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The analysis of mid-nineteenth century men’s outer-garments from a deep ocean site

Crawford, Laurie Casey, Ph.D.

The Ohio State University, 1994

Copyright ©1994 by Crawford, Laurie Casey. All rights reserved.

UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106

THE ANALYSIS OF MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY MEN'S OUTER - GARMENTS FROM A DEEP OCEAN SITE

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By

Laurie Casey Crawford, B.S., M.S.

*****

The Ohio State University 1994

Dissertation Committee : Approved by: Dr. Lucy R. Sibley Dr. Kathryn A. Jakes D r . Gwendolyn S . O' Neal Dr. Richard W. Yerkes

or man of Text and Clothing Copyright Laurie Casey Crawford 1994 To my grandmother and the memory of my grandfather

11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to express my sincere appreciation and thanks to my co-advisors Dr. Lucy R. Sibley and Dr. Kathryn A. Jakes for their time, patience, and insight throughout my Ph.D. program. It has been such an honor to work with them both. I would like to thank my committee members Dr. Gwendolyn S. O'Neal and Dr. Richard W. Yerkes for their interest, support, and comments throughout this project. I also wish to thank Bob Evans, Debbie Willaman, Scott Shade, Judy Conrad, Milt Butterworth, Julie Vanover, and Jenny Bour of the Columbus America Discovery Group Inc. for all of their time and effort on this project; the faculty of the Department of Textiles and Clothing for their monetary award for research for this project; Ellice Ronsheim from the Ohio Historical Society, Otto Thieme from the Cincinnati Art Museum, Dorothy Wilson from the Kent State Museum, Barry Bradley from the Western Case Reserve Historical Society, and Julie Conner from the Kelton House for showing me their collections of men's outer-garments from the mid-nineteenth century; Jim White, Scott Shade and Matt Sibley for their efforts in the cold storage facility; Helen Hudnell for her friendship and kind words,* Suzanne and Craig Douthitt for all

iii of their encouragement and support; Hsiou-Lien Chen her insight and friendship; the memory of Bruce Seithel for his friendship; Scott Shade for his patience, encouragement, and support throughout this project; my mother and father for their love and support; John and Hope for their love and encouragement; my grey powder puff who encouraged me to go outside and listen to the birds, his timing was always perfect; and my grandparents through whose wisdom and encouragement I have grown and been enlightened. I dedicate this work to them both.

IV VITAE

1986...... B.S. University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada.

1984-1988 ...... Cosmetics Sales Associate, Weinstocks Department Store, Reno, Nevada. 1989-1990 ...... Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada. 1990...... M.S. University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada. 1990-1993 ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of Textiles and Clothing, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. 1994 to present ...... Field Archaeologist, Archaeological Services Consultants, Columbus, Ohio.

FIELD OF STUDY

Major Field: Human Ecology: Textiles and Clothing Historic and Archaeological Textiles and Clothing Minor Field: Archaeology TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION...... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iii VITAE ...... V LIST OF TABLES...... ix LIST OF FIGURES...... xii LIST OF PLATES...... xiii CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Problem Statement ...... 4 P u r p o s e ...... 11 Assumptions of the Research ...... 13 Limitations of the Research ...... 13 Definitions ...... 14 II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 17 D r e s s ...... 17 Phenomenon of fashion ...... 20 Fashion as communication...... 2i Dress as Indicator of S t atus...... 25 Classification ...... 27 Artifact Classification Model ...... 28 III. RELATED LITERATURE ...... 32 Nineteenth Century United States History ...... 32 Migration from Europe to the United States .... 33 The Westward expansion...... 35 Transportation ...... 36 R a i l w a y ...... 37 S h i p p i n g ...... 39 Shipping and shipwrecks...... 41 Industrialization and Development of Textile Industry42 California History ...... 49 Demographics of San F r a n c i s c o ...... 51 The Gold R u s h ...... 52

vi The Political Government of San Francisco .... 53 Social Setting of San Francisco ...... 54 California and the Development of the Transportation S y s t e m ...... 57 Shipping...... 57 California and San Francisco Trade ...... 60 Banking in California ...... 63 S u m m a r y ...... 64 Fashion and Technology ...... 66 Structural and Applied Design ...... 69 Men's D r e s s ...... 71 Men's Under-linen...... 79 Easton Biographical Information ...... 82 Closed Context ...... 84 Research Hypotheses ...... 86 Hypotheses...... 86 IV. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...... 89 Research Design ...... 89 S a m p l e ...... 91 Development of the Instrument ...... 91 Instrument Development : Inter-rater Analysis of D a t a ...... 95 Data Collection ...... ill Data Analysis ...... Ill Style and Function...... 113 Fabric Structure ...... 114 Fiber Identification...... 115 V. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS...... 117 Cataloging...... 117 Classification ...... 131 Within Category Classification of Men's Dress Items by Identifying Attributes ...... 131 C o a t s ...... 131 W a i s t c o a t s ...... 138 T r o u s e r s ...... 145 N e c k w e a r ...... 150 S h i r t s ...... 161 Collars...... 174 Pattern Recognition ...... 177 Identification of Essential Attributes . . . 178 Fabric Structure ...... 178 Fabric Pattern ...... 180 Fabric Design ...... 184 Fiber T y p e ...... 186 Outer Fabric Warp and Weft Y a r n s ...... 187 Sewing Thread ...... 187 L i n i n g ...... 190 Interfacing...... 190

vii Identification of Key Attributes ...... 192 Presence of a Label...... 192 Top Stitching...... 195 Presence of Alterations...... 195 Presence of Mended Areas ...... 197 Identification of Status Attributes...... 200 Historical Inference ...... 205 Hypotheses...... 2ii

VI. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 217 Summary of Previous Chapters ...... 217 Statement of the Problem...... 217 Theoretical F r a m e w o r k ...... 219 D r e s s ...... ; ...... 219 Phenomenon of Fashion...... 221 Fashion as Communication...... 222 Dress as Indicator of Status...... 223 Artifact Classification M o d e l ...... 224 Review of Related Literature...... 226 Development of Research Methods...... 230 Presentation and Implication of the Findings . . . .231 Hypotheses...... 235 Assumptions...... 236 Limitations of the Research...... 237 Recommendations for Future Research...... 237

APPENDICES A. Glossary of T e r m s ...... 239 B. Fabric N a m e s ...... 242 C. Attribute Examination Record Definitions ...... 245 D. Attribute Examination Record ...... 254 E. Script for Attribute ExaminationRecord ...... 260 F. Letters to R a t e r s ...... 264 G. Raw Data Scores from the AttributeExamination R e c o r d ...... 266 H. Description of Outer Garments ...... 268 LIST OF R E F E R E N C E S ...... 328

vill LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 1 and 2 on the First Test of the Attribute Examination Record 97 2. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 1 and 3 on the First Test of the Attribute Examination Record 98 3. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 2 and 3 on the First Test of the Attribute Examination Record 99 4. Comparison of Agreement Between Raters the First Time They Answered Questions in the Attribute Examination Record ...... lOl 5. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 1 and 2 on the Second Test of the Attribute Examination Record ...... 102 6. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 1 and 3 on the Second Test of the Attribute Examination Record ...... 103 7. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 2 and 3 on the Second Test of the Attribute Examination Record ...... 104 8. Comparison of Agreement Between Raters the Second Time They Answered Questions in the Attribute Examination Record ...... 105 9. Degree of Agreement for Rater 1 on the Pre and Post T e s t ...... 106 10. Degree of Agreement for Rater 2 on the Pre and Post Test ...... 107 11. Degree of Agreement for Rater 3 on the Pre and Post T e s t ...... 108 12. Inventory Numbers of Men's Dress Items Grouped by Categories ...... 112

IX 13. Identification and Placement of Items Recorded from the Eastern T r u n k ...... 122 14. Style of Men's Outer Garments ...... 130 15. Attributes of Men's Coats ...... 132 16. Techniques Used to Achieve Pattern Design in Outer Coat Fabric...... 137 17. Design Created Coat Outer Fabric ...... 137 18. Attributes of Men's Waistcoats ...... 139 19. Techniques used to Create Pattern Design in the Outer Fabric Structure of Waistcoats .... 144 20. Design Created in Waistcoat Outer Fabric . . 144 21. Attributes of Men's Trousers ...... 146 22. Methods used to Create Pattern Design in Trouser Outer Fabric ...... 149 23. Design created in Trouser Outer Fabric . . . 150 24. Attributes of Men's Neckwear ...... 151 25. Method used to Create Pattern Design in Neckwear I t e m s ...... 159 26. Design Created in Neckwear Fabric Structure . 160 27. Attributes of Mens's Shirts ...... 163 28. Variation Observed Within Shirt Category . . 171 29. Methods used to Create Pattern Design in Shirt Fabric Structure ...... 173 30. Design Created in Shirt Fabric Structure . . 173 31. Attributes of Men's Collars...... 175 32. Comparison Across Categories of Pattern Design in the Men's Outer Garments...... 181 33. Comparison Across Categories of Fabric Design in Men's Outer Garments ...... 185 34. Fiber Samples Identified in Outer Warp Yarns. .188 33. Comparison Across Categories of Fabric Design in Men's Outer Garments ...... 185 34. Fiber Samples Identified inOuter Warp Yarns. .188 35. Fiber Samples Identified inOuter Weft Yarns 189 36. Sewing Thread T y p e ...... 191 37. Comparison Across Categories of the Presence of a L a b e l ...... 194 38. Presence of Top Stitching...... 196 39. Presence of Alterations...... 198 40. Presence of Mended A r e a s ...... 199

XI LIST OF FIGURES FIGURES PAGE 1. Model of Archaeological Constructs ...... 29

XIX LIST OF PLATES PLATES PAGE I. Men's Wear Monterey California, 1850's . . . 75 II. Advertisement San Francisco California, 1859 78 III. Advertisement San Francisco California, 1859 79 IV. Mr. and Mrs. Ansel E a s t o n ...... 84 V. The Easton T r u n k ...... 118 VI. Steamer Trunk Design and Description .... 121 VII. Double Breasted Frock C o a t ...... 133 VIII. Paletot-Sac C o a t ...... 135 IX. Men's Single Breasted Waistcoat ...... 141 X. Men's Single Breasted Waistcoat Worn for Formal or Evening D r e s s ...... 142 XI. Classic Style Trousers (#29049) and Suspenders (#29322) ...... 148 XII. Ascot (#29096), Purple Fish Hook Design . . . 156 XIII. Construction and Design of Shirt (#29066) . . 162 XIV. Construction and Design of Shirt (#29065) Worn for Formal or Evening Dress...... 168 XV. Mr. Easton's Name Printed or Stamped on his S h i r t ...... 172 XVI. Detachable Collar (#29161) 176

Xlll CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

On September 12, 1857, the S . S . Central America sank in 8500 feet of water at the height of a hurricane. Some 425 passengers and crew lost their lives in the tragedy, and all of the ship's luggage and cargo also were lost. One hundred twenty-eight people escaped the wreck with only the clothes they wore and some items which they carried. For one hundred thirty-one years the shipwreck and its debris field remained undisturbed by people. Its deep ocean site discouraged investigation and recovery operations. The recovery of a trunk from the debris field of the S . S . Central America in 1990 by the Columbus-America Discovery Group, Inc. led to the subsequent investigation of the contents of the trunk at The Ohio State University. The emphases of this study are upon the identification, characterization, and interpretation of male clothing contained in this trunk recovered from the deep ocean site of the S.S. Central America wreck. Formerly the Georae Law, the S.S. Central America was one of a class of finer line steamers and represented an ongoing change toward more complex steamships of the mid-nineteenth century (Ridgely-Neveitt, 1944). She was built October 28, 2 1852 but was not put into service until October 20, 1853 (Heyl, 1953). She was the eleventh of twenty-five large ocean steamships built by William H. Webb. The Georae Law was named after the president of the U.S. Mail SS Co, Mr. George Law (Ridgely-Neveitt, 1944). Some of the changes in the construction of these newer steamships included open rails, larger superstructures, oscillating and walking beam engines, and diminished sail plans (Ridgely-Neveitt, 1944). The newer steamers also had three decks as compared to two. This modification was made in order to accommodate the increasing demands for passenger space. The Georae Law carried three classes of passengers. ...The cabin passengers, first and second class, were given quarters in staterooms located on the second and third decks. The cabin passengers had berths two high in each stateroom. The steerage passengers were carried forward on both the second and third decks in three-high tiers of berths against the side of the ship. The accommodation plans list space for 110 cabin passengers and 384 in steerage...(Ridgely-Neveitt, 1944, p. 309). The Georae Law made several voyages from New York to the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama and vice versa (Ridgely-Neveitt, 1944). In July 1857, the name the Georae Law was changed to the S. S. Central America, since the person for whom she was named was no longer associated with the U.S. Mail S3 Co. (Heyl, 1953) . Henceforward the Georae Law will be referred to as the S.S. Central America. In September of 1857 the S. S. Central America was making her forty-fourth voyage, to New York from the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama via Havana, when she sank. The S . S . 3 Central America sailed from Havana into a storm that turned into a hurricane. She foundered at sea and finally sank on September 12, 1857. .Cargo on this fated voyage included mail, personal luggage, and more than three tons of California gold (Conrad, 1988; Kemble, 1943). A passenger trunk recovered from the S . S . Central America shipwreck site debris field in the summer of 1990 has been identified as belonging to a couple on their wedding voyage from San Francisco. ...It was early one bright August morning, of the year 1857, in the city of San Francisco that Adeline Mills and Ansel Ives Easton, promised to love and to comfort one another until death them should part, came from the church and with many friends they started to drive to the ship that was to sail within the hour. Such a happy party--so many loving friends, so many beautiful clothes and gifts packed in trunks in the hold, so many good things to eat--hampers of wine with choice biscuits and cakes, given with laughter and good wishes for a bon voyage. Out through the Golden Gate they sailed, over the waters of the blue Pacific to the haven of panama. The voyage to the isthmus was one long delight, with smooth waters, sunny skies, and a joyous, congenial company. The trip overland to Aspinwall was uneventful and all too short, and many plans were made for passing the days from Aspinwall to New York. . . (Lincoln, 1911, pp. 10-11). The contents of the Easton trunk included male and female garments and other personal artifacts (Jakes & Mitchell, 1992). The women's dress items recovered included under-linen dress items of chemises, drawers, a morning robe, two other robes, petticoats, and stockings. There also were personal toilet items belonging to Mrs. Easton. The men's outer-garments consisted of jackets, waistcoats, trousers, neckwear items, shirts and collars. 4 Shirts and collars have traditionally been associated with under-linen items. However, for this study they were included in the outer garment category since parts of them were visible when worn by the male of the 1850s. The men's under-linen items found in the trunk included under shirts, a robe, drawers and socks. There were also some personal toilet items belonging to Mr. Easton. Other artifacts recovered from the trunk included a bottle of San Francisco Bay water, some bread or cake, presents that were wrapped and sealed, letters, two dueling pistols, and a shirt wrapped in newspaper with the name W. Ralston inscribed or stamped at the mid-center front. William Ralston was a friend of Mrs. Easton's brother, Darius Ogdon Mills. Why the Ralston shirt was wrapped in newspaper and included in the Easton trunk is not known.

Problem Statement Little is known about American male dress of the 1850s and how it was used to communicate status and position through the use of attributes representing style, function and fashionability. Clothing recovered from a deep ocean shipwreck offers a unique opportunity to analyze a "time capsule" of men's clothing that was worn by an entrepreneur of relatively high status, who lived in San Francisco, California in 1857. Inferences derived from the identification and characterization of male outer-dress items may support and reveal characteristics of men's fashion, the styles and the 5 functions for which the clothing was worn on a wedding voyage in the fall of 1857. Researchers from the Columbus-America Discovery Group have suggested that passengers placed one piece of luggage on the deck of the S.S. Central America in preparation for leaving the sinking ship. However, no luggage was taken when the brig, the Marine. rescued the women and children from the S.S. Central America before she sank. It has been hypothesized that the luggage, left on deck, was thrown free of the wreck of the S.S. Central America as she sank, and landed in the debris field of the wreckage. There is no evidence to support this hypothesis in the historical record. Members of the Columbus-America Discovery Group have sighted other trunks in the debris field of the shipwreck site, near where the Easton trunk was discovered. In the past, deep ocean shipwreck sites have been outside the realm of human investigation and excavation due to technological limitations. Recent technological advancements, including those of Mr. Thomas G. Thompson of the Columbus- America Discovery Group, Inc., have enabled deep ocean shipwrecks to be located and excavated. Such shipwrecks are considered to be those wrecks lying in waters beyond the range of conventional air-breathing divers, usually at depths in excess of about 50 meters (Muckelroy, 1978) . Due to these technological advancements assemblages of artifacts recovered from deep ocean sites enable researchers the opportunity to 6 gain new knowledge and understanding about the historical record. American history of the period has been to a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great West (Turner, 1956). In 1848 gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California. As word of the Gold Rush spread, people from all over the world migrated to California to seek their fortune. The West coast grew up almost overnight. A general characteristic of the western States was that the settlers were more hardy and of the enterprising class (The United States on the Eve of the Civil War, 1963) . Many entrepreneurs saw the Gold Rush as an opportunity to make money utilizing advancements made in transportation, production, distribution, and communication of goods and services. During the mid­ nineteenth century there was continued change in transportation. When the Gold Rush developed in California, there were two routes to reach California from the east coast, by ship around the Cape Horn or by stage across the plains. Both routes involved several months under hazardous conditions; therefore plans were made for the building of the Panama railroad. Passage from California to the Pacific side of the isthmus of Panama and then by train, traversing the isthmus, to the Atlantic side of Panama made travel from California to New York or vice versa much faster. The Panama Railroad Company, an American corporation, built and completed the 7 Panama railroad in 1855 (Harlow, 1925). Therefore the route across Panama by the passengers of the S.S. Central America was relatively new. One city influenced by the gold rush and the completion of the Panama railroad was the city of San Francisco. San Francisco became an urban colonial outpost that imported and planted the cultural forms of older, more settled areas during the 1850s (Lotchin, 1974) . The social structure of San Francisco became more complex and the material culture expanded as more people migrated to San Francisco. Many people came to seek their fortune in gold, while others established businesses in banking and merchandising. ...In San Francisco in 1856 it was said that a simple style of home life, a simple style of dress, a reasonable style of living, of house, of furniture, of life before the public, all the vanities of the rotten customs of the older cities had been introduced and doubled...(Lotchin, 1974, p. 298). • As its class structure became more established the city itself became an urban settlement, (Lotchin, 1974) . Prior to 1857 and at the beginning of the gold rush, ships had been converted into storeships to sell a variety of goods and necessities. This idea caught on quickly under pressure from the local population explosion and consequent shortages in housing, building materials and labor (Johnston, 1988). By 1851, 148 surplus ships had undergone conversions along San Francisco's waterfront to serve as warehouses, jails, saloons, office buildings, hotels and shops (Johnston, 1988) . A fire, that year, destroyed twenty-two city blocks 8 along the waterfront, including several of the storeships (Johnston, 1988). In 1978 an archaeological excavation team uncovered the remains of one of the storeships, the Niantic. A remarkable mass of material data was recorded, shedding light on one of the nations most famous phenomenon: the California Gold Rush and the consequent growth of San Francisco into the West Coast's largest and most important urban center during the mid-nineteenth century (Johnston, 1988). Upon excavation the Niantic storeship was discovered to contain some 4000 artifacts. This hold represents the largest known Gold Rush deposit of commercial merchandise recorded and displayed the widest range of goods imported from all over the world and available to local consumers (Johnston, 1988; Smith, 1981). Even though the San Francisco market quickly became a specialized one, every merchant was gambling; and since each worked on a commission basis, unsold stock was a real burden (Senkewciz, 1985). Merchants would send out reports and requests to suppliers for merchandise in the eastern United States, Europe, Chile, China, and Hawaii (Senkewciz, 1985). In 1856 all the importers in the city had more goods on hand than they could sell without sustaining losses (Senkewciz, 1985). One way producers could circulate their ideas internationally without actually having the goods on hand was through placing advertisements in the San Francisco Alta that focused on the availability of dry goods. 9 Advertising enabled merchants to reach a larger audience and hence potentially sell more goods. Advancements in technology also enabled merchants to sell more goods. Clothing, for example was produced faster and more cheaply with the invention of the sewing machine. A French tailor, Thimmonior developed the sewing machine in the 1830's and Howe and Singer perfected it in the 1840s (Boucher, 1987; Schramm, 1958) . There were also vast improvements of machines for weaving, embroidery, lace-making, and knitting. Many of these technological modifications precipitated the acceleration of fashion change for men and women during the mid-nineteenth century, but Roach and Musa (1980) argue that the rate of change or replacement of dress has also been affected by other technologies as well. For example, the distribution of advertisements of new dress styles for men and women through changes in printing, transportation and distribution enabled the designers of dress styles to introduce new elements of dress and create a new fashionable look. Of course, in order for new fashionable dress to be introduced and accepted, people reading the advertisements had to be willing to change their dress, i.e. their economic situation was such that they could afford to purchase new items and tailors or dress makers had the staples to sell to people in order to produce the new fashions in the latest fabrics and colors. Technological developments affect production, acceptance, and replacement of fashionable dress. 10 Fashion as a construct refers to a specific style of an object at a point in time, but it also has a human behavioral dimension rooted in change and replacement of objects. Roach and Musa (1980) have captured this two dimensional quality of the concept with their definition of fashion as, "both a form of human behavior and a product of behavior, which is widely accepted for a limited time and is replaceable by another fashion that is an acceptable substitute for it" (p. 19) . The actual object or product is discarded to be replaced by an acceptable substitute. Not surprisingly when technology develops faster techniques of production and distribution, the products can be changed more quickly and efficiently, making fashionable goods more readily available. After the turn of the nineteenth century mass production of men's dress began, and the simplification and standardization of men's dress was the ultimate result (Roach and Musa, 1980; Schramm, 1858; Browning, King and Company, 1908) . Advancements in the manufacture and distribution of ready-made clothing enabled men during the mid-nineteenth century to choose from garments made in various grades, colors, styles, fabrics and prices (Kidwell & Christman, 1974). The acceptance/rejection of an object is a human behavioral action on the part of individuals who are members of certain groups. By belonging to a specific group and dressing in a similar manner to other members, members communicate identity. Dress also distinguishes members of one 11 group from another. By dressing in a similar manner, members of one class remind others of their relative position in a social structure. Those belonging to a higher economic status usually had the means to purchase a variety of different clothing items to be worn for various social functions. Males of the mid-nineteenth century wore a variety of clothing, depending on their occupation and activities. For example judges, businessmen and merchants wore fashionable trousers and frock coats, while miners wore heavy canvas pants and flannel shirts. Men during the mid-nineteenth century also had a variety of functions for which they could dress. There were six various times for which to dress : early morning dress, morning dress, day dress, afternoon dress, early evening dress and evening ball dress (Keers, 1988). More formal events required different garments as well as dress items made of different fabrics. Etiquette books and popular literature of the day dictated what clothing should be worn depending on the type of social function to be attended. The more affluent the male, the more opportunities for variation in the types of garments worn.

Purpose The purpose of this study is to identify, characterize and interpret men's apparel evidence recovered from a deep ocean shipwreck of the S.S. Central America. By analyzing selected men's dress items from the closed context of the 12 Easton trunk, the investigator will identify the style, function, and fashionableness of garments belonging to Mr. Easton. The pattern recognition based on the identification, characterization and interpretation of the men's outer- garments will then be used as a basis for historical inference when combined with primary, secondary and scholarly information related to men's dress from the mid-nineteenth century. The objectives of the study are: 1. To identify types or styles of outer-wear assembled by a male of the 1850s for sea voyage. 2. To determine if the men's dress items are indicative of a difference in function. 3. To determine if the men's dress items from the Easton trunk represent fashionable wardrobe items worn by males during the mid-nineteenth century. The research questions of the study are: 1. What types of men's dress items were recovered from the Easton trunk? 2. What differences in function do the men's outer-garments studied represent? 3. Did Mr. Easton's dress items reflect the current fashions available to men in his social position? 13

Assumptions of the Research In this research it is assumed that Mr. Easton had an array of fashionable goods available to him in San Francisco. Distribution routes were limited by the lack of available transportation by land. However, shipping during the mid­ nineteenth century enabled transmission of dress styles to cities along the east and west coasts, particularly San Francisco, California by way of New York and transatlantic passage from Europe (Lotchin, 1974; Johnston, 1988). The assumption is made that the selection of items in the Easton trunk is representative of Mr. Easton's entire day dress wardrobe and so reflects what he wore in San Francisco, on the ocean sea voyage and would have worn in New York if the S . S . Central America had not sunk. Finally, it is assumed in this work that the presence of male and female items in the Easton trunk indicates that the trunk was used, at least right before the sinking of the S.S. Central America, by both Mr. and Mrs. Easton.

Limitations of the Research The research's knowledge of the exact placement and juxtaposition of the dress items is limited by the circumstances of the recovery. A second limitation has to do with the theoretical perspective of fashion. The author has selected a sociological one (Blumer, 1969/1981; Horowitz, 1975; McCracken, 1986) in which inferences are limited to the 14 collective behavior of the group that wore fashionable clothing during the mid-nineteenth century, a group to which Mr. Easton belonged.

