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Factors Affecting Foraging and Reproductive Success of Kittlitz's

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Factors Affecting Foraging and Reproductive Success of Kittlitz's Factors affecting foraging and reproductive success of Kittlitz’s Plover (Charadrius pecuarius TEMMINCK) at two soda lakes in eastern Rift Valley, Kenya BY OLIVER NASIRWA BSc, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya MSc, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI IN FULFILMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ZOOLOGY 2015 i CONTENTS CONTENTS........................................................................................................ i LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... xi DECLARATION ............................................................................................... xv DEDICATION ................................................................................................. xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................. xv ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... 1 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS ........................................................................ 4 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW .......................... 5 1.1 General introduction ................................................................................ 5 1.2 Waterbirds and habitat quality ................................................................. 5 1.3 Human disturbance .................................................................................. 6 1.4 Ecotourism trend ...................................................................................... 7 1.5 Ecology of the Kittlitz’s Plover .................................................................. 8 1.6 Rationale of the study ............................................................................ 11 1.7 Aim of the study ..................................................................................... 12 1.8 Research questions ............................................................................... 12 1.9 Research objectives .............................................................................. 13 1.10 Research hypothesis ........................................................................... 14 CHAPTER 2: STUDY AREA, MATERIALS AND METHODS .......................... 15 2.1. Study area: general attributes ............................................................... 15 2.1.1 Lake Nakuru ....................................................................................... 15 i 2.1.1.1 Location, altitude and size ............................................................... 15 2.1.1.2 Climatic conditions ........................................................................... 15 2.1.1.3 Drainage, water level and hydrology ................................................ 16 2.1.1.4 Water quality and sediments characteristics .................................... 16 2.1.1.5 Flora and fauna ................................................................................ 18 2.1.1.6 Conservation and land use .............................................................. 19 2.1.1.7 Nature and sources of disturbance .................................................. 20 2.1.2 Lake Elmenteita .................................................................................. 20 2.1.2.1 Location, altitude and size ............................................................... 20 2.1.2.2 Climatic conditions ........................................................................... 21 2.1.2.3 Drainage, water level and hydrology ................................................ 22 2.1.2.4 Water quality and sediment characteristics ...................................... 22 2.1.2.5 Flora and fauna ................................................................................ 22 2.1.2.6 Conservation and land use .............................................................. 24 2.2.0 Materials and methods........................................................................ 24 2.2.1 Assessing the population size and distribution ................................... 24 2.2.2 Bird trapping ....................................................................................... 25 2.2.3 Biometric measurements .................................................................... 27 2.2.4 Measuring foraging rates .................................................................... 27 2.2.5 Mapping nests and hatching success ................................................. 28 2.2.6 Measuring nesting success ................................................................. 30 2.2.7 Measuring human and animal disturbance ......................................... 31 2.2.8 Measuring the abundance of invertebrates as potential food .............. 33 ii CHAPTER 3: POPULATION SIZE, DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENT ......... 35 3.1 Abstract.................................................................................................. 35 3.2 Introduction ............................................................................................ 36 3.3 Materials and methods........................................................................... 37 3.3.1 Counting individuals, nests, eggs and chicks ...................................... 37 3.3.2 Analysis of count data of individuals, nests, eggs and chicks ............. 37 3.4 Results ................................................................................................... 38 3.4.1 Number and distribution of Kittlitz’s Plover at Lakes Nakuru and Elmenteita .................................................................................................... 38 3.4.2 Shoreline characteristics and lengths of the different study section at Lakes Nakuru and Elmenteita ...................................................................... 38 3.4.3 Analysis of shoreline length, characteristics and densities of Kittlitz’s Plover at Lakes Nakuru and Elmenteita ....................................................... 40 3.4.4 Comparisons of Kittlitz’s Plover densities across the different shoreline characteristics of Lakes Elmenteita and Nakuru .......................................... 41 3.4.5 Analysis of Kittlitz’s Plover numbers at Lakes Elmenteita and Nakuru ..................................................................................................................... 42 3.4.6 Analysis of rainfall data at Lakes Nakuru and Elmenteita ................... 48 3.4.7 Relationship between rainfall and Kittlitz’s Plover numbers at Lakes Nakuru and Elmenteita ................................................................................ 50 3.5 Discussion ............................................................................................. 53 iii CHAPTER 4: DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF INVERTEBRATES AS POTENTIAL FOOD OF KITTLITZ’S PLOVER IN LAKES NAKURU AND ELMENTEITA .................................................................................................. 57 4.1 Abstract.................................................................................................. 57 4.2 Introduction ............................................................................................ 58 4.3 Materials and methods........................................................................... 59 4.3.1 Invertebrate sampling ......................................................................... 59 4.3.2 Invertebrate abundance and species richness .................................... 61 4.4 Results ................................................................................................... 62 4.4.1 Species richness, abundance and distribution of invertebrates at Lakes Elmenteita and Nakuru ................................................................................ 62 4.4.1 Species diversity of invertebrates at Lakes Elmenteita and Nakuru ... 65 4.5 Discussion ............................................................................................. 67 CHAPTER 5: FACTORS INFLUENCING FORAGING RATES OF KITTLITZ’S PLOVER AT LAKES NAKURU AND ELMENTEITA ........................................ 69 5.1 Abstract.................................................................................................. 69 5.2 Introduction ............................................................................................ 70 5.3 Materials and methods........................................................................... 70 5.3.1 Assessing Kittlitz’s Plover foraging behaviour in groups ..................... 70 5.3.2 Sampling foraging of focal birds .......................................................... 71 5.4 Results ................................................................................................... 71 5.4.1 Intra and interspecific interactions ...................................................... 71 5.4.2 Resident foraging population .............................................................. 73 iv 5.4.3 Foraging activities of the Kittlitz’s Plover ............................................. 74 5.5 Discussion ............................................................................................. 76 CHAPTER 6: NESTING SUCCESS OF THE KITTLITZ’S PLOVER IN LAKES NAKURU AND ELMENTEITA ......................................................................... 79 6.1 Abstract.................................................................................................
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