wastage and the problem of the land required in order to cultivate bio-fuels.

Mass production organic produce still have great dif- Food Mountains, the result of the EU ficulty earning enough to live. Recent Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), TV campaigns over chicken produc- have been in decline or completely tion have highlighted the tiny profits removed since the 1990s, when the that farmers often make – 2 pence CAP was altered to reduce food proper chicken was a statistic quoted in duction and improve the quality of Hugh Fearnly Whittingstall’s ‘Chick- the food produced. Previously, farm- en Run’ program. These farmers are ers were paid by the tonne regardless in the firm grip of the supermarket of demand or whether their food was chains and are largely underpaid for bought, stored or simply left to rot. their work, without a solution to the modern lower volume demand that Organic food, as an enterprise, was organic farming represents. introduced as a way for farmers to make a more substantial income Organic is no better without the subsidies they had been Scientists are highly sceptical of receiving from the EU for decades. the benefits of organic food. Whilst Producing all that they could would researching this topic there was not no longer be able to provide more a single study showing that people money. They required other means who eat organically are any healthier, rather than mass production to make or indeed that organic food was more an income and, as such, the luxury flavoursome than food of a similar market for organic farming was born. quality rating grown using modern farming methods. Farmers producing Standard farmers who generate non- normal grain and animal products 6 The Missing Link

Biology

are finding it extremely difficult to make a profit due to the monopoly the supermarkets have as purchasers. All the while, campaigners against bio-fuels are constantly pushing that we cannot produce enough grain to support increased use of bio-petrole- um and bio-diesel on a national scale, let alone global, without destroying vast tracts of wilderness to build new farms.

One country already has a viable, working bio-fuel industry, and that is Brazil. In response to the oil crisis of the 1970s it began producing bio-ethanol on a massive scale using its vast sugar cane plantations as the source. It is now expanding into producing bio-diesel from soya bean crops. All state buses run on bio-ethanol and most fuel stations have bio-fuel available at a variety of concentrations. The technology is already present to have mixed bio-fuel and traditional fossil fuels.

Growing Bio-fuels in the UK All of this presents a solution to me – we in Europe and England in particular are blessed with beauti- fully arable land, much of which lies fallow (some of it even subsidised to lie fallow). The old problem of food mountains need not be the waste that it once was. The expansion of the bio-fuel industry could be the break in the monopoly that farmers have needed for years, and the rise in production could lead to a drop in food prices for the consumer without the farmers suffering. In the past Eng- land has produced huge quantities of grain, rape seed, sugar-beets and other crops perfect for the production of bio-fuels. Let us use the land to its fullest potential and by doing that save the planet and ourselves. In Europe at least, bio-fuel could be a workable alternative but only if we use everything available to us. 7 Biology Biology

The tricky question of Tuberculosis and the BCG – is there an effective alternative?

In today’s fragile climate, where bacteria easily become resistant to antibiotics, TB rates are on the increase. Sophie Morgan highlights the urgent need for the BCG vaccination to be reinstated in the UK, and the detri- mental links found between TB and HIV infection.

Scarred carrier. The symptoms of an active Antibiotics are the first line of treat- Touch the top of your left arm. The infection can be vague, for example, ment for a TB infection. Someone chances are that you have a small, a cough, feeling tired and a loss of with infectious tuberculosis requires flat, circular scar. An incredible appetite, until serious damage has around eights months to a year of guess? No. If you were born before occurred in the lungs. continuous treatment with antibiotics 1990, this will be where the Bacille before they are cured of the disease. Calmette Guérin (BCG) vaccina- Nonetheless, antibiotics quickly tion was administered, probably in “Tuberculosis is a grow- reduce the ability of the bacterium to school. While many people see this ing problem in countries spread to other people, meaning that as just another routine injection, it is after a few weeks an infected person a visual sign that you should be im- with high HIV infection is no longer at risk of easily transmit- mune to tuberculosis infection. rates and TB is in fact ting the disease to others. Tuberculosis, or TB, was responsible The BCG vaccine has been in use for around a quarter of all deaths in the most likely cause of for many decades now, and is no Europe in the 19th century and many death for HIV positive longer considered to be as effective notable figures such as George Or- as it once was at providing “herd well, Charlotte Bronte and even Tom individuals.” immunity” (where more than 80% of Jones have all suffered from it. In a population is immune) which can the 20th century the number of cases High risk act to protect unvaccinated people was reduced as living standards Tuberculosis is a growing problem by reducing the number of people improved and antibiotics became in countries with high HIV infec- the organism can infect. The BCG available. However, the disease is tion rates and TB is in fact the most vaccine seems to provide around still widely spread throughout the likely cause of death for HIV positive 60% immunity across the UK. The world and the World Health Organi- individuals. HIV has been shown to vaccine, that used to be administered zation has currently estimated that mask the symptoms of tuberculosis at around the age of fourteen, is no one third of the world’s population is in the early stages – around a third of longer routinely given in schools. infected with the TB bacterium. It is HIV positive patients have a negative This is at a time when the number responsible for almost 3% of deaths chest X-ray for TB. It also makes it of cases of tuberculosis in the UK globally - more than malaria. Due more difficult to treat, as some anti- is increasing with overcrowding in to the fact that the disease can have TB drugs can interfere with medica- cities, stressful lifestyles and many very few symptoms for months or tion for HIV/AIDS. Compared to people migrating from areas with even years, an infected person can someone who does not have the high TB infection rates. In fact, in the spread the bacteria whenever they virus, an HIV positive individual is last decade, the number of reported cough or sneeze in a public place, 800 times more likely to have the full cases has increased by 80% in Lon- without even knowing they are a blown infectious form of TB. don alone. 8 The Missing Link

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The tricky question of Tuberculosis and the BCG – is there an effective alternative?

Control teins from the tuberculosis-causing Tuberculosis-causing bacteria There are certain measures that could mycobacterium, mean that a good [doi:10.1038/sj.gt.3302465]. So far, ensure a viable alternative to the now alternative to the BCG vaccine will this has shown promising results redundant BCG vaccine, through probably be available in the next dec- in mice, with an effective immune careful control of tuberculosis within ade. Research is currently ongoing response produced and the results a population. The need to ensure that in Pohang University, South Korea, don’t seem to vary with climate, as people actually complete a course of led by Drs Youn and Sung, in order with the BCG vaccination. However, antibiotics so that resistant strains to develop a new vaccine to combat until a new immunisation program is don’t develop is paramount. Screen- Tuberculosis. started this means a huge section of ing migrants from areas with high TB the population will go unvaccinated, rates before they enter the country “The BCG vaccine has as the compulsory BCG vaccine is and making certain that doctors refer unlikely to be reinstated before then. HIV positive people with a chronic been in use for many This leaves almost an entire genera- cough and fatigue for immediate decades now, and is no tion unvaccinated in this country and tuberculosis testing are also ways while the BCG may not be the best of helping to reduce the prevalence longer considered to be vaccine possible at the moment, it is of this disease. Of course these as effective as it once the only realistic prevention of TB instances are not always possible in outbreaks that we have. Tuberculosis practice, especially when many of was at providing “herd is a significant problem in Britain and those infected don’t experience any immunity””. just because it is not as prevalent as symptoms. in the developing world, does not mean that we can simply ignore it – Recent advances in vaccination The work involves the vaccina- action to protect our future must be research, such as using certain pro- tion of mice with DNA taken from taken. 9 Biology Biology

