The Challenge of Recreation Planning: Methodology and Factors to Consider

THE CHALLENGE OF RECREATION PLANNING: METHODOLOGY AND FACTORS TO CONSIDER

by RONALD B. ULECK, Research Associate, Department of For- estry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. This paper is adapted from a Ph.D. dissertation, "Guidelines for preparing development plans for public resource-based outdoor recreation areas." submitted to New York State University College of Forestry at Syracuse Uni- versity, Syracuse, N. Y.

ABSTRACT. The proposed methodology of planning is a description, explanation, and justification of the methods or techniques that a planner should use in preparing outdoor recreation development plans. The sequence of steps required is described.

INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE In this paper, public outdoor recreation development planning is defined as a ra- UTDOOR RECREATION planning tional and systematic process, integrated 0 is a broad and complex activity. This with all the important social and physical paper deals with one aspect of that factors, for determining appropriate action activity: development planning - that is, in developing the natural resource to pro- planning of the natural resource base to vide outdoor recreational opportunities.* change its potential capacity for providing recreational opportunities. The primary The guidelines were developed from orientation is toward providing guidelines several sources. General planning theory, for planning an individual outdoor recrea- methodology, methods, and techniques for tion area or complex such as a state, county, various kinds of planning (e.g., urban, en- or regional park. The planning guidelines terprise, and military) were reviewed, inte- are developed for large resource-based grated, and adapted to fanning public recreation complexes located in a ma1 recreation. Literature on a phases of out- enviro,nment and developed primarily door recreation planning (theoretical and around an extensive natural resource base applied studies, and recreation proposals that, in itself, provides opportunities for and plans) proved to be valuable sources outdoor recreational activitv.' of information, since they are directly re- The primary focus is on public recrea- lated to the subject of this paper. Related tion areas, although the guidelines can be subjects such as forestry and land-resource applied (with minor adjustments) to pri- economics, economic growth and develop- vate areas. The principal audience addressed ment, consumer economics, and decision is the group of rsons who prepare devel- theory, were also used to develop the opment plans public outdoor recrea- guidelines. tion areas. The guidelines are broad enough The guidelines are designed primarily as to be applicable to a wide variety of natural a methodological tool for planning, and resource bases. thus are not a detailed presentation of the various methods and techniques that can Figure 1.-Steps in the planning process. be and are used in planning.

( 1. Awareness of Need I- -- .. -. .. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY

The proposed methodology of planning 7. Smarite Existing Situation 7 is a description, explanation, and justification of the methods or techniques that a planner should use to prepare outdoor recreation development plans. Methods function to help the planner ---.. and Goals -1 form concepts and hypotheses, make obser- I vations and measurements, build models I 5. Uc:ailed Statenenr and Scope of and theories, provide explanations, and the PFoblern make predictions. Methodology aids the planner in understanding and undertaking the process of scientific inquiry by which he develops a plan3 The planning process is an organized sequence of steps requiring I 7. Uake Forecasts Contingent On I Alternative Proposals I conscious and continuous action. I I The methodology described here is + !. . I I oriented toward the planner whose con- 8. E-lUete adRank Alt=r"a"ve t--.~-~ Proposals I cern lies primarily with preparing a master I + I1 overall plan that takes into account all I t 9. C~OESFBest Pro?osal 1 major social and physical factors of out- -It door recreation development planning. i These factors are intimately related to the + 10. P~paremaster Plar. of Best methodology of planning. Examples of P-oposel where and how some of these factors fit into the methodology are given in the planning steps outlined in this paper. The master planner shodd not be bur- dened with the "nitty-gritty" concerns of specialists (e.g., the color to paint picnic tables, the composition of materials for road pavement, or recreation activity pro- gramming for weekend campers), for these tasks are performed only after a master plan has been prepared. He must, however, recognize that extent to which The planner may enter the process at these concerns affect the deveIopment of any of several steps. If the planner's task the master plan. encompasses all the steps in the process, he ma begin with step 1. planningf some- one else in t Ke political decision-making I STEPS IN THE PLANNING PROCESS4 hierarchy (e.g., the director of the agency within which the planner is employed) Figure 1 shows an organized sequence of has actually initiated the planning process steps in the Planning process. Heavy arrows to the point of semng goals for recreation (+) show the order in which the steps development (see steps 1 to 4), the planner, are performed. Dashed arrows (- - +) because he must frequently accept the show some of the major feedback linkages directives of his superiors, would begin his between steps, that is, interdependencies analysis with a detailed statement and between each step