Definitions Terms used in this study are listed below. Artifact "any portable object used, modified, or made by humans (Renfrew & Bahn, 1991, p. 485). Association "the co-occurrence of an artifact with other archaeological remains, usually in the same matrix" (Renfrew & Bahn, 1991, p. 485). Attributes "a set of human characteristics that modify an object" (Clarke, 1978, p. 152). Context " consists of an artifact's immediate matrix, its provenience, and its association with other artifacts" (Renfrew & Bahn, 1991, p. 486). Cultural Meaning "the understanding of a people derived from the analyses of material produced from a specific time period, in a specific culture" (Stipulated by the author) . Dress "an assemblage of modifications of the body and/or supplements to the body"(Richer & Roach-Higgins, in press). Essential Attributes " attributes, traits or characteristics that are used to determine a specific class and type" (Stipulated by the author). Form "the physical evidence that is recovered" (Ashmore & Sharer, 1988, p. 7). 15 Function "the behavior associated with the form" (Ashmore & Sharer, 1988, p. 7). Key Attributes "attributes, traits or characteristics that occur in more than one group or class" (Stipulated by the author). Matrix "the physical material within which artifacts are embedded or supported" (Renfrew & Bahn, 1991, p. 489). Provenience "horizontal and vertical position of artifacts within the matrix" (Renfrew & Bahn, 1991, p. 42). Status "the worth of a person as estimated by a group or class of persons. The estimate of worth is determined by the extent to which her/his attributes or characteristics are perceived to contribute to the shared values and needs of the group or class of persons" (Secord & Backman, 1964, p. 295) . Status Attributes "attribute and characteristic have a very broad meaning, which includes not only personal qualities but also a person's activities, possessions, position in a group, and other more remote factors associated with [her]/him" (Secord and Backman 1964, p. 295). Stratification "the layering down or depositing of strata or layers one above the other. A succession of layers should provide a relative chronological sequence, with the earliest at the bottom and the latest at the top" (Renfrew & Bahn, 1991, p. 491) . 16 Style "any distinctive and therefore recognizable way in which an act is performed and made, or as real units representing shared ways of producing and decorating artifacts" (Renfrew & Bahn, 1991). Superposition "where one layer overlies another, the lower layer was deposited first" (Renfrew & Bahn, 1991, p. 90) . CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The emphases of this study are upon the identification, characterization, and interpretation of men's outer-dress items contained in a trunk recovered from the deep ocean site of the S. S. Central America wreck. This chapter is devoted to a discussion of the theoretical framework and model that was used for the study. It includes an examination of dress as a vehicle of communication, the phenomenon of fashion, dress as indicator of status, classification, and Cardin's (1980) theoretical framework.

Dress Dress can be used as a vehicle of communication to communicate status and group affiliation of an individual (Roach & Musa, 1980). By observing attributes or details of elements of outer-dress, one can identify style and infer function, fashionability of the items, and the status of the owner, when compared to primary and secondary documentation. Although dress has been defined by many, (Stone 1962; Coffman 1963; Stryker, 1980; and Weigert, Teitge, and Teitge 1986), Roach-Higgins and Richer (1992) have defined dress as follows:

17 18 ...an assemblage of modifications of the body and/or supplements to the body (Richer & Roach-Higgins, in press). Dress, so defined includes a long list of possible direct modifications of the body such as coiffed hair, colored skin, pierced ears, and scented breath, as well as an equally long list of garments, jewelry, accessories, and other categories of items added to the body as supplements...(Roach-Higgins & Richer, 1992, p. 1) . The term "dress", is used instead of clothing, etc, because "dress" represents an unbiased explanation of social aspects of dress in culture, and includes all supplements and modifications to the body including the actual clothing worn. ...it represents the best technical term because all other terms do not identify all possible modifications and supplements to the body. The term dress was chosen over clothing, appearance, adornment, apparel, costume and fashion because the it is not gender specific and does not have a positive or negative connotation associated with it as some of the other terms do...(Roach-Higgins & Richer, 1992, p. 3). Since the focus of this study is on men's outer-garments worn during the mid-nineteenth century, examination of an 1857 definition of dress from the period of interest is warranted in order to understand the cultural context in which the dress items were produced and worn. ...Dress has two functions, to clothe and to ornament; and while we can not lose sight of either point, we must not attribute to the one a power which belongs to the other. The essential requirement of dress is to cover that make comfortable the body, and of two forms of dress which fulfill this function equally well, that is the better which is most accordant with the laws of beauty. But fitness must in nowise be interfered with; and the grab which infringes on this law gives up pain rather than pleasure. We believe that it will be found that fitness and beauty, so far from requiring any sacrifice for combination, are found each in the highest degree where both are most fully obtained--that the fittest, most comfortable dress is that which is most graceful or becoming. Fitness is the primary demand; and the dress 19 that appears uncomfortable is untasteful. But the secondary function of dress, ornamentation, there are several diverse objects to be attained--dignity, grace, vivacity, brilliancy, are qualities distinguishing different individuals, and indicating the impression they wish to make on society, and are expressed by different combinations of the elements of beauty, line or form, and color. When the appareling of the outer being is in most complete harmony with the mental constitution, the taste is fullest...("The Uses of Dress", 1857, pp. 31-32). ...In form, simplicity and long, unbroken lines give dignity, while complicated and short lines express vivacity. Curves, particularly if long and sweeping, give grace, while straight lines and angles indicate power and strength...("The Art Of Dress", 1857, p. 33). In comparing and contrasting Roach-Higgins and Eicher's definition of dress to the 1857 definition of dress, one sees similarities. Both definitions define dress as functional: to clothe. Roach-Higgins and Eicher's (1992) definition gives more detail of the definition of dress by specifying what is encompassed by the term dress, that includes all modifications and additions to the body. This can be compared to the 1857 definition of dress that includes the fitness of the dress as functional in purpose. In contrast, Roach-Higgins and Eicher's (1992) definition does not directly evaluate ornamentation, the second function of dress in 1857 in detail. The older definition of dress gives a long lengthy description of ornamentation and how it should not interfere with the mental constitution of the wearer. However, both definitions of dress are similar since dress is defined by what is added to the body. In both definitions it is stated that the additions should not overtake or interfere with the personality and position of the wearer, as well as the 20 intended meaning the wearer wishes to convey upon society through clothing choices that represent the group in which an individual belongs. Meaning is critical since dress is used for communication. Dress can be used as a construct to understand cultural forces at work in a given society. Fashionable dress can be identified in historic periods (Boucher, 1987) by using visual and written documentation from the historical record. Inferences related to the uses and meaning of fashionable dress can be derived and lead to a better understanding of the phenomenon of fashion in a certain period in time.

Phenomenon of Fashion Roach and Musa (1980) state that in order for fashion to be present in a culture it must be visible within that culture. If fashion cannot be seen, then it is impossible to understand. Attributes or characteristics of fashionable dress from historic archaeological periods can be studied to identify characteristics associated with technology, status, ritual, and gender. In order to understand the phenomenon of fashion, the concept must first be defined. Fashion has been defined by many. Depending on the context associated with the word "fashion" its definitions have differed. Blumer (1969/1981) , Horowitz (1975), and McCracken (1986) view fashion from a sociological perspective because it results from the collective consensus of 21 individuals who belong to a cultural group. The formation of collective consensus can be seen in the material artifacts created to reflect the formation of ideas by that group. Hence, it is not the individual who dictates fashion but the group, which agrees on a shared meaning of specific attributes visible in clothing (Blumer, 1969/1981; Horowitz, 1975; McCracken, 1986) . These attributes or details of elements of dress reflect the social, political, economic, technological and environmental surroundings in which one lives at a given time. Fashion is a group phenomenon and relies on group dynamics. Even though the fashion process and product reflect many manifestations within a culture, scholars have not readily focused on the meaning associated with fashions from the past. ...But, oddly, one facet sociologists have not fastened on--nor for that matter have psychologists or anthropologists to any appreciable extent--is that which critically links the makers, purveyors, and consumers of fashion, namely, its meaning. And by meaning, I mean to refer to the images, thoughts, sentiments, and sensibilities communicated by a new or old fashion and the symbolic means by which this is done...(Davis, 1985, p. 16).

Fashion as Coimniin-i r««h i o n ...The fashion system is less frequently observed, studied, and understood as an instrument of meaning movement, yet this system also serves as a means by which goods are systematically invested and divested of meaningful properties...(McCracken, 1986, p. 76). The way in which goods are invested and divested with meaningful properties is through cultural categorization and 22 principles that make up the cultural world in which one lives. Cultural categories are the "fundamental coordinates of meaning, representing the basic distinctions that a culture uses to divide up the phenomenal world" (McCracken 1986, p. 72). McCracken (1986) states that people within a given culture are constantly modifying cultural categories. One of the most important ways in which cultural categories are modified and substantiated is through a culture's material objects. Outer dress may be seen as a vehicle of communication expressing the categorical scheme established by people in a culture. "Categories of persons divided into parcels of age, sex, class, and occupation can be represented in a set of material distinctions by means of goods" (McCracken, 1986 p. 73) . Shalins (1976) examined the symbolism of food and clothing systems and illustrated the relationship of their meanings to cultural categories within the cultural world. In order for cultural meaning to be defined, cultural principles must be identified. Cultural principles are ideas or values that determine how cultural categories are organized and defined (McCracken, 1986) . Cultural principles, like cultural categories, are substantiated by material culture (McCracken, 1986) . "The clothing that distinguishes between men and women or between high or low classes also reveals something of the nature of the differences that are supposed to exist between these categories" (McCracken, 1986, p. 74). 23 Cultural categories were assigned to dress when determining the function of dress during the mid-nineteenth century. One variation in the function of fashionable dress was day dress versus evening dress. Cultural meaning in relation to the function of dress might include attributes on the dress that would indicate the function of the assemblage of clothing. For example, for day wear a man might wear a frock coat, linen shirt with standing collar, embroidered silk waistcoat, tweed trousers, and a patterned silk tie. For evening wear a man might wear a cut away coat, linen shirt with standing collar, plain cotton waistcoat, dark plain trousers, and a white cotton tie. Differences in the fiber type, fabric structure, color, and style of the items are attributes that have been assigned meaning to indicate dress functions for day or evening wear. The clothing choices for the different functions would be different and the meanings associated with the characteristics or attributes indicative of those differences would be visible in the outer dress. The meaning of the clothing choices would be understood based on the cultural categories defined and the cultural principles applied by the culture in which one lives. McCracken (1986) states that people live in a culturally constituted world that is divested with meaningful properties. The fashion system comes from the culturally constituted world that is made up of cultural categories and principles. Cultural categories and principles change and vary from culture to culture. 24 Characteristics or attributes are defined and attached to material objects within a culture. One such mediator is fashionable dress. The individual within a group purchases fashionable dress that has attributes that reflect the meanings the group in which she/he belongs represent. There are different ways in which the transfer of meaning takes place. McCracken (1986) cites three ways in which to transfer the meaning of goods. In one capacity, the fashion system performs a transfer of meaning from the culturally constituted world to consumer goods. This is accomplished through the advertising of fashionable items targeted at consumers looking for a certain image. Secondly, the fashion system actually invents new cultural meanings in a modest way. This is done by opinion leaders who shape and refine existing cultural meaning by modifying cultural principles and categories. In the third capacity the fashion system engages in the radical change of cultural meaning. This is accomplished by a constant change in the fashion system, creating new meaning and modifying existing ones. There are subcultures/groups that are responsible for the radical fashion system changes in Western society. McCracken (1986) cites sub-cultural groups that modify cultural meaning associated with dress through their unusual and interesting philosophy about life and the way they dress. 25 During the mid-nineteenth century the fashion system incorporated the three variables discussed by McCracken (1986) . Advertising was used to distribute ideas about fashionable dress to many places around the world. Industrialists, entertainers, men and women of status and aristocracy were considered opinion leaders during the mid­ nineteenth century (Payne, 1965/1992) . People from these groups influenced the fashions of the day by the styles and fashions they themselves wore.

Dress as Indicator of Status The concept of status varies depending on the culture in which it is applied. There are many definitions of status. Binder (1986) defines status as "a magic fiction dependent on time, place, people, dress -- disarrange one domino and everything crashes" (p. 79). Status is culture dependent. There have been few studies focusing on men's clothing as an indicator of status. ...there has been little if any attention paid to clothing -male clothing as a symbol of status. The potential importance of clothing as such a symbol has been suggested by Young. He points out that when there are no fixed symbols to mark the social elite in a stratified society, external features of life, such as clothes, are often used for this purpose...(Hoult, 1965, p. 251) . Therefore "status attributes" or the characteristics or details of an element (dress) or elements of an assemblage belonging to an individual are used to identify an individual's position and status. The attributes are visible 26 in dress and communicate meaning that has been defined by the cultural categories and principles used in the culturally constituted world in which one lives. Communication of the cultural meaning of dress, including status of the wearer, often occurs in the visual and written documents of a period as well as in the writings about the period. Hoult (1965) states that status can be inferred when the attributes of style, fabric structure and fiber type are identified in outer-garments. Status is also evident in the ability of the individual to participate in the activities associated with a position within a cultural group. Since specific types of dress are associated with certain activities, their presence indicates both the ability to participate and the related status of the wearer. During the mid-nineteenth century there was a set precedent of what attire should be worn at different times throughout the day. A man of relatively high status was able to observe this change of outer-garments with ease, since he would have had the economic wealth to afford to purchase or have made the items for each activity. At the same time he could have afforded items that were of fine quality. Hence, both variation in garments by function and quality of garments indicate status. As Keers (1988) states, "the classic wardrobe is largely a product of what fashion historians call the Great Masculine Renunciation, when the Industrial Revolutionaries gave up the lace and brocade of the dandy, and 27 established the sober, serious dress of the Victorian gentleman. It was a wardrobe which asserted the power, status and formality of the English" (p. 8). ...In the absence of seasonal fashions, these kinds of styling details signal a man's sartorial awareness. Only such tiny, distinguishing elements are permitted in the uniform of power and status. They reflect a man's income and his sense of tradition. Prince Albert stated in 1857 "A gentleman will take care that his clothes are of the best quality, well-made and suitable to his rank and position" (Keers, 1988, p. 9) . Fashionable dress can be seen as a vehicle of communication reflecting status and group affiliation. In order to identify, characterize and interpret dress, one needs a classification system.

Classification Classification provides a basis for further understanding and study in all branches of science (Sharer & Ashmore, 1993). Classification systems provide a way for researchers to organize data into manageable units and to summarize the characteristics of many individual objects by listing their shared attributes (Hayden, 1984) . Classification systems also define variability within a given set of data. By ordering and describing classes and types the researcher can suggest a series of relationships among classes (Sharer & Ashmore, 1993). For the purposes of this study Cardin's (1980) model of classification was chosen since it represents the best framework for object analysis. 28

Artifact Classification Model Gardin's (1980) archaeological constructs model was used to analyze the selected men's dress items recovered from the Easton trunk. This model was chosen since it provides a means to synthesize and interpret the dress items recovered from the Easton trunk. The first consideration of Gardin's system is the acquisition of materials, defined by Gardin as being "the province or product of reasoned considerations bearing on the techniques of data acquisition, as with all observation procedures in the sciences of man or nature" (Gardin, 1980, p. 6) . The acquisition of materials can be viewed as the underlying framework utilized to study the objects under consideration. The next consideration of Gardin's (1980) model has to do with the actual materials, which he defines as "the artifacts of material culture produced by men" (Gardin, 1980, p. 4) . Clear interpretation rests on materials (objects) and the techniques of data collection. Gardin identifies four stages of analyses; cataloging, classification, pattern recognition, and historical inference (see Figure 1). The first stage of analysis in Gardin's (1980) model is cataloging, which he describes as an inventory of the materials to be studied (Gardin, 1980) . The items under investigation are identified and described, noting the elements themselves as well as the details of the elements. 29

H istorical inference Kvenis, functions

Pattern recognition Identification

Classification Types» . Ordering series etc.

Cataloguing Inventory Descriptions

Materials m ent PropositionsCom

Acquisition

Figure 1. Model of archaeological constructs. Gardin, J. C. (1980). Archaeological constructs, p. 9. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 30 In the second stage the materials are classified based on the inventory and descriptions of the items. Classification can be seen as "the intermediate operation between the initial perception of material objects and the formulation of propositions of a more sophisticated nature than the mere description of every one of them" (p. 10). According to Clarke (1978) the most tangible product of human behavior is the material artifact and he goes on to define a material artifact as "any object modified by a set of humanly imposed attributes" (p. 152). For Clarke (1978) a set of attributes, traits, or characteristics represent a particular modification and these modifications made on the object are a product of human behavior. Each object reflects the modification of its raw material and may share similar characteristics with other objects. In classifying the material, the objects are ordered based on those attributes identified in the cataloging stage which make up types or series. The third stage in Gardin's (1980) model is pattern recognition; he defines it as "assigning a particular structure to forms which can be perceived or interpreted in several fashions" (Gardin, 1980, p. 11). Based on the types and series identified in the classification stage, meaningful structures can be observed and patterns identified. Gardin (1980) calls this the discovery of "meaning" based on the construction of the material signs as well as understanding of those signs. 31 The final phase of Gardin's (1980) model is one he calls historical inference. He says "the transition from the description of a given scene to its interpretation provides an example of historical inference. The commentator infers propositions which in turn enter into combination with historical data, so as to give birth to propositions of a more and more specific nature, until the final interpretation is reached" (Gardin, 1980, p. 12). By identifying the meaningful structures present in the analyses of the objects, the investigator can explain events and functions. In conclusion, dress, the phenomenon of fashion, and dress as indicator of status provide a foundation for the examination of the men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk. Analysis of the evidence according to Gardin's (1980) model allows the researcher to synthesize and interpret the data collected. Gardin's (1980) method offers the clearest and most complete model to identify, characterize and interpret the men's outer dress items contained in the Easton trunk. Important topics of Nineteenth Century United States History, California History, Men's Dress, Men's Under-linen, Easton Biographical Information, Closed Context, and The Easton Trunk will be explored to provide information contributing to understanding of the context in which the items were produced and used during the mid-nineteenth century in San Francisco, California. CHAPTER III

RELATED LITERATURE

In order to make historical inferences about the men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk the context in which the dress items were worn needs to be identified within the historical record. Important topics of Nineteenth Century United States History, California History, Men's Dress, Men's Under-linen, Easton Biographical Information, and Closed Context will be explored in the following pages to better understand the context in which the men's outer-garments were worn.

Nineteenth Century United States History The nineteenth century has been described as the century of the industrial revolution in the United States (Billington, 1981) . There were many variables that influenced the coming of the industrial revolution and were products of advances and inventions made during the eighteenth century. Some of these included the westward expansion,- technology and transportation; and the vast industrialization of the United States. These changes were especially important to the development of San Francisco, California during the mid­

32 33 nineteenth century. The Graham's Illustrated Magazine. (July, 1857) contained the following statement about the history of the first half of the nineteenth century. . . .The New York News some time ago contained the following marriage notice: ' At Wilmington, on the 29th of February, Ashmael L. Beer, of Albany, N. York, and Miss Eider. Their united ages are 124 years, and the courtship commenced forty-two years since.' On which the Lehigh Register remarks: 'A forty-two years' courtship! Why, during that time we have concluded one war with England, and almost had two more; have invented railroads and steam printing-presses; had a war with Mexico; invented the electric telegraph; brought out spirit trapping, and discovered the north-west passage; annexed Texas, and brought to light the gold of California; have extended our national area 200,000 or 300,000 square miles, and arrived at such a point of civilization as to appoint special corruptions and investigation committees in congress. What great results have been attained, all about us, during the forty-two years it has taken the modest Mr. Beer to 'pop the question.' ("Positive and Comparative", July, 1857, p. 78) .

Migration From Europe to the United States The emigration of individuals and families from Europe to America during the nineteenth century had an impact on the Westward expansion and economic growth of the United States. The new promised land of America offered many people a chance for upward mobility and land ownership within the American culture. The men and women migrating to America were a product of the new emerging middle class of Europe (Billington, 1981). Once in the United States many individuals and families moved from the Eastern United States to the Western United States. 34 ...The United States population census for New York in 1850 was 3,097,395; in 1860, 3,880,735. California had a population of 92,597 in 1850, and by 1860 379,994 (Statistical Abstract, 1878, p. 147). It has been suggested By Turner (1956) that as individuals and families headed toward the Western United States changes in their cultural beliefs occurred. ...The most drastic changes in the socialization of people occurred during the migration from East to West. The advance of the frontier meant a steady movement away from the influence of Europe. It was out West where society was changed and modified until it became American...(Turner, 1956, p. 2). Upon arrival in America, many immigrants either stayed in the Eastern United States or migrated to the Western United States, bypassing the South due to the presence of slave labor (Schlesinger, 1937) . After living and working in America many European immigrants became financially secure and returned to Europe to display their good fortune. . . .During the 1850s immigrants returning to Europe, were dressed in splendid frock coats, and top hats, and they spoke grandly of their acres of land and herds of cattle in America...(Billington, 1981, p. 295). It was with the migration and hard work of European immigrants that the Westward Expansion occurred. ...The American history had been in a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great West...(Turner, 1956, p. 1). The existence of an area of free land, its continuous recession, due to the migration and settlement of new land, and the advance of American settlement westward, explain the American development (Turner, 1956). 35

The Westward Expansion There were many factors that influenced the Westward expansion. One was the large number of immigrants that came to America from Europe. Limerick (1987) states that the journey out West was a hard and trying one. One way families combated the environment was to travel in groups consisting of many families as opposed to going by themselves. By moving in large groups, small rural communities were established that otherwise could not have been built (Limerick, 1987) . Another factor that influenced the Westward expansion was the purchase of land by the United States from other countries. The Louisiana Purchase took place in 1803 when the United States acquired it by purchase from France (Robertson, 1973; Gunderson, 1976). Florida territory was purchased from Spain in 1819. A few years previously the United States had annexed the narrow strip of land that constituted West Florida (Robertson, 1973; Gunderson, 1976). The republic of Texas was established after the victory of the American settlers over the Mexicans (Robertson, 1973; Gunderson, 1976), and it was annexed as a state in 1845. The Oregon Country, was annexed by treaty with Great Britain in 1846, while the Mexican Cession, was acquired by conquest from Mexico in 1848 (Robertson, 1973). The Gadsden Purchase, was acquired from Mexico in 1853 (Robertson, 1973). ...The national territory stretched continent wide over forest, plain and mountain, while within these far flung limits dwelt a hardy, industrious people, numbering in 1850 twenty-three million...(Schlesinger, 1937, p. 3). 36 Most of the land in the west had not been settled and the frontier, as technically defined in the census reports, was an area in which there were more than two or less than six people per square mile (Robertson, 1973). As more and more people made their way to the West changes and advancements in transportation also enabled more people to travel faster, and so migration out West was made faster and with more ease. From 1815 to 1860 transportation costs fell drastically due to the migration westward and advances in technology (Gunderson, 1976) .

Transportation Methods of transportation changed drastically in America from 1815 to 1860. The emigration of men and women from Europe, the Westward Expansion, and the availability of transportation increased migration to the West during the mid­ nineteenth century. While transportation was not the only force contributing to the migration, it was undoubtedly the most important one (Gunderson, 1976) . It was the sizeable reduction in the cost of getting "out there " or getting products back during the mid-nineteenth century, that made these large areas of land economically feasible for the first time and attracted settlers to them (Gunderson, 1976). Many of the advancements made in transportation from other countries were helpful to the United States in building its own transportation system. 37 The British had pioneered important innovations in railroads and canals, and Americans adopted these technologies after the machinery had been tested and modified for efficiency. ...Until mid-century, except for the turnpikes over the mountains, the only routes for hauling goods were by way of the Great Lakes and the Erie Canal or down the Mississippi and around through the Gulf...(Schlesinger, 1937, p. 7). By 1830 the combination of developments in roads, steamboats, and canals had substantially reduced the costs of transportation in the United States (Gunderson, 1976). Technological changes in transportation were substantially enlarging the economic dimensions of the nation (Gunderson, 1976). One important method of transportation built and used was the railroad system.

Railway The first railway line started out from Baltimore towards Ohio in 1831, and in the 1840s Boston was linked with Albany and New York with Buffalo (Larson, 1969) . The first locomotives were imported from Stephenson's inventions, even the rails came from England. The economic attachment of the Midwest had been southward rather than Eastward (Schlesinger, 1937) . This was due to the increase in production of cotton goods and slave labor. From 1850 to 1857 the Appalachian barrier was pierced by five railway track lines, and these enabled many connections to the Ohio River and the Mississippi 38 (Schlesinger, 1937). . . .The iron bonds uniting the East and the West not only, gave rise to mutually profitable trade but by emphasizing the economic inter dependence of the two regions, tended to create a harmony of political outlook as well...(Schlesinger, 1937, p. 8). Another project that encouraged transportation and communication from East to West as well as foreign relations with other countries was the building of the Panama railroad. . . .Since the days of the Emperor Charles V, of Spain, the desirability of a waterway connecting the Caribbean with the Pacific had been obvious. The United States had almost from the beginning been interested, and the acquisition of territory on the Pacific coast naturally intensified that interest...(Harlow, 1925, p. 428). In 1848 the United States and Columbia (New Granada) ratified a treaty covering transit on the Isthmus of Panama (Harlow, 1925). Columbia guaranteed the United States the right of way across the Isthmus, either by railroad or canal. The United States in turn guaranteed the "perfect neutrality" of the Isthmus, in order that free transit from sea to sea might continue without interruption (Harlow, 1925). Under the treaty the Panama Railroad Company, an American corporation, built the Panama railroad, along the line of the proposed canal (Harlow, 1925) . A second treaty concerning the possible canal was the Clayton Bulwer agreement with Great Britain, which was signed in April of 1850 (Harlow, 1925). Up until this time the only routes to the West coast were either to take a ship around the Cape Horn, or to travel over the plains. The Panama railroad opened many new doors for trade and communication nationally and internationally. 39 In 1869, the transcontinental railroad was completed. The trans-continental railroad connected the East and West coasts, across the plains of the United States. Another important type of transportation during the nineteenth century was shipping.