land that drives loss of biodiversity. Where have all the So what of the Quagga? On discover- ing that the Quagga was a subspecies of the Plains Zebra and not a separate Quaggas gone? species, Reinhold Rau began ‘The Quagga Project’ in 1987 to try to With extinction levels currently over 100 times greater than bring the Quagga back from extinc- they should be, according to trends in fossil records, human tion by a careful breeding program impact on our planet’s biodiversity is distressing. Whilst which hopes to retrieve the genes habitat loss and degradation is the key cause of extinction responsible for their colouration. today, Kate Weatherall looks back to how we first started The most Quagga-like foal to date, “Henry”, was born on the 20th Janu- interfering with our ecosystem at ‘Nature Collected’, in ary 2005. Keep up to date with the Bristol’s City Museum & Art Gallery. group’s progress at: www.quag- In the 18th and 19th Centuries collec- Native to Cape Province and the aproject.org. tion of natural artefacts was com- Orange Free State in South Africa, mon, be it to show off to social peers, the Quagga used to be found in great Whilst ‘Nature Collected’ is a small educate others or through belief that numbers. The last wild animal was and not too visually striking exhibi- they were of religious significance. likely to have been shot in the 1870s, tion, it illustrates some important ‘Nature Collected’ brings together with the final Quagga in captivity ethical issues with a personal touch stories of the collections and the col- dying in Artis Magistra Zoo, Amster- (and there’s a Quagga foot too!). lectors, and the darker consequences dam, in 1883. Unlike Plains Zebras, of their actions. the characteristic stripes were only ‘Nature Collected’: A Touring Ex- found on the front half of their bod- hibition will be showing at Bristol Male Ruffs were widely collected ies. Museum and Art Gallery, Queens in the late 1800’s for their beautiful Road until 31st March 2008. plumage. Genetic variations of this Modern causes of species extinction species generate a wide variety of are dominated by climate change Recommended Reading colours and patterns of this plumage, effects on vulnerable habitats such which led collectors to bring the birds as mangroves, coral reefs and coastal Ariane Whitehead to the brink of extinction in attempts wetlands. Industrial trawling of fish to get all the colour variations they has also led to endangerment of many If you’d like to experience a first hand could find. Today these waders are fish species. Clearance of forests account of what it was like to be a found only in the east of England and leads to an obvious reduction in bio- zoo collector back in the day, the ‘The have recently begun to migrate to diversity, whilst transport of creatures Overloaded Ark’ is a charming read. It is written by Gerald Durrell and the south of the country again in the along trade routes more subtly wid- recounts the times he and his colleague winter. ens distribution of species across the John Yellard spent in the Cameroons globe. In an attempt to curb this rapid in Africa collecting weird and wonder- It was not only collectors at home decline in biodiversity, the World ful specimens to take back to the UK. which endangered species. Museums Summit on Sustainable Development It’s a wonderful and detailed account, placed requests with hunters for par- 2002 set the target to “significantly with beautiful illustrations of a vast ar- ticular new and mysterious speci- reduce the rate of loss of biological ray of intriguing creatures. It certainly mens for their collections to increase diversity by 2010”. This is a target transports the reader back to a bygone visitors. The Quagga is a species of that seems unlikely and conflicts with era and in doing so provides a fasci- zebra which was hunted to extinction targets to cut world hunger and pov- nating insight into the methods and attitudes of the time. for meat and museum displays. erty, which force unsustainable use of

10 The Missing Link

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make. Each light bulb will save you energy-guzzling products from their approximately £60 over its lifetime shelves. Sadly our government is by using only 20% as much energy as not so committed to the cause. They a traditional bulb, which more than have, however, proposed a voluntary makes up for the extra pound or so phase-out of old fashioned bulbs by you might spend on buying them in 2011, but they will still be available the first place! Putting that in con- to buy after this date, which isn’t text, Greenpeace have worked out exactly ideal. that if the UK switched to compact fluorescent (CFL) bulbs, we would Some myths about energy-saving save 5.1 million tonnes of carbon bulbs: dioxide in one year – the equivalent • They are dimmer: This is of the amount produced by 26 of the certainly false – when they say “15 lowest-emitting countries combined. watts” on them instead of “40 watts” The difference in energy usage is they are simply referring to the en- all in the way they work: old school ergy they use, not the brightness. bulbs pass a current through a wire, • They take ages to ‘warm which heats up and produces light. up’: While they do have a ‘warm- Unsurprisingly it also produces a ing up’ phase, in modern bulbs this huge amount of heat, which is why is around 3 seconds; this reputation they’re so inefficient. CFLs, on the comes from the older models, which other hand, pass electricity through a today might as well be dinosaurs! tube of gas, which emits ultra-violet • They are ugly and don’t light, which in turn excites a white fit most lights: In the past this was Living Green phosphor coating on the inside of very true, but today the bulbs can be the tube to produce the visible light. found in a myriad of shapes and fit- We wouldn’t consider using 150-year tings to fill any hole you can find. Anita Singh reports old technology for anything else so why do we still rely on incandescent So nip down to your local super- on a brighter future bulbs? market, electrical shop or hardware haven, save yourself a couple of Australia, Cuba, Venezuela and hundred quid (and the environment One small bulb for you, one huge en- just recently Ireland, Japan and the a few tonnes of CO2) by kitting our ergy reduction for our planet. Energy Philippines have all pledged to ban your flat with few eco-friendly bulbs. saving light bulbs aren’t the newest incandescent bulbs in the near future, And next time you’re at a loose end technology, nor the final solution, but and local UK retailers are also show- for ten minutes, why not write to you it’s impressive what a difference they ing their support by removing these local MP asking for a light bulb ban?

Marcus Perry 11 Psychology Psychology

Suggestibility Effect Memory is a complicated and inconsistent process; some people’s memories are better than others, some people remember cars better than faces, and most people begin to lose their memory at some point during their lives. Anita Singh explains why we often seem to remember things that didn’t actually happen to us.

Memory is easily corrupted: not light” during questioning can make what happened and to whom, but only do we forget things, but often all the difference in how an event is often forget whether we are remem- we remember things in the wrong remembered. Children, it has been bering what really happened or what order or context, and even things that discovered, are particularly suscepti- someone told us happened. This didn’t happen at all. In some cases ble to this type of suggestion. makes us more susceptible to sugges- this is trivial – childhood memories tion and false memories. If this is the that someone swears they remember Theories case, then the more time between the even though they happened when There are two possible explanations event and having to remember, the that person was only a year old, or for this suggestibility effect in the more likely we are to make memory conversations you’re sure you had, literature. The first idea come from mistakes. but turned out to have been in your trace-strength models, such as the head. In other situations misremem- delightfully named ‘Fuzzy Trace The Source-Monitoring Framework, bering is serious. Standing in the wit- Theory’ [doi:10.1006/jecp.1998.2464], discovered by Johnson, Hashtroudi ness stand and remembering somewhere a person distinguishes be- and Lindsay in 1993, dismisses the thing that didn’t happen could have tween the memory of the content claim that memories come all packed huge consequences, and previous of an event, i.e. what actually hap- up with a handy little tag telling us studies have shown that it doesn’t pened, who was there etc., and where and when they were stored. take Jedi mind tricks to change some- memory of the source of the event. In fact we infer further informa- one’s mind: for example, something The latter type of memory is suppos- tion from details of the memory. So, as simple as replacing “a broken edly forgotten much faster than the for example, you may remember a headlight” with “the broken head former. We end up remembering phone conversation you had with your mum last week and infer from the fact that it was dark and your flat mate was leaving for her evening tap dancing class that it was about 7 o’clock on Tuesday. But if you regularly talk to your mum at around that time on a Tuesday then you may very well confuse the content of the conversation with the one from two weeks ago. According to this theory it is the distinctiveness of the memory that is important, both in time and in situation, so the closer together in time we are given information on the same event, the more likely we are to include misinformation in our recall of the event. Oscar Branson 12 The Missing Link

Psychology Psychology Nadège Laici False memories <> detail on page 12. 13 Pharmacology Psychology Impulsive Minds

Kate Weatherall explains why it’s sometimes so difficult to just sit still!

Impulsive behaviour is a key symp- are further classified by a lettering control. Micro-infusions of 5-HT2A tom in a number of psychiatric system for example, 5-HT1A. The and 5-HT2C specific blockers were disorders, including attention deficit 5-HT receptors are mainly G-protein applied to the regions believed to be hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), coupled receptors, transmembrane involved, the nucleus accumbens, the schizophrenia and drug addiction. proteins containing a “G-protein”, prelimbic cortex and the infralimbic Dysfunction of the 5-hydroxytryp- which dissociates on receptor activa- cortex, prior to the 5CSRTT and the tamine (5-HT), or serotinergic, tion to mediate the receptor’s effects. impulsivity was then recorded. system in the brain has been shown 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C, the receptors previously to be involved in the studied by Emma Robinson’s group, formation of impulsivity. Dr. Emma act to increase the concentration of Robinson, from Bristol’s Department calcium ions within the cell to acti- of Physiology and Pharmacology, vate the cell, thus causing an action with a group at Cambridge Univer- potential. sity, has investigated these findings further. Dr Robinson’s team used the 5-Choice Serial Reaction Time ADHD affects 5% of the world’s Task-test (5CSRTT) [doi:10.1007/ population, and is characterised by s00213-002-1154-7] to determine the a persistent pattern of inattention, impulsivity of their experimental rats hyperactivity, forgetfulness, poor [doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.09.006]. impulse control and distractibility. This test assesses all aspects of im- The disorder typically presents itself pulse control as well as attentional Dr Robinson found that the nu- during childhood, however more re- performance, speed of response, cleus accumbens was the only brain cently it is beginning to be diagnosed and motivation. The rats must scan structure where these pharmaco- in adults as well. Deficits in impulse a horizontal array of 5 holes, each of logical agents had any effect, with control and attention are also key which contains a light and a sensor the 5-HT2A antagonist decreasing features of schizophrenia and drug that detects if the rat has poked its the impulsive responding and the abuse. nose into the hole. When a light is 5-HT2C antagonist having the op- turned on, the rat must poke its nose posing effect. These findings indicate 5-HT is a neurotransmitter found in into the corresponding hole to gain a that the action of 5-HT within the the wall of the intestine, the blood food reward. If the rat is too impa- nucleus accumbens is dependent on and the nervous system. It is syn- tient, and puts its nose in too fast, no the relative level of activation of the thesised by the body itself from the reward is given. 5-HT2A versus the 5-HT2C recep- amino acid tryptophan, which is tors, and that a change in the relative obtained from our diet. There are 7 This study was carried out to inves- expression of these two receptors on sub-families of receptor which are tigate the loci of the effects mediated the cell surface could alter the impul- activated by the binding of this mol- by the 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors sivity of a subject, potentially causing ecule, 5-HT1 through to 5-HT7. These on attention and inhibitory response ADHD. 14 The Missing Link