and preceding steps. scope of the problem (step 5). In situations where each step in the planning process is 2. Inventories of the existing natural and performed by different individuals or man-made features of the planned agencies, the importance of performing all recreation area. the steps in figure 1 in an organized and 3. The supply of existing recreational op integrated sequence cannot be overem- portunities on the planned recreation phasized. area. 4. The supply of recreational and other Step 0. Collect and Evaluate Data opportunities of other recreation areas and Reduce Them to Usable and and the local community. Meaningful Fwms 5. The methods for increasing the supply The use of adequate data is an absolute of recreational opportunities on the necessity for sound planning. But data planned area. frequently are not available, coordinated, 6. The consumption of recreational op- up-to-date, or in usable forms. In addition, portunities - present consumption lev- data related to personal values are difficult els, future consumption levels, and to interpret. models to determine consumption Sources of available data are many and levels. varied. In addition to data generated and 7. Supply-consumption relations. possessed by the planning agency itself 8. Land-use patterns surrounding the (e.g., from household surveys, on-site sur- planned recreation area. veys, and inventories of the supply of recreational opportunities), many other in- 9. Site-planning data. formational (data) sources exist. 10. The impacts of recreation develop Federal, regional state, and local gov- ments on local and regional communi- ernmental agencies have a broad base of ties-economic impacts on the private data-for example, that possessed by census sector and on local governments, im- bureaus and agencies concerned with eco- pacts on other recreation areas, and nomic development, transportation, re- social impacts on local communities. search and development, social services, 11. The relations between recreation de- soil conservation, civil engineering, and velopment planning and management parks and recreation. Quasi-governmental planning-management to control rec- agencies such as public utilities almost al- reationists' use of the planned area, ways have information on the spatial dis- management of all the natural and tribution and socio-economic characteris- man-made features of the area, water tics of local populations. Information about resource management, promotional specific aspects of recreation planning can policies, pubIic relations, etc. also be acquired from colleges and uni- 12. Data on financial planning. versities and their cooperative extension Data should be evaluated for their ac- services. Private businesses in recreation and curacy and importance and should be in- related industries can also provide valuable terpreted and reduced to usable and information. Planning documents for other meaningful forms that will faditate recreation areas can provide insights into pm- paring the master plan. Data mtbe in- the planning problem at hand. tegrated into and wed throughout the Many types of data and the relationships planning process. among them prove relevant for planning. Data are needed for all the major social and physical factors to consider, in outdoor Step I. Awareness of NZaed recreation development planning. The fol- The actual planning process begins with lowing list identifies the types of data an awareness of a need for planning. This needed: need uhimately stems from a community's6 1. The institutional and social semng of dissatisfaction with existing and planned the planning process. recreational opportunities. That is, the community has a "felt difficulty" or "need" 3. To provide an objective look at prob- based upon the difference between the lems that had previously been marters existing situation and some ideil situation. of conjecture. At this step in the planning process, the need is frequently not clearly stated. But a 4. To give initial direction to the whole need is expressed to the planning process. community or by 5. To identify the problem as potentially or organizational actionable, that is, to formulate possible of course, may be the first person to rec- and realizable solutions to the problem. ognize such a need. 6. To postulate future courses .of action on the planning problem. Step 2. Summarize Existing ~itudtion A general summary and history of the Step 4. Establish and Evaluate existing situation provides the background Values and Goals8 for a clear awareness of the need for plan- The process of establishing and evaluat- ning and for an explicit statement of the ing values and goals cannot be taken too problem. Some factors that should be con- lightly, for this step sets the stage for suc- sidered are: community as irations, the ceeding steps in the planning process. Val- supply and consumption o !' recreational ues and goals, whether. considered explicitly opportunities, and a broad framework of or not, determine the overall direction of unrefined data pertaining to the planned the planning process once a general aate- complex and to the community, The sum- ment of the problem is expressed. mary and history of the existing situation Values can be expressed as moral state- also provide a feedback of the impacts of ments ("A recreation area 'ought to' current plans and policies, helpl to initiate provide recreational opportunities for the formal planning process, and are nec- everyone"); preference statements ("Plan essary for setting the planning problem in A 'is preferred to' Plan B") ;goal statements context. ("Providing recreational opportunities for persons of all age groups 'is the goal of' Step 3. General