Shipping In any pre-industrial society, prior to the eighteenth century A.D., a boat or later a ship was the largest and most complex machine produced (Muckelroy, 1978). Ships as complex machines serve as vehicles of human activity. The European discovery, exploration, colonization, commercial development and defense of the New World were influenced by seafarers and their ships (Bass, 1988) . Seafaring and shipping were also an important catalyst to the industrial revolution of the nineteenth century. The nineteenth century marked considerable changes in seafaring. Coastal area trade along the shores of North America prospered in the early years of the nineteenth century, partly as the result of population growth in communities all along the eastern and western seaboard. In the absence of accessible roads, watercraft provided the quickest, most reliable and regular service among all sizes of settlements, supplying transportation for passengers, the mail and the transshipment of cargo to and from the major ports for distribution along the coast (Johnston, 1988). 40 Paddle steamers were used on voyages from Europe to America, as well as from New York, via the isthmus of Panama and on to California by way of another paddle steamer. Paddle-steamers were steamers with one paddle or wheel on the side of the ship. Coal was used for fuel to turn the wheel and propel the steamship forward. Paddle steamers consumed a great deal of fuel and were expensive to run, and their speed was limited as the engines could not be made too heavy or the wooden hulls would have broken up. Soon, ocean liners were no longer a vision of the future, and replaced paddle steamers. The trend towards larger and faster ocean liners was due to social and economic developments (Larson, 1969). Iron had hardly superseded wood as the main shipbuilding material when it was itself superseded by steel (Larson, 1969). In 1856 Henry Bessemer produced the first ingot of steel. His process of producing steel began to be used in more and more fields of engineering, for railway tracks, ships, bridges, engines, manufacturing machines, vehicles and many more things (Larson, 1969) . ...New steamship lines were established, including one connecting the Atlantic ports with the Isthmus of Panama and another joining the isthmus with California ...(Schlesinger, 1937, p.5). Soon the shipyards at Boston, New York and other Northern ports were busily constructing the new types of sailing vessels, and more people were employed in the continued migration to California. The motives guiding later phases of American policy are suggested in the instructions borne by 41 Commodore M.C. Perry on his historic mission to Japan: ...Recent events - the navigation of the ocean by steam the acquisition and rapid settlement by this country of a vast territory on the Pacific, the discovery of gold in that region, the rapid communication established across the isthmus which separates the two oceans-have practically brought the countries of the East in closer proximity to our own...(Schlesinger, 1937, p. 5). Shippino and shipwrecks. Even though shipping was a reliable source of transportation, sometimes there were disasters of various sorts; shipwrecks occurred. During a shipwreck the cargo and other possessions aboard the ship sank to the ocean floor, usually never to be seen again. However, with new technological inventions deep ocean archaeological excavations of shipwrecks have been made possible. Although shipwrecks in shallow water had been located prior to 1954, the discovery of marine artifacts from deep ocean shipwrecks began then with the advent of sophisticated technology. Sonar was used to locate these deep ocean shipwreck sites. A sonar device measures the amplitude of sonar waves which strike and rebound from objects or the ocean floor creating a pattern that can be monitored by the researcher (Bass & Searle, 1988). Researchers who used sonar devices to aid in the excavations of boats and ships have revealed information about trade, technology, firearm power, communication, political activity, social stratification, wealth and economics (Casson, 1971; Lewis & Reinhold, 1955; Ehrenbery, 1967; and Hasslof, 1972). Beginning in 1984 new technological developments permitted the location of deeper 42 ocean shipwrecks. Deep ocean shipwrecks are considered to be those wrecks lying in waters beyond the range of conventional air-breathing divers, usually depths in excess of about 50 meters (Muckelroy, 1978). By 1988 side scan sonar was used for mapping wide swaths of the Atlantic floor, and mathematic modeling was used for identifying probable locations using information based on weather, tides, historical documentation, etc. Because of these deep ocean technological developments researchers were able to locate the S.S. Central America as she lay in eighty- five hundred feet of water (Conrad, 1988) . Excavation of the S.S. Central America yielded mail, specie or treasure, cargo and personal artifacts belonging to passengers and crew (Conrad, 1988). Based on the analysis of artifacts recovered from shipwrecks, investigators have been able to analyze and preserve the remains of human history and maritime activities. It is through archaeological contextual analysis of shipwreck sites that the search for a greater understanding of man's past may be achieved (Muckelroy, 1978) . Changes that have enabled this type of study can be traced back to the industrialization of America during the mid-nineteenth century.

Industrialization and Development of Textile Industry ...From 1815 to 1860 the quantity of products manufactured in the United States increased about twelvefold...(Gunderson, 1976, p. 156). 43 Among these products were textiles and in particular cotton textiles, While manufacturing increased in the East, the South produced raw materials. As Schlesinger (1937) notes, ...Despite the attention given rice culture along the coast, sugar growing in Louisiana and tobacco raising in the border states, not to mention scattered local manufacturing, the chief fount of wealth was the cotton crop...(Schlesinger 1937, p. 6) . In 1825 the opening of the Erie Canal made New York City the prime outlet of East-West domestic trade (Gunderson, 1976) . It served as a major outlet for textiles from the New England mills. More important, it became the trading and financing center for the raw cotton trade in the nation (Gunderson, 1976) . Cotton was usually shipped directly to New York from the South, even when it was going to England (Gunderson, 1976) . The cost of a stop in New York City might have been more than offset by the possibility of obtaining a better price there (Gunderson, 1976). America's first successful cotton textile factory was opened in Waltham, Massachusetts in 1814 (Gunderson, 1976). By 1820 it was clear that the factory production of cotton textiles in the United States had reached the status of a growth sector (Gunderson, 1976) . New England and the middle Atlantic states were the principle centers of manufacturing, commerce and finance (Schlesinger, 1937). The amount of capital invested in manufacturing (including fisheries and mines) doubled totaling more than a billion dollars on the eve 44 of the Civil War (Schlesinger, 1937). ...First in order of importance was the making of flour and meal, then boots and shoes, cotton textiles, and lumber products, with clothing, machinery, leather and woolen goods forging rapidly to the fore...(Schlesinger, 1976, p. 4). Cotton furnished directly more than half of the nation's foreign exports, most of it going to England. At the same time it shed benefits upon Northern mill owners, merchants and bankers and, by centering Southern energies upon its cultivation, created a demand for the farm produce of the Midwest (Schlesinger, 1976). ... In the South itself the wealth invested in cotton culture and its peculiar labor system represented a power which ramified into all phases of political, economic and social life...(Schlesinger, 1937, p. 6). Cotton manufacturing mills were formed in Philadelphia, New York, Boston and other Southern and Atlantic states (Wilson, 1979). These mills produced cotton yarn and woven fabric. Other forms of production, such as household weaving, were being driven out of business in market-oriented areas (Gunderson, 1976) . However, Wilson (1979) stated that during the mid-nineteenth century household weaving businesses and manufacturing mills were concurrently producing cotton goods. It was only later in the century when industrial manufacturing of cotton products took over production from household businesses due to efficiency and lower economic costs. Over the next forty years cotton textile production grew rapidly, averaging a hefty annual gain of 15 percent (Gunderson, 1976). In 1860 the processing of cotton was the largest manufacturing 45 industry in the United States (Gunderson, 1976). Other changes that occurred included the broadening scope of technology in the composition of the products themselves (Gunderson, 1976). Fabrics made during the mid-nineteenth century were made from materials that were often woven with some type of printed design. For men's dress, fabrics of nankeen, corduroy, serge, linsey-woolsey, and jersey (a knitted wool) were available. For outer wear wool broadcloth and "cassimere" were two popular fabric choices. Embroidered satin, striped Marseilles (a raised weave cotton from Beverly, Massachusetts), and velveret (a ribbed cotton) were popular fabrics used to make men's waistcoats (Wilson, 1979). For shirtwear crisp cotton poplin fabric was used as well as a linen woven cloth. ...the best 'superfine' cotton is Sea Island cotton, because of the staple length. In American cotton each individual fibre has a length of about 1 in; in Egyptian cotton 1 1/2 in; and in Sea Island cotton, grown in the soil and climate of the Caribbean, the fibres are 2 in long, producing a superior cloth...(Keers, 1988, p. 22). It has been suggested that the type of fabric used to produce a garment could be an indicator of the function of the dress item when placed in its social context. ...Formal dress is almost always made of fine quality fabrics, such as silks of all kinds - satin, velvet, damask, brocaded or fringed silks, cloth of gold or silver - or fine woollen cloths, cashmere, kerseymere, vicuna, superfine or worsteds. For sports clothes, working dress or informal garments, which need to withstand hard wear and rough weather rather than look aesthetically striking, more serviceable textiles tend to be used: woollen cloth (often of a heavy, rough variety, such as tweed), stout cottons, twills, corduroys and leather are some of the most usual... (Byrde, 1992, p. 46 142) . Fabrics produced during the nineteenth century were fairly homogeneous: cotton was cotton, and wool was wool, without much variation. However, blends of fabric were produced. Satinet fabric was made of a cotton and wool blend. The cotton yarns were woven in the warp direction and wool in the weft direction. The fabric was constructed in a sateen weave and was finished as a woolen (Wilson, 1979). . ..Kentucky jean was also a mixture with cotton warp and wool weft, but it was woven in twill...(Wilson, 1979, p. 262) . Linsey-woolsey was another blend of linen and wool manufactured during the mid-nineteenth century. New textile machinery began to provide opportunities for mixing and extending the available fibers within the thread or yarn itself (Gunderson, 1976). ...By 1860 different types of cloths were being blurred as the industry continuously sought new combinations to obtain a better balance of costs and fabric characteristics...(Gunderson, 1976, p. 164). During the 1850s the production of wool in the United states was influenced by technological advancements. . . .Hand labor was displaced when a system of mechanically combing wool was devised...(Gunderson, 1976, p. 164). The ongoing efforts to increase the productivity of manufacturing wool fabrics were reflected in the diminished cost of purchasing wool cloth. The cost of wool cloth fell to less than half of its initial level during the same period

(Gunderson, 1976). 47 There was little manufacturing of linen in the United States during the nineteenth century. The use of flax as a major textile fiber declined during the early nineteenth century as cotton production increased (Wilson, 1979). The manufacturing of linen required so much hand labor, which was far more expensive in the United States than in Europe, and the manufacture of linen required great skill and experience acquired by the workmen (Brown & Gates, 1872), therefore most linen was imported. However, some linen was grown on farms in New York, Ohio and Vermont. Gradually the quality of the linen grown in the United States deteriorated and by the end of the nineteenth century it was grown only for seed (Wilson, 1979). Silk production in the United States during the nineteenth century was primarily conducted by communal groups (Swinker, 1991; Wilson, 1979). Swinker (1991) states "of the numerous attempts at silk production in the United States during the nineteenth century, only some achieved success in production" (p. 2). ...All over the East housewives had silkworms spinning in the parlor, and they often produced enough fiber for a pair of stocking or gloves...(Wilson, 1979, p. 257). While silk fiber and fabric were produced at home during the mid-nineteenth century, most silk textiles were imported. Many of the basic fabrics of colonial America were still produced in the nineteenth century (Wilson, 1979) . ...Bengal, a stripe for woman's apparel, was imported from India. Sarcanet. a firm but thin lining for cloaks 48 and hoods, came from Persia and Mantua from Italy. Padusov a strong ribbed silk used for waistcoats, also came from Italy. France sent gorgeous examples of brocatelle. lampas. damask. and brocade...(Wilson. 1979, p. 246). Production and technical innovation furnished the textile industries with valuable resources. It saved power and raw materials; it increased the speed and continuity of operation between processes (Singer, Holmyard, Hall, & Williams, 1958) . Machine work surpassed hand work and factory work took the place of the domestic industry. From this the quality of garments improved which led to lowered prices of manufactured items, stimulating demand and creating employment. Other industries were also modified by the changing role of industry in the United States. One example is the shoe industry of the nineteenth century. During the 1850s, shoe manufacturers did not distinguish between the left and right foot. Consequently ladies and gentlemen had their footwear custom made and continued to do so for a long time (Robertson, 1973) . In 1849, for the first time, patents were granted for new inventions. ...By 1860 patents reached six-thousand as compared to one-thousand in 1849...(Schlesinger, 1937, p. 3). During the 1830s a Frenchman named Thimmonior invented the sewing machine. In 1846 Elias Howe of Massachusetts, modified the sewing machine, and in the next decade A.B. Wilson, Isaac M. Singer, and other ingenious persons made improvements which greatly widened its usefulness (Ewing, 1984; Kidwell & Chrisman, 1974). The impact of the sewing 49 machine was felt throughout the world. It created the great sewing machine industries of the United States in the 1850s (Singer, Holmyard, Hall & Williams, 1958) . The sewing machine was introduced into the factory and harnessed to stream or water power (Schlesinger, 1937) . In the textile sphere it became the basis of the ready made clothing industry from the 1850s, ushering in an era of cheap clothing (Singer, Holmyard, Hall & Williams, 1958) . ...Men's shirts which had taken fourteen hours and twenty minutes to make by hand, could now be finished in an hour and sixteen minutes at greatly reduced cost. Between 1850 and 1860 the annual output of clothing factories rose from $48,000,000 to $80,000,000...(Schleninger, 1937, p. 4) . Garment factories for textile production were located in Massachusetts, New England, New York, and Philadelphia (Wilson, 1979). Many changes had taken place since the beginning of the century. In the East every branch of industry boomed, in the Midwest and the South agriculture returned unusual profits, while the railways secured and settled parts of the country, and the mines of California poured a golden stream into all the channels of trade (Schlesinger, 1937).

California History The settlement of California was slow and took place over a long period of time. California has been described as having: 50 ...Cattle on a thousand hills, sea otter swarming along the coast, deer and elk which even a shipboard observer could see bounding on the sides of coastal mountains, flocks of geese and ducks which at times blackened the sky and filled the air with the clatter of their wings, grizzlies and redwood trees: certainly this was an oasis and could support life...(Starr, 1973, p. 13). With such a vast wealth of pristine land, abundant flora and fauna, California was a place many people spoke of moving to. When gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California in 1848, word spread throughout the world, and many individuals and families made plans to move to California. When settlers came to California, the wilderness was hacked into forts and towns and cities before it was transformed into a network of family farms (Senkewciz, 1985) . It was the emigrants from Europe and the East coast of the United States who helped settle California. One area in particular that contributed to the fame and fortune of California was a city called Yerba Buena by the Indians, Mexicans, and Spanish, St. Francis by the Spanish, and San Francisco by the Americans (Capron, 1854). San Francisco consisted of the upper one third of California in 1849. It was formally known as the "Upper country," and so its history is identical with the history of that country (Capron, 1854). ...On the seventh day of July, in the year 1846, the American army took military possession of Upper California by landing at the port of Monterey; and, on the thirtieth day of May, in the year 1848, the territory was ceded to the United States...(Capron, 1854, p. 124). San Francisco was considered a city during the beginning of 51 the 1850s, and despite its remote location, was thought to be in the mainstream of America (Senkewciz, 1985).

DMnogyaph-i r»a of San Francisco The city was primarily of European stock (Senkewicz, 1985) . . . .However, of the non-Europeans, the Chinese were the most numerous...(Senkewciz, 1985, p. 12). It was estimated that there were between three and four thousand Chinese in the city of San Francisco in the year 1852 (Senkewciz, 1985). ...Demographically, San Francisco was not a typical American city, but imaginatively it was every thing that young, white, masculine America dreamed. San Francisco was West; San Francisco was gold...(Senkewciz, 1985, p. 13) . Many individuals and families migrated from the East and Midwest seeking their fortune in California gold. Many of the immigrants reached California, but many were forced to struggle with the winters in the high Sierras or with the heat and lack of water on desert plains (Kennefeck, 1937) . ...In 1849 San Francisco was estimated to contain 2000 persons and by 1851 23,000. In 1852 it was estimated that the population of San Francisco was at 36,151... (Senkewciz, 1985, p. 14). The rapid population growth that had followed the American occupation was sustained by the Gold Rush (Senkewciz, 1985) . . . .One old man said he came to California because his children were coming, and so he was determined to come too...(Colton, 1851, p. 117). It was very typical for individuals and whole families to move out West seeking their fortune in gold. 52 The Gold Rush . . .The pioneer Pacific Mail Steamship Company's 1, 000 ton sidewheeler, Californians, already had sailed from New York for the Pacific Coast by way of Cape Horn, with no passengers, when the news of the discovery of gold in California reached the East. When the California anchored at Panama on January 30, 1849 she found hundreds of frenzied gold-hunters who had made their way across the Isthmus awaiting her. Top heavy with several times her capacity of 100 passengers, she steamed through the Golden Gate the first vessel to round Cape Horn under her own steam and sail into the Bay of San Francisco...(California State Department of Education, 1940, p. 30). The passage from New York to California via Cape Horn lasted between four to six months (Farnham, 1972). As the gold rush of 1848 intensified, people from all over the world went out to California to seek their fortune. People from Europe took a ship to New York and then proceeded on to California via the Panama isthmus by foot. Another lengthier method of transportation was to travel by ship to New York and then around the Cape Horn to California. The discovery of gold along the American River in 1848 changed San Francisco from a town into a city (Senkewciz, 1985) . The gold rush affected the physical character of the town (Senkewciz, 1985). ...San Francisco had no monopoly on hard work; but even so, it was very likely that they worked harder than Easterners. The Gold Rush was a romantic event full of color and 'derring do' ; yet the urban end of this episode involved a remarkable amount of grinding, ceaseless toil...(Lotchin, 1974, p. 295). Tents and shanties multiplied all around the cove of San Francisco, and a few years later the construction of more permanent buildings took place (Senkewciz, 1985). By 1857-58 53 people seldom lived in their offices or stores (Lotchin, 1974) . . . .The American occupation and the Gold Rush did not change everything, however, there were continuities that stretched from before the American occupation to after the gold rush...(Senkewciz, 1985, p. 15). The most striking of these was the town's commercial orientation, which was responsible for its name being changed from Yerba Buena to San Francisco (Senkewciz, 1985).

The Political Govemment of San Francisco The political government of San Francisco was somewhat disorganized before 1850. The earliest American attempt was to adopt the Mexican forms of government. In 1850 San Francisco was incorporated by the de facto state legislature (Senkewciz, 1985). However, since most of the people arriving in San Francisco spent at least half of their time at diggings, city politics was shifting and confused (Senkewciz, 1985) . Many people who did stay in San Francisco took it upon themselves to create some sort of law and order. A group was formed and they called themselves the "honest men" or the vigilantes. There were two large vigilante committees in the first decade of San Francisco's history. ...The 1856 vigilante committee ultimately enrolled between six thousand and eight thousand men and was the largest such extra-legal movement in American history...(Senkewciz, 1985, p. 8). The vigilante committee of San Francisco was in charge of some 54 50,000 persons. Its activities were closely recorded in the press of San Francisco and the press in Eastern cities that shipped goods to California (Senkewciz, 1985) .

Social Setting of San Francisco The people who lived in San Francisco believed it was a city set apart from the rest of the country, that Easterners would not be at home there, and that society along the Pacific was fundamentally different from society along the Atlantic (Senkewciz, 1985). . . .San Francisco during the 1850 and 1860s was set apart from the rest of the country by its enriched democratic quality of its devotion to the theater, musical performances, and art exhibits, to restaurants and cabarets and bars...(California State Department of Education, 1940, p. 127). Most of San Francisco's social life occurred publicly (Lotchin, 1974). Different occupations, nationalities, classes, religious groups, and races of people often lived close enough for frequent meetings; and even when proximity did not exist, they probably had to travel through each other's neighborhoods to get to their own. Therefore, thoroughfares served as meeting places for an early version of a "street corner society" (Lotchin, 1974). It was only later that upper class citizens met in theaters, parks, and homes. From the fashionable quarter at California and Stockton streets came the wives and daughters of San Francisco's wealthy set (California State Department of Education, 1940). These women would shop and visit. Still the majority of San 55 Francisco was made up of men. ...Their occupations included: bankers, lawyers, judges, merchants, stock brokers, miners, and gamblers all wearing silk hats. Prince Albert coats, ruffled shirts, fancy waistcoats, and trousers fitted below the knee to display the highly polished boot...(California State Department of Education, 1940, p. 131). As San Francisco became more established with various businesses, banks, homes, schools, churches, and theater, social customs were also celebrated. One custom observed was marriage. Advice about wedding dress and activities associated with a wedding could be found in popular books and magazines of the period. Women in particular were advised about weddings. ...Where a wedding is celebrated in the usual forms, cards of invitation are issued at least a week beforehand. The hour selected is usually eight o'clock, P.M. Wedding cake, wines, and other refreshments, are prepared by the bride and her friends for the occasion. The bride is usually dressed in pure white; she wears a white veil, and her head is crowned with a wreath of white flowers, usually artificial; and orange blossoms are preferred. She would wear no ornaments but such as her intended husband or father may present her for the occasion; certainly no gift, if any such are retained, of any former suitor. The bridesmaids are generally younger than the bride, and should be dressed in white, but more simply than the bride. The bridegroom must be in full dress; that is, he must wear a black or blue dress coat, which, if he pleases, may be faced with white satin,- a white vest, black pantaloons, and dress boots or pumps, with black silk stockings, white kid gloves, and a white cravat...(Thornwell, 1856, pp. 104-105). After the wedding ceremony the bride and groom would usually take some sort of wedding trip depending on their financial well being. The items chosen to take on the wedding trip were items that reflected the season as well as the destination of the couple. Ideas for the bridal trousseau 56 could be found in popular women's magazines devoted to fashion and fashionable items. Godey's Lady's Book for June of 1857 discusses and illustrates some fashionable dress for a bridal wardrobe. Included in the trousseau is the bridal hat, a simple bonnet of shell rice straw, trimmed in braid, with large flat bows and blonde veiling ("Chitchat Upon New York and Philadelphia Fashions For June," 1857). Other items mentioned included caps, made of drawn linen cambric, or French muslin. Lingerie included a corded dimity, or striped long-cloth with a deep pointed yoke ("Chitchat Upon New York and Philadelphia Fashions For July", 1857). Fashionable lingerie for a bridal trousseau was described as follows. ...We give a design of one of the prettiest under­ garments. This set is only one hundred and fifty dollars for a half dozen, the corresponding garments being an additional seventy-five dollars. They have a deep wreath of embroidery between rows of very fine tucks, and are edged with handsome Valenciennes to correspond. The night-dresses, caps and jupes, intended for the same set, are also extremely elegant in point of plain needle-work, trimming, and embroidery. It is a step from this to the bridal dress...("Chitchat Upon New York and Philadelphia Fashions For June", v. 54, p. 574). There is no mention of what a groom might pack in his trousseau to be taken on his wedding voyage (Godey's Lady's Book, 1857; Hutchings' California Magazine, 1857; Thornwell, 1856) . However, the bride and groom to be married, who lived in San Francisco during the 1850s, had access to a variety of items to choose from right in the city itself. 57

California and the Development of the Transportation SymkAm There were three ways to get to California from New York. The routes then existing were Panama, Cape Horn, and by the plains (Kennefeck, 1937). The Panama route was preferred over the others. This was because it was the safest and the quickest. Before the Panama railroad was completed in 1855 the only cargo transportation routes were to go across the plains or by way of the Cape Horn. The Cape Horn route was considered less hazardous than the Panama trail, but it required three to six months (Kennefeck, 1937). Another alternative was to go by way of the plains however this route also took several months. By 1855 local stage companies began to organize and carry merchandise, mail and passengers across the overland (Kennefeck, 1937). Another method of transportation was shipping.

Shipping The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California, in December 1848 brought people from all over the world, and in particular the East Coast of North America, who were desperate for passage to San Francisco, gateway to the gold fields (Johnston, 1988). Once there prospectors required food, clothing, shelter, outfitting and other basic services (Johnston, 1988). 58 The city of San Francisco was not yet established with stores in 1849, but there were ships that had been converted into storeships selling a variety of necessities. This idea caught on quickly under pressure from the local population explosion and consequent shortages in housing, building materials and labor (Johnston, 1988). By 1851, 148 surplus ships had undergone conversions along San Francisco's waterfront, serving as warehouses, jails, saloons, office buildings, hotels and shops (Johnston, 1988). A fire that year destroyed twenty-two city blocks along the waterfront, including several of the storeships (Johnston, 1988). In 1978 an archaeological excavation team uncovered the remains of one of the storeships the Niantic. A remarkable mass of material data was recorded, shedding light on one of the nation's most famous phenomena: the California Gold Rush and the consequent growth of San Francisco into the West Coast's largest and most important urban center in the mid-nineteenth century (Johnston, 1988). Another ship that was in commission during the California Gold Rush was the S. S. Central America, formerly the George Law. She made several voyages from the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama (Aspinwall formerly Chagres) to New York and vice versa. Her cargo from Aspinwall consisted of specie, mail and passengers from San Francisco. The S.S. Central America sank as she foundered in a storm about 200 miles off the Carolina coast ("Further Particulars", September 19, 59 1857) . There have been various hypotheses as to the reasons leading to the shipwreck of the S . S . Central America. . . .That the ship was sea-worthy does not seem to be seriously disputed; and there can be no doubt that no ships which leave this port ought to be so strong in themselves and so fully provided with every means of safety as the steamers which sail weekly with thousands of passengers along our dangerous and stormy coast...("The Central America", 1857, September 26). Heyl (1953) and Haine (1983) state that the entire blame for the disaster was laid on the management of the U.S. Mail SS Co., as was graphically shown in the ballads sung at that time. However, Haine (1983) also states that during the period of September 11-13, 1857 there were severe gales off the mid-Atlantic coast. Dozens of reports from other sea captains attested to the severity of the storms and the damage sustained by their ships. There have been a number of circumstances associated with the sinking of a boat or ship. Some of these include collisions at sea; stranding of seagoing vessels; fire aboard ships at sea; miscellaneous vessel defects and failures; wartime ship disasters and storms as a cause of shipwrecks. ...The very term 'disaster' connotes dramatic unity and interest, for always a shipwreck is attended by vivid, moving settings. By moving settings, the situation is not stagnant but dynamic and changing from one minute to the next. There is something indescribably awesome about the demise of a great vessel the sudden transformation from a mighty, lively entity afloat to a lifeless hulk deep in its watery grave...(Haine, 1983, p. 23). ...Deaths from disaster at sea have been contrasted with those experienced on the highways, in aviation or railway crashes or from violent industrial explosions. Shipwrecks have a distinct character unlike any other human predicament. The ocean calamity is likely to 60 involve an extended period of personal torment. The sea does not usually devour its victims in one mighty, greedy gulp, there is often time to fashion some means of escape, to contemplate one's salvation, or prepare for the end. The intense interest evoked by shipwrecks is also entwined with the enduring fascination many people feel about ships and the sea, which is related to this craft's long and benevolent influence on world progress. Of man's great array of worldly conveyances, no other form of transportation is so huge or can carry such a vast assemblage of people, plus tremendous quantities of cargo...(Haine, 1983, pp. 14-15).