Pharmacology Psychology Neurological disorders: easing the confusion Sarah Haigh Anyone who studies anything to do via alternative methods.* sensory or motor systems; this means with the brain – or more importantly, Alexia is loosing the ability to read that it is extremely unlikely that a pa- the brain when it has gone wrong words (‘lexia’ from lexicon – the tient will loose all forms of language – will surely have had to untangle vocabulary of a language) and is due to brain trauma. all the ‘a’ something disorders. In commonly associated with Broca’s neurobiology, when a patient suffers aphasia, although it has been found from a lesion in a specific part of the on its own when there is a lesion brain that leads to the inability to do in the left occipital splenium of the something, for example comprehend corpus callosum (the bit that lies in language, then it usually has a name. between the two hemispheres allow- The problem is, they all sound simi- ing the left and the right hemisphere lar and it is difficult to distinguish to ‘talk’). Agraphia can also accompa- between them all. Here, I will try ny alexia, which is loosing the ability and ease your suffering to help them to write even when other motor skills stick a little easier, and for those who are intact. Both of these are associ- are simply interested, I will attempt ated with aphasia and can render it to enlighten you. Though there are very difficult for the patient to func- many ‘a’ disorders, the focus here is tion normally without their regular on aphasia and agnosia. use of language. What is becoming Sarah Haigh ! apparent is that, in a patient suffer- The a-something disorders ing from this disorder, words turn Aphasia is associated with language into unrecognisable patterns that Generally, agnosia is loosing the – it may be helpful to remember it as would normally have meaning and ability to recognise objects, people, ‘a-phrase-ia’. Most language deficits thus the patient is no longer able to places etc., and is well described are due to lesions in the left hemi- copy them. However, it is interesting in Oliver Sacks’ book ‘Man Who sphere. The two best known types that these abilities are controlled by Mistook His Wife for a Hat’, pub- are: Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s different areas of the brain, areas that lished in 1985. Again there are many aphasia. Broca’s aphasia occurs when are usually next to the associated types of agnosia (a ‘nose’ is an object there is a lesion to the inferior frontal so this can be remembered as ‘ag- lobe and results in the patient loos- nose-ia’), although the majority are ing the ability to produce language. due to lesions in the right parietal Wernicke’s aphasia patients loose “It is difficult to lobe. Agnosia can be specific to one the ability to comprehend language, understand these particular sense e.g. visual agnosia is which is due to a lesion in the tempo- due to lesions in the occipital and pa- ral lobe. Aphasia is common in stroke disorders from the rietal lobes and these patients cannot victims and unfortunately many of specifically recognise objects by sight, them become socially isolated as a perspective of a ‘nor- but can usually identify them via result of being unable to effectively mally functioning’ another sense. Certain forms of audi- communicate, but due to successful tory agnosia prevent the patient from research in 2008 by Rose and Douglas brain unless you being able to distinguish between [doi: 10.1080/02687030600742020], non-semantic sounds (those relating there are various support schemes in know someone with to a particular meaning – such as place to help patients communicate the disorder.” meaning in language), and >> 15 Psychology Physics

<< auditory-verbal and visual-verbal how to help patients get back to tients with aphasia. If you’re interested agnosia affect comprehension of living normal lives. in finding out more visit http://www. language. speech-therapy.org.uk or http://www. *There are local schemes in place to stroke.org.uk/document.rm?id=870, Perception and recognition help stroke victims. The North Bris- which has more detailed information Sufferers of visual agnosia usually tol Speech and Language Therapy about the centre itself. suffer from prospoagnosia (inability team run schemes helping stroke pa to recognise faces) due to damage in the fusiform gyrus in the temporal lobe. Prospoagnosia (‘prospon’ being Greek for ‘face’) has sparked a lot Cover Feature of research into how we interpret faces as this disorder can vary in its strength and has been seen very mildly in infants. It is now predicted Ever wondered how that 2% of the population suffer from mild prospoagnosia without any associated brain trauma. It is also interesting as it adds to the debate lava lamps work? of whether our face perception is special compared to our ability to recognise other objects. The last form of agnosia which is particu- Katie Barr explores the role of larly interesting is apraxia (‘praxis’ being Greek for ‘act’), which is the thermodynamics in the biological inability to complete meaningful actions. There are several types of world. apraxia, from ocular apraxia (unable to move eyes horizontally) to ideo- It’s the sort of thing you can look at portant, areas of physics. I wish to tell motor apraxia (unable to orientate for hours. Brightly lit, undulating you the story of the lava lamp, not the hands correctly). Again, agnosia is an bubbles rising and falling in a predict- historical one, as that is not what is interesting disorder because it tells able yet chaotic fashion. As they fall of interest here, but the physical one. us so much about how the brain has from their peak you can see small, This is an important story. Instead of specific areas to deal with certain perfectly spherical, bubbles breaking characters guiding us through the ac- parts of our environment. It is one of off and cascading down the lamp. The tion, we will have the laws of nature. the greatest ironies that science can movement is smooth, right down to Once we get to know these strange learn more when things go wrong. the base, where bubbles coalesce and characters we will recognise them continue their cycle slowly, but surely. everywhere and in some of the most However rhythmic this evolution is, It is important to note that patients crucial biological processes. with these conditions did previously you can never quite predict the next have fully functioning brains and phase. You can have a good idea I am sure we all know the outline of so these disorders are not due to about what is going to happen and this story. The light bulb, hidden at lack of intelligence. It is difficult to when, but this is all that you can get. understand these disorders from the the base of the lamp, heats the tube perspective of a ‘normally function- The art of lava above it. This tube contains water and ing’ brain unless you know someone Before you stands a simple lava lamp, wax, a very special mixture indeed. with the disorder – this is especially a concept known to many. However, As the wax and water heat up, subtle true of something like propoagnosia, behind, underneath, inside, this lamp changes occur. It is at this point that which we take for granted. However, is the interplay between thermody- the wax begins to form into bubbles as research deepens into the anatomy namics and chaos. The humble lava and start its journey up the tube, hov- of the brain and its behavioural lamp thus becomes a demonstration ering at the top before gliding softly implications, we are slowly learning of some of the most complex, but im- back down to the base. >> 16 The Missing Link

Carole Kenrick Psychology Physics << Typically, people attribute this behaviour to the effect of heat alone. They would say that the wax rises because it is hot and hot things rise, but at the top it cools down, thus eventually falling down. Of course this is true, but it is a gross oversim- plification and not at all informative to somebody wishing to grasp enough thermodynamics to understand it in the context of biological Cover Feature systems. A fine balance The manufacturers of lava lamps Ever wondered how keep the exact recipes of the solutions contained inside the tube top secret. This is a clue as to how complicated the processes going on lava lamps work? inside really are. The waxy solution must have some very precise properties to ebb and flow in the way it does. Firstly, it must be denser than Katie Barr explores the role of water at room temperature. This is why once the lamp is switched off thermodynamics in the biological most of the wax collects at the bottom. Secondly, it must react to tem- world. perature increases in just the right way. We all know that as things heat up, they increase in size. The exact increase in size with respect to temperature is dictated by the materials coefficient of thermal expansion.