Statement of thd Problem Plan A"); or criteria statements ("For choosin~ between Plan A and Plan B. A general statement of the problem U serves many purposes. It presents the basic choose the plan that minimizes financial considerations and concepts underlying costs to local governments"). Recognize recreation development, enumerates con- that values are intimately related to facts clusions that were previously stated as (descriptions of what things are). That is, working references, expresses judgments values and facts are affected by each other. and suggestions for periodic an 1, construc- Requisitesg are a category of values that tive review, and formulates the planning specify limits to goals and the means by problem as a basis for the master plan.6 In which goals may be realized and indicate other words, this step provides a clear what necessary conditions must be met in overview of the whole planning problem. order for plans to be accepted. Requisites More specifically, the purposes of a can be expressed in terms of feasibility (the general statement of the problem are:? fiscal, legal, and social conditions needed to implement a plan) and immediacy (the 1. To recognize the discrepancy between priority assigned to a plan in relation to ideal and existing conditions. existing social conditions). When specified 2. To identify the overall pdoblem and levels of goals are to be attained, requisites provide a broad overview of the social are called constraints. and physical factors to be investigated- Values of individual persons are impor- e.g., the consumption and supply of tant for planning. But the planner operates recreational opportunities and the im- within the framework of widely h&l pub- - pacts of recreation development on local lic values such as conservation, preservation, communities and the natural resource. and development of natural resourcesto best serve the public's long- and short-range recreation development are: to maximize interests in providing recreational oppor- efficiency in allocating natural resources for tunities. Notice that these three values may recreation, to maximize regional growth conflict with or complement one another. and stability, to provide recreational op- To facilitate choice among values and portunities for specific groups of people combinations of values, the conflicting and in the community, to maximize total use of complementary natures of values must be the natural resource for recreation, and to reconciled. This can be accomplished by preserve the natural resource for future structuring a value hierarchy, a list of value generations. The goals of the plan should priorities of an entire value system. To be established in a s stematic manner. First, form a value hierarchy, values need to be define the scope orconcern and responsi- expressed in rather specific terms that give bility of the planner. Justify why some clues to their source, history, and relevance. goals are accepted while others are re- When values are conflicting, that is, jected. Carefully choose goals that reflect when some of one value has to be given up the thinking of the community for which or traded off for another value, a value the plan is prepared. hierarchy can point to, reduce, or even Second, outline the range of choice of eliminate inconsistencies among values in goals. Establish ultimate ends to which pursuit of a set of goals. Wherever possible, planned action will be directed, such as the value hierarchies should be structured to ultimate end to maximize community wel- provide a basis for establishing goals. Stat- fare. Set out various goal chains that are ing values explicitly and ordering them in means to achieve ultimate ends. terms of priority provides a framework for Third, identify the relationships among their appraisal and lends to their being different goal chains. Identif which goal transformed into objectively measurable chains (1) are means to acK ieving other goal statements. goal chains-e.g., goals to limit accessibility A goal is an aim toward which planned to a recreation area may be a means of action may be directed. Goals should imply preserving the natural features of the area; commitment and reflect careful study, for (2) are conflicting and complementary- they determine action rp.osals and the e.g., preservation and development goals entire course of the p anmng endeavor. may be conflicting, while the goals of pres- Furthermore, it is important that determina- ervation and conservation may be comple- tion of goals assume equal importance with mentary; and (3) are more applicable to the ways in which they are to be attained. certain levels of the planning problem than Goals are dichotomous in that they can others-e.g., conservation goals may be be expressed as either ends or means, de- more applicable to long-range planning pending on how responsibilities and con- than are goals for developing picnic areas cerns are specialized and the point of view to accommodate a sudden increase in- the adopted at a given time. Ends are aspira- consumption of picnicking opportunities. tions for preferred states. Means are the Fourth, goals must be evaluated to facili- ways in which ends are achieved. In any tate choice among many different goals. given goal chain (where each goal is a Each means within a given goal chain means to achieve higher level ends), a goal should be evaluated in terms of how it is an end when viewed from below in the affects progress toward the highest end chain and a means when viewed from goal in that chain in view of the land, labor, above. To illustrate a typical goal chain, capital, and managerial resources available the goal "To limit the number of persons and in view