California and San Francisco Trade During the height of the Gold Rush the population in California increased from 92,597 in 1850 to 379,994 by 1860 (Statistical Abstract, 1878) . The people of San Francisco had a wide and constant demand for manufactured goods, tools, machinery and food products which the undeveloped local industry could not supply (California State Department of Education, 1940) . The weather and economy of the Golden State combined to produce unique needs and wants on the part of Californians and merchants had to satisfy them. The major parts of business done by the merchants were done in the spring and fall (Senkewciz, 1985). Along the Pacific the weather tended to be wet in the winter and dry in the summer, and the mining of gold depended on this seasonal pattern (Senkewciz, 1985) . Good mining demanded a high level of water in the streams and rivers; otherwise panning for gold proved to be very difficult. A dry winter meant poor mining, and poor mining meant bad business for the San Francisco commission merchants who had imported goods to California 61 (Senkewciz, 1985). When the streams dried up, miners came back to the larger cities to spend some of their money, and in the fall trade commenced (Senkewciz, 1985). Merchants had to be careful when ordering shipments. If the shipments came too late when the rains came and the roads were flooded, it meant huge losses for the merchants. ...It took time and experience to establish a stable network of commercial intelligence, and as their experience with the weather demonstrated they were short on both...(Senkewciz, 1985, p. 36). San Francisco merchants had to come to grips with the unpredictability of demand and the problem of trying to anticipate needs a year in advance. There were many people trying to establish importing or wholesale businesses in San Francisco. Many people tried to establish businesses and ended up losing everything. ...Even though the market quickly became a specialized one, every merchant was gambling: and since they worked on a commission basis, unsold stock was a real burden...(Senkewciz, 1985, p. 37). Merchants would send out reports and requests to suppliers in the eastern United States, Europe, Chile, China, and Hawaii (Senkewciz, 1985). Inevitably oversupply became a basic condition of the market through the 1850s (Senkewciz, 1985). There were also problems with prices. If a shipment arrived and the merchant had a bid for the goods, but could sell them right away, typically another ship with the same goods arrived and the price dropped. Everyone complained about the permanent condition of over supply, which one 62 merchant called the inflation of an overdone business (Senkewciz, 1985). ...In 1850 and 1851 the supply of goods out weighted the demand for them and businesses took loses as well as shippers. In 1852 the cities imports experienced a change. By 1853 goods of all sorts were once again flowing into the city, with the inevitable consequence of overstocking and lower prices...(Swenkewciz, 1985, p. 40) . Though the frustrated merchants did not know it, gold production had peaked in 1853 (Senkewciz, 1985) . In 1854 shipments lessened. Those merchants who imported goods, lost money, and by 1855 the situation worsened. In 1856 all the importers in the city had more goods on hand than they could sell without sustaining loses (Senkewciz, 1985) . The shipments from the East kept coming. ...It was during 1855 and 1856 that municipal spending declined substantially, and the Consolidation Act of 1856 slashed outlays so drastically that the corporation could not replace a fireman's hose...(Lotchin, 1974, p. 245).

Many merchants were in financial ruin. All this created a mercantile stalemate, with sellers unwilling to sell at the prices offered and buyers unwilling to buy, since they were convinced prices would go down even further (Senkewciz, 1985) . ...As the editor of the Herald sarcastically reminded his Eastern readers- such as they were - 'the people residing in California do not wear more clothing or consume more food that any other civilized people' . . . (Senkewciz, 1985, p. 43) . Merchants thought that if they held their goods, prices would come back up. They also decided to cut out the middle man or jobber and sell directly to the consumer hoping to make 63 a profit. The first class merchants needed to hold their goods at a figure which would cover first costs and expenses, adding a fair living, profit, whether there was a demand for them or not (Senkewciz, 1985).

Banking in California ...In the early period, banking was very informal with saloons frequently holding funds for miners who had struck it rich. The vault at one of these informal banks was described as "an excavation a yard square under the bed...The timelock was a revolver of large caliber" ...(Beck & Williams, 1972, p. 296). During the mid-nineteenth century in San Francisco, California anyone with a good heavy safe could become a banker (Senkewciz, 1985). San Francisco's Montgomery Street, was called the "Wall Street of the West," it runs north from Market Street between tall, austere office buildings, a canyon of high finance (California State Department of Education, 1940, p. 114) . As gold dust began coming down the Sacramento river there began to be a need for more banking institutions. ...The first requisites were scales and a safe, to weigh and store the precious metal ; and so storekeepers were the first bankers...(California State Department of Education, 1940, p. 114). Soon merchants, assayers, and express companies were buying up gold dust in exchange for drafts on Eastern banks (California State Department of Education, 1940) . Wells Fargo came to San Francisco in July 1852 (Beebe & Clegg, 1949) . Thereafter the bank of Darius Ogden Mills was established (Beck & Williams, 1972) . At the end of the year a man by the 64 name of Stephen A. Wright had opened his Miners' Bank with an advertised capital of $200,000 and was collecting interest of from 8 to 15 percent a month on real estate loans (California State Department of Education, 1940) . In 1853 nineteen banks were established (Beck & Williams, 1972). In 1856 the Miners Exchange Bank was established (Lotchin, 1974). San Francisco was rich in gold and poor in money. Some sort of arrangement had to be made in order for people to exchange goods. ...In the absence of a mint, assay offices began to coin 5,-10-, 20-, and 25-dollar slugs...(California State Department of Education, 1940, p. 115). By the year 1855 there was a panic and many of the earlier banks were bankrupted (Beck & Williams, 1972). ...The Gold Rush boom had so far overreached itself by 1854 that a crisis in mercantile affairs developed which steadily grew worse until the 'Black Friday' of February 23, 1855, began a financial panic which forced 20 of the 42 banking firms to shut their doors forever. Bankruptcies increased from 77 in 1854 to 197 in 1855...(California State Department of Education, 1940, p. 115). Many bankers fled leaving behind a string of bad debts ranging in the millions. It was in 1859 that the flow of riches from the silver deposits of Nevada mines began and created a new era which finally established San Francisco as a financial center of the West (California State Department of Education, 1940).

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An examination of the history of the United States during the mid-nineteenth century, shows that many families traveled 65 from the East to the West in large groups. In this way, they could help each other brave the environmental elements and once situated in the West help each other establish residences. Schlesinger (1937) states that through changes in transportation systems the East and West coasts were brought together, encouraging harmonious relations and better communication. Also at this time industrialization and advancements in the textile industry influenced the availability of goods in San Francisco, California during the mid-nineteenth century. A question may be raised whether the culture of San Francisco, California was different from that of the East. San Francisco during the mid-nineteenth century was influenced by many families who had migrated from Europe and the Eastern United States. In this way the culture of San Francisco was influenced by these people, their values and norms. On the other hand, San Francisco established its own laws and social regulations. One example is the vigilante committees established during the early 1850s to establish law and order. Lotchin (1974) states that the people of San Francisco adopted all the refinements of East coast society: theater, architecture, parks, etc. San Francisco was also similar to Eastern culture since merchants, traders, businessmen and all branches of business came out to California, to seek their fortune in gold. Many businessmen, who did not come out to California for gold, came to make money from the people who 66 did come to seek their fortune in gold. So, San Francisco was an urban city with morals and values similar to those of Eastern society. However, the city of San Francisco was culturally diverse and like any other city, there were always those who lived on the fringe of society. The cultural context of the United States and San Francisco California during the mid-nineteenth century is important to understand in order to place the Easton trunk in the context in which the items were packed and worn for a wedding sea voyage. By understanding the culture in which the items recovered from the Easton trunk were worn, valuable information can be gained about some of the types of outer- garments a man of known status from San Francisco, California wore during the mid-nineteenth century. By critically analyzing a "time capsule" of men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk, the investigator can make inferences regarding men's wear styles, function and fashion worn by a particular man of known status in California during the mid­ nineteenth century.

Fashion and Teohnnlmgy Fashionable products were present in the mid-nineteenth century, a time of rapid growth and change. In the mid­ nineteenth century the conceptualization and dissemination of ideas about fashionable dress were becoming more widespread. Changes in the use of transportation systems enabled faster 67 movement of fashion objects to consumers, nationally and internationally. Within the United states the shipping of material artifacts by water to coastal cities was still done, but, stage coach, river ferry, train, and horse back were also used to transport objects within the fashion system. ...The nineteenth century saw an enormous expansion of the world of fashion as part of the expansion of national economics and international trade networks wool came from Normandy, cotton from the United States, silk from Italy and Lyons as well as Japan, lace from England and Belgium. By 1860, there were 10,000 weaving looms in Lyons, which were improved and later mechanically powered; England led in automation of the textile industry with faster shuttles and more spindles and new technologies like the sewing and embroidery machines. The transportation and communications network for passengers, goods, and information expanded, and styles that failed in paris were shipped by rail to the provinces or abroad and sold there. Individual units of production might remain small...(Steele, 1985, p. 82). Steele (1985) may have been referring to machine powered looms when she made reference to the 10,000 weaving looms in Lyons. Hand powered looms had been in existence since the early eighteenth century (Wilson, 1979) . The number of hand powered looms equaled the amount of machine powered looms put into use during the mid-nineteenth century. During the mid-nineteenth century men's fashionable dress styles came from England (Kidwell & Christman, 1974). American tailors adopted fashionable men's wear styles depicted in literature and advertisements in newspapers. Tailors who produced men's dress could be considered mediators of fashionable dress during the 1850s. Figureheads within the society were also part of the fashion system in 1857. Empress 68 Eugenie of France, Elizabeth I and Prince Albert of England, and Princess Charlotte of Belgium were watched and admired for what they wore. Prince Albert of England was depicted in 1855 wearing the latest fashions (Payne, 1965/1992). During this period in history women's fashionable dress began to be produced by designers as well as dress makers, while the majority of men's fashionable dress was still patterned and manufactured by tailors. ...The old system of cutting from patterns continued but the pattern blocks were now drafted from some basic systems and adapted to the measurements and anatomy of the individual customer. For wholesale mass production [of] these patterns were scaled to suit the main figure types...(Waugh, 1964, p. 131). The production of mens dress became more simplified and standardized due to the use of measurements based on reoccurring figure types. However, men's dress was not completely standardized until the 1890s (Roach & Musa, 1980). During the mid-nineteenth century manufacturers of men's clothing were able to produce ready made, stylish clothing at lower prices than previously available. This change afforded many men the luxury of dressing above their position by purchasing fashionable dress at affordable prices. However, the details of the garments enabled others to infer the status of the wearer (Keers, 1988). ...The custom tailor may be regarded as the seminal figure in the story of the democratization of clothing because it was the modification of his techniques that made possible 'cheap, well made and fashionable clothing' in 'an extensive assortment from the medium to the extreme of fashion'...(Kidwell & Christman, 1974, p. 39) . 69 In this way dress serves as a vehicle of communication when viewed from the fashion system in which it operates. During the mid-nineteenth century fashion as a phenomenon was present in the United States. When analyzing the men's dress items recovered from the Easton trunk, it is important to identify attributes indicative of status as it was defined during the mid-nineteenth century. Elements of Mr. Easton's dress items may reflect a fashionable dress style associated with men of his position and rank within the society when compared to the primary documentation of the period. Other indicators of status are details added to the elements of men's dress.

Structural and Applied Design Kefgen (1971) defines design as the arrangement of lines, shapes, textures and colors into a coherent whole. These are often defined as the fundamental elements of a garment. There are two kinds of designs, structural and applied. All garments have structural design because they are created by construction details when put together, including seams, collars, pockets, and the color and texture of the fabric (Kefgen, 1971) . The structural design of a garment allows it to function (Davis, 1987). Any detail that is an integral part of the garment is considered to be part of the structural design. Garments that are created to include good structural design components for their interest and appeal are the most 70 pleasing, and they are often the most expensive (Kefgen, 1971) . Structural design must agree both with the garment's function and with the structure of the human figure (Davis, 1987) . Irene Emery (1966) identifies structural components used when identifying fabric style of garments. Other terminology of structural design was taken from Gioeilo, and Berke (1981) . (For definitions, see Appendix A ) . Some garments have structural and applied design. Functional openings, belts, pockets, and buttons, or structural seams, darts, and gathers may also be decorative because they provide visual stimuli as well as fit and performance (Davis, 1987). An example of structural design which has decoration elements is the Rouleau stitch. The Rouleau or faggot stitch is characterized by a single row of straight or pinched rouleau attached by a straight faggot stitch which gives strength and finish to the edge, while retaining a lace like characteristic, and a single row attached on either side to the lace by fagoting becomes a method of joining (Fry Windsor, 1946). Another type of applied decoration is tucks or pin tucks. Pin tucks are about one eighth of an inch wide. They are made by a fold of fabric, with a line of stitching through the two thicknesses of fabric parallel with the fold (Erwin & Kinchen, 1974) . Standards for good tucks require even widths 71 and spaces with good stitching. Applied design is that which adds surface enrichment to the garment. It can consist of sequin, beading, embroidery, applique, lace, and piping (Kefgen, 1971). Embroidery is one form of applied design. One type of embroidery that was popular during the nineteenth century was called "White Work, " which means white embroidery on white material. White Work was produced from simple stitches on sewn muslin. It was during the mid-nineteenth century that White Work became popular in America, when the feather stitch, satin stitch, stem stitch and french knots were much in evidence (Stone, 1981). Emery (1966) classifies embroidery as a satin stitch. The satin stitch is a simple, straight, flat stitch.

Men's Dress Men's fashionable clothing worn during the 1850s consisted of a variety of styles of garments dependent on time of day and social occasion. There were three varieties of coats that were fashionable during this period. The Dress coat, formerly called the Tail coat, was cut-in at the front waistline and had tails at the back. This coat was worn for formal occasions both for day and evening wear (Tortora & Eubank, 1992) . The second coat was called a Frock coat. The Frock coat was worn for daytime wear throughout the century (Payne, 1965/1992). During the forties the waistline was lowered on the Frock coat and gave the look of an elongated 72 trunk, as compared to the fifties when the body of the Frock coat and the skirt were proportionately the same length and the skirt was not too full (Payne, 1965/1992) . During the mid-nineteenth century the Frock coat could be single or double breasted. The third coat was called a Morning coat. This coat was cut with tails that had curved front edges which sloped back gently at the sides. This coat was literally worn for morning wear in the earlier part of the century but later became associated with formal evening wear (Byrde, 1979). Overcoats, similar to the sack coat, were also worn. One style of overcoat was the Paletot-sac. The Paletot is a French name for an overcoat (Cunnington, 1966). Usually the Paletot-sac was a short unwaisted coat, often with a lined hood instead of a collar (Cunnington, 1966) . A back seam and back vent often were absent; when present the vent was usually short (Cunnington, 1966). The Paletot-sac could be worn as an overcoat, for day or evening dress. It could also be worn as a coat next to the waistcoat (Cunnington, 1966). The fashionable waistcoat for daytime wear was tailored to fit above the natural waistline. Styles varied from single to double breasted. The double breasted styles had larger lapels and were associated with day wear (Tortora & Eubank, 1992; Buck, 1984). Brocades, striped satin with floral pattern, raised matelasse designs, dotted velvet, and paisley printed pique were popular fabrics used to make waistcoats during the mid-nineteenth century (Payne, 1965/1992). 73 ... In the nineteenth century white silk embroidered waistcoats were worn for weddings and white pique waistcoats have, of course, been usual with formal evening dress...(Byrde, 1979, p. 143). Ties at the back of the waistcoat were characteristic of a style that was popular in 1845 (Buck, 1984) . Another element useful in dating waistcoats was a leather facing at the inside base of the fore parts. Leather front facings were popular in the early 1840s and 1850s (Buck, 1984) . Darts seen at the armhole and under the lapel were characteristic of an 1840s style of waistcoat (Buck, 1984) . The material used for the backing of the waistcoat was usually different from the front fabric. Backing of the waistcoat was usually glazed cotton for day wear and silk for evening wear waistcoats (Buck, 1984) . Men's fashionable trousers of the 1850s were usually lighter in color than the rest of the coordinating outfit of a waistcoat, and coat, frock type or sack coat (Payne, 1965/1992) . Striped and checked fabric trousers were worn for daytime wear while black was the proper color for evening wear (Buck, 1984). The style of trousers for daytime wear were wider at the top and narrowed gradually to the ankle (Byrde, 1979) . This style of trouser was called a "peg top" trouser (de Marly, 1989). Trousers with fuller pant leg styles and two rows of braid on the outside seams were reserved for formal or evening wear (Byrde, 1979; Keers, 1988). The waistband had two distinct styles depending upon if whether the trousers were worn with a belt or braces. 74 ...The rule has always been that formal wear demands braces, but they are inappropriate for casual or sports dress. The original style of formal and suit trousers has buttons outside the waistband with the rear of the trousers raised in a V, to accommodate braces...(Keers, 1988, p. 53). Keers (1988) states several characteristics indicative of style and function. These include: front either pleated or plain, pocket style, cut of trouser, outside side seam, and bottom of trousers where they fall on the shoe. An 1850s photograph of Monterey, California pioneers depicts five gentlemen each wearing the fashionable styles of the period. These five gentlemen would have been of a similar status as Mr. Easton. All were entrepreneurs in California. Each gentleman is wearing a light colored shirt and cravat around a standing collar. One gentleman has his collar turned down over the cravat. They all are wearing waistcoats, with some variation in the color and pattern of the fabric. Each man has a dark colored coat with wide lapels and a metal chain attaching a watch from the pocket of the waistcoat to various places on the central opening of the waistcoat. The gentlemen’s trousers in this photograph are not entirely visible but appear dark in color (see Plate I). At this time a new style of suit was introduced for men. The Ditto suit consisted of a matched coat, waistcoat or vest, and trousers (Payne, 1965/1992). Fashionable neckwear styles consisted of standing collars worn with a narrow bow ties. 75

Plate I. Men's wear Monterey California, 1850s. Garner, W. R. (1970). Letters From California 1846- 1847. California: University of California Press.

Sometimes the bow ties were patterned, but white was popular for formal wear (Payne, 1965/1992). The cravat or joinville was a long shaped band or tie with fringe on the ends, and was sometimes wider at the ends than it was at the center (Byrde, 1979) . The ascot, a type of cravat, consisted of a scarf folded and placed over the front of the shirt and secured with a pin (Byrde, 1979). Neckwear served a dual purpose. It was used to complement the outfit in its decorative and aesthetic variation. This was accomplished by a variation in neckwear style. Neckwear was also used to identify specific social 76 settings (i.e., informal or formal occasions). This was accomplished by the use of different fabrics in neckwear for a specific social setting. ...In the nineteenth century silk was worn (in white, black and other colours) and, became customary for daytime wear, but linen and cotton were correct for the white tie with evening dress...(Byrde, 1979, p. 112). Fashionable hats worn during the period consisted of low crowned wide brimmed hats. For summer wear straw hats were popular (Payne, 1965/1992). Men's accessories included handkerchiefs, canes, gloves and umbrellas. Jewelry worn by men consisted of watches and watch chains, tie pins, rings, and cuff links or a variety of ornamental buttons. ...the best handkerchiefs are still made of linen, which maintains its crisp, starched appearance, and the most expensive still have hand-rolled edges, because no machine can yet copy this finish successfully...(Keers, 1988, p. 82). Floral handkerchiefs were also popular during the mid­ nineteenth century. These handkerchiefs were used by men who chewed tobacco. "Printed handkerchiefs were acceptable to disguise the snuff stains, but then as now, and as with shirts, white remains the proper colour for gentlemen" (Keers, 1988, p. 82). Gloves were another fashionable accessory worn during the 1850s. The fabric of a glove was directly related to the function in which it would be worn. ...Count Alfred D'Orsay was known for wearing six pairs a day. After the reindeer gloves for his morning ride, the chamois for hunting and the beaver for the ride back to London, there were the braided kid gloves for the afternoon's shopping, the yellow dogskin for a dinner 77 party, and then the lambskin embroidered with silk for the evening ball...(Keers, 1988, p. 94). Gloves during this period were meant to be very fitted. In some cases the finger nail could be seen through the glove (Keers, 1988). Keers (1988) states "fine gloves originally had eight components: a palm and back; a thumb; three 'fourchettes' or forks, which form the sides of the fingers; and three 'quirks', diamond-shaped pieces inserted at the bottom between the fingers. Good gloves are still finished with three lines of pointing on the back, which first appeared in 1780, a vestige of the embroidery of earlier periods" (p. 94) . Shoes worn during this period consisted usually of black suede, and patent leathers (Byrde, 1979) . Boots were also worn by men. The toe of the boot was slightly square and the shoe long and narrow (Byrde, 1979). Men's fashionable dress styles in the United States during the mid-nineteenth century were influenced by menswear styles from Europe, specifically England (Kidwell & Christman, 1974). In June of 1859 the clothing establishment of Quincy Hall took out an advertisement in Hutchings' California Magazine. The advertisement states that they are the largest clothing emporium on the Pacific coast, located in San Francisco. The depictions on the advertisement suggest that regardless of occupation Quincy Hall can provide suitable clothing for every man and every situation (see Plate II). 78

Plate II. Advertisement San Francisco, California, 1859. Hutchings, J. M. (1859). Hutchings' California Magazine. California: Hutching's California Magazine.

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In another advertisement San Francisco males learned that a variety of items were available from J. R. Mead and Co.: . . . J. R. Mead and Co. importers, wholesale and retail dealers in fine clothing, gentlemen's furnishing goods trunks, valises, carpet bags & e. Corner of Washington 79 and Sansome Streets, San Francisco...(Hutchings' California Magazine, 1859, p. 89) ( see Plate, III).

Plate III. Advertisement San Francisco, California, 1859. Hutchings, J. H. (1859). Hutchings' California Magazine.California ; Hutching's California Magazine.

ADVERTISma SUPPLEMENT. J R. MSAD & CO., lUPOBTBRSi WHOLESALE AND BET^L DEALERS IN

O o t E L ome Streets

Men's Under-Linen Under-linen has been defined by Ewing (1978) as consisting of those items worn closest to the skin as a buffer between the skin and the under structures (corset, crinoline etc.). For men under-linen is similarly defined as those items worn closest to the skin and as a protection from outer- garments . 80 Shirts were considered to be under-linen items, worn closest to the body and as a protective layer between the skin and the outer clothing during the mid-nineteenth century (Byrde, 1979). ...Nevertheless, the shirt, unlike most other underwear, has always been partly visible since the end of the Middle Ages...(Byrde, 1979, p. 98). The cuffs and collar of a shirt have been the elements of the shirt that were visible to others. Shirt fabrics worn during this period were usually made of linen or cotton. ...The shirt was vitally important. Worn next to the skin, it protected outer garments, which were hard to clean, from being soiled by the body. Until the Industrial Revolution, linen was generally worn but it was expensive. With the introduction of cotton, people could afford more shirts, and so were able to keep cleaner. This further encouraged the cotton trade, but its expansion was at the expense of linen. While real gentlemen continued to wear linen shirts, and would-be- gentlemen wore cotton shirts, with linen fronts and cuffs... (Levitt, 1986, p. 48). Byrde (1979) states that the shirt, more than any other garment in the male wardrobe, was used to distinguish wealth and social status. ...The finest, softest and whitest linens are the most expensive to buy and need careful laundering, especially when frilled or embroidered. White linen also shows up dirt almost immediately, so the man with immaculate collar and cuffs clearly does not need to work with his hands and can afford to change his shirt once or twice a day...(Byrde, 1979, p. 98). Byrde (1979) states that most men wore linen fabric shirts, although the texture and weight of the material varied. ...The quality of the fabric was in fact, rather more important than the fashionable shape of the garment. The 81 best quality linens such as cambric, fine holland cloth, lawn or muslin were almost transparent, while the least expensive cloths were the coarsest and thickest, such as hemp, Scotch cloth and other stout linens. . . (Byrde, 1979, p. 99) . A shirt made of superior cloth was cut more generously since the finer and softer linen would not be bulky and uncomfortable (Byrde, 1979). During the mid-nineteenth century the production of cotton in the United States was increasing and led to the subsequent decrease of linen production. Many shirts at this time were beginning to be produced in cotton as well as linen. For daytime wear shirts were plain; decorative tucks or ruffles were not applied (Tortora & Eubank, 1992), and daytime shirts were made of striped or patterned fabrics (Payne, 1992/1965; Byrde, 1979). For evening wear most shirts were white, with embroidered or ruffled fronts (Tortora & Eubank, 1992) . Byrde (1979) states that during the mid-nineteenth century detachable collars became fashionable, and were associated with the upper, middle and professional classes, while working class men tended to go collarless except for special occasions (Byrde, 1979) . For daytime wear the double collar was generally worn and for evening wear the single collar remained popular (Byrde, 1979). Another under-linen item worn by men was the gown. The gown was made of a variety of materials. By the end of the eighteenth century gowns made of cotton fabric became popular 82

(Byrde, 1979). ...The tradition of wearing a comfortable gown and cap was carried on in the nineteenth century but in a slightly different form. Dressing-gowns and a round night cap were worn until the 1850's but after this date the smoking jacket and smoking cap became popular ...(Byrde, 1979, 153). The smoking jacket was in the style of a loose fitting coat. It was short and had quilting and decoration with silk cord or braid frogging (Byrde, 1979). Under shirts, long johns, drawers, socks, and hose were also worn by men during the mid-nineteenth century.