In our case this coefficient must be slightly larger for the wax than it is for the water. This means that the wax expands more than the water for the same rise in temperature, and thus the density of the wax decreases. What results is a substance slightly less dense than water and hence this substance starts to rise. This flow, due to a gradient in density is commonly referred to as a convection current. The wax must not expand too much. If its density were to decrease too much on heat- ing, the wax would just stay at the top of the tube not doing much. For constant movement around the tube the wax must have a very specific coefficient of thermal expansion. >> 17 Physics Physics

<< The physics surface tension – it has its role to This means that the substance is This gets us somewhere, but in this play in biological systems, though it unevenly distributed throughout its picture the separation and coalescing is not as pivotal as the role of ther- container. If energy conditions are of bubbles that gives the lava lamp modynamics. We now understand favourable the substance will dif- its hypnotic character is not account- a little about how convection cur- fuse, or spread itself out until it is ed for. Convection currents account rents occur and how the exact way equally concentrated everywhere. for the larger scale movement of the they move matter about depends This is not black magic; it is simply waxy bubbles, but surface tension on some very specific properties of due to random motion. We know that must be postulated to account for the matter in question. This sensitiv- fluids are constantly in motion. Un- the smaller details. Surface tension is ity is also displayed by biological less there are other forces in action, basically caused by uneven forces at molecules. Hence why DNA becomes the molecules in the fluid will zoom the edges of any medium. Molecules denatured with just a small increase about in every possible direction and deep inside a medium, in our case in temperature, though of course in eventually they will end up evenly wax, are subjected to equal forces on this case thermal expansion doesn’t spread out. The name for this mo- all sides, because they have neigh- really enter the picture. By telling the tion, that appears completely random bouring molecules all around them. story of the lava lamp, I have given on the scale of individual particles Molecules on the edge of the wax are a physical description of convection but predictable for large ensembles subjected to inward forces due to mo- currents. Convection is only one type of particles, is Brownian motion. This lecular attraction, but with no equal- of mass transfer, or in English, way of provides possibly the most important ising forces pushing them outwards. getting from A to B. The other types link between thermodynamics and The molecules with equal forces on of mass transfer are diffusion and biological systems. Indeed, Brown- each side have the lowest possible migration. Migration is the result ian motion plays a crucial role in the energy state – the amount of energy of a potential difference, or voltage, transport of chemicals around cells. bound up by the molecules. A gener- and is important to consider when al rule in physics is that molecules, or studying electrolytes. This relation to It seems then that thermodynamics collections of molecules, like to be in electricity shows why electrolyte im- drives everything to distribute itself the lowest energy state possible. This balances are so dangerous to biologi- evenly – this is why it predicts a cold, means that the number of molecules cal organisms. The electrical signals dark end to the universe. Eventually in higher energy states, the ones on must be ‘just so’ and electrolytes everything will be equally spaced, in the edge, is kept to a minimum. So in control these. its most favourable energy state. So order to break this surface the mol- it’s natural to ask why, if thermody- ecules must get some extra energy namics pushes everything towards from somewhere. In this way we are “The first proteins to form uniformity, life has evolved? Sadly I able to consider the effects of surface don’t have the answer to that ques- tension as being similar to the effects on Earth would not have tion, but I can explain why ther- of wrapping something up in cling been in violation of thermodynamics seems to be violated film. The elastic cling film prefers modynamics had they on Earth, giving rise to so many to bend and stretch under pressure, varieties of life. The reason is simple. and only breaks when the energy been inside an empty box, Thermodynamics only truly applies bonding the molecules together is no but they were not.” to closed systems, that is systems that longer sufficient. Very viscous sub- cannot interact with the rest of the stances have a high surface tension, universe. The first proteins to form more runny substances have a lower The other form of mass transfer, on Earth would not have been in vio- surface tension. In the case of the diffusion, is also due to thermody- lation of thermodynamics had they wax floating back to the bottom of namics. As you may have noticed, been inside an empty box, but they the lava lamp, the energy needed to convection and migration are caused were not. They could borrow en- allow smaller bubbles to break off is by differences in density or electric ergy from their surroundings if they provided by the heat of the gradually charge. Formally these differences needed to, so long as it was made approaching light bulb. are called gradients and diffusion is up elsewhere. This is what, for me, also the result of a gradient, though makes an otherwise fairly dull aspect Masses of bubbles this time the gradient is in the con- of nature truly wondrous. Oh, and I Let that suffice for the physics of centration of a particular substance. like watching lava lamps too. 18 The Missing Link

Physics Physics

Ker-ching!

Win a cool million dollars for an exact description of blood flow. Ross Lund uncovers the enigma behind the complex Navier-Stokes equations.

It is important to understand how physical dimensions of the flow. a cigarette), the model we need boils our blood flows around our body, down to solving the famous Navier- through the myriad types of blood “Ok Ok” you say, “I get it, blood Stokes equations.These equations vessels and to all of our vital organs. flow can be described by this easy are famous because of their innate Simply put, without this essential equation that I can use, the medi- insolubility, they cannot be solved fluid flow, we would be quite dead! cal industry can use etc. etc. Why directly and can only be vaguely un- am I interested in investigating this derstood through complex numeri- So how do we go about describ- further?”. Well, to be honest, Darcy’s cal methods (even for simple laminar ing the flow of blood in the human Law is a pretty awful approxima- flows, let alone turbulent!!!). The Na- body? We employ the services of tion and there are some obvious vier-Stokes equations are in fact one that highly complex mathemati- problems with it. Many of the most of the “Millennium Prize Problems”. cal field, fluid dynamics. On a very important physical things there have These are seven problems for which basic level, the flow of blood can be been tied up in that “R”. For exam- the Clay Mathematics Institute is mathematically “modelled” as a simple, size of blood vessel, viscosity offering $1 million for their solution! ple viscous fluid flowing through a of blood, speed of flow and so on So this leaves us firmly wedged up cylindrical pipe. This gross oversim- are all things that not only can vary, s**t creek without a paddle. Sadly, plification of matters is perhaps the but do vary most of the time! Most despite the fact that many, many raison d’être of applied mathematics. upsettingly, blood flow in diseased mathematicians the world over are This model of blood flow follows a arteries can sometimes be “turbu- trying to solve these equations and simple equation known as Darcy’s lent”, making it far more difficult to have been for almost two hundred Law, which states that the blood flow describe. So we need more compli- years, a solution does not appear to F, is equal to the change in pressure cated maths to model blood flow be anywhere in sight. ΔP, divided by the resistance R, or F properly, and like most other fluid = ΔP/R. The resistance here is a gen- problems involving turbulence, (for To find out more visit: www.clay- eralised parameter depending on the example, the way smoke rises from math.org/millennium/

19 Philosophy Philosophy

Evolutionary Epistemology: A Philosopher’s new handle on the Theory of Knowledge

Natural Selection It’s not that simple buttercup-studded foliage of the “The Darwinist says: Do not ask Let’s start with the basics. Evolution- English woodland, there lives a why the mouse runs from its enemy. ary Epistemology is an attempt to family of red squirrels, and a family Species that did not cope with their model the development of scientific of grey squirrels. To our dismay, we natural enemies no longer exist. That theories using the principles of Dar- notice that the number of red squir- is why there are only the ones that winian evolution. It seeks to under- rels is decreasing. After some lamen- do. In the same way, I claim that the stand the way in which our theories tation, we attempt to account for this success of current scientific theories metamorphose by analogy with the by appeal to natural selection. We is no miracle… For any scientific the- metamorphosing of organisms in speculate that perhaps the red ones ory is born into a life of fierce compe- biology. The idea is that Darwinian are dying out due to competition tition, a jungle red in tooth and claw. principles can be applied to any do- from their fellow grey brothers, an Only the successful theories survive main in which there are ‘entities’ that overabundance of red squirrel preda- – the ones which in fact latched on to form lineages or ‘generations’ down tors or the poor woodland yield of actual regularities in nature.” – van which certain attributes are pre- their preferred acorn. Fraassen [B. C. van Frassen (1980), served, while others are cast into the The Scientific Image, Oxford: Oxford fire. Scientific theories, being the sort Truths University Press, p.40] of things that progress by adaptation, We may cast this in a different way seem to fit the bill. Looking good by saying that the aim of the proc- Who says the principles of evolu- so far? Maybe not. One immediate ess is to have grey squirrels only. tion theory need to be confined to concern, as Bradie points out [doi: The attribute to be eradicated is thus biology? The philosophers don’t. 10.1007/BF00140962] is that where squirrel redness. And the mechanism Impressed by the ingenuity of their progression in science results in to achieve this aim, devised by Na- Galapagosian cousins, the Athenians uniformity or a convergence of theo- ture herself, may, for example, be the have grasped the Darwinian sword, ries toward a central underpinning mass breeding of branch-hopping and are sharply incising the flesh of natural law or truth, progression in predators with a special appetite for epistemology. So what’s it all about? species evolution results in increas- crimson fur. Can we have a theory of natural se- ing deviation and diversity. It seems, lection that transcends the science – on this account, that to embrace biol- Similarly, the evolutionary episte- non-science boundary? Even within ogy we must ditch the notion of ty- mologist may say that the aim of the domain of science, it is hard to ing things up neatly in some ‘grand science is convergence on truth. The imagine the physicists trading in unified theory of everything’ in the attribute that he wants to see pre- their Schrodinger’s cat for Darwin’s sciences. Maybe some more convinc- served in our theories is therefore, finch, so what do the philosophers ing is thus in order. An analogy from unsurprisingly, truth. What’s his think they can do with the theory of biology will help to flesh things out. method for achieving said aim? He evolution? Let’s say, that deep in the tangled [The evolutionary 20 The Missing Link Philosophy Philosophy