of recognized constraints. using a park at any one time" is an end in Goal chains must also be evaluated rela- itself, but it is a means to "Conserve natural tive to each other. This implies structuring resources in the park by limiting use" a priority ranking of goal chains in terms which, in turn, is a means to "Achieve of how each goal chain affects progress maximum community welfare." toward achieving ultimate ends. Structur- Examples of realistic and explicit goal ing a priority ranking requires a clear statements (that may be ends or means) for understanding of the ultimate ends that goal chains serve and of the relative value the entire park for all age groups of assigned to ultimate ends. people" gives some indication of: (1) Several independent ultimate ends can constraints-no one type of opportunity act as time constraints on goal chains that nor age group dominates the plan; (2) serve them. That is, goal chkns cannot benefits-recreational opportunities will always simultaneously serve many ulti- be provided for people of all ages, and mate ends. For example, a goal chain de- all land resources will be used; and (3) signed to "provide the maximum total costs-possibly no part of the park will number of recreational opportunities" may be "preserved-providing recreational effectively serve the ultimate end of "pro- opportunities for all age groups may be viding recreational opportunities for all more expensive than providing only a potential recreationists," but it may not few types of opportunities for selected simultaneously achieve progress towards age groups. the ultimate end of "providing the maxi- 3. Combine related goals to give specific mum number of recreational opportunities direction to each part of the overall for certain kinds of recreationists such as plan. fishermen." 4. state short-range goals (within the Choose the means within each goal chain context of long-range goals) whose that best satisfy the end of the chain. effects on the community are immedi- Choose the goal chains that contribute ately apparent. most to the ultimate ends o f the community. Given alternative goal chains Step 5. Detailed Statement and (means) for achieving a given ultimate Scope of the Problem end, choose the goal chain that (1) most closely satisfies the ultimate end, (2) is Once Step 4 is performed in view of a most consistent with other goal chains, (3) general statement of the problem, a detailed is most manageable in terms of on-the- statement and scope of the problem can be ground operations, (4) minimizes financial outlined. In this step the planner decides and social costs, and (5) has the greatest what overview of the planning problem he likelihood of achieving the ultimate end. should accept; that is, the scope of the One remaining aspect of setting goals is problem. Here the planner is concerned to make goals operational; that is, to present with such matters as means-ends relation- them in a manner acceptable to the com- ships, selection and use of data, recreation- munity and in a way that will enable suc- ists to be accommodated, recreational and ceeding steps in the planning process to other activities affected by development of functionally utilize them. Operational im- the natural resource, agencies involved in plies that progress toward -goals can be the planning process, determination of the measured objectively and that all costs and planning region, and time horizons (short- benefits of striving toward goals can be or long-range) to which planning is di- foreseen and estimated. Goals that lack op- rected. Each of these matters is important are difficult to communicate in a detailed statement of the problem. The eradona?intelligent y. , following discussion on the planning region and time horizons will serve to illustrate Some ways to make goals operational are: how these matters are considered in a 1. Make goal statements clear And specific detailed statement of the problem. -e.g., use "The goal is to, develop a Planning should be somewhat regional variety of recreational opportunities in scope. That is, it should consider not throughout the park for all age groups only the recreation area itself, but also the of people" rather than "The goal is to community and environment surrounding develop recreational opporrunities." the recreation area. The planning region 2. State goals in terms that will indicate can change spatially or geographically over constraints, benefits, and costs. For ex- time. But the natural resources around ample, the goal "To develop a variety which the planning process centers (e.g., of recreational opportunities throughout wooded areas for camping and surface waters for fishing) mst be identified and lands, and mountainous lands; (4) relations defined to give clear direction to planning with local communities, such as the amount for the general design and spatial arrange- of private property to be acquired for ment of recreational opportunities on the public use; and (5) the management prac- recreation area. tices required after the area is developed. Explicit statements of the time horizons of various parts of a plan are important. Step 7. Make Forecasts Contingent on Long- and short-range aspects of the plan Alternative Proposals must be coordinated. A certain amount of Before alternative proposals can be evalu- ffexibility in the plan over time (that is, ated, forecasts contingent on the alternative from the immediate to the distant future) proposals are required. These forecasts de- should be included; for changes in values, pend on what actions each proposal speci- goals, and the social environment may re- fies as well as on forecasts of autonomous quire changes (even major ones) in