Easton Biographical Information Ansel Ives Easton was born on March 19, 1819 at Columbia Co, New York (Easton, 1899) . He was the son of Samuel Easton III and Fanny Ives (Easton, 1899). According to Jarrett (1977) Ansel Easton went to San Francisco in 1849 or 1850. He lived in San Francisco in the Western Addition down by Laguna and Vallejo Streets (Jarrett, 1977), and Ansel Easton made $100,000 by washing clothes and refilling mattresses for the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. He also furnished them with dry goods. Adeline Mills was born August 30, 1829, in North Salem, Washington, Co, New York (U. S. Census, 1860 suggests 1825 birth in England). She was the daughter of James Mills and Hannah Ogdon. Miss Mills went to California to keep house for her brother D. 0. Mills (Jarrett, 1977) . 83 Mr. Ansel Easton and Miss Adeline Mills were married at St. Matthew's Episcopalian Church in San Francisco, California on August 20, 1857. After their wedding voyage trip to New York, the couple returned to live in California (Jarrett, 1977) (see Plate IV). They divided their time between a home in San Francisco and a newly-acquired ranch on the San Francisco Peninsula (Hughes, 1990). Having a thorough knowledge of horses, Mr. Easton began stocking his ranch with thoroughbred horses. One horse he purchased was an Irish-born stallion named Black Hawk. Black Hawk was shipped around Cape Horn to San Francisco, California in 1859 (Hughes, 1990). Mr. and Mrs. Easton had two children. Jennie Ellen Marine Easton was born on June 21', 1858 in San Francisco California. Her parents named her for the two ships which saved their lives after the wreck of the S . S . Central America. Ansel Mills Easton was born on May 22, 1865 in San Francisco, California. In 1868 Mr. Easton was thrown by Black Hawk and severely injured. He died as a result of the injury on August 22, 1868 (U. S. Census, June, 27, 1860) . He was 49 years old. Mrs. Easton continued to live in California after the death of her husband. She passed away in San Mateo, California on June 12, 1916. 84

Plate IV. Hr. and Mrs. Ansel Ives Easton. (Photo courtesy of Columbus-America Discovery Group).

Closed Context The packing of a trunk serves to express the individual or joint choices of people who select items for travel based on decisions made about destination (environment) and reason for travel (ritual, business or pleasure). Within this framework the needs of the individual vary and are reflected in the contents of her/his trunk. If the trunk recovered was in fact the Easton's stateroom trunk and it was thought that one trunk could be taken when rescued, then all items in the trunk could have held significant meaning and sentiment for the owners, because they 85 could choose what to take with them. However, if during a crisis, i.e., the ship sinking, other important artifacts could not be reached in the hold, the items found in the stateroom trunk would include those that had been recently used or worn and could reflect items placed in the other's trunk for saving. There is no evidence in the historical record to support the hypothesis that the Easton trunk recovered from the debris field of the S.S. Central America shipwreck was shared by the Eastons. Mrs. Easton states in a letter to a friend, six weeks after the wreck of the S . S . Central America, the details surrounding the sinking of the ship. She does not mention taking one trunk up to the deck to be removed when the ship was abandoned. Instead she makes reference to two trunks within the stateroom. ...I went to my stateroom trunk and took my dear Mother's and brother James miniatures, which fortunately were in it, and some money. Then I took my shawl, and put on a life preserver. Ansel came down, went to his trunk, and took out a suit of clothes and the remainder of his money (in all about nine hundred dollars), together with his valuable papers...(Easton, 1857, p. 5). The Easton trunk recovered may be Mr. Easton's stateroom trunk since most of the artifacts and dress items are men's clothing. A question still remains concerning how the trunk was removed from within the ship and fell into the debris field of the wreck along with other trunks still on the sea floor today. In order to analyze the artifacts recovered from the Easton trunk, the interpretation of such data must be closely 86 bound up with an understanding of what is involved in a shipwreck (Muckelroy, 1978) . The shipwreck is an event in which a highly organized and dynamic assemblage of artifacts is transformed into a static and disorganized state with long­ term stability (Muckelroy, 1978). ... "A closed context analysis enables very detailed interpretations to be undertaken because there has not been a great deal of rearrangement of the material since deposition"...(Muckelroy, 1978, p. 188). In conclusion, information about Nineteenth Century United States History, California History, Fashion and Technology, Men's Dress, Men's Under-linen, Closed Context, and Easton Biographical Information can be used to better understand the context of the styles, functions and fashions of men's outer dress items worn by a man of status during the mid-nineteenth century. By analyzing the men's outer dress items using Cardin's (1980) theoretical framework, one can infer information about some of the items Mr. Easton packed in his trunk for his wedding voyage in the fall of 1857.

Research Hypotheses The following hypotheses were tested in the study. The criterion for acceptance of the hypotheses were established prior to the investigation.

Hypothesis I All of the men's dress items recovered from the Easton trunk represent fashionable male dress of the mid-nineteenth 87 century.

Criterion for acceptance: The men's dress items from the Easton trunk are consistent with fashionable male dress of 1853-1857 as evidenced by visual and written primary and secondary documents of the period.

Hypothesis II None of the men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk represent styles manufactured and worn prior to 1853.

Criterion for acceptatnce; All men's garments in the Easton trunk represent styles manufactured and worn from 1853-1857 as evidenced by visual and written primary and secondary documents of the period.

Hypothesis III The men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk exhibit variation in function within each category.

Criterion for acceptance: The men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk display the presence of attributes indicating different functions for garments within each class, based on primary 88 documents of the period. CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The emphases of this study are upon the identification, characterization, and interpretation of men's outer wear contained in the Easton trunk recovered from the debris field of the S. S. Central America shipwreck site in the fall of 1990. Included in this chapter will be a discussion of the research design, the sample, development of the instrument, data collection, and data analysis.

Research Design Primary, secondary, and scholarly written and visual information as well as other types of men's outer garments from the same period were studied to aid in the identification of the function and style of the dress items to be analyzed for this study. Primary documentation has been defined as evidence from a specific period in time. Secondary information depicts a specific period in time but is written in a later date. Scholarly research is evidence written or depicted by experts from a specific field. Under the heading of primary documentation there are two types, objective and subjective. Objective evidence is information that is written or depicted in a certain time period with the intention of

89 90 being used in the future. This type of research would include official court records, wills, birth and death certificates, census records, paintings etc. Subjective evidence is a person's interpretation of the events that have occurred in a specific time period. Subjective resources would include newspapers, diaries, books, magazines etc. Primary subjective resources examined for this study included: Godev's Ladv's Book. 1857; Peterson's Magazine. 1857; Hutchings' California Magazine. 1857; Ehrichs Fashion Ouarterlv. 1870s; The New York Daily News. 1857; Hamers Weekly. 1857; The New York Dailv News. 1856, 1857; San Francisco Alta. 1857, and Leslie's Illustrated Weekly Newspaper. 1857. Primary objective resources included: New York Census information 1850-1860 and California Census information 1850-1860, on topics of population and industry and manufacturing. Secondary sources used for this research included standard text books in Historic Costume. Scholarly research was included for this study from Dress. Textile History. Costume and The Clothing and Textiles Research Journal. As well as consulting primary, secondary and scholarly documentation, similar men's outer dress items were observed at five different museums in the State of Ohio. The categories of men's wear included: coats, waistcoats, trousers, neckwear, shirts, and collars. The museums visited were the Cincinnati Museum of Art, Kent State Museum, The Ohio Historical Society, The Western Reserve Historical Society, 91 and the Kelton House.

ganipl

Out of 110 dress artifacts recovered from the Easton trunk, 11 were identified as women's, and 99 were identified as men's. While the original records made during trunk opening establishing that there were 35 men's under-linen dress items, 46 men's outer-garments, and 18 accessory items, it was discovered, during the analysis of the items, that in fact there were only 109 dress items. There were only 98 men's dress items in total. Upon examination, one of the collars (#29115) was found to be a piece of folded paper with Mr. Easton's name written on it. One item, labeled as a shirt (#29063) was found to be a long undershirt and another item labelled as a pair of trousers (#29052) was found to be a pair of long underwear. Collar (#29141) could not be located to be studied during the period of the analysis. For the study outer-garments were defined as those items that would by seen fully or partially, by the public. Hence, shirts and collars were placed in the outer-garment category. Gloves and handkerchiefs were excluded since they were identified as accessory items.

Development of the I n s t r u m e n t

In order to determine the attributes of men's outer- garments that were worn by a man of status and wealth, primary 92 and secondary sources were consulted. Literature that discussed specific attributes associated with dress worn by a "gentlemen" of the period was compiled from the literature and included in the attribute examination record. After careful examination of the literature mentioning attributes that have been used as indicators of status for a man during the mid­ nineteenth century, style, function, condition, construction, fabric, and fiber structure were selected as attributes (Keers, 1988; Young, 1945; Tortora & Eubank, 1992, Byrde, 1979) . The researcher tested the attribute examination record using similar men's outer garments from the Historic and Textiles Collection in the Department of Textiles and Clothing at The Ohio State University. After recording the attributes based on these examinations, modifications were made to the checklist. The attribute examination record was then tested for inter-rater reliability and test retest reliability by three professionals in the field of Textiles and Clothing. Rater one is a former faculty member in Textiles and Clothing from a university in Ohio. Rater two holds a B.S. in Textiles and Clothing from the Department of Textiles and Clothing at The Ohio State University, and rater three is working on her Ph.D in Textiles and Clothing at The Ohio State University. All three raters had taken at least one course in historic costume, fabric structure identification and fiber identification using microscopy. Not surprisingly rater one 93 had the most experience in identifying garment styles and fabric structures since she is a former faculty member with expertise in identifying and characterizing style, fabric, construction and fiber types. From the sample of 42 outer garments, which were placed in six categories, one item from each of the six categories was selected using random sampling. However, at the onset of the research it was thought that there were 46 men's outer- garments from which the random sampling was to be generated. It was only later during the actual analysis of the items in the cold storage facility that the investigator discovered three of the items were not what they had been labeled: shirt #29063 was really an undershirt; trousers #29052 was really a pair of long underwear and collar #29115 was really a piece of paper. Collar #29141 could not be located in the cold storage facility and was therefore eliminated from the sample to be analyzed. Listed below is a random sampling of the numbers generated based on a sample of 46 items. Minitab version 8 statistical software was used to generate a random number based on the number of items within each category to be studied. For example, for the set of fifteen shirts, the random number generated was 11. The shirts were ordered in numerical order according to inventory numbers already assigned and the eleventh shirt was chosen to be used for inter-rater reliability. A similar procedure was used when choosing items from each of the six categories. 94 Employing the computer generated random numbers, the first item in the coat category was chosen; the third item in the waistcoat category was chosen; the third item in the trouser category was chosen; the fifth item in the neckwear category was chosen; and the fourth item in the collar category was chosen. All six items were placed in the laboratory in the Department of Textiles and Clothing. Warp and weft fiber samples were taken from each item, except the collar #29161. It was determined that the collar was in such good condition, without any tears or holes, that it was best to leave it completely intact and no samples were taken. The fiber samples taken from the other five garments were placed in vials and labeled. Fibers from each vial were placed on slides and mounted in water. The slides were numbered, and a record kept of the number and the sample identification information. Blind identification of the fiber samples was done so that the raters would not be biased in their identification of fiber type by some association with garment type. On Wednesday, August 12, 1993 at 1:00 PM three raters came to the laboratory in the Department of Textiles and Clothing at The Ohio State University. The six outer garments to be analyzed had been placed on separate tables that were lined with acid free tissue paper. Each table had a number on it ranging from one to six. A script was read to all three 95 raters (see Appendix E) . The raters then began to analyze the six items using the attribute checklist. After each rater finished analyzing the six items, they were taken to another room in the laboratory to identify samples of fiber type. Each rater had her own microscope. After identifying the fiber samples, the completed sheets were returned to the researcher. At this time the researcher handed each rater a letter stating the time and date for the retest (see Appendix F) . On Wednesday, August 25, 1993 at 1:00 PM the same procedure described above was repeated with each rater. The attribute examination record sheets were then statistically analyzed for inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability of each rater.

inghT-iimont-, Development! Inter-rater Analysis of Data For the first part of the research qualitative analysis of the men's outer garments was conducted. This included the use of primary and secondary documents from the period as well as scholarly research on the period for purposes of comparison. Items were described in detail. Characteristics were noted such as style, function, construction and unusual characteristics. The next part of the study of the men's outer garments focused on the categorization and ranking of attributes present in each item using an attribute checklist. 96 The data from each attribute checklist were entered into a data file on the Wylbur computer mainframe of the Academic Computing Services at The Ohio State University. A program by the Statistical Consulting Service was written to measure the degree of agreement in the classifications of the attribute checklist using SAS software. The method used for the kappa measure to order the raters choices from the attribute checklist is summarized as follows. ...Suppose that both classifications in a two-way table have the same categories, listed in the same order. To assess the degree to which observations cluster on the diagonal of the r X r table, one can compare the probability ii=E ii that an observation falls on the diagonal to the corresponding probability ii=E ii+ii that would be expected if the variables were independent. This measures the degree of agreement in the classifications...(Agresti, 1984/1989, p. 177). Cohen (1960) states the measure kappa (II. - II.) (i-ii.) equals one when there is complete agreement and zero when there is independence. A Kappa score of l meant the raters were in agreement; a Kappa score of 0 meant there was no agreement; and a score of .8 meant somewhat an agreement. A series of tables was developed based on the outcome of the scores on the attribute checklist of the first testing (see Tables 1, 2, and 3) . Table 1. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 1 & 2 on the First Test of the Attribute Examination Record

Kappa Scores

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Questions

VO Table 2. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 1 & 3 on the First Test of the Attribute Examination Record

Kappa Scores

1.0 X XX X XX 0.8

0.6 X

0.4 XXX X X

0.2 X XXX

0.0 X XX XX X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Questions

VO 00 Table 3. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 2 & 3 on the First Test of the Attribute Examination Record

Kappa Scores

1.0 X X XX 0.8

0.6 X X XX

0.4 X X XXX

0.2 X XXX

0.0 X XX XX 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Questions

VO VO 100 Questions one and four had to do with the style of the garment; question two referred to the location of the garment prior to the analysis; questions three, five and six had to do with the condition of the garment; question seven had to do with the type of manufacturing of the garment; question eight and nine had to do with the construction of the garment; questions ten through fifteen had to do with the fabric structure; questions fourteen through twenty-two had to do with the fiber type. After reviewing the tables produced based on the results of the raters first test of the attribute examination record, some similar answers were recorded (see Table 4). By looking at Table 4 it is apparent that the raters had similar answers for questions one, two, six, eight, thirteen, fourteen, sixteen, eighteen, twenty, twenty one, and twenty two. Raters one and three had similar answers to questions two, three, eight, eleven, thirteen, fourteen, seventeen, and eighteen. Raters two and three had similar answers to questions two, five, eight, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, and eighteen. All three raters answered questions two, eight, thirteen, fourteen, and eighteen the same. 101

Table 4. Comparison of Agreement Between Raters the First Time They Answered Questions in the Attribute Examination Record. Question # Raters 1-2 Raters 1-3 Raters 2-3 1 X" 2 X X X 3 X 4 5 X 6 X 7 8 X X X 9 10 11 X 12 13 X X X 14 X X X 15 X 16 XX 17 X 18 X X X 19 20 X 21 X 22 X ^ X indicates agreement between raters Another series of tables was developed based on a second evaluation of inter-rater reliability (see Tables 5, 6, and 7) . This set of tables shows that raters one and two had similar answers for questions one, two, three, six, eight, eleven, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, twenty, twenty one and twenty two. Raters one and three had similar answers for questions one, two, three, eight, ten, thirteen, fourteen, sixteen, twenty, and twenty one. Table 5. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 1 & 2 on the Second Test of the Attribute Examination Record

Kappa Scores

1.0 XXX X XX XX XXXX X

0.8 XX X 0.6 0.4

0.2 X

0.0 X XX XX 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Questions

O NJ Table 6. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 1 & 3 on the Second Test of the Attribute Examination Record

Kappa Scores

1.0 XXX X XXX XX XX

0.8 XX X X

0.6 X X

0.4 X X 0.2

0.0 X X X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Questions

o UJ Table 7. Degree of Agreement Between Rater 2 & 3 on the Second Test of the Attribute Examination Record

Kappa Scores

1.0 XXXX X XXX X

0.8 X XXX

0.6 X X X

0.4 X

0.2 X

0.0 XX X X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Questions

o 105 Raters two and three had similar answers for questions one, two, three, five, eleven, twelve, thirteen sixteen, eighteen, twenty, twenty one, and twenty two. All three raters for the second test answered questions one, two, three, thirteen, sixteen, twenty and twenty-one in the same way (see Table 8).

Table 8. Comparison of Agreement Between Raters the Second Time They Answered Questions in the Attribute Examination Record. Question # Raters 1-2 Raters 1-3 Raters 2-3 1 X X 2 X X X 3 XX X 4 5 X 6 X 7 8 XX 9 10 X 11 X X 12 X 13 X X X 14 X X 15 X 16 X X X 17 X 18 X X 19 20 X X X 21 X X X 22 XX 1 V J J J____

A set of tables was then developed to evaluate test- retest reliability of each rater (see Tables 9, 10, and 11). From this set of tables it is apparent that rater one answered the questions on the attribute checklist similarly for the first and second test. Table 9. Degree of Agreement for Rater 1 on the Pre and Post Test of the Attribute Examination Record

Kappa Scores

1.0 XXX X X XXX XXXXX

0.8 XX X

0.6 X

0.4 X 0.2

0.0 X X X X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Questions

o Table 10. Degree of Agreement for Rater 2 on the Pre and Post Using the Attribute Examination Record

Kappa Scores

1.0 XX X XX X X X XX

0.8 X X 0.6

0.4 XX X

0.2 X

0.0 XX X XXX 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Questions

o Table 11. Degree of Agreement for Rater 3 on the Pre and Post Test Using the Attribute Examination Record

Kappa Scores

10 11 12 13 14 1516 1718 19 20 21 22

Questions

O 00 109 Rater number one also had the most professional experience analyzing historic garments as compared to the other two raters. Rater one answered questions one, two, three, six, eleven, thirteen, fourteen, sixteen, seventeen, nineteen, twenty, twenty one, and twenty two in the same manner. Rater two had the next most consistent scores. She answered questions one, two, six, thirteen, fourteen, seventeen, eighteen, twenty, twenty one and twenty two similarly for both the pre and post tests. Rater three answered questions two, three, four, five, seven, eight, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, and seventeen the same for the pre and post tests. This analysis illustrates how those with more expertise in the study and analysis of historic garment styles and fabric structures would score higher as compared to those with a limited background in historic costume styles and fabric structures. After reviewing the tables comparing each rater to another and then each rater to themselves, it is apparent that the rater with more experience answered the questions consistently as compared to the other two raters with less experience. This test illustrates that when a researcher analyzes historic garments and attributes of those items, it is imperative to choose raters who have a solid background in style, fabric structure, and fiber identification. In summary, the instrument is appropriate, and indicative of garment characteristics if it is tested by experienced people 110 in the field of historic costume and textiles. Modifications were made to the attribute examination record after the inter-rater and test-retest reliability tests were conducted to create an attribute checklist that incorporated as many possible answers as possible. The section on the styles of men's outer-garments was modified for each category as well as section on fabric structures. Primary and secondary sources were consulted, and more detailed sections on style and fabric structure were incorporated into the attribute examination record. The investigator then used the modified attribute examination record to analyze all forty two of the men's outer garments. The data were entered into a data file in Wylbur computer mainframe of the Academic Computing Services at The Ohio State University, and statistical analyses were conducted using a SAS software program. Qualitative attributes were identified and noted. Two types of attributes were identified: essential attributes and key attributes. Essential attributes are those characteristics that were observed within certain classes of items and within classes representing different types. Key attributes are those characteristics that were noted across many or all classes and types. Descriptive statistics were used to order key attributes according to frequency of occurrence across all categories. Ill

Data Collection A combination of qualitative and quantitative techniques were employed in the process of identification and characterization. The qualitative techniques included an extensive description of each outer-garment studied. Written and visual illustration from primary and secondary historical sources were used as a basis for comparison for each of the outer-garments described. The quantitative analysis of the study included the development of an attribute examination checklist. The checklist was developed with reference to primary and secondary documentary and visual evidence of men's dress of the mid-nineteenth century. The attributes chosen represent characteristics that may be used as indicators of ' style, function, fashion and status within the culture of the mid­ nineteenth century.

Data Analysis All the dress items recovered from the Easton trunk were identified according to gender. Once the items had been identified by the sex of the wearer the items were then further divided according to under dress and outer dress. The dress items identified as men's outer garments were then chosen for further analysis. Once the entire inventory of the trunk had been identified and categorized, only the men's outer-garments were 112 analyzed further because the status of an individual can be inferred from style, fabric, and fiber of the outer clothing he/she wears in public and society (Hoult, 1965). The men's outer-garments contained in the trunk were divided into six categories: coats, waistcoats, trousers, neckwear, shirts and collars. As noted earlier, shirts and collars have historically been associated with the under garments a man would wear but, for this research both shirts and collars were included as outer-garments because parts of these items were visible to the public and could be used as an indicator of status (Byrde, 1979; Tortora & Eubank, 1992)(see Table 12).

Table 12. Tdentificatior TTninh^irS of M en' a D reSS Grouped bv Categories Coat Waistcoat Trouser Neckwear Shirt Collar #29148 #29170 #29049 #29088 #29064 #29085 #29168 #29176 #29164 #29095 #29065 #29161 #29178 #29096 #29066 #29239 #29180 #29099 #29067 #29181 #29100 #29069 #29101 #29074 #29102 #29077 #29103 #29084 #29104 #29114 #29105 #29154 #29106 #29155 #29107 #29156 #29108 #29157 #29134 #29158 #29138 #29296 113

Style ftnA giiTiction A detailed description of each of the 42 men's outer- garments was undertaken noting the construction characteristics and any applied design. Unusual attributes that were characteristic of each individual outer-garment were observed and described. The styles of each male outer-wear item were compared to primary and secondary documentary sources. Style can be seen as the exterior shape or cut of the item as well as the decoration used to embellish it. Style is both spacial and temporal; styles vary depending on the period under study and can be identified based on these elements of detail. Function of each item was determined based on the identification of attributes as well as the style of each item. The determination of function ultimately leads to the reconstruction of ancient or historic behavior (Ashmore & Sharer, 1988). When compared to primary, secondary and scholarly research, the men's outer wear items examined were shown to have a specific style and function. The condition of each item also was noted with reference to the presence of alterations and mended areas. Notations also included the presence or absence of a label, fabric structure, and fiber type. 114

Pahrin GhniCture The fabric structure of each item was identified using the Bausch and Lomb macroscope with a nominal magnification of IX to lOX, the hand held macroscope also with a nominal magnification of IX to lOX, or hand held Micronta illuminated microscope with a magnification of 30X. The storage location of the men's dress items determined which type of macroscope could be used. If the dress items were housed in cold storage, then the hand held macroscope and the Micronta illuminated microscope were used. If the dress items were housed in the Historic Costume and Textiles Collection in the Department of Textiles and Clothing, then the Bausch and Lomb macroscope, as well as the hand-held macroscope and the Micronta illuminated microscope were utilized. Identification of fabric structure included structure of the outer fabric, the lining, interfacing, and the fabric on the back of the dress item if different than the front. If access to the outer fabric, lining, interfacing or sewing thread was not easily obtained, the researcher did not cut holes in the garment to obtain the samples. Since the men's outer-garments were fragile, the observation and identification of the fabric structures was conducted at one place on the garment. Emery's (1966) book The Primary Structures of Fabrics was used to aid in the identification of the fabric structure as well as Burnham's (1980) book Warp and Weft. 115

Fiber Tdentification The identification of fiber samples from the outer fabric, lining, interfacing, and back of dress item, if different, was conducted by examining the fiber samples mounted on microscope slides employing a Zeiss Axioplan microscope. The nominal magnification used ranged from lOOX to lOOOX. Fiber samples were taken from each outer garment to be analyzed noting the warp and weft direction of the yarns. Warp fibers were identified in yarns that ran vertically down the fabric structure. Weft fibers were identified as those yarns that ran horizontally across the fabric structure. If a selvage edge was present, fiber samples of warp and weft were taken with confidence noting the direction of the yarns. In some cases fiber samples were not taken since the garment was completely intact with no holes or tears. Fiber samples were only taken in areas where tears or holes already existed, or at seam edges that were easily opened or unfinished. The color of the fibers was identified when visible under the microscope, and when present was used as an indicator of the actual color of the garment. The fiber samples were identified using four different microscopy techniques: brightfield, polarized light, phase contrast, and differential interference contrast, (DIG). The emphases of the study were upon the identification, characterization, and interpretation of men's outer garments recovered from a historic deep ocean shipwreck site. The 42 116 men's outer garments were identified and characterized according to style, construction, function, fabric structure and fiber type. Second, an attribute examination checklist was developed, tested, and modified. Next, the men's outer garments were analyzed using the revised attribute examination record. Frequencies were counted for the attributes characterized using the checklist. CHAPTER V

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

This chapter focuses on the results of the analyses of the men's outer garments recovered from the Easton trunk. The results will be presented as they were identified and characterized using Cardin's (1980) framework. There are four stages of the model: cataloging, classification, pattern recognition, and historical inference.

Cataloging The first stage of Cardin's (1980) model is cataloging. A passenger trunk was recovered from the shipwreck site of the S. S. Central America in the fall of 1990. As the items from the trunk were being removed, one item, a shirt (#29065), was identified as having "A. Ives Easton" stamped or written on the right front side. After all of the dress items were removed from the trunk other items were found to have Easton's name written or stamped on them. Hence, Mr. Easton was identified as the owner of the trunk; a man from California on his wedding sea voyage. The Easton trunk is made of brown leather and is rectangular in shape (see Plate V). There is a long leather

117 118 handle at the right front side of the trunk. This handle is the only handle on the Easton trunk and may indicate the trunk was carried on its end. The latch enclosure of the trunk was located at the center front. The trunk itself consists of two halves. The upper portion of the trunk is 2cm smaller in depth than the bottom half. The upper portion measures 21cm deep, 43cm wide and 76cm long. The lower half of the trunk is 23cm deep, 43cm wide and 76cm long.

Plate V. Photograph of Easton Trunk. (Courtesy of Columbus-America Discovery Group).