Darwinian principles are used in Evolu- tionary Epistemology to underpin how scientific theories are born, treated and discarded. In an analytical review of this mechanism, Danielle Wills provides analogies to aid our understanding of this fragile philosophical concept and its potential to unify the sciences. Artwork by Danielle Wills

epistemologist] has observed the scientific theories are mere conjec- are hunting out the true theories by efficiency of Nature’s red-squirrel tures and thus likely to be well off shooting down the false ones, so our genocide, and follows suite: He pro- the mark. So, we take our theories procedure is in fact independent of poses the use of a ‘predator’ to ‘eat and see if they hold out under fire, the very theories we claim to be seek- up’ the false theories such that after by ‘exposing them all to the fiercest ing. If, in the woodland analogy, we many rounds of mindless bloodshed, struggle for survival’, for example, are bent on finding all the red squir- only the true theories are around to refutation by criticism, damning rels in the wood, but our procedure tell the tale. evidence, and the like. We replace is to isolate the grey ones, it doesn’t the cinders with fresh theories and take much to pinpoint the logic error. repeat the process, and so on until “The evolutionary we arrive at something that can In order for this process to work, survive the flames. This theory or there would have to be some causal epistemologist has body of theories, we accredit with link between the false theories and observed the efficiency of the attribute of truth. This seems the true theories, such that by isolat- Nature’s red-squirrel sensible enough. However, during a ing the false theories we are in fact recent interview, Darrel Rowbottom, getting closer to hitting on truth. A genocide, and follows a Post-Doctoral Research Associate possible such causal link is induction, suite: He proposes the at Edinburgh University’s School of or generalising from observed cases Physics and Visiting Research Fellow to unobserved cases. This is com- use of a ‘predator’ to ‘eat at Bristol University’s Philosophy mon practice in the sciences, where up’ the false theories such Department, drew my attention to we assume that, for example, the that after many rounds some glitches in this view. laws of physics that we observe in this galaxy are the same in all other of mindless bloodshed, Errors of logic galaxies. If, by induction, we assume only the true theories are Unfortunately, theories, like squir- that a true theory must in some way rels, tend to multiply. If science con- resemble a false theory, and its only around to tell the tale.” sisted of a static body of theories for a matter of fine-tuning, then it makes us to pick at like petals of a flower, sense to posit that isolating more Karl Popper, a renowned philoso- proceeding one by one till we reach falsehoods will give us a clearer pic- pher of science and proponent of a final verdict, then it is reasonable ture of the truth attribute. Popper, for this view, has just the predator in to think that in time we will arrive one, doesn’t believe in induction, but mind: the Conjecture and Refutation at the truth. However, this process perhaps this would work. Unfortu- approach [Karl Popper (1959), The of elimination will get us nowhere nately, there is another issue here that Logic of Scientific Discovery, New if the things we are eliminating are we have so far overlooked: the noto- York: Basic Books]. In a nutshell, all being regularly replaced. Worse, we rious human plague of fallibility. >> 21 Philosophy Philosophy

Artwork by Selina Thomas << We may think we are rooting out the false theories, but in fact, what we are doing is scrapping the ones that conflict with experience, or appear false on the basis of what we have It’s all in the past, man: experienced or learnt so far. In other words, we have no real idea about A teleological account of the which theories are false in reality, as there is no universal standard of content of mental representation falsehood to weigh these theories up against. And experience is not reliable. We could, from a distance, How do we think about things? Ben Elwyn in mistake a rabbit for a squirrel, or another instalment of Philosophy of Life Science worse, a soiled red squirrel for a grey squirrel. So each time we dispose of features. Just try not to get stuck in a wistful pose a theory, we run the risk of losing a too long… baby with the bathwater. This doesn’t look good for evolutionary episte- Looking at this page you will see a mistaken for other real things, such mology on a Popperian account. giant tortoise enjoying the company as seeing a cow and believing that of another giant tortoise. Or rather, it’s a horse, or, seeing a pipette and Luckily, there are many other ways to you won’t. What you are seeing is thinking it’s a horseradish. model this idea, some of which may a pictorial representation of a gi- survive these criticisms. One ver- ant tortoise enjoying the company To illustrate the issue better, con- sion, for example, considers scientific of another (the Belgian surrealist sider a possible solution and why theories as ‘parents’, and the predic- painter René Magritte made this it won’t work. The Crude Causal tions that we can make from them distinction when he painted a picture Theory (CCT), although probably as ‘offspring’. Other versions do not of a pipe and wrote underneath it never held by anyone, claims ‘the concern themselves with science at “ceci n’est pas une pipe”). I expect content of a representational state is all, but look instead at the develop- that you would find the above point whatever typically causes it’. Thus, ment of ideas, human knowledge and facetious and typically ‘pernicketally’ when I believe that there is a horse culture within this framework. Those philosophical. I would concur. The in front of me, this belief is about who prefer to leave the philosophy resentment probably stems from the horses because it was caused by a out of it do not venture further than fact that you don’t really believe that horse. However, the CCT fails here the organ of thought, the brain, there is a giant tortoise right in front because sometimes (on dark nights or and how it’s influenced by natural of you; the way we describe the belief from a distance) we might mistake a selection. Furthermore, evolutionary “there’s a tortoise” is just shorthand. cow for a horse. So now our thoughts epistemologists may disagree about But what if you really were to believe of horses are about horses-or-cows- the aim of science, or about which that there was a real-life, breathing from-a-distance etc. because they attribute is the one to preserve, in the tortoise on the page, would this belief are caused by all these things. This first place. be true? Obviously not, but why? is clearly no good. Jerry Fodor calls What is it about our thoughts (and this problem ‘the disjunction prob- One thing is for certain, the philoso- words) that they can be made true (or lem’, where the representational state phers are not shy to pick the interdis- false) by things in the world? represents a disjunction of different ciplinary lock. Perhaps the next port things. Overcoming the disjunction of call is the Einsteinian camp. A Gen- In philosophy this dilemma is what problem is a primary aim of all theo- eral Theory of Normativity anyone? is known as ‘representation’ or ries of content. ‘meaning’ (the two terms are almost synonymous) i.e. how our thoughts Without recourse to material dualism and language have ‘aboutness’. (à la Descartes) or other such magi- The problem does not only arise for cal fantasies, philosophers mostly beliefs that mistake pictures for real want to offer a naturalistic account of things, but also when real things are content. 22 The Missing Link Philosophy Philosophy

to pair up with a desire. Desires are does not believe that such accounts therefore more basic than beliefs. We have actually managed to solve can now derive content as follows: the disjunction problem. He also Firstly, a belief’s content is its truth complains, citing Gould and Le- condition (what makes it true), and wontin’s anti-adaptationist paper a belief is true if it causes an action, “The Spandrel’s of San Marco”, that in conjunction with a desire, which teleological accounts assume the fulfils the desires satisfaction condi- wrong things about natural selection; and secondly, a desire’s content tion. But see Dennett, Dawkins and is its satisfaction conditions. Millikan for a defence of adaptation- ism. A further objection is that of the At this stage, however, we are lack- accidental replica: One night a bolt of ing a ‘normatising’ condition of thunder hits a swamp out of which desire satisfaction. That is, a condi- arises a human, identical atom to tion that can tell us why something atom, to yourself. According to the has gone wrong when, for example, teleological theory, this human will we desire warmth and arrive at loud not think about anything because Attempts at such an account have noise. Teleology supplies this norma- he does not have the right sort of been made by esteemed philosophers tising condition. evolutionary history (he has none). such as Jerry Fodor and Fred Dret- The objection is, therefore, that while ske. However, here we shall consider At the crux of his account is the claim this human might have exactly the a teleological account. ‘Teleology’ that beliefs and desires have ‘biologi- same thoughts as you do, yours will comes from the Greek word telos – cal purposes’ and it is these purposes be about things and his will not. meaning “end” (as in, “means to an that legitimise talk of truth condi- end”). Teleological accounts therefore tions and satisfaction conditions. For In reply, Papineau claims that we just seek to explain things in terms of example, the desire for sweet things have to ignore the intuition that this purposes toward ends. Adaptation- is biologically supposed to lead one accidental replica will think about ist thinking in evolutionary biology to eat sweet things; therefore eating things (Daniel Dennett even suggests is full of teleological explanations something bitter will not satisfy the the objection is not even worth dis- for example, “wolves have sharp desire for eating something sweet. cussing). An accidental wolf would teeth because they need to tear meat” Such a story, Papineau claims, can be have sharp teeth but these sharp (where there is likely some legitimis- told for many of our mental represen- teeth would not be for tearing meat; ing story about wolves with sharper tations. There are also some things they would be for nothing. I believe teeth eating more meat and therefore that we do not have the native ability this reply is sufficient to dismiss the having more offspring). A teleologi- to represent: such as computers, mar- accidental replica objection (not to cal theory of content seeks to explain mite, and other modern items – one mention the unlikelihood of its oc- mental content as having a purpose. might even argue that most of our currence!). On this account, the purpose of each representations are non-innate. These individual mental representation representations are accounted for by After taking a whistle-stop tour of does indeed determine its content. reference to the individual’s learning the difficulties of mental represen- process: our concepts become fixed tation, a proposed solution using Papineau introduces his teleologi- if they occur and then lead to ad- teleological thinking has been put cal account in his book ‘Reality and vantageous (that is, psychologically forward. Hopefully the problems Representation’. He begins by equat- rewarding) outcomes. For example, and possible solutions were at least ing the content of beliefs with their children may learn to associate the glimpsed as we whizzed by. It is not truth conditions, and the content of concept “blue” with blue things the easiest problem to worry about desires with their satisfaction condi- because their teachers reward them because representation is performed tions. In the Humean paradigm that when they do so. so unknowingly, but in philosophy, it Papineau is working within, beliefs is a problem at the root of language are causally inert unless paired with Teleological accounts have drawn and knowledge and is an important desires. So in order for the truth of criticism from various philosophers. platform needed to be built by any beliefs to make a difference they have Fodor is the most outspoken and physicalist account of the mind. 23 Cockatiels and Cocktails And Then There Were None: James Probert meets the last hyena-man of Harar, Ethiopia