time factors such as population growth and the horizons of individual aspects of the over- general level of economic activity in the all plan. national economy. Constraints identified in the evaluation of alternative proposals (see Step 6. Outline Alternative Proposak step 8) should be imposed only after pro- This step is a synthesis of all the differ- posals are identified in step 6. ent considerations required for solution of Forecasts of alternative proposals should the problem stated in step 5. The purpose include all relevant aspects that will aid in of this step is to outline the different ways evaluating the proposals and in choosing a recreation area can be developed in view the best one. For example, forecast the of the goals, constraints, and resources likely relationships between the con- identified in preceding steps. sumption and supply of recreational All relevant major proposals10 or alter- opportunities, the effects of a recreation native courses of action, including a "no- development on land-use patterns, and the action" alternative," should be outlined. If management practices required for each the planner limits himself to only one pro- proposal. posal, he may overlook other possible solutions to the planning problem. In some Step 8. Evaluate and Rank cases, however, only one way to solve the Alternative Proposals problem may be feasible, in which case Evaluating and ranking alternative pro- only one proposal is outlined. posals is a distinctly separate step in the The financial and time costs of preparing planning process. The purpose of this step more than one proposal may be limiting is to introduce greater rationality into the factors. These costs can be held to a mini- planning process in order to choose among mum by considering only the most im- proposals in an effort to maximize the portant aspects of each proposal and by attainment of ends stated in step 4. Because limiting the refinement of data and un- of the significance of this ste for the needed detail in the analysis. planner, the following paragrapE s include Each proposal should, however, include a brief discussion of some of the major enough detail to enable evaluation of its methods and techniques that can be used major costs and benefits (see step 8). That to estimate the benefits and costs of recrea- is, each proposal should contain statements tion development proposals. on such matters as: (1) the physical-spatial Methods for evaluating proposals are design of the recreation area, such as the designed primarily to compare and rank number and location of campsites and the alternatives, not to test their absolute de- extent and distribution of the transporta- sirability. If none of several proposals tion network; (2) the recreationists ac- proves to be highly desirable, the planner commodated-e.g., campers and fishermen; may need to retrace step 6 and outline (3) the natural resources used in develop- additional proposals. If no additional pro- ing the area-e.g., surface waters, riparian posal is satisfactory, the problem should be restated (step 3) and values and goals environment and the social system that a should be re-evaluated (step 4). recreation development affects and because Criteria for the evaluation of each pro- the structure of the social system itself is posal include the following: (1) consist- difficult to determine. ency of the overall proposal in terms of For example, a major recreation develop- the integration of component parts; (2) ment project is likely to alter the prices and internal consistency of each part of the outputs of many different goods and serv- proposal; ( 3 ) general feasibility of pro- ices throughout a small, local economy. In posed ,actions; (4) resource requirements; such a situation, all the effects (in terms of (5) anticipated effects on the natural re- costs and benefits) of the recreation devel- soum, the local community, and the rec- opment on the social structure of the com- reating population; (6) availability of social munity, on recreation-related industries, and financial support; and (7) the degree and on other productive activities may be to which different actions achieve stated difficult to estimate. goals. Furthermore, use of cost-benefit analysis Costs and benefits can be expressed in for evaluating investments in the public several ways, depending on how goals are sector can be accomplished only if the stated. Some terms in which costs and following conditions are met: (1) barriers benefits can be expressed are: (1) tangible to the flow of funds and resources are and expressed in monetary terms-e.g., the minimal; (2) costs and benefits can be dollar cost of constructing facilities; (2) determined at market prices; (3) no ex- tangible and expressed in quantitative, non- ternal economies or diseconomies are pres- monetary terms-e.g., the number of people ent; and (4) no other external effects are that can be accommodated by a picnic created by the investments, such as social area; and (3) intangible-e.g., the personal externalities in consumption (the notion satisfaction derived from a recreational that outdoor recreation contributes to, or experience. is essential for, a well-balanced personal life Identifying and evaluating the costs and that makes better and more productive benefits of a recreation development out- citizens) that tend to enhance the welfare lined in alternative proposals can be accom- of the Nation as a whole. plished by using many different procedures These four conditions limit the apphca- and techniques1' A- brief description of bility of cost-benefit analysis to public three techniques - traditional cost-benefit recreation investments. In the public sector, analysis, the "balance sheet of develop- social costs and benefits (which are not ment," and the "goals-achievement" ap- easily measured by market prices) and proach-for determining costs and benefits intangibles (e.g., personal satisfaction) are and the problems inherent in each tech- important; and a minor importance is fre- nique will illustrate how alternative pro- quently assigned to economic efficiency. posals may be evaluated. Additionally, in order that cost-benefit Traditional cost-benefit analysis is de- analysis maximize economic welfare, one rived from the theory of the firm. Costs must assume that the existing income dis- and benefits are usually expressed in mone- tribution is "best" and that costs are borne tary terms. Some problems are inherent in so as to maintain that distribution. The first the use of traditional cost-benefit analysis assumption is questionable (but neverthe- for determining the costs and benefits of less made anyway) and the second is not public outdoor recreation development pro- likely true.13 posals. Cost-benefit analysis, then, approximates Cost-benefit analysis is most applicable to maximization of public welfare only for situations where all costs and benefits of a those activities that can be priced in a given action can be identified and estimated. market system. The analysis applies best All costs and benefits of a large public to ranking proposals that are measured in resource-based outdoor recreation area the same costs and benefits. To choose sometimes cannot be identified, largely be- among proposals, costs and benefits for cause of the changing name of the natural each proposal are put in a ratio, and the proposal that has the lowest cost/benefit represent progress touard goals and costs ratio or the highest benefit/cost ratio is re resent retrogression from goals. The chosen. va Pue of each cost and benefit is expressed A variant of cost-benefit analvsis. "the i' in terms of each goal, and, where possible, balance sheet of development," is another the same units of measurement are used for technique for evaluating costs and bene- each goal. fits.14 In this technique, all "good" and The final product for the goals-achieve- "bad" consequences of pro osed actions ment approach is a "goals-achievement are compared and all bene f!ts and costs matrix." A typical goals-achievement ma- with respect to the social and natural en- trix for three alternative proposals, each vironments are considered. A "balance having one goal chain designed to maxi- sheet" is constructed which distinguishes 0 mize the same ultimate end, is shown in monetary and non-monetary costs and table 1. Here I, 11, and I11 are descriptions benefits and identifies the sectors (e.g., of the highest goals in the goal chains for public and private) that bear those costs proposals 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The goal and benefits. of each proposal is assigned a relative A drawback of this technique, like cost- weight, which is derived from the priority benefit analysis, is that it does not always ranking established in step 4. The groups enable evaluating proposals that incorpo- of people, institutions, land resources, etc. rate a diversitv of actions and that are de- affected by goals I, 11, and 111 are identified signed to satigfy many independent goals. by a, b. . . . e. These grou s are assigned a Proposals must have common grounds for r6lative weight derived km a prioriry evaluation. Goals must be well-defined and ranking similar to that established for their desirabilitv and worth must be as- goals. The groups may be combined in any sured. The "balince sheet" technique, how- meaningful manner to show differential ever, has a broader perspective than incidences of costs and benefits. The letters traditional cost-benefit analysis because it A, B, . . . are costs and benefits expressed does not rely so heavily on monetary costs in monetary units, non-monetary units, or and benefits. qualitative states (e.g., the amount of per- Another technique for evaluating costs sonal satisfaction derived from recreational and benefits of alternative proposals is the experiences). "goals-achievement" approach.15 Its key elements are the weighting of goals and Costs and benefiti' are recorded for each groups effected (e.g., types of recreation- goal for each group affected. A dash (-) ists, the public sector, and the private sec- indicates that no cost or benefit would tor) that were outlined in the scope of the accrue if the proposal were put into prac- problem. tice. Note that a group may derive both Costs and benefits are always defined in costs and benefits with respect to a par- terms of goal achievement, that is, benefits ticular goal. For example, under proposal

Table 1 .-A typical goals-achievemenf matrix Goal Proposal 1 Proposal 2 Proposal 3 Description I I1 I11 Relative weight 2 3 5 Incidence Rel. Cost Benefit Rel. Cost Benefit Rel. Cost Benefit weight we~ght weight Group a 1 D 4 E - M Group b 3 5 - Q - Group c 1 H - F - 4 - Group d 2 - 'F. Group e 1 -- -K U 5 - -P Z X B Z 1, group a (say campers) may be provided process, for it represents the culmination of with more campsites on a given tract of the efforts of all previous steps. land (benefit D), while simultaneously The master plan is a statement of willful incurring a loss of privacy due to the close intention that sets forth accepted goals and spacing required for the development of the ways those goals are to be achieved. additional campsites on that tract of land The master plan systematically outlines the (cost A). actions that are to be taken in acquiring For certaifl goals, namely I and 111, 2 land, in designing and constructing facili- indicates that summation of the costs and ties, and in structuring human behavioral benefits is meaningful and useful. That is, patterns associated with the development total costs and benefits of proposals 1 and plan. 3 are expressed in similar terms. Thus these The master plan need not (and probably two proposals can be evaluated relative to should not) contain all the details of means- each other, especially when all costs and end identification. The plan should be benefits are expressed in quantitative units somewhat flexible to accommodate change such as dollars or numbers of campsites. with a minimum of cost and effort. And it The goals-achievement approacheis help- should serve as an instrument for evaluating ful for identifying and comparing costs and overseeing the actual physical develop and benefits of alternative proposals, espe- ment of the natural resource base to judge cially the explicit listing of costs and bene- progress toward stated goals. fits for each goal and each incidence group. But several problems are inherent in the approach. As mentioned above, the summa- Step I I. Implement the Master Pkn tion of costs and benefits can be difficult or Some of the important aspects of imple- even impossible. The whole approach menting the master plan are: (1) organizing breaks down when relative weights for the necessary personnel and resources into goals and the groups affected cannot ob- a well-formed field organization that will jectively be determined. The technique actually do the on-site development of the does not explicitly provide for or register recreation area, (2) engaging the necessary interaction and interdependence among political powers and financial resources to goals. The goals-achievement matrix be- support the plan, and (3) appraising the comes somewhat unwieldy when many field organization in terms of its actions proposals are included and when each pro- and the consequences of is actions to meet posal has more than one goal chain. And planning goals. like the other evaluation techniques discussed above, costs and benefits can be Field work on implementing the master difficult to determine, even in quantitative plan sometimes uncovers problems that terms reflecting goal achievement. were not recognized or anticipated in step 10. Some of these problems may have been Step 9. Choose the Best Proposal overlooked in step 10, others may arise because of changes in the techniques for After each alternative proposal is evalu- on-site development between rhe time the ated, the best one should be chosen. The master plan was prepared and the time it is best proposal is the one that most closely actually implemented, and still other prob- achieves, in terms of maximizing benefits lems ma arise because of inaccurate esti- and minimizing costs and in terms of rec- mates o 7the costs and benefits of develop ognized constraints, the goals set out in ment. step 4. If such problems are minor, appropriate adjustments can be made in the master Step 10. Prepare Master Plan of plan. If problems of implementation re- Best Proposal quire major changes in the design of the Preparation of the master plan designed master plan, retracing the planning process around the best proposal is one of the most from step 9 may be necessary. Step 11, rewarding experiences in the planning however, should not necessarily have to be regenerated beginning with steps 1 to 8 if forward mechanism) in the planning those steps were adequately performed. process presented in this paper lends itself to feedback adjustments. Some feedback Step 12. Replanning mechanisms were discussed in the planning steps above. The following discussion will Replanning is the step that makes the serve to further illustrate these mechanisms. whole planning process continuous and Goal-settin feedback is the mechanism dynamic. In a society where the growth that adjusts Bor new constraints (such as and distribution of the population are changes in financial support) that are ex- changing, where values are changing, ternal to the initial goal-setting step. Feed- where the natural environment is changing, back stemming from changes in values and and where the whole social structure of goals held by society can also influence the society is changing, continuous research on original goals of the plan. Feedback relating and evaluation of planning is needed. Re- to goals also affects values, so in reality planning, then, is a post-construction step values and goals are jointly determined. that essentially provides for the retracing The process of collecting, processing, of any or all steps in the planning process. transmitting, and using data is circular in nature. Analysis of data back and forth between the past, present, and future helps THE PLANNING PROCESS to achieve a balance between stated goals AS A CIRCLE OF INTERDEPENDENCEIb and on - the - ground operating require- The steps in the planning process are ments.17 interdependent. That is, the planning proc- Time horizons in planning also are re- ess is a circle of interdependence incorpo- lated in a circular fashion. Long-range rating both feedback and feedforward goals for the master plan are partly derived between the steps. from shorter-range component plans, and Feedback enables the planner to correct partly shape and direct them. An unfore- for future action in light of past experience. seen problem or opportunity within a Feedback is inherent in all steps where ac- component plan may lead to a modification tions are reviewed, amended, or discarded of the master plan.ls and can stem from the planner himself, Plan revision between steps 9 and 11 and from the local community, and from politi- other revisions in the form of replanning cal decision-makers. (step 12) are other forms of feedback. But The dashed arrows in figure 1 show practical limits to regular revision, such as some, but not all, of these feedback mech- the limitations of time, money, or person- anisms. The sequence of steps (the feed- nel, must be recognized. notes

1. Note that a single park may contain many A. Duerr, GOALSAND VALUES,a chapter in a forth- individual resources such as lakes, mountains, and coming book on forest resource management; (4) wooded areas. George R. Hall, STRATEGY AND ORGANIZATION IN 2. Unless otherwise specified, "planning," "plan," PUBLIC LAND POLICY,Nat. Resources J. 7(2): 162- and "planner" refer to public outdoor recreation 182, 1967; (5) Roger Tippy, PRESERVATIONVALUES development planning, plan, and planner, re- IN RIVER BASIN PLANNING, Nat. Resources J. spectively. 8(2) :259-278, 1968; and (6) R. S. Whaley, MULTI- 3. The dgtinction between "methodology" and PLE USE DECISION MAKING-WHERE DO WE GO FROM "methods" is made clear in: Abraham Kaplan. HERE?,Nat. Resources J. 10(3) :557-565, 1970. THECONDUCT OF INQUIRY. Chandler Publishing Co., 9. For a discussion on requisites, see Hill, op. San Francisco, pp. 18-33. cit., especially p. 22. 4. For outlines and discussions of these steps, 10. A proposal is actually a plan that has at this see: (1) Louis Hamill, THEPROCESS OF MAKING step in the planning process not been accepted or GOOD DECISIONS ABOUT THE USE OF THE ENVIRONMENT rejected by the planner or the community as the OF MAN,Nat. Resources J. 8(2):279-301, 1968; (2) course of action to pursue in developing a recrea- Willard B. Hansen, METROPOLITANPLANNING AND tion complex. THE NEW COMPREHENSIVENESS, J. Amer. Inst. Plan- 11. A "no-action" alternative implies that no ners 34(5):295-302, 1968; (3) Britton Harris, THE action is taken to solve the apparent problem LIMITS OF SClENCE AND HUMANISM IN PLANNING, J. because the statement of the problem in step 5 Amer. Inst. Planners 33 (5) :324-335, 1967; and (4) indicates that no problem really exists or because G. Marion Hinckley, PLANNING-AFIRST STEP IN no proposal can satisfy the goals set out in step 4. RECREATIONAL DEVELOPMENT, In couNn PARKS AND 12. See the discussions and literature cited in RECREATION . . . A BASIS FOR ACTION, Philip Warren, the following selected references: (1) Marion Jr. (ed.), Nat. Assoc. Counties, Washington, D. C., Clawson and Jack L. Knetsch, ECONOMICSOF OUT- and Nat. Recreation Assoc., New York, 1964, pp. DOOR RECREATION, Chaps. 11-"The Value of Land 117-1 18. and Water Resources Used for Recreation," 12- 5. A community refers to the people living to- "Economic Impact of Outdoor Recreation in gether in a given geographical area and includes Local Areas," and 13-"Cost and Investment Con- the entire social and economic structure within siderations in Providing Public Recreation Facili- which those people function. A community may ties" published for Resources for the Future, Inc, be a local town, a county, a state, a geographical by The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1966; (2) region, or even a nation. As used in this paper, a Robert J. Kalter and Lois E. Gosse, OUTDOOR REC- community refers to the community that affects REATION IN NEW YORK STATE: PROJECTIONS OF DE- or is affected by a given recreation development. MAND, ECONOMlC VALUE, AND PRICING EFFECTS FOR THE PERIOD 1970- 1985, Chap. V-"Demand Projec- 6. These purposes are adapted from: Melville tions, Economic Value, and Pricing Effects," N. Y. C. Branch, PLANNING:ASPECTS AND APPLICATIONS, State Coll. Agr. at Cornell Univ., Ithaca, 1970; John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1966, p. 62. (3) Leonard Merewitz, EST~MAT~~NOF RECREA- 7. The following list is derived largely from TIONAL BENEFITS AT SOME SELECTED WATER DEVEL- James Oakwood and Michael Chubb, PLANNING OPMENT SITES IN CALIFORNIA, U.S. Dep. Interior PUBLIC RECREATIONAL BOATING FACILITIES IN Tech. Rep. Washington, D. C., no date; and (4) MICHIGAN. Mich. State Univ. Coll. Agr. and Nat. A. R. Prest and R. Turvey, COST-BENEFITANALYSIS: Resources Dep. Resource Develop. Tech. Rep. A SURVEY,Econ. J. 75 (3) 583-735, 1965. This article 1: 7-20; East Lansing, 1968. surveys cost-benefit analysis techntques m general 8. General discussions especially applicable to and includes references on outdoor recreation and step 4 can be found in the following selected ref- other natural resource developments erences: (1) Paul Davidoff and Thomas A. 13. For a discussion of the public welfare as- Reiner, A CHOICE THEORY OF PLANNING,J. Amer. pects (including the distribution of income) re- Inst. Planners 28(2) : 103-1 15, 1962; Harris, op. cit.; lated to outdoor recreation, see: G. A. Norton, (3) Morris Hill, A GOALS-ACHIEVEMENT MATRIX PUBLICOUmR RECREATION AND RESOURCES AU-0- FOR EVALUATING ALTERNATIVE PLANS, J. Amer. Inst. CATION: A WELFARE APPROACH, Land Econ. 46(4) : Planners 34(1): 19-28, 1968; and (4) Robert C. 413-422, 1970. Young, GOALSAND GQAL-SETTING, J. her. Inst. 14. See: Hill, op. cit. pp. 20-21. Planners 32 (2) :76-85, 1966. 15. The "goals-achievement" approach discussed Selected references relating specifically to values below is adapted from Hill, op. d.pp. 21-28. and oals of recreation and other natural resource devefopments are: ( 1) Ronald Beazley, 16. For a discussion of the planning process as CONSERVA-a circle of interdependence, see Branch, op. cit. TION DECISION-MAKING: A RATIONALIZATION, Nat Resources J. 7(3) :345-360, 1967; (2) S. V. Ciriacy- pp. 303-309. Wantrup, THE ECONOMICS OF ENVIRONMENTAL 17. Adapted from Branch, op. cit. p. 305. POLICY,Land Econ. 47 (1) :36-45, 1971; (3) William 18. Adapted from Branch, op. cit. p. 305.