There is a stamped inscription on the upper portion of the trunk located under the strap enclosing the upper half of the trunk to the lower half. The inscription reads "Made by 119 John Cattnach, Wall Street, New York." John Cattnach was a single proprietor who manufactured trunks and bags during the 1850s. The New York Directory for 1854-1855 lists two addresses for his business. The first was located at 86 Broadway and the second at 9 Thanes, both in Manhattan, New York. It is possible that Mr. Cattnach advertised his business in the San Francisco Alta a newspaper, but no evidence in the San Francisco Alta advertisements for the years 1856 and 1857 has been found. Mr. Cattnach lived at 26 Bergen street, Brooklyn, New York. On October 4, 1900 Elizabeth E. Clark filed a claim to use John Cattnach's name. Mr. Cattnach evidently had expired by this time. Elizabeth E. Clark was granted this request and was listed as "Administrator of John Cattnach." Clark's business under the name of John Cattnach was listed as trunks and bags (New York Directory, 1854-1855). The researcher has been unable to locate any catalogs from the Cattnach trunk and bag manufacturing establishment. However, a catalog of popular trunks for sale in 1900 has been identified. Mr. Frank Stallman from Columbus, Ohio manufactured a variety of trunks. One of particular interest was Mr. Stallman's steamer trunk. He produced three variations of the steamer trunk. The first one was identified as a fibre steamer trunk. ...This trunk is hand-riveted, three-ply veneer basswood box, pure brass clampings, front and end bolts, brass plated trimmings, linen lined. Yale Excelsior lock, vulcanized hard fibre covering, workmanship and material 120 the very best, and should last an ordinary lifetime...(Stallman, 1900, p. 22). The second trunk was identified as a pegamoid trunk. ...This trunk is hand-riveted, three-ply veneer basswood box, pure brass clampings, front and end bolts, brass plated trimmings, linen lined. Yale Excelsior lock, water-proof pegamoid covering, workmanship and material the very best, and should last an ordinary lifetime...(Stallman, 1900, p. 22). The third trunk was identified as a steamer trunk. ...This trunk is hand-riveted and made within regulation size, and is made of basswood, canvas covered, oil painted and varnished, steel clamps and corners and tray, linen lined, good Yale lock, a very durable trunk...(Stallman, 1900, p. 22). Based on the descriptions and visual illustrations, it appears that the Easton trunk was similar to the Stallman steamer trunk (see Plate VI) . The Easton trunk was made of a canvas covered wood, with steel clamps along the front and sides of the trunk and lined in linen fabric. The placement of the dress items recovered from the Easton trunk was identified by reviewing video tapes of the Easton trunk opening in November of 1990. There were six layers of clothing identified within the trunk. The dress items were identified as being folded (f) , rolled (r) , flat (fl), or unable to determine (?) based on the notes and video tapes of the dress items as they were removed from the trunk. 121

Plate VI. Steamer trunk design and description, 1900. Stallman, F. A. (1900). The stallman dresser trunk. Ohio : Private.

No. 3. Steamer Trunk.

sezishifiipx

There were also some items that were recorded without video reference, these include: eight handkerchiefs, one cravat, a ribbon (#29277) with buckle (#29263), two (Cologne) bottles in German newspaper (#29245, and #29248) , three German newspapers (#29246, #29245, and #29251), and German newspaper bottle wrapping (#29249). Listed in table format are the layers of clothing items recovered from the trunk as well as other artifacts and their corresponding numbers (see Table 13). 122

Table 13. Identification and Placement of the Items Recovered From the Easton Trunk.

Layer l Women Mise Men's Newspaper (29206)’^ (29049) long underwear (folded?) (29050)chemise(r) (29052)trousers(folded?) (29061)Bay water bottle (29051)stockings(r) (29070)towel(r) (29053)drawers(r) (29057)dressing gown(r) (29063)undershirt(r) (29064)shirt(r) (29077)shirt(r) (29224)handkerchiefs(r?) (29069)shirt(r) (29080)dress(r) (no # given)bread (29081)undershirt(r) ^ Identification number

Layer 2 Women Mise Men (29048)bloomers(r) (29054)undershirt(r) (29055)chemise(r) (29056)drawers(r) (29073)petticoat(r) (29065)shirt(r) (29059)split bloomers(r) (29066)shirt(r) (29060)fancy robe(r) (29067)shirt(r) (29068)stockings(r) (29074)shirt(r) (29058)petticoat(r) (29075)undershirt(r) (29076)chemise(r) (29078)dressing gown(r) (29079)stockings/hose(r) 123

Table 13. continued. Identification and Placement of the Items Recovered From the Easton Trunk.

Laver 3 Women Mise Men (29084)shirt(f) (29085)collar(flat) (29086)cravat(rolled) (29088)cravat(f) (29089)box sections (29090)box sections (29091)box sections (29092)Presbyterian letter in envelope (29093)box sections (29094)socks(5)(f) (29095)ascot(f) (29096)ascot(f) (29097)box sections (29211)(29098)gloves (2pr)(flat) (29099-29108)cravat (8) (f ) 124

Table 13. continued. Identification and Placement of the Items Recovered From the Easton Trunk.

Layer 4 Women Mise Men (29193)mustache brush (29194)tooth brush (29111)box that belts were in (29112)fabric (29113)string (29206)Steamer edition newspaper (29114)Ralston shirt(r) (29115)part of a collar/fabric (29116)solid object (leather and something) (29198)tongs/glove implement (29199)powder metal flask (29119)box with 5 cent piece as a seal (29120)drawers(r) (29204)pistol (29126)box (29123) picture of a man (29125) foil around box (29124) Chinese carving (29126) gold box photo image (29210) note in 29126 "good morning sir do you know me" 125

Table 13. continued. Identification and Placement of the Items Recovered From the Easton Trunk.

Layer 5 Women Mise Men (29125-30)handkerchiefs (5)(f?) (29132)socks(4)(fl) (29133)suitcase strap (29134)ascot(f) (29135)comb (29197)watch fob (29137)tags (29138)paper/belt (29205)pistol (29139) sad letter (29140)drawers(f) (29141)collar(f) (29142)fabric covering/trunk (29202)(3) gold studs (29201)pair cuff links (29145)(2) musket balls 126

Table 13 continued. Identification and Placement of the Items Recovered From the Easton Trunk. Laver 6 Women Mise Men (29148)coat(f) (29282) 1 pair gloves (29149) robe (f) (29150) handkerchief in robe(f) (29152) night shirt (r) (29153)socks (Ipr)(f) (29154-29158) shirts(5) (f ) (29159) night shirt (r) (29160) long underwear(r) (29160)collar(r) (29162) men's drawers (29163) long underwear(r) (29164)trousers(r) (29165)undershirt(r) (29166)drawers(f ) (29167) long underwear (29168)coat(f) (29212)socks(Ipr)(f) (29170)vest(r) (29298) pen tip in vest pocket (29171)socks(Ipr)(f) (29172)fabric/]ar wrapped in fabric (29203)cow oil jar (29174)long underwear(r) (29195)leather purse instrument for hygiene (29176)vest(f) (29177)trunk lining (29178)vest(f) (29296) cravat found with vest (29297) pen tip found in vest pocket (29179)trunk lining (29180)vest(f) (29181)vest(f) (29182)socks(Ipr)(r) 127 As noted, there were a total of 109 dress items recovered from the Easton trunk as compared to 110 since one items was identified as a folded piece of paper. While the placement of 30 dress items was not recorded and can only be inferred, the placement of 79 dress items was recorded with video and written documentation. Since the focus of the investigation was upon male clothing, the sex of the wearer of each garment within the trunk had to be identified. The investigator compared initial evidence of each item with others in the trunk and with primary visual and written documents of the period. Measurements were taken of the shoulder seams and waist circumferences of the coats and waistcoats, and these measurements were compared. Primary documents (written and visual) did not confirm a consistent pattern of closure for coats for males. Although coats worn by women of the period often presented a "masculine" or tailored appearance, the measurements for both coats in the trunk and all the waistcoats were consistent across shoulder seams. One of the coats (#29168) was larger across the waist when compared to all the waistcoats and the other coat. During the mid­ nineteenth century clothing styles were very fitted for both men and women. Since the shoulder measurements were similar to the other men's items, the coat (#29168) was identified as belonging to Mr. Easton even though the coat style depicted was one which was worn by both men and women of the period. 128 At first it was more difficult to identify the owner of two pairs of gloves until a pair of gloves was discovered in the vent pocket of Easton's coat (#29148). Since it is the same style as the other two pairs of gloves found in layer three of the trunk, they were also identified as his. Determination of the owner of the handkerchiefs was difficult as well. A printed handkerchief with a floral design was found in a stack of woven striped and plain handkerchiefs recovered from the Easton trunk. During the mid-nineteenth century men carried woven striped and plain handkerchiefs (Keers, 1988; de Marly, 1989). Floral handkerchiefs were also used by men because supposedly they were used to hide the tobacco stain that normally would show on a plain or striped handkerchief (Keers, 1988). Since the floral handkerchief was found with other handkerchiefs that had styles traditionally associated with the handkerchiefs men used during this period, the investigator suggests that the floral handkerchief belonged to Mr. Easton. Hence, eleven dress items have been identified as women's and 98 have been identified as men's. There were 38 men's under-linen dress items, 42 outer-garments, and 18 accessory items. Once the entire inventory of the trunk had been identified and categorized according to the sex of the wearer, the men's outer-garments were selected for further analysis. The men's outer-garments contained in the trunk were divided into six groups or classes, based on attributes identified and 129 depicted in the historical record (see Table 14) . "Classifications create order from apparent chaos by dividing a mass of undifferentiated data into groups (classes)" (Ashmore & Sharer, 1988, p. 85) . The six classes of outer­ wear include: coats, waistcoats, trousers, neckwear, shirts and collars. While shirts and collars have historically been considered under garments, for this research, and as stated earlier, both were included as outer-garments. All of the garments within each class were characterized (Appendix F) . Nineteen of the items studied were located in a cold storage facility with a temperature of 19 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. At this time it was impossible to remove all of them since changing the environment in which they are kept could lead to acute deterioration. While stabilization is essential for long term preservation, the methods for treatment of garments recovered from deep ocean environment have not been developed completely (Jakes & Wang, 1993). Twenty three outer-garment items were removed from the cold storage facility to be cleaned. Subsequently they were stored in the Historic Costume and Textiles Collection at a temperature of 65 degrees Fahrenheit and 67% humidity. After conservation two of the items were placed on exhibit in the Huntington Bank in downtown Columbus for a period of three months. The items placed on exhibit were shirt (#29066) and collar (#29085). 130

Table 14. Style of Men's Outer Garments Category Identification Style Number Coat 29148 Double Breasted Frock Coat Coat 29168 Paletot-sac Waistcoat 29170 Single Breasted Shawl Collar Waistcoat 29176 Single Breasted Shawl Collar Waistcoat 29178 Single Breasted Shawl Collar Waistcoat 29180 Single Breasted Shawl Collar Waistcoat 29181 Double Breasted Shawl Collar Trouser 29049 Classic Style Trouser 29164 Classic Style Shirt 29064 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29065 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29066 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29067 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29069 Other Shirt Name/Style Shirt 29074 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29077 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29084 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29114 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29154 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29155 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29156 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29157 Shirt with Collar Attached Shirt 29158 Shirt with Collar Attached Collar 29085 Detachable Square Ended Collar 29161 Detachable Square Ended Collar 29239 Detachable Square Ended Neckwear 29095 Ascot or Scarf Neckwear 29096 Ascot or Scarf Neckwear 29134 Ascot or Scarf Neckwear 29099 Tie Neckwear 29100 Tie Neckwear 29101 Tie Neckwear 29102 Tie Neckwear 29103 Tie Neckwear 29106 Tie Neckwear 29296 Tie Neckwear 29088 Cravat or Joinville Neckwear 29104 Cravat or Joinville Neckwear 29105 Cravat or Joinville Neckwear 29107 Cravat or Joinville Neckwear 29108 Cravat or Joinville Neckwear 29138 Cravat or Joinville 131 For this research these items were analyzed at the Huntington Bank after banking hours.

Classification While there are a variety of ways to classify evidence, the investigator employed attribute analysis to order the data obtained in the characterization phase of the research. As indicated, specific attributes were identified from primary and secondary documents of the mid-nineteenth century and were incorporated into an attribute examination record. Attributes related to function and to male fashion of 1853-1857 were included. Results of the analyses are presented by class (category) of evidence.

Within Category Classification of Men's

Dregfl ItAmA By Identifying Attributes

Coats Both coats recovered from the Easton trunk and analyzed in this study (see Table 15) had shawl collars, similar lapels, and silk linings. They also shared the attributes of hand stitching, interesting fabric structures, unusual fabric pattern design, and the absence of any manufacturer's or owner's label (see Table 15). Both coats were fastened with buttons. Table 15. Attributes of Men's Coats I.D.# Style Label Top Fabric Pattern Design Fiber Manu­ Stitching Structure Type factured 29148 DBFrock None Hand Unbalanced Float None Wool Coat Simple Float Weave 29168 Paletot- None Hand Balanced Float Woven Wool/ sac Coat Compound color stripe Silk Plain change linear Weave With Variation embroid­ Comp Warp in weft ery and pile Yarns size

W ro 133 They differed in certain stylistic characteristics and functions. Coat #29148 (see Plate VII) was identified as a double breasted Frock coat with a circumference seam at the waistline and similar measurements for the upper (16 13/16") and lower (15 12/16") sections. While the ratio of skirt length to upper trunk length varied during the 19th century, the Frock coat of the 1850s is characterized by relatively equal proportions between the upper and lower sections (Cunnington, 1966).

Plate VII. Double Breasted Frock Coat (Photo courtesy of Columbus-America Discovery Group). 134 The Easton Frock coat is an 1850s example of a coat worn during the day. It was not new, however. Areas had been altered and mended, including an alteration of a button hole partially cut out on the inside of the lapel not visible on the outside and mended areas on the back vent. Coat #29168 (see Plate VIII) was identified as a Paletot- sac, a coat fastened with three tabs down the center front. As depicted by Cunnington (1966, p. 182), the Paletot-sac coat was worn over the Frock coat as an overcoat or simply over the waistcoat. The latter case seems more likely for the Easton coat since the arms eye measurements of both coats are close in size (Paletot-sac, 17 ll/16" and 17 9/16" vs. 17 1/16" and 17" for the Frock coat). Further, the approximate circumference of the waist of the Paletot-sac was 40" as compared to an approximate waist measurement of 36" for the Frock Coat, and the length of the Paletot-sac coat is 19 1/2" as compared to the Frock Coat which measures 32 9/16". The Paletot-sac coat measured 19 1/2" from the center back seam at the neck to the hem of the coat although the presence of a center back seam, according to Cunnington (1966), is unusual. The center back seam on the Easton Paletot-sac coat is made of two pieces of fabric that are sewn together creating a center vertical seam down from the neck to the hem of the coat. 135

Plate VIII. Paletot-sac Coat (Photo courtesy of Columbus-America Discovery Group).

In contrast, the Frock coat measured 32 9/16" from the center back seam at the neck to the hem of the coat. Typically, the skirt of the Frock coat of the 1850s extended to the knees. Evidently the Paletot-sac coat recovered from the Easton trunk was shorter in length than the Paletot-sac coat depicted by Cunnington, 1966). The Paletot-sac coat is not consistent with the primary documents of the period, however the length of the Frock coat suggests this coat was consistent with Frock coat lengths of the period. The Paletot-sac coat did not have any alterations or mended areas. 136 When comparing the styles of the two coats recovered from the Easton trunk to primary visual and written documentation, one sees that both coats are representative of styles that would have been worn during the period of 1853-1857 (Cunnington, 1966). Both of these styles were considered to be current fashion for gentlemen of the period (Cunnington, 1966). The Frock coat, first introduced in the 1820s, was worn throughout the remainder of the nineteenth century, while the Paletot-sac coat was worn as a fashionable coat from the 1840s through the 1860s. However, since the Frock coat (#29148) had areas that had been altered and mended as compared to the Paletot-sac coat (#29168) , the Frock coat appears to have been worn more than the Paletot-sac coat, which was either newly purchased or not worn as much. It is likely that both coats were worn for day dress. Although, Cunnington (1966) states that the Frock coat also could have been worn for evening dress, it is unlikely that the Easton Frock coat served this function because of its general condition. According to the literature, coats of the Paletot- sac style were never worn for evening dress. The fabric structure for both coats varied. Frock coat #29148 was identified as having a twill weave fabric structure with the floats brushed to create a napped effect, while the Paletot-sac coat #29168 had a twill weave fabric structure made with different colored yarns (see Table 15 and 16). 137

Table 16. Techniques Used to Achieve Pattern Design in Outer Coat Fabric I.D. Floating Color Variation Variation Variation Number Yarns Change in Warp in Weft In N o . Yarn Size Yarn Size of Yarns 29148 X 29168 X X X X

Five variables (floats, color change, variation in weft yarn size, warp yarn size and variation in number of yarns) were used to identify how the outer fabric pattern was achieved (see Table 16). The single technique designed to create the napped surface effect of the Frock coat (#29148) fabric was the use of float yarns (see Table 16) . Teasing the woolen float yarns of the coat fabric led to what must have been a smooth, soft surface in which the underlying fabric structure was not visible. On the other hand three different techniques could be distinguished in the fabric of the Paletot-sac coat (#29168). Using two different colors, varying the warp yarn size, and varying the number of weft yarns created a linear fabric design in twill that contributes to the overall style of the Paletot-sac coat in the Easton trunk (see Table 17).

Table 17. Design Created Coat Outer Fabric I.D. Fabric Design Design Applied Applied Number Design Linear Curvi­ Style Pattern linear 29148 29168 X XX X 138

Waistcoats There were five waistcoats analyzed for the study. All had shawl collars with a dart under each lapel, buttons to fasten the waistcoat, two welt pockets, a watch pocket, and a half belt with a buckle at the lower center back area of the waistcoat. All five of the waistcoats had top stitching that was hand sewn, but the fabric structure, pattern, and design varied (see Table 18). All of the waistcoats analyzed had details representing an older style seen in the late 1840s and early 1850s. Waistcoat #29178 had leather foreparts, and #29170 had foreparts lined in wool. Two of the waistcoats (#29180 and #29181) had ties at the center back of the waistcoats in addition to the half belt with buckle. Waistcoat #29178 had borders edged with narrow cord resembling piping. Cunnington (1966) states that waistcoats with borders edged with narrow cord were fashionable beginning in 1839 but not after 1855. The two waistcoats with foreparts lined in another fabric, other than the outer fabric, had outer fabrics of silk as compared to the three waistcoats that had foreparts lined in the outer fabric of cotton (see Appendix A) . Perhaps the silk waistcoats had foreparts lined in a more durable fabric since silk fabric would be considered delicate and easily ruined especially in the forepart area on a waistcoat. Table 18. Attributes of Men's Waistcoats I.D.# Style Label Top Fabric Pattern Design Fiber Manu­ Stitching Structure factured 29170 SBSCi None Hand BCPW: Float Woven Cotton 29176 SBSC None Hand USPW* None None Silk Warp Faced 29178 SBSC Yes Hand UCPW® Float Woven Silk Variation Abstract in the # of Yarns 29180 SBSC Yes Hand UCPW* None Diamond Cotton Weft faced C Weft 29181 DBSC: None Hand BCPW Float Woven Cotton CW&W Color Change Variation in the Weft Yarn Size ^ Style: SBSC (Single breasted shawl collar) Style: DBSC (Double breasted shawl collar) BCPW CW&W = Balanced compound plain weave with complementary warp/weft yarns USPW Warp Faced = Unbalanced simple warp faced plain weave. UCPW = Unbalanced compound plain weave. UCPW Weft Faced C WEFT = Unbalanced compound weft faced plain weave with complementary weft yarns. W VO 140 Out of the five waistcoats recovered from the Easton trunk, four (#29170, #29176, #29178, and #29180) (see Plate IX) were single breasted in style while only one waistcoat (#29181) was double breasted (see Table 18) . The double breasted waistcoat became more common for morning or walking dress after 1853, as compared to the single breasted waistcoat worn for day or evening dress (Cunnington, 1966; Tortora & Eubank, 1992; Buck, 1984). Cunnington (1966) and Byrde (1979) indicate that single breasted waistcoats were worn for formal wear and evening dress, and they were made of white materials of marcella, silk satin, silk moire, silk velvet, cotton poplin or cotton or silk embroidered fabrics with the embroidery often only on the corners. White silk embroidered waistcoats were worn for weddings (Byrde, 1979). There appear to be differences in function of the waistcoats recovered from the Easton trunk. One of the waistcoats #29180 may have been worn for formal evening dress since it was single breasted, cotton, had a marcella or pique fabric structure, and was originally white in color (see Plate X) . The other four waistcoats were probably worn for day dress. Waistcoats (#29170, #29176,and #29178) were single breasted and (#29181) was double breasted. 141

Plate IX. Hen's Single Breasted Waistcoat worn for day dress. (Photo courtesy of Columbus-America Discovery Group).

Two were made of cotton (#29176 and #29181), white in color, with an abstract design in brown, running throughout the fabric while the other two (#29170 and #29178) were made of silk outer fabric. 142

Plate X. Single Breasted Waistcoat worn for formal or evening dress. (Photo courtesy of Columbus- America Discovery Group).

Waistcoat #29170 may have been green in color and #29178 brown with a gold colored abstract design. Fabrics used for day dress included wool cashmere, merino wool, wool doeskin, wool tweeds, Valencia, and alpaca, while 143 double breasted waistcoats had fabrics of "qualdrilled" silk velvet, check swandsdown, and "fancy materials." None of the waistcoats recovered from the Easton trunk were made completely of wool. Perhaps day waistcoats made of wool fabrics were worn for fall and winter, as compared to cotton and silk fabric waistcoats worn for spring and summer. Mr. Easton's waistcoats were made of silk or cotton and were worn during the latter summer months of August and early September. Colors for waistcoats worn for day dress usually contrasted strongly with the rest of the garments (Cunnington, 1966) . The five waistcoats recovered from the Easton trunk do not exhibit a strong contrast to Mr. Easton's outer garments. The investigator found that the Easton waistcoats exhibit the most variation in color and pattern when compared to the coats (#29148, and #29168) and the trousers (#29049 and #29164) ; however they complement the other items in color rather than contrasting with them. Out of the five waistcoats analyzed, waistcoat #29170 was identified as an Ottoman silk or horizontal rib weave. Waistcoats (#29176, #29178, #29180, and #29181) were identified as patterned weaves (see Table 19). Each of the five waistcoats has some variation to create the different patterns in the ground fabric (see Table 20). 144

Table 19. Techniques Used to Create Pattern Design in the Outer Fabric Structure of Waistcoats I.D. Floating Color Variation Variation Variation Number Yarns Change In Warp In Weft In No. Yarns Yarns of Yarns 29176 X X XX 29178 X 29181 X XX

When compared on the basis of fabric design, one cotton and one silk waistcoat exhibited abstract design; one cotton waistcoat had a diamond pattern; while one cotton had a floral pattern; and finally one silk waistcoat had a ribbed pattern similar to an Ottoman silk, as noted earlier (see Table 19 and

20) .

Table 20. Design Created in Waistcoat Outer Fabric I.D. Fabric Design Design Applied Applied Number Design Linear Curvi- Style Pattern Linear 29176 X X 29178 X X 29180 X X 29181 X X X

When identifying the condition of the waistcoats, the analyst discovered that two waistcoats (#29170 and #29180) had been mended and altered; one (#29181) had been mended only; and one (#29178) had been altered in some way. The presence of mended areas or alterations can indicate that the waistcoats were old and had not been newly purchased, particularly when also identified as an older style waistcoat. Only one waistcoat (#29176, single breasted, cotton fabric 145 worn for day dress) did not have any areas that had been mended or altered, indicating it was probably newer than the other four waistcoats recovered from the trunk.

Trousers There were two pairs of trousers analyzed in the study (see Table 21) . Both pairs have outer fabrics of wool, waistband linings of silk, and trouser leg linings of linen. For both the waistband was sewn onto the upper part of the trouser fitting securely without any pleating. The trousers had a manufacturer's label on the lining of the cash pocket that stated "...New York...", and top stitching that is hand sewn (see Table 21) . A manufacturer's label was identified as a printed label, or the initials of the company. At the back of each waistband is a half belt with buckle. In addition both pairs of trousers have buttons on the outside front and back to be secured with suspenders or braces. Each pair has two pockets and a cash or watch pocket in the front, and each has a partial lining on the inside front hem of the trouser legs extending up the trouser 6". Although the trousers had similar inseam and side seam measurements, they were not exactly the same. For example, trouser #29049 has inseams of 26 3/4" and 27" and side seams of 37" and 37 1/4", while #29164 has inseams of 27 1/2" and side seams of 40 1/2". Table 21. Attributes of Hen's Trousers

I.D.# Style Label Top Fabric Pattern Design Fiber Manu­ Stitching Structure factured 29049 Classic Yes Hand UCPW" Float None Wool Warp Faced Color Change Variation in # of Yarns 29164 Classic Yes Hand USFW= Float None Wool Warp Faced Yarns ^ UCPW Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave. ^ USFW Unbalanced simple warp faced float weave. 147 Perhaps trouser #29049 was altered to fit to Mr. Easton's exact leg measurements as compared to trouser #29164 in which only one pant leg was measured and both were hemmed to that length. Despite similarities in style, there are differences in a few elements of detail. Trouser #29164 appear to be more formal trousers since the fabric surface is a solid color and the hem of the pants was secured with silk bias tape; these features may be compared to trouser #29049, which has a fabric structure incorporating three different colors to achieve the float fabric structure, and a hem securing the raw edges of the fabric. Neither of the trousers had a braid trim down the side seams although Bryde (1979) states, "dress trousers were cut closer than those for day wear, and the outside leg seam was finished by one or two rows of black braid" (p. 148) . Keers (1988) states that formal trousers had buttons on the outside of the waistband to secure suspenders or braces. A pair of suspenders #29322 was recovered with trouser #29049, the less formal of the two trousers studied. The suspenders are made of cream or white plain colored canvas, and rubber with metal eyelets to secure the appropriate length of the suspenders. Evening dress suspenders were usually made of silk fabric and had some type of embellishment or decoration (Payne, 1965/1992) (see Plate XI). Cunnington (1966) lists fabrics used in trousers as : 148 speckled or marbled wool merino, fawn doeskin (napped on surface) or wool tweeds for day dress; drill, nankin for summer wear and black kerseymere for evening dress (see Appendix B).