The Land Rovers bumped and man of standing. The Land Rovers dered forward and sat down with banged their way along the dirt drove past this and pulled in to a his bucket and his stick about five track. To the left the ruined walls patch of bare ground just beyond it. metres in front of the Land Rovers. of Harar lay in tumbledown piles, He pointed at the car and babbled while to the right the sun was sink- A man strolled out of the house something in Amharic. Five minutes, ing below the acacia-dotted horizon. with a bucket in one hand and a more babbling in both English and Ever so often along the road there stick about a foot long in the other. Amharic and much gesticulating came a fence made out of living He was six foot tall with a head later we realised he wanted us to cacti, planted so close together that that seemed too large for his skinny turn the headlights on. We obliged they formed an impenetrable barrier, body. His hair was curled and rose and were just turning round again eight feet high. The farmhouses, about half a centimetre from his when the smell first hit us. It was made out of wood, plastic, a few head. The driver of the other Land one of the foulest smells imaginable, rocks and anything else to hand Rover, Nigel, went up to him and rotting meat mixed with urine and looked, if anything, more rundown enquired about feeding time. After the smell of wet dog, all magnified and battered than the city’s demol- several minutes of shouting in both so that it made you want to retch. As ished wall. English and Amharic, and with the we wrinkled our noses in disgust the aid of many expansive gestures, he first shape followed the smell out of Eventually the road ran past a returned to inform us that the man’s the darkness. larger house made out of chikka: a name was Mulugeta and that feed- mixture of mud, straw and cow pat ing time would be soon. In Ethiopia People who watch wildlife pro- that can be plastered onto a wooden “soon” could be anytime from five grammes from the safety of their frame where it dries as hard as minutes to five hours so we sat on couches, I might add, might scoff concrete. The chikka this house was the car bonnets and watched the sun and say that hyenas are just big made from and the tin, rather than gradually sink behind Mulugeta’s dogs and that lions are overgrown thatched roof, made it clear that the house. kittens. They are not just big dogs. house belonged to someone who, to Hellhounds would be a more ac- the local population at least, was a As darkness fell Mulugeta wan- curate description. They are not simply large, a Rotweiller is large, and hyenas are at least an extra foot on top of the Rotweiller and twice as wide. On top of this their body slopes downwards, giving them a sinister, hunch-backed appearance, and their fur is matt, dirty and often stained with blood, concealing the natural pattern of sandy coloured fur and darker spots.

Hyenas get a bad press because of their ghastly appearance but they actually do more hunting than lions do. Strangely enough this fact was not comforting as more shapes mate- rialised at the edge of our headlights. More and more hyenas arrived James Probert 24 The Missing Link Cockatiels and Cocktails Cocktail:

1 part Vodka – double shot 2 parts Tomato Juice A pinch of salt

Get that down yer neck! (Yuk!)

until there were too many to count, This was repeated again, and again. was “no problem”, especially as his circling just out of range of the He had named all the hyenas, some wife, children and livestock were headlights, their eyes flickering thirty in total, and they all came for- in the house. Yet to my amazement evilly. Finally, a huge female came ward as if they were nothing more the hyena soon loped back out at forward and stood about two feet than well-trained dogs. a surprising speed for such a large from Mulugeta, who sat quite hap- animal. Behind the hyena appeared pily with his minuscule stick in one the formidable frame of Mulugeta’s hand, his bucket by his side. Mulug- “They made a wife who threw a rock at the hyena’s eta shifted his position and the huge retreating form and yelled some- female leapt away from him and phenomenal range thing in Amharic. The offending returned to its pacing just outside hyena skittered away from the rock the pool of the headlights. It’s al- of noises: they and trotted back to the circle. The ways amazed me that such a huge indignant mother lowered her arm creature, easily capable of ripping a whistled, barked, and disappeared back inside. man to shreds if it felt like it would growled, laughed, leap away at the slightest twitch Mulugeta had soon abandoned from a human. Soon enough, the rumbled and feeding with the stick and hung the lead female returned to the circle of meat on his fingers instead again the headlights and as the rest of the squeaked” calling the hyenas by name to come hyenas came to join her, Mulugeta and take the meat. Then he held the took the lid off his bucket. He gave lots of meat to one very stick in his mouth so that the hyena fat female because he said she was would be less than a foot away from The stench of rotting meat reached pregnant. She ate all she could and his face when it took the meat. All us standing a few metres away and then lost interest and instead started too soon the bucket of meat was the smell made the hyenas begin to sniffing around the edge of the circle. gone. We climbed back into the Land whoop and shrill in excitement. They She wandered over to the hole in the Rovers and slammed the doors. made a phenomenal range of noises: cactus fence that was the entrance to Waving goodbye to Mulugeta we they whistled, barked, growled, Mulugeta’s compound, where one of drove off back along the dusty road. laughed, rumbled and squeaked. Mulugeta’s small children watched As we drove my dad said “You Now they came in and formed an the other hyenas. As the preg- know that Mulugeta is the only hy- almost solid circular wall around nant female approached, the child ena-man left nowadays? There used Mulugeta. He reached his hand into squeaked and fled back inside. The to be seventeen.” There was a slight his bucket and withdrew a sliver of hyena followed and we all yelled a pause whilst we all digested the rancid meat that he stuck on the end warning at Mulugeta who glanced at news and then a further pause while of his stick, which he then held aloft the hyena’s tufted tail disappearing myself, my sister and her two friends as he called out a word in Amharic. inside his compound, waved a hand looked at each other and wondered One of the hyenas came forward, and yelled “chigger yelem”. From who would ask the obvious ques- took the meat from the stick and the looks on my family’s faces they tion. Finally my sister said “What went back to its place in the circle. certainly did not think that there happened to the other sixteen?”.

25 Comment Comment

party which can offer a better future for our environment alongside lucrative education, health and security policies is certainly likely to be attractive. But with each political body clamouring to reach maximum green sta- Green Fever tus, how can we be sure who has the most weight behind their leafy messages? A critical review of our political Lackadaisical Labour (www.labour.org.uk) parties’ policies, in the light of With a series of unpopular errors in their wake, and one renewed urgency in the struggle of the least charismatic men in Britain at their helm, the Labour party may well have benefited from adding a towards being ‘green’. comprehensive environment plan to their latest mani- Hannah Welham festo. As it stands, a quick look beyond the bold ‘climate change’ banner donning the party’s website reveals a very scant selection of environmental policies. The site poses questions as to how to effectively encourage environmentally-friendly travel and recycling, without actually providing any answers. To the party’s credit, the recent climate change and energy bills proposed by Brown and his team do at first seem to provide a little more meat to the online proposals. For example, the party has demand- ed a 60% decline in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050, with a legally binding contract for Britain to meet carbon reduction budgets, the aim being to achieve the world’s first truly low-carbon economy. However, these recom- mendations have been met with wide criticism, and have even been accompanied by a call from Gordon Brown to build more (environmentally-damaging) nuclear power stations in the coming decade.

Conservative Clichés (www.conservatives.com) In 2006, in one of the most famous power plays for the green title to date, Tory leader David Cameron chose to scrap the party’s traditional emblem of a lighted torch for the scribbled logo of a tree. Since then, the MP has hit the headlines for cycling to work and attempting to offset his carbon costs for flights, all in the name of an environmentally-friendly lifestyle. A glance at the party’s website shows just how enthusiastic the Tories are to promote a green campaign, with the endorsement of a “safer and greener” Britain as a favourite mantra. The party does indeed seem to have some more definite goals than Labour for combating climate change. For example, the Tories would like to see a switch from stealth taxes With the five-yearly general elections looming over West- (which currently cost each family in Britain £1,300) to pol- minster, many of us may already be thinking about where lution taxes, as part of a new security agenda. Be warned to cast our valuable votes on the big day. With a host of though: if you like facts and figures to back up your campaigns and policies to choose from, many factors may government’s claims, the Tories probably aren’t going eventually sway our decisions toward different parties. to be for you, as this is where the numbers seem to stop. The spin doctors’ current gambit of choice appears to The ironic website photo of David Cameron sitting next be the environment, with a spate of politicians rushing to a mile-high stack of papers also doesn’t do much to to jump aboard the fashionable green bandwagon. A convince browsers of his heartfelt green standing. 26 The Missing Link

Comment Comment

Level-Headed Lib Dems (www.libdems.org.uk) opinion on these matters are included in the agenda), The Liberal Democrats have had a turbulent ride the manifesto focuses on the development of a sustaina- through the turn of the century, with their consecutive ble society, based around agriculture, food, the environ- leaders invariably dropping like flies. Nick Clegg is ment, and transport. If elected, the Green Party would now hoping to see the party through the next general aim to achieve a wholly organic and sustainable Brit- election and, by the looks of their manifesto they should ish farming system, alongside a complete ban on GM stand a good chance with environmentally-friendly vot- foods. The party would also like to initiate more wind, ers. Like the Conservatives, the party is also in favour biomass, and solar energy sources, and would introduce of switching income tax to pollution tax, this time by fairer flight taxes. Rather than building new roads, the 4 pence out of every pound. However, this similar- party would channel transport funds into creating new ity apart, the Lib Dems have managed to construct a cycle paths, and more efficient train and bus services. more cliché-free, realistic green message for the general The Green Party’s optimism for a better British climate public than the Tories have. They claim that Labour’s is contagious, but an examination of their policies on recent climate change bill is merely a PR move based non-environmental issues does, unfortunately, leave a on outdated science, and would wish instead to see lot to be desired. a carbon-neutral Britain by 2050. They would also like to introduce five-year carbon budget targets, and would include research into methane (one of the most potent greenhouse gases) in their plans. They do not however outline what kind of research this may be, so that remains a mystery – perhaps the employment of a viable alternative? In response to Gordon Brown’s blunder over the continued introduction of nuclear power stations, the Lib Dem environment secretary says that Labour’s energy bill is “clearly not the answer to the energy problems that we face today”. The party has begun petitioning amongst the general public for the introduction of a green tax and an end to reliance on nuclear power.

“They claim that Labour’s recent climate change bill is merely a PR move based on outdated science, and would wish instead to see a carbon- neutral Britain by 2050.”

Green Party (www.greenparty.org.uk) Of course, no discussion of environmental politics would be complete without recognition of the Green Party. Although not included as a big contender for If all this talk of policy and agenda has stirred up your the general election, the party is without doubt truly political opinions, why not look into voting in your next green-minded. Rather than concentrating on security local election? and education policies (although the party’s pacifistic See www.electoralcommission.org.uk to get up to date. 27 Photograph by Nadège Laici Comment Weird and Wonderful

The Cult of the Individual: some famous animals in behavioural and cognitive research, and a final farewell to two of them. Arthur Goldsmith

in Japan. Was she an inspirational thinker or just a random chancer? (Imo I mean, not Delia). I fancy we’ll never know.

Alex the parrot It is the flighty superstars of the avian world, however, that get the special credits this month, two star research animals that have both died in the last year or so. Alex the African Grey Parrot, enculturated up to his psittacine eyeballs, he really could talk (though it wasn’t a language of course, the words were just drilled in intensive mimetic training). Apparently he could also figure out categories of things in the material world and count up to six. Or maybe not. With what must have been thousands Most experimental research requires statistical valida- of hours of intensive daily training over more than 25 tion from a sample size of the species and quite right and years, maybe he came up with his own way of catego- proper too. However, there have been some very famous rising what to say to get a nut. Fierce controversy and individuals in behavioural cognitive research that have academic debate accompanied Alex’s every move. Was featured inordinately frequently in their laboratory’s Alex a special parrot? Again, we’ll never know. He did, output and have been studied with such mind-boggling however, insert some stylish vocal interjections into the intensity that you wonder whether they must have de- testing sessions: if he wasn’t sure of the answer it would veloped cognitive coping strategies of their own, perhaps be a hopeful shortcut “wanna nut” and if he was really just to get a break! cheesed off, “wanna go back.” Watch the videos on the web: this parrot is cool, to be sure and now he’ll rest in Sarah the chimp peace at last. A chimpanzee called Sarah – yes they’ll all have a name, you can be sure – was the first animal, human or oth- Betty the crow erwise, to be credited with having a ’Theory of Mind,’ The second sad loss to report is that of Betty, a New Cal- courtesy of the first paper announcing the term in 1978. edonian crow – a feathery biped with attitude is good for Looking at the subjects listed in many chimpanzee a nice name too. There were two crows to start with in the problem-solving papers decades later, Sarah was usually Oxford Laboratory, the other one was called Abel; they there in the thick of it. She must have been very good at could have been A and B I suppose but that wouldn’t be what she did! Until finally, I was told, she became too so catchy would it. Now Betty was a sharp mover and cantankerous and had to be left out for both hers and the could bend a wire just as soon as take a look at the task experimenters’ cognitive well-being! in hand. Somehow the other crows didn’t quite get it. So Then there was a long line of rigorously pre-programmed was she especially clever, a sharp thinker too? We’ll never (or perhaps I should be diplomatic and say ‘encultur- know. But Betty does live on, in a surreal sort of way. ated’) apes drilled with ultimately failed attempts to She’s not only secured her place in the scientific litera- get them to acquire human language. One spectacularly ture, but even her mortal remains continue to appear in talented macaque called Imo (even if you live in the wild lectures announcing her achievements. At one particular outdoors you still get a name if you’re a furry biped) Plenary Lecture in Oxford by Alex Kacelnik, at any rate. showed the rest of her troop how to wash potatoes in the With Betty initially concealed inconspicuously under sea and other useful food preparation tips besides. She a cloth, Alex would reveal the bird with a magician’s [Imo the macaque] would have been called Delia, I sup- flourish, stuffed, mounted and with a suitably bent wire pose, if she’d lived in Norfolk, but she didn’t, she lived secured in her beak! Ole! 28 The Missing Link

Photograph by Nadège Laici Comment Weird and Wonderful Hide and Seek Jenny Whitehair and Sean McGregor introduce a new mammal species recently discovered in the remote African jungle Unfortunately, no sooner has this species been discovered than it has been placed on the endangered list as it current population is estimated to only just tip into the thousands, and with only two known areas to which it is confined. Whilst the threat of illegal logging is prevalent, fortunately portions of the population exist in a National Park and Na- ture Reserve, and with this discovery action can be taken to ensure its survival – all hope is not lost.

“The giant elephant shrew, or sengi, is about the size of a small dog making it twice the size of In the depths of the Eastern Arc Africa, has kept the secret of this any previously dis- Mountains in Tanzania one of Dr. small mammal safe for a long time. Francesco Rovero’s automatic camer- So what do we know of this new covered elephant as snapped shut on something quite critter? extraordinary. Dr. Rovero “knew shrews.” he’d never seen anything quite like The sengi is more closely related it!” to the elephant than the shrew and has a specialised ‘feeding trunk’. It For more information on the sengi The giant elephant shrew, or sengi, is uses this trunk to rummage around, visit: about the size of a small dog mak- hunting in the undergrowth for www.sciencedaily.com/ ing it twice the size of any previ- small insects and bugs.The sengi is releases/2008/02/080201085759.htm ously discovered elephant shrews. monogamous and rears up to three Given its size and vivid colouration young in a nest crafted by digging a of orange and purple it may seem hole in the jungle floor. The hole is surprising that this creature has then covered with a thick leaf layer, remained hidden from explorers for which proves to be a very comfort- so long. In fact, it has been 126 years able, warm shelter from the unfor- since the last discovery of a new giving climate of the mountains. But species of this genus has been made. the sengi bears the brunt of nature’s The Udzungwa region, renowned forces silently. Indeed, Dr. F. Rovero for being one of the densest and reported that peculiarly this animal most mysterious jungle habitats in makes no noise of any sort! 29 Reviews TV and Radio

Dr. Tatiana’s Sex Advice to All Creation Attenborough’s By Olivia Judson ten weeks of copulation or a golden swan song is far potto terrified at the sight of her A review by Agata Staniewicz mate’s spine-covered penis. from cold blooded Stanford and Oxford graduate Olivia Anna Perman reviews Judson is now an evolutionary biolo- David Attenborough’s gist at Imperial College of London. Her book, ‘Dr. Tatiana’s Sex Advice latest series: to All Creation’ is a collection of let- ters to the wise Dr. Tatiana from all Life in Cold Blood kind of creatures with strange sexual problems, such as a twenty-seven- year-old African elephant worrying about his sudden sex obsession and green penis. Her replies are both funny and informative, explain- ing that the elephant’s situation is completely normal – “a classic case of SINBAD: Single Income, No Babe, Absolutely Desperate,” and female elephants usually prefer much older males. The green penis is also just one of the symptoms of musth, when “the amount of testosterone in male’s body rises up to fifty times the normal level, causing constant dribble of “Dear Dr. Tatiana, strong-smelling urine.”

“I’m a marine iguana and I’m ap- “Creatures with strange palled by the behavior of the young sexual problems, such as a iguanas of today: I keep encounter- For many of our generation, David ing groups of youths masturbating twenty-seven-year-old Attenborough’s nature documenta- at me. It’s revolting. I’m sure they African elephant worrying ries were what kindled our interest in the natural world. As a child who didn’t dare act this way in Darwin’s about his sudden sex time. How can I make them stop? liked nothing more than reading fic- obsession and green penis.” tion, it was ‘Life in the Freezer’ that Disgusted in the Galápagos” first brought me from the world of The book certainly is well-researched the imagination, to the fascinating People answering questions in the and full of amazing, surprising and world around me. And what makes sex-advice column usually don’t sometimes truly scary facts that will it even better, is knowing that this encourage (or approve) promiscuity, leave you in sheer amazement at the excitement is something Attenbor- incest or cannibalism. This might be variety of sexual strategies aiding the ough shares. In the behind the scenes because they rarely receive questions survival of the species. That, together footage, Attenborough is almost form a European praying mantis that with the brilliant format of advice- child-like with excitement when he has discovered she can only enjoy for-the-lovelorn make this “definite finally sees the smallest chameleon sex after biting off her mate’s head, a guide to the evolutionary biology of in the world. His passion is why his stick insect bored to death with sex” a must read for any life scientist. programmes are so inventive, 30 The Missing Link

Reviews TV and Radio

Researched by Agata Staiewicz and Ariane Whitehead

engaging and always visually stun- But after picking holes in Attenbor- ning. None more so than his latest ough’s scientific credentials to our TV Highlights and sadly, his last series ‘Life in Cold hearts content, you have to wonder Blood’. Watching it made me unable if we aren’t missing the point. Have to think or say anything but “Wow, we become so serious about studying that’s amazing!” for a whole hour it, that we cannot just sit back and Coast: Severn Estuary to Aberyst- together. watch the world in all its glory? So I wyth for one plan to unhook the pedant in BBC2, Saturday 1 March, 8pm And yet, despite being largely my brain for just an hour and watch responsible for the enthusiasm of a ‘Life in Cold Blood’ in ignorant bliss, Life In Cold Blood: Armoured generation in the natural world – he just like we used to when we didn’t Giants is often seen by the scientific com- think we knew better. And first thing BBC1, Monday 3 March, 9pm. munity as distinctly unhelpful to Tuesday morning I will go back to Repeated Sunday the progression of work in this field. my study and cynicism, with a dedi- Although his films are interesting, cation refuelled by that part of me Horizon: Are We Alone? they do not tell us anything we do that first watched and marvelled at BBC 2, Tuesday 4th March, not already know. In fact, sometimes the wonders of life going on around 9-9.50pm he simplifies things down to the us. point of misrepresentation. At least Coast: Wales - The Gower, Rock- one Professor in the School of Bio- ‘Life in Cold Blood’ is on Mondays at pools and Dylan Thomas logical Sciences will have spat out his 9.00 on BBC1 and now available on BBC2, Wednesday 5th March, machine coffee in disgust at the very DVD. 2:45pm title of Attenborough’s new series: ‘Life in Cold Blood’. Because ‘cold The Money Programme – The Money Programme: The Great blood’ is such a misleading name for The Great Green Fuel Green Fuel Gamble? organisms whose body temperature BBC2, Friday 14th March, Gamble? 7-7.30pm changes with their environment. And BBC 2, Friday 14 March, Attenborough probably shouldn’t perpetuate this mistake. But then, 7.00-7.30pm Nick Barker’s Weird Creatures 2 ‘Life as an Ectotherm’ just doesn’t Animal Planet, Wednesdays, 9pm; have the same ring to it now does it? www.bbc.co.uk/moneyprogramme Repeated Thursdays, 2pm

I think what grates most with those Top Dog 2: “Like it or not, biofuels are coming of a scientific mind is not so much Animal Planet, Fridays, from 14th to a petrol pump near you soon. what Attenborough misses out, but March, 8pm They are being touted by govern- the overall tone of many of his state- ments, oil companies and car manu- ments. In ‘Life in Cold Blood’, there Coming up in May: Springwatch facturers as a green solution to peo- are constant references to animals ple’s fuel problems. In two years, being caring parents, or loving mates. five per cent of all the fuel sold in I could go on for pages about how Radio Highlights the UK will be biofuel. However, flawed this way of thinking is, but I critics say it’s actually environmen- will be brief. To anthropomorphise tally damaging and growing crops World on the Move animals like this is the language of such as corn and sugar cane for fuel BBC Radio 4, Tuesdays, 11am fiction and has no place in a scientific diverts land from food production. documentary. Not only is it danger- The Money Programme meets the The Best of Natural History ous to talk in such a way, but really businesses and consumers who BBC Radio 4, weekly podcast unnecessary. What grips us about have invested in the so-called green these documentaries is not what fuel and investigates what’s at stake Planet Under Threat: animals might think or feel, but sheer in the battle for a greener future.” BBC Radio 4, Mondays, 9pm amazement at what they do and are.

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Across: 3. Crick 5. Tsetse . Saccharomyces 7. Tower 8. Iodine 9. Bumblebee bat 11. Chitin 12. Alternative 14. Protein 16. Nitrogen 17. Apoptosis 18. Compound 19. Yeast Down: 1 Descent 2 Passeriforms 4 Cretaceous 8 Interference 10 elegans 13 Entomology 15 Linnaeus Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia is not actually the fear of a talking hippopotamus but ironically is the

fear of long words.

Answers:

A group of cockroaches is called an intrusion. an called is cockroaches of group A •

talking hippopotamuses. talking taxonomy’

Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia is the fear of of fear the is Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia • modern of ‘father the ******** Carl 15

Skin is the largest organ of the human body. human the of organ largest the is Skin • The study of insects of study The 13

than those flying alone. flying those than Caenorhabditis ******* Caenorhabditis

Birds flying in a V formation have lower heart rates rates heart lower have formation V a in flying Birds • – study to worm favourite Scientists’ 10

object larger than a beach ball beach a than larger object The ‘i’ in RNAi in ‘i’ The 8

Despite their huge size, Blue Whales cannot swallow an an swallow cannot Whales Blue size, huge their Despite • The ‘K’ in K-T extinction K-T in ‘K’ The 4

Five facts, one is false, can you guess which one? which guess you can false, is one facts, Five Perching birds Perching 2

Darwin

By Tara Macey Tara By Charles by book Man’ of ******* ‘The 1

DOWN

Fact or Fiction? or Fact

Unicellular fungi Unicellular 19

Eye unique to arthropods to unique Eye 18

Programmed cell death cell Programmed 17 !

Most abundant atmospheric gas atmospheric abundant Most 16

20 or more amino acids amino more or 20 14

*********** Splicing *********** 12

Component of fungal cell walls cell fungal of Component 11

(9,3)

world the in mammal smallest The 9

roid gland roid

thy- the in needed element Chemical 8

A group of giraffes of group A 7

belongs

yeast’ ‘Brewer’s which to genus The 6

Fly that transmits trypanosomes transmits that Fly 5

*****

and Watson - DNA of Discoverers 3

ACROSS

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Th e i s s i n g i n k

Issue 9 March 2008

The Lava Lamp Conundrum - how does it work?

Also Inside:

Dr. Arthur Goldsmith’s début column

Organic Farming vs Bio-fuel Memory and Suggestibility

James Probert relives his heinous hyena experiences in Cockatiels and Cocktails

Hannah Welham discusses ‘green’ politics