Plate XI. Classic Style Trousers #29049 with Suspenders #29322. (Photo courtesy of Columbus-America Discovery Group). 149 The fabric structures for both pairs of trousers appear to be similar to either a cassimere (a twilled woolen made of very fine yarns closely set) or a kerseymere cloth (a twilled cloth closely woven and finished with a very close nap). Trouser #29049 is made with a twill weave. Different colored yarns were used to create the design effect: two warp yarns were brown, one gold and one red. The two weft yarns were brown (see Table 22). Trouser #29164 has a twill or float fabric structure that had been brushed creating a napped effect. The fabric was identified as blue in color. Variation in the twill interlacing created the pattern designs in both pairs of trousers (see Table 22). In addition color change and variation in the number of yarns contributed to fabric design of trouser #29049. The napped surface of the twill in (#29164) has been noted already. Rather than a color change resulting from yarn coloration, (#29164) achieved a subtle color change as a result of the twill differences (see Table 23) . Both pairs of trousers were similar in style. Since both would have been worn for day dress, they shared a similar function as well.

Table 22. Methods Used to Create Pattern Design in Trouser Outer Fabric I.D. Floating Color Variation Variation Variation Number Yarns Change in Warp in Weft In No. Yarn Yarn of Yarns 29049 XX X 29164 X 150

Table 23. Design Created in Trouser Outer Fabric I.D. Fabric Design Design Applied Applied Number Design Linear Curvi- Style Pattern Linear 29049 XX 29164 X X

There is no indication of the presence of alterations or mending, and they appear to have been relatively new or little worn at the time of the shipwreck. Both pairs of trousers would be considered classic in style and worn for day dress.

Neckwear There were sixteen neckwear items recovered from the Easton trunk (see Table 24), and all that have top stitching were made with hand top stitching. In many cases the fabric structure, pattern, and design are complex. There was no owner's label on any of the neckwear items. One item #29099 has a manufacturer's label present. Three of the neckwear items were identified as ascots or scarves, six items were identified as cravats or joinvilles, and seven were identified as ties (see Table 14). So they differed in style. Scarves or ascots are large scarves that were folded and secured around the neck with a stick pin or tied in a knot. All three of the Easton ascots were square in shape, were made of silk yarns, and had two selvage edges and two hand turned edges. Table 24. Attributes of Hen's Neckwear

I.D.# Style Label Top Fabric Pattern Design Fiber Manu­ Stitching Structure factured 29088 Cravat None Hand UCPW Warpi Float Woven Silk/ CW&W Variation Honeycomb Cotton in Warp/ Weft Yarns Variation in # of Yarns 29095 Ascot None Hand UCPW Warp^ Float Woven/ Silk C Warp Color Applied change Stripe Variation Linear in # of Curvilinear Yarns Embroidered 29096 Ascot None Hand BSPW^ Variation Woven/ Silk in Warp/ Applied Weft Yarns Bar Linear/ Curvilinear Printed 29099 Tie Yes Hand BCFW* Float Silk C Warp 29100 Tie None Hand BSPW Color Woven Silk Change Stripe Table 24. Attributes of Men's Neckwear Continued I.D.# Style Label Top Fabric Pattern Design Fiber Manu- Stitching Structure factured

29101 Tie None Hand UCPW Warp® Float Woven Silk S Warp Bar

29102 Tie None Hand BSPW Color Woven Silk Change Stripe Variation in Weft Yarns

29103 Tie None Hand BSPW None None Silk

29104 Cravat None None UCPW Warp Float Bar Silk CW&W Variation in Warp/ Weft Yarns Variation in # of Yarns

29105 Cravat None None UCPW Warp Float Woven Silk/ CW&W Variation Bar Cotton in Warp/ Honeycomb Weft Yarns Variation in # of Yarns

cn NJ Table 24. Attributes of Hen's Neckwear Continued I .D. Style Label Top Fabric Pattern Design Fiber Manu- Stitching Structure factured 29106 Tie None Hand UCPW Warp Float Woven Silk CW&W Variation Abstract in Warp Yarn Variation in # of Yarns 29107 Cravat None None UCPW Warp Float Woven Silk/ CW&W Variation Bar Cotton in Warp/ Honeycomb Weft Yarns Variation in # of Yarns 29108 Cravat Yes Hand UCPW Warp Float Woven Silk CW&W Variation Honeycomb in Warp/ Weft Yarns Variation in # of Yarns 29134 Ascot None Hand BSPW Variation Woven Silk in Warp/ Bar Weft Yarn

U1 W Table 24. Attributes of Men's Neckwear Continued I.D. Style Label Top Fabric Pattern Design Fiber Manu­ Stitching Structure factured

29138 Cravat None None UCPW Float Woven Silk C W & C W Variation Bar in Warp/ Weft Yarns Variation in # of Yarns 29296 Tie None None BSPW None Applied Cotton Linear Printed UCPW Warp C W & C W = Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with complementary warp and weft yarns. UCPW Warp C Warp = Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with complementary warp yarns. BSPW=Balanced simple plain weave. BCPW C Warp = Balanced compound float weave with complementary warp yarns. UCPW Warp S Warp = Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with supplementary warp yarns.

cn 155 The presence of two selvage edges indicates that the ascots are the same width as the fabrics from which they were made. This is in comparison with fabric woven on a wide loom and then cut and hemmed. Although the ascots have similar length and width measurements, they are not exactly the same in dimension. Each ascot varied in stylistic and fabric decoration. The fabric structure for ascot #29095 is a black, ribbed weave with gold machine embroidery creating an abstract design throughout the fabric length and width. Ascot #29096 has a light brown or gold plain weave ground with small, purple printed fish hooks on the surface of the ground. There are six ribs along the borders of the ascot that frame entire scarf, creating a design on all four sides of the fabric (see Plate XII). Ascot #29134 has a black plain weave ground with five ribs on all four sides of the ascot creating borders that frames the scarf. Along one side of the ascot only three of the ribs are visible indicating an alteration of the original work. The two black colored ascots (#29134 and #29095) have mended areas visible on the ground fabric. Although (#29134) was mended with green thread, (#29095) was mended with black thread to match the ground. Both ascots (#29095 and #29134) have marks where the ascot had been folded and worn. Based on the evidence it appears that two ascots (#29134 and #29095) had been worn more frequently than the other (#29096). 156

Plate XII. Ascot (#29096) Purple Fish Hook Design Fadiric Ground. (Photo courtesy of Columbus-America Discovery Group).

Byrde (1979) states that the nineteenth century ascot was a scarf folded and placed over the front of the shirt and secured with a pin. This item in a man's wardrobe functioned as a neckwear item to be worn for morning wear and or day wear (Cunnington, 1966) . Silk neckwear was worn for day dress, but linen and cotton were correct for evening dress (Byrde, 1979) . It is possible that these three items were wornfor morning or day dress by Mr. Easton because gentlemen of the mid­ nineteenth century wore ascots or scarves for day dress (Cunnington, 1966) . 157 Six neckwear items were identified as cravats or joinvilles since they have fringed edges. Five of the cravats (#29088, #29108, #29138, #29104, and #29107) are sewn with cotton sewing thread. A sample of the sewing thread for cravat (#29105) could not be obtained. Four of the cravats (#29088, #29108, #29138 and #29104) are made of silk yarns, while cravats (#29105 and #29107) are made of silk warp yarns and cotton weft yarns. Five of the cravats (#29088, #29105, #29108, #29138, and #29104) are brown in color. Cravat (#29107) is blue in color. The color of the item was determined when possible by evaluating the fiber sample under the microscope. All the cravats have patterned fabric structures; however the method used to create the pattern design varied. Cravats (#29088 and #29108), have similar fabric structures with a honeycomb design; (#29138 and #29104) have similar patterned fabric structures of satin floats repeating throughout the fabric; and (#29105 and #29107) have a similar patterned fabric structure of four rows of weft faced ribs in between a honeycomb design. This type of neckwear item (a cravat or joinville) would have been worn for morning dress or day dress (Cunnington, 1966). There were seven ties identified in the Easton trunk (see Table 24). Six of the ties (#29099, #29100, #29101, #29102, #29103, and #29106) are made of silk fibers and interfaced with a fabric composed of cotton warp yarns and wool weft 158 yarns. The interfacing for tie #29106 is made of cotton warp and weft yarns. Tie #29296 is made of cotton fibers and does not have any interfacing present. Ties (#29099, #29100, #29101, #29103, and #29106) are constructed using cotton sewing thread. Tie #29102 is made with silk sewing thread. All varied in style and color. These variations are summarized earlier in Table 24. When looking at how the pattern was created in the fabric structure and the resulting design, the analyst discovered that many of the ties had unique features (see Table 25 and Table 26) . There were sixteen neckwear items analyzed for this study. Eleven of the neckwear items (#29088, #29100, #29101, #29102, #29104, #29105, #29106, #29107, #29108, #29134 and #29138) have a woven design. One neckwear item #29296 has an applied design, while two neckwear items (#29095 and #29096) have woven and applied design characteristics. There was variation in the type of woven design. Eleven neckwear items have linear designs : three neckwear items (#29095, #29100, and #29102) have a woven stripe design, seven items (#29096, #29101, #29104, #29105, #29107, #29134 and #29138) have a woven bar design, and one neckwear item #29106 has an abstract woven design in the fabric structure. A stripe is created using different sizes or colors of warp yarns as compared to a bar design which uses different colors or sizes of weft yarns. 159

Table 25. Method üsed to Create Pattern Design in Neckwear Items I.D. Floating Color Variation Variation Variation Number Yarns Change in Warp in Weft In No. Yarn Yarns of Yarns 29088 XXXX 29095 X XX 29096 X X 29099 X 29100 X 29101 X 29102 XX 29103 29104 X XX X 29105 X XX X 29106 X XX 29107 X X XX 29108 X XX X 29134 X X 29138 XXX X 29296

Woven designs that are curvilinear are also present: four items (#29088, #29105, #29107, and #29108) have a honeycomb design, and one item (#29296) has a linear applied design. Two items (#29095 and #29096) have curvilinear applied design, and two items (#29296 and #29096) have a printed applied design (see Table 26). There were two neckwear items (#29095 and #29134) that have been mended, and two neckwear items (#29103 and #19134) have been altered. Many of the neckwear items analyzed appear to have been new items in 1857, although all the neckwear items represent styles a gentleman would wear during the mid­ nineteenth century (Byrde, 1979; Payne, 1965/1992). 160

Table 26. Design Created in Neckwear Fabric Structure I.D. Fabric Design Design Applied Applied Number Design Linear Curvi- Style Pattern Linear 29088 X X 29095 XXXX 29096 XXXX 29099 29100 XX 29101 X X 29102 X X 29103 29104 XX 29105 XXX 29106 X X 29107 X X X 29108 X X 29134 X X 29138 XX 29296 X X X

After identifying and characterizing the neckwear items, the analyst observed three distinct styles of neckwear: ascots or scarves, cravats or joinvilles, and ties. Within these smaller subdivisions there was variation in elements used to achieve the design in the fabric structure. All sixteen examples of neckwear were similar in function since all sixteen could have been worn for morning or day dress, including business attire. Evening dress required linen or cotton white or black neckwear. There were no neckwear items recovered from the Easton trunk that would have been worn for evening dress. 161 Shirts A total of fourteen shirts were recovered from the Easton trunk, but one of the shirts, #29114, has the name of W. Ralston printed or stamped on the front indicating ownership by another man. This shirt had been wrapped in newspaper and tied with string, as compared to the other thirteen shirts that were either found folded together in a stack (#29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, and #29158) or rolled individually (#29064, #29065, #29066, #29067, #29069, #29074, #29077, #29084) and placed in the Easton trunk. When identifying stylistic characteristics, the analyst observed that all of the shirts, including the one with W. Ralston's name on it, have long sleeves, an open front placket area, pleats, a yoke gathered at the center back with a center back seam, and a button and button hole to fasten the neckband. With one exception (#29069), all shirts also have a collar with square ends (see Plate XIII). It appears that (#29069) had had its collar removed or cut off although the remnants of the neckband are still visible. Out of fourteen shirts only one shirt (#29064) has machine top stitching, the rest have hand stitching. None of the shirts have a manufacturer's label, while five shirts (#29065, #29067, #29069, #29074, and #29114) have an owner's label on the shirt front. There was only one shirt (#29064) that has a printed design on the fabric and is made of cotton (see Table 27). 162

Plate XIII. Construction emd Design of Shirt (#29066) (Photo courtesy of Columbus - America Discovery Group).

Twelve of the shirts, (#29066, #29067, #29069, #29074, #29077, #29084, #29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, and #29158) including Ralston's shirt (#29114) are made of linen fibers. Shirt (#29065) is made of linen and cotton fibers. Table 27. Attributes of Hen's Shirts

I.D.# Style Label Top Fabric Pattern Design Fiber Owner Stitching Structure 29064 SCSE" None Hand BSPW^ None Applied Cotton linear Printed 29065 SCSE Yes Hand BSPW Float Woven & Linen/ Variation applied Cotton in Yarn # linear/ curvilinear embroidery 29066 SCSE None Hand BSPW None None Linen 29067 SCSE Yes Hand BSPW None None Linen

29069 SCCQ: Yes Hand BSPW None None Linen 29074 SCSE None Hand BSPW None None Linen 29077 SCSE Yes Hand BSPW None None Linen 29084 SCSE None Hand BSPW None None Linen 29114* SCSE Yes Hand BSPW None None Linen

W Table 27 Attributes of Hen's Shirts Continued I.D. # Style Label Top Fabric Pattern Design Fiber Owner Stitching Structure 29154 SCSE None Hand BSPW None None Linen 29155 SCSE None Hand BSPW None None Linen 29156 SCSE None Hand BSPW None None Linen 29157 SCSE None Hand BSPW None None Linen 29158 SCSE None Hand BSPW None None Linen

^ Style: SCSE (Shirt with collar, square ends). ^ Style: SCCO (Shirt with collar, cut off). ^ BSPW = Balanced simple plain weave. * #29114 is Mr. Ralston's shirt recovered from the Easton Trunk

a\ 165 Ten of the shirts are sewn with cotton sewing thread. While shirt (#29154) is made with linen sewing thread, shirts (#29069 and #29114) are made with a sewing thread which is a combination of linen and cotton. A sample of the sewing thread for shirt (#29066) could not be obtained. Eleven shirts (#29064, #29066, #29067, #29074, #29084, #29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, #29158, #29065) have a collar in one piece, while two shirts (#29077 and #29114) have split collars. One shirt (#29069) did not have a collar because it had been cut off, as mentioned earlier. Four shirts (#29064, #29069, #29084, #29065) have three buttons on the right hand side of the placket and three bar button holes on the left hand side of the placket, while two shirts (#29067 and #29077) have two covered buttons on one side of the placket and two bar button holes on the other. Seven shirts (#29066, #29074, #29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, #29158) have three bar button holes on one side of the placket and three bar button holes on the other side of the placket for studs. Overall, there are six shirts that were fastened with buttons, and eight shirts that were fastened with studs. Five shirts (#29064, #29066, #29069, #29084, and #29114) have three pleats on each side of the placket shirt front, while six shirts (#29074, #29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, and #29158) have four pleats on each side of the placket shirt front. Two shirts (#29067 and #29077) have a tab at the center front. Eight shirts (#29064, #29074, #29154, #29155, 166 #29156, #29157, #29158, and #29114) have cuffs that are fastened with a dorset button and button hole, and two additional button holes on each cuff, while one shirt (#29066) has cuffs that are fastened with one button on each cuff. Two shirts (#29067 and #29077) have two buttons and two button holes to fasten the cuffs, a feature that would create a close fit at the wrist. There are eleven shirts (#29064, #29066, #29069, #29074, #29084, #29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, #29158, and #29065) that have rounded shirt tails, as compared to three shirts (#29067, #29077, and #29114) that have tails which vary in shape. All fourteen shirts are identified as having a fabric structure of a simple plain weave (see Table 27). Although the shirts exhibit striking similarities in style there are differences present that suggest some distinctions among the shirts. The first of these shirts is (#29064). Shirt #29064 has a printed pattern that was created using diamond and "x" shape designs in two different colors of purple. The diamond design was created using a darker purple and the "x" design with a lighter shade of purple (see Tables 29 and 30) . The researcher discovered a straight pin was secured to each cuff. This is the only all cotton shirt in the trunk and the only one with machine top stitching. Shirt #29067 has the inscription "A. Ives Easton 4" marked at the right front side, is made of linen yarns, and 167 has a neck circumference of 15 1/2" from the button hole to the button on the neckband. It varies from (#29069 and #29077), which are made of fine linen and have a voluminous cut typical of better quality shirts (Byrde, 1979). Shirt (#29069) has different width pleats along each side of the shirt front placket that appear to be part of an insert added to the body of the shirt front. Five to seven inches down from where the neckband and the placket meet are stick pin marks in the blind placket front. Perhaps Mr. Easton secured his ascot to his shirt front using a stick pin. The third shirt (#29069) has a collar that has been partially removed and shows evidence of a straight pin having been placed at the center back of the neck. The neck circumference measurement from the button hole to the button on the neckband with the pin in place measured 15". This shirt has the inscription "A. Ives Easton No. 17" marked at the right front side. The fourth shirt (#29077) has a neck circumference measuring 15 1/2". Unlike the others, this shirt has sixteen pleats in varying widths across the shirt front on either side of the placket. The inscription "A. Ives Easton 3" is marked at the right front side of the shirt. Shirt #29065 has an insert with faggoting and embroidery sewn into the front of the shirt (see Plate XIV) . On each side of the faggoting is an embroidered design, and a few rows of small pleats. 168

Plate XIV. Hen's shirt with embroidery and faggoting. (Photo courtesy of Columbus - America Discovery Group).

' » >rpi

Along the shirt front near the insert is more fine pleating. The inscription "A. Ives Easton l" is marked on the shirt at the right front side. This shirt is made of a blend of linen and cotton fibers and is not as voluminous as some of the 169 other shirts already mentioned. While the warp and weft yarns of the fabric ground are a mixture of linen and cotton fibers, the embroidery thread and the sewing thread are cotton. The neck circumference measured 15 3/4" from the button hole to the button on the neckband. The shirt is very similar in style to a shirt from the Cincinnati Art Museum Collection #1972.416 identified as an 1850s man's wedding shirt. Both shirts share stylistic details in tucks, embroidery design and general cut. It is the most formal of the Easton shirts and could have been a wedding shirt. Its similarity to the Cincinnati wedding shirt is of interest. If not a wedding shirt, the shirt may have been worn for formal and evening dress. Shirts (#29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, and #29158) were folded, stacked and bound together when they were recovered from the Easton trunk. These five shirts are very similar stylistically. One of the shirts (#29114) has an inscription with another man's name (W. Ralston) on the center front of the shirt. As has been noted, the Ralston shirt was recovered from the Easton trunk, wrapped and tied in newspaper. Ralston was a close friend of Mrs. Easton's brother D. 0. Mills of California. The inscription name "W. Ralston" has been marked on the shirt at the base of the placket on the center front of the shirt. The neck circumference measures approximately 14 1/2" from the button hole to the button. The shirt has a 170 similar style to many of the shirts recovered from the Easton trunk. In fact, Mr. Ralston's shirt and Mr. Easton's shirts were more similar stylistically than other men's shirts from the mid-nineteenth century that were observed at surrounding Ohio Museums by the investigator, with the exception of the Cincinnati Art Museum wedding shirt. Some of the differences in the shirts included the presence of an owner's name and number, buttons, minute style differences, and neck circumference (see Table 28). Out of fourteen shirts, six have buttons to fasten the shirt front, while studs would have been used to fasten the shirt front for the remaining eight shirts. The neck circumference for all of the thirteen shirts that were Easton's varied substantially, from 14 3/4" to 16 1/2". Of the fourteen shirts recovered from the trunk, five have a stamped or inscribed name. Mr. Easton had four shirts with his name and a number identified near his last name (see Plate XV) . The numbers varied from 1, 3, 4, and 17. Perhaps the numbers were a tailor's description or were used to identify Mr. Easton's shirts when he sent them out to the laundry. The shirts (#29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, and #29158) recovered from the Easton trunk that had been folded and tied did not have a name or number on them. Careful examination of the five shirts revealed that they apparently had been laundered, folded and secured in this manner. 171

Table 28. Variation Observed Within Shirt Category

I.D. # Buttons Button Holes Neck Label On Placket Circumference 29064 X X 15 3/4" 29065 X X 15 3/4" X 29066 X 16 1/2" 29067 X X 15 1/2" X 29069 X X 15" X 29074 X 15" 29077 X X 15 1/2" X 29084 X X 16" 29114* X 14 1/2" X 29154 X 14 3/4" 29155 X 15 1/2" 29156 X 15 1/2" 29157 X 15" 29158 X 15" * Shirt #29114 identified as W. Ralston's Shirt with Label

The shirts when examined exhibited slight wear on the cuffs, some pulled or worn yarns were visible. It is interesting that these five shirts probably were laundered,- however there were no laundry numbers present on the shirts. Only two out of the fourteen shirts exhibit any type of fabric pattern design (see Table 29) . Only two of the shirts (#29064 and #29065) exhibited a design that was created in the shirt fabric structure (see Table 30). Most of Mr. Easton's shirts were plain and formal. In all likelihood the numbers associated with Easton's name indicated a tailor's record of garments produced for the owner of the trunk. 172

Plate XV. Hr. Easton's Name Printed or Starred on His Shirt. (Photo courtesy of Columbus-America Discovery Group).

Many of the shirts are similar stylistically. Only one shirt (#29064) has a printed design on the shirt front. None of the fourteen shirts recovered from the Easton trunk exhibit signs of mending or alterations. The five shirts (#29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, and #29158) folded and tied together exhibit signs of wear on the cuffs. It appears, based on the style of the shirts and the lack of mending or alterations, that all fourteen shirts were present day fashion during the mid­ nineteenth century. 173

Table 29. Methods üsed to Create Pattern Design in Shirt Fabric Structure I.D. Floating Color Variation Variation Variation Number Yarns Change in Warp in Weft In No. Yarns Yarns of Yarns 29064 29065 XX 29066 29067 29069 29074 29077 29084 29114 29154 29155 29156 29157 29158

Table 30. Design Created in Shirt Fabric Structure I.D. Fabric Design Design Applied Applied Number Design Linear Curvi- Style Pattern Linear 29064 X X X X 29065 X X X X 29066 29067 29069 29074 29077 29084 29114 29154 29155 29156 29157 29158

Out of the thirteen shirts identified as belonging to Mr. Easton, one shirt (#29064) was the only one that would be considered to be a casual informal shirt to be worn with the 174 collar turned down (Payne, 1965/1992; Byrde, 1979) . Twelve of the shirts (#29066, #29067, #29069, #29074, #29077, #29084, #29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, #29158) and Mr. Ralston's shirt (#29114) would be considered to be worn for day dress since the shirts are plain, white, linen and had pleats. One shirt (#29065) would have been worn for formal wear since plain, white, linen, shirts with ruffles or embroidery were associated with formal wear (Levitt, 1986; Byrde, 1979; Tortora & Eubank, 1992) . Shirt (#29065) appears to be the most formal shirt recovered from the Easton trunk since it had pleating, faggoting and embroidery decoration on the shirt front. This shirt may have been Mr. Easton's wedding shirt since it was similar to a shirt from the same period identified as being worn for a wedding.

Collars There were four collars recovered from the Easton trunk. Only three were analyzed for this study. The three collars have machine top stitching. None of the collars has a manufacturer's label, while one (#29085) has an owner's label (see Table 31). All three collars have a plain weave fabric structure and are considered to be detachable collars; however there is some stylistic variation. Collar #29085 has been identified as a collar with a button hole at each end. The collar ends are square, similar to the collars attached to Mr. Easton's shirts. Table 31. Attributes of Men's Collars I.D.# Style Label Top Fabric Pattern Design Fiber Owner Stitching Structure 29085 CSE" Yes Machine BSPW: None None Linen 29161 CSE None Machine BSPW None None N Sample 29239 CSE None Machine BSPW None None Linen

" Style: CSE = Collar square ends. ^ BSPW = Balanced simple plain weave

tn 176 "A. Ives Easton" is marked on the collar along the neckband. Collar #29161 has been identified as having a vertical button hole at the center front of the collar and a tie at each end of the collar to be secured at the center back of the neck (see Plate XVI).

Plate XVI. Detachable Collar (#29161) . (Photo courtesy of Columbus-America Discovery Group).

A string on one side of the collar remains attached; the string on the other side is absent. The collar tips are square. Collar #29239 consists of six collar fragments. It may be possible that not all six fragments made up only one collar. When arranged and viewed, the collar appeared similar 177 stylistically to collar (#29161) (see Plate XVI) . There are tie fragments present with the other collar fragments. The collar ends are square. The three collars analyzed for the study varied stylistically. Collar #29085 has a button hole at each end as compared to collars (#29161 and #29239) which have a button hole at the center and at each end a long string to be tied at the back of the neck. All three collars are similar in function and could have been worn for day or evening dress. Two of the three collars analyzed are in good condition while collar (#29239) is in six fragments, noted above. All three collars are similar in construction. All three have plain weave fabric structures with machine top stitching. Two of the collars (#29085, and #29239) are made of linen fibers. No sample was taken from collar (#29161) since it was in pristine condition.

Pattern Recognition Pattern recognition is defined by Gardin (1980) as assigning a particular structure to forms that can be perceived or interpreted in several ways. Structures within the evidence became apparent during the attribute classification because certain of the attributes used in the classification appeared to function as essential attributes, defining type of garment within a class. Key attributes, on the other hand, also served to provide meaningful patterns 178 since they occurred in more than one class.

The Identification of Essential Attributes The attributes of fabric structure, fabric pattern, fabric design and fiber type contributed essential data that assisted in the identification of specific type and class for the male outer-garments. While an essential attribute could occur in more than one class and type, in combination with other essential attributes and style, it defined the type and class, and its presence was restricted to certain types of garments.

Fabric Structure One type of fabric structure, the balanced simple plain weave, was identified in three classes of garments, occurring in 23 of the 42 outer-garments. This represents (54.76%) of the total. All fourteen shirts, all three collars, and six of the neckwear items which include one ascot (#29096) and five ties (#29100, #29102, #29103, #29134, and #29296) exhibit the structure. It was not surprising to discover this since mid­ nineteenth century shirts and collars were made of linen or cotton plain weave fabrics. The type of fabric structures identified in the neckwear category was also expected. Other fabric structures are unique to a class or are limited to a few types. For example, two items (#29148 Frock coat and #29164 a pair of Classic trousers) were identified as 179 having an unbalanced warp faced float weave fabric structure. One item (#29168, Paletot-sac coat) has a balanced compound plain weave ground with complementary warp yarns and may be considered one of the most complex item in the study. Two items identified as waistcoats (#29176 and #29181) have balanced compound plain weave grounds with complementary warp and weft yarns. One item, a tie, (#29101) has an unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with supplementary warp yarns. One item, an ascot, (#29095) has a unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with complementary warp yarns. One item (#29170, a waistcoat) has an unbalanced simple warp faced plain weave. One item (#29178, waistcoat) has an unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with complementary warp and weft yarns. One item (#29180, waistcoat) has an unbalanced compound weft faced plain weave with complementary weft yarns. Seven items, identified as neckwear (#29088, #29104, #29105, #29106, #29107, #29108, and #29138) have an unbalanced compound weft faced plain weave ground with complementary warp and weft yarns. One item (#29099, neckwear) has a balanced compound float weave with complementary warp yarns. One item (#29049, Classic trousers) has an unbalanced compound warp faced float weave with supplementary warp yarns (see Tables 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, and 31). Based on the fabric structure identification of the men's dress items by class and within each class (type), it appears that Mr. Easton's dress items were representative of fabrics 180 used for a gentlemen's clothing produced and worn during the mid-nineteenth century (Cunnington, 1966) . The coats, trousers, waistcoats, and some neckwear items were made of complex fabric structures, while shirts, collars and some other neckwear items were made of simple fabric structures. The fabrics while varied are appropriate for each type of garment.

Pah-r-ir» Pattern The second essential attribute identified and characterized using the men's outer garments recovered from the Easton trunk is fabric pattern. There are five variables related to pattern in a fabric structure, and they are the presence of: floats, color change, variation in weft yarn size, variation in warp yarn size, or variation in number of yarns. For each attribute identified a percentage and number are given out of a total of 42 men's outer garments analyzed for the study (see Table 32) . Seventeen of the 42 items (40.48%) have floating yarns in the fabric structure. Seven (16.67%) display a color change in the yarns to achieve a pattern design in the fabric structure. Ten of the 42 men's outer garments (23.81%) have a variation in the warp yarn size to create a pattern design. Eleven items (26.19%) have a variation in the weft yarn size to create a pattern design. 181

TaLble 32. Fabric Pattern Achieved in Men's Outer Garments I.D, Style Floating Color Variation Variation Variation Number Yarns Change In Warp In Weft In No. of Yarns Yarns Yarns 29148 Coat X 29168 Coat X X X 29170 Waist 29176 Waist X XX X 29178 Waist X 29180 Waist 29181 Waist X XX 29049 Trouser X X X 29164 Trouser X 29064 Shirt 29065 Shirt XX 29066 Shirt 29067 Shirt 29069 Shirt 29074 Shirt 29077 Shirt 29084 Shirt 29114 Shirt 29154 Shirt 29155 Shirt 29156 Shirt 29157 Shirt 29158 Shirt 29085 Collar 29161 Collar 29239 Collar 29088 Neckwear X X X X 29095 Neckwear X X X 29096 Neckwear X X 29099 Neckwear X 29100 Neckwear X 29101 Neckwear X 29102 Neckwear X X 29103 Neckwear 29104 Neckwear X XX X 29105 Neckwear X XX X 29106 Neckwear X X X 29107 Neckwear X X X X 29108 Neckwear X XX X 29134 Neckwear X X 29138 Neckwear X XX X 29296 Neckwear # in Category 17 7 10 11 12 % of Total 40.48% 16.67% 23.81% 26.19% 28.57% 182 While 12 items (28.57% ) have a variation in the number of yarns used in the pattern to create the fabric design. Overall 17 of the men's outer garments analyzed for this study (40.48%) exhibit floating yarns, and 12 items (28.57%) exhibit a variation in the number of yarns used to create the pattern design in the fabric structure. In comparison to the primary and secondary documents of the mid-nineteenth century, the outer dress items recovered from the Easton trunk represent the use of pattern and fabric structure that are similar to dress items worn by men of status and position in the period (Keers, 1988, Kidwell & Christman, 1974). The Frock coat would have displayed a subtle pattern in the fabric structure. Mr. Easton's Frock coat has a brushed surface creating a napped effect with piping along the edges of the coat. A more casual coat such as the Paletot-sac coat would have more pattern since it would be worn in a more relaxed setting. Mr. Easton had a Paletot- sac coat that has pattern woven throughout the fabric structure and applied to the surface of the fabric structure. Waistcoats worn during the mid-nineteenth century were patterned with geometric, abstract and floral motifs. There were five waistcoats recovered from the Easton trunk, each one patterned with a design. Trousers worn during the period varied in pattern depending on the function for which they were worn. Less formal trousers were seen with plaid, striped and more subtle 183 designs. Mr. Easton had two pairs of trousers: one with a napped surface and one pair with a woven patterned design in gold, red and brown colors. Neckwear worn during the mid-nineteenth century varied in style and function. White neckwear was reserved for formal occasions, whereas patterned neckwear was worn for day dress (Payne, 1965/1992). All of the neckwear items recovered from the Easton trunk exhibited pattern designs either woven in the same colors as the fabric ground noted in six cravats or joinvilles; pattern designs woven into the fabric structure using different colored yarns noted in many of the ties; pattern created by using different size yarns woven in the fabric ground to create a raised patterned surface noted in neckwear items or ascots (#29096 and #29134); pattern created using printing on the surface of the fabric structure which is seen in one neckwear item a tie (#29296) and one shirt (#29064) ; and pattern created with the use of another colored thread used as embroidery to create the pattern design on the surface of the fabric structure noted in one neckwear item an ascot (#29095) and one shirt (#29065) . Formal shirts worn during the mid-nineteenth century for males were made of very fine linen yarns that were woven into a plain weave fabric with pleating or embroidery. For less formal wear shirts were printed or plain and worn with the collar turned down (Payne, 1965/1992) . Out of fourteen shirts recovered from the Easton trunk twelve were white in color and 184 made of plain weave fabric structures. One shirt (#29064) has a printed design on the fabric surface and one shirt (#29065) has embroidery. It appears that all of Mr. Easton's shirts with the exception of shirt (#29065) were worn for day dress. The literature states that detachable collars were available during this time and some collars had embroidery while others were plain. All three of the collars recovered from the Easton trunk were white and made of plain weave fabric structures, and would have been worn for day dress.

Fabric Design The next essential attribute identified is fabric design. There is a direct relationship between the fabric structure technique and the fabric design created. The methods used to create the pattern are also those which create the fabric design structure. Twenty-two of the 42 items (52.38%) have a fabric design structure. Eighteen items (42.86%) have been identified as having a linear design in the fabric structure, as compared to 6 items (14.29%) that have a curvilinear design in the fabric structure. There are six items (14.29%) that display an applied pattern design structure (see Table 33) . Fabric design was not present in each of the men's outer- garment categories studied. 185

Table 33. Fabric Design in Hen's Outer Garments I.D. Style Fabric Design Design Applied Applied Number Design Linear Curvi- Design Pattern Linear Style 29148 Coat 29168 Coat X XX X 29170 Waist 29176 Waist X X 29178 Waist X X 29180 Waist X X 29181 Waist X XX 29049 Trouser :X X 29164 Trouser 29064 Shirt X X X X 29065 Shirt X X X X 29066 Shirt 29067 Shirt 29069 Shirt 29074 Shirt 29077 Shirt 29084 Shirt 29114 Shirt 29154 Shirt 29155 Shirt 29156 Shirt 29157 Shirt 29158 Shirt 29085 Collar 29161 Collar 29239 Collar 29088 Neckwear X X 29095 Neckwear X X X X 29096 Neckwear X X X X 29099 Neckwear 29100 Neckwear X X 29101 Neckwear X X 29102 Neckwear X X 29103 Neckwear 29104 Neckwear X X 29105 Neckwear XXX 29106 Neckwear XX 29107 Neckwear X X X 29108 Neckwear X X 29134 Neckwear X X 29138 Neckwear XX 29296 Neckwear X X X # in Category 22 18 6 6 6 % of Total 52.38% 42.86% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 186 Typically, a man's Frock coat was without fabric design, but a more casual coat such as the Paletot-sac coat would have design indicating it was meant to be worn for seaside wear or other casual situations (Cunnington, 1966). All the waistcoats recovered from the Easton trunk have fabric designs. This was typical of waistcoats worn during the mid-nineteenth century. Almost all of the neckwear items recovered from the Easton trunk have some sort of design characteristic. Out of the two pairs of trousers recovered from the Easton trunk one pair has a fabric design and one does not, perhaps the latter was worn for more formal dress. The majority of the shirts and all of the collars are plain indicating that Mr. Easton dressed according to etiquette: fine linen shirts and collars depicting a man's rank and position. Based on the identification of fabric design present in the men's outer-garments, it appears that Mr. Easton wore outer dress items reflecting the styles available to him and representing his position and status during the mid-nineteenth century.

Fiber Type The fiber type of the men's outer-garments was identified as an essential attribute since many of the fiber types identified were class and type specific. Fiber type was identified for outer fabric warp and weft yarns, and sewing 187 thread. Many of the men's outer garments studied have fiber samples from areas of the item that specify certain group characteristics or form. For example, coats, waistcoats and trousers have linings; and some neckwear, collars and shirts have interfacing. Hence, not all categories of men's outer garments identified and studied have fiber samples taken from the same areas since their inherent form varies.

Outer Fahrir Warp and Weft Y a m s . Fiber samples taken and analyzed from all but one of the 42 items revealed a consistent pattern of fiber content for each class. Two coats, two waistcoats, and fourteen neckwear items, have silk fibers that were used to create the outer fabric ground structure. Three waistcoats, one neckwear item and one shirt are made of cotton fibers. Thirteen shirts are made of linen (flax) fibers. Two pair of trousers are made of wool fibers (see Tables 34 & 35) . The fiber contents of each class of men's outer-garments analyzed are consistent with primary and secondary documents of the period indicating that Mr. Easton wore outer clothing that reflected his position and status for the period in which he lived.

Sewing Thread. Out of 42 men's outer dress items analyzed, 28 (66.67%) are made with cotton sewing thread, and 5 items (11.90%) are made with silk sewing thread. 188

Table 34. Fiber Sandies Identified in Outer Fabric (warp yams) . I.D. Style Wool Silk Cotton Linen Comb­ No Number ination Sample Taken 29148 Coat X 29168 Coat X 29170 Waist X 29176 Waist X 29178 Waist X 29180 Waist X 29181 Waist X 29049 Trousers X 29164 Trousers X 29064 Shirt X 29065 Shirt X 29066 Shirt X 29067 Shirt X 29069 Shirt X 29074 Shirt X 29077 Shirt X 29084 Shirt X 29114 Shirt X 29154 Shirt X 29155 Shirt X 29156 Shirt X 29157 Shirt X 29158 Shirt X 29085 Collar X 29161 Collar X 29239 Collar X 29088 Neckwear X 29095 Neckwear X 29096 Neckwear X 29099 Neckwear X 29100 Neckwear X 29101 Neckwear X 29102 Neckwear X 29103 Neckwear X 29104 Neckwear X 29105 Neckwear X 29106 Neckwear X 29107 Neckwear X 29108 Neckwear X 29134 Neckwear X 29138 Neckwear X 29296 Neckwear X

# in Category 3 18 5 1' 1 % of Total 7.14% 42.86% 11.90% 3: 2.38% 189

Tatle 35. Fiber Saoules Identified in Outer Fabric (weft yarns) I.D. Style Wool Silk Cotton Linen Comb- No Number bination Sample Taken 29148 Coat X 29168 Coat X 29170 Waist X 29176 Waist X 29178 Waist X 29180 Waist X 29181 Waist X 29049 Trousers X 29164 Trousers X 29064 Shirt X 29065 Shirt X 29066 Shirt X 29067 Shirt X 29069 Shirt X 29074 Shirt X 29077 Shirt X 29084 Shirt X 29114 Shirt X 29154 Shirt X 29155 Shirt X 29156 Shirt X 29157 Shirt X 29158 Shirt X 29085 Collar X 29161 Collar X 29239 Collar X 29088 Neckwear X 29095 Neckwear X 29096 Neckwear X 29099 Neckwear X 29100 Neckwear X 29101 Neckwear X 29102 Neckwear X 29103 Neckwear X 29104 Neckwear X 29105 Neckwear X 29106 Neckwear X 29107 Neckwear X 29108 Neckwear X 29134 Neckwear X 29138 Neckwear X 29296Neckwear X # in Category 4 14 8 14 1 1 % of Total 9.52% 33.33% 19.05% 33.33% 2.38% 2.38% 190 In some cases sewing thread samples were not obtainable and therefore could not be identified. Based on the sewing thread samples taken it is apparent that many of the items made with silk or wool fibers were finished with cotton sewing thread. In particular these items included the neckwear and the trousers studied (see Table 36).

Lining Considering dress items that have a lining, coats, waistcoat and trousers were studied. Both coats were lined in silk, all five waistcoats are lined in cotton fabric, and both pair of trousers have waistband linings of silk and partial leg linings of linen.

Interfacing Categories of dress with interfacing included: coats; waistcoats; the waistband of the trousers; the ties in the neckwear category; the collars and cuffs of shirts; and collars. Interfacing samples were not taken from both coats,- two of the waistcoats; both pairs of trousers,- thirteen of the fourteen shirts,- and two of the three collars. If the item was in pristine condition, an incision was not made. If a hole or tear was present where the interfacing was visible, a sample was taken and analyzed. Three waistcoats (#29170, #29176, and #29178) were identified as having interfacing made of cotton fibers. 191

Table 36. Fiber Type Identified in Sewing Thread Sandies I.D. Style Silk Cotton Linen Comb­ No Number ination Sample Taken 29148 Coat X 29168 Coat X 29170 Waist X 29176 Waist X 29178 Waist X 29180 Waist X 29181 Waist X 29049 Trousers X 29164 Trousers X 29064 Shirt X 29065 Shirt X 29066 Shirt X 29067 Shirt X 29069 Shirt X 29074 Shirt X 29077 Shirt X 29084 Shirt X 29114 Shirt X 29154 Shirt X 29155 Shirt X 29156 Shirt X 29157 Shirt X 29158 Shirt X 29085 Collar X 29161 Collar X 29239 Collar X 29088 Neckwear X 29095 Neckwear X 29096 Neckwear X 29099 Neckwear X 29100 Neckwear X 29101 Neckwear X 29102 Neckwear X 29103 Neckwear X 29104 Neckwear X 29105 Neckwear X 29106 Neckwear X 29107 Neckwear X 29108 Neckwear X 29134 Neckwear X 29138 Neckwear X 29296 Neckwear X #in Category 5 28 1 2 6 % of Total 11.90% 66.67% 2.38% 4.76% 14.28% 192 One shirt (#29156) has interfacing made of linen fibers and one collar (#29239) has interfacing made of linen fibers. Out of the three neckwear types only the ties have interfacing. One tie (#29106) has cotton warp and weft interfacing, while five other ties (#29099, #29100, #29101, #29102, and #29103) have cotton warp fibers and wool weft fibers.

Identification of Kev Attributes Certain attributes were observed that occurred in more than one class of the men's outer-garments analyzed. They were not specific to any type or class The key attributes identified included: presence of a label; top stitching,- presence of alterations; and presence of mending, indicating use of the item or its condition. Frequencies were computed and used to determine prevalence of a key attribute across categories.

Presence of Label When identifying the presence of a manufacturer's label or an owner's label across categories looking at all 42 men's outer garments, one finds that there are six items (14.29%) (#29065, #29067, #29069, #29114, and #29085) that have an owner's label ; three items (7.14%) (#29049, #29164, and #29099) that have a manufacturer's label, and three items (7.14%) (#29178, #29180, and #29134) that have a label with no identification. Thirty items (71.43%) do not have a label of 193 any kind. Those items that have a label are: two of the waistcoats (#29178 and #29180) have a label without any identification; both pairs of trousers (#29049 and #29164) have the manufacturer's name written or stamped on the inside lining of the cash pocket; five shirts (#29065, 29067, 29069, 29077, and 29114 [Mr. Ralston's shirt]) have the owner's name written or stamped on the shirt front; and one collar (#29085) has the owner's name written or stamped on the collar. One neckwear item (#29099) has the manufacturer's initials in ink, printed or stamped on the tie, and another neckwear item (#29108) has a label with no identification (see Table 37). Only the coat category has no garment with a label. There are different purposes associated with the presence of a label sewn into an outer garment. The presence of an owner's label may indicate a status identification as compared to a manufacturer's label that may indicate ready to wear manufacturing of the item. Since only three items carried manufacturer's labels, it is probable that most of the garments were tailor made. There was no evidence that any labels have been removed. Based on this information many of Mr. Easton's outer garments (30 items (71.43%) out of 42 items) have no label and were probably made by a tailor.' Three items (7.14%) have a manufacturer's label. 194

Table 37. Cos^arison Across Classes: Identification of a Label in the Men's Outer Garments I .D. Style Owner Manufacturer Label None Label Label No. I.D. 29148 Coat X 29168 Coat X 29170 Waist X 29176 Waist X 29178 Waist X 29180 Waist X 29181 Waist X 29049 Trouser X 29164 Trouser X 29064 Shirt X 29065 Shirt X 29066 Shirt X 29067 Shirt X 29069 Shirt X 29074 Shirt X 29077 Shirt X 29084 Shirt X 29114 Shirt X 29154 Shirt X 29155 Shirt X 29156 Shirt X 29157 Shirt X 29158 Shirt X 29085 Collar X 29161 Collar X 29239 Collar X 29088 Neckwear X 29095 Neckwear X 29096 Neckwear X 29099 Neckwear X 29100 Neckwear X 29101 Neckwear X 29102 Neckwear X 29103 Neckwear X 29104 Neckwear X 29105 Neckwear X 29106 Neckwear X 29107 Neckwear X 29108 Neckwear X 29134 Neckwear X 29138 Neckwear X 29296 Neckwear X

# in Category 6 3 3 30 % of Total 14.29% 7.14% 7.14% 71.43% 195 There were six items with a name including Ralston's shirt (14.29%), or five items with Mr. Easton's name (11.90%) indicating possibly that the majority of Mr. Easton's dress items were made by a tailor.

To p Stitching Another key attribute identified across categories was the type of top stitching present. Out of forty-two men's garments analyzed, there were four items (9.52%) (three collars #29085, #29161, #29239, and one shirt #29064) that have machine top stitching. Thirty-three items (78.57%) have hand sewn top stitching, and five items or 11.90% that did not have any top stitching (see Table 38). The finding that many of Easton's dress items have hand sewn top stitching could indicate the items were tailor made.

Presence of Alterations The next key attribute to be compared across classes is the presence of alterations. There are eight items (19.05%) representing four classes: coats (#29148), waistcoats (#29170, #29178, #29180), shirts (#29164, #29069), and neckwear (#29103, and #29134) that have alterations, as compared to 34 items (80.95%) that do not (see Table 39). 196

Table 38. Comparison Across Classes: Presence of Top Stitching in Hen's Outer Garments I.D. Style Machine Hand Machine/Hand None Number 29148 Coat X 29168 Coat X 29170 Waist X 29176 Waist X 29178 Waist X 29180 Waist X 29181 Waist X 29049 Trouser X 29164 Trouser X 29064 Shirt X 29065 Shirt X 29066 Shirt X 29067 Shirt X 29069 Shirt X 29074 Shirt X 29077 Shirt X 29084 Shirt X 29114 Shirt X 29154 Shirt X 29155 Shirt X 29156 Shirt X 29157 Shirt X 29158 Shirt X 29085 Collar X 29161 Collar X 29239 Collar X 29088 Neckwear X 29095 Neckwear X 29096 Neckwear X 29099 Neckwear X 29100 Neckwear X 29101 Neckwear X 29102 Neckwear X 29103 Neckwear X 29104 Neckwear X 29105 Neckwear X 29106 Neckwear X 29107 Neckwear X 29108Neckwear X 29134 Neckwear X 29138 Neckwear X 29296 Neckwear X # in (Category 4 33 0 5 % of 'Total 9.52% 78.57% 0% 11.90% 197 The absence of alterations in the trouser and shirt classes may indicate that the items were ready made or that the items were new, tailor made and there was no need to make alterations on those clothing items at the time of the Easton's ocean trip.

Presence of Mended Areas The last key attribute characterized across classes is the presence of mended areas. There are six items (14.29%) representing three classes: coats (#29148), waistcoats (#29170, #29180, #29181), and neckwear (#29095, and #29134) that have been mended as compared to 36 items (85.71%) that have not been mended (see Table 40) . Three classes of garments (trousers, shirts, and collars) appear to have been newly purchased items or items that were not worn very much. It appears that the majority of Mr. Easton's outer- garments studied are relatively new and free of mending or repair which would indicate that the items were relatively new. The fact that there are six dress items that have been mended may indicate that Mr. Easton had a few garments that he had worn extensively which he took on his ocean wedding trip, since they were his favorite and he felt comfortable in them. The patterns identified by characterizing key attributes present in the men's outer-garments, and noting the styles of the items, suggests that some items were newer than others. 198

Table 39. Comparison Across Classes: Presence of Alterations in the Hen's Outer Garments I.D. Style No Alterations Presence of Alterations Number 29148 Coat X 29168 Coat X 29170 Waist X 29176 Waist X 29178 Waist X 29180 Waist X 29181 Waist X 29049 Trouser X 29164 Trouser X 29064 Shirt X 29065 Shirt X 29066 Shirt X 29067 Shirt X 29069 Shirt X 29074 Shirt X 29077 Shirt X 29084 Shirt X 29114 Shirt X 19154 Shirt X 29155 Shirt X 29156 Shirt X 29157 Shirt X 29158 Shirt X 29085 Collar X 29161 Collar X 29239 Collar X 29088 Neckwear X 29095 Neckwear X 29096 Neckwear X 29099 Neckwear X 29100 Neckwear X 29101 Neckwear X 29102 Neckwear X 29103 Neckwear X 29104 Neckwear X 29105 Neckwear X 29106 Neckwear X 29107 Neckwear X 29108 Neckwear X 19134Neckwear X 20138 Neckwear X 29296 Neckwear X

# in Category 34 8 % of Total 80.95% 19.05% 199

Table 40. Comparison Across Classes: Mended Areas Identified in the Men's Outer Garments

I.D. Style No Mending Mending Number 29148 Coat X 29168 Coat X 29170 Waist X 29176 Waist X 29178 Waist X 29180 Waist X 29181 Waist X 29049 Trouser X 29164 Trouser X 29064 Shirt X 29065 Shirt X 29066 Shirt X 29067 Shirt X 29069 Shirt X 29074 Shirt X 29077 Shirt X 29084 Shirt X 29114 Shirt X 29154 Shirt X 29155 Shirt X 29156 Shirt X 29157 Shirt X 29158 Shirt X 29085 Collar X 29161 Collar X 29239 Collar X 29088 Neckwear X 29095 Neckwear 29096 Neckwear X 29099 Neckwear X 29100 Neckwear X 29101 Neckwear X 29102 Neckwear X 29103 Neckwear X 29104 Neckwear X 29105 Neckwear X 29106 Neckwear X 29107 Neckwear X 29108 Neckwear X 29134 Neckwear 29138 Neckwear X 29296 Neckwear X

# in Category 36 6 % of Total 85.71% 14.29% 200 Items that were identified as new include one coat, the Paletot-sac (#29168), both pair of trousers (#29049 and #29164), fourteen of the sixteen neckwear items (#29088, #29095, #29096, #29099, #29100, #29101, #29102, #29104, #29105, #29106, #29107, #29108, #29138, and #29296), one shirt (#29064), and all three collars. Items that appear to have been older based on the identification of key attributes and notation of style of the item include: the Frock coat (#29148), all five waistcoats, and two neckwear items (#29103 and #29134) .

Identification of Status Attributes Attributes from primary, secondary and scholarly documents that reflect style, function and fashionableness of men's outer-garments from the mid-nineteenth century were chosen for the attribute examination record. From those attributes some were identified as essential attributes (attributes that were class specific) and key attributes (those attributes occurring in more than one class). Based on the identification of essential and key attributes derived from analysis of the men's outer-garments some attributes were identified that reflect status characteristics mentioned in primary, secondary and scholarly documents of the period. Hoult (1965) states that status can be inferred when the style, fabric structure and fiber type are identified in outer-garments. In addition to the three identified by Hoult 201 (1965) Other attributes related to status were identified during the course of the analysis of Easton's outer-garments. These include dimensions of: stitching, fabric pattern, fabric design, construction of garment, style of garment, function of garment, and fashionableness of the garment. Mr. Easton's status is known and recorded in the historical record. He belonged to a modern secondary group during the mid-nineteenth century in San Francisco, California that had relatively high status. Status attributes employed in this research, then, included dimensions of: fiber type; top stitching; fabric structure; fabric pattern,* fabric design,* construction of garment; style of garment; function of garment; and fashionableness of the garment. In addition when looking at status attributes present in men's outer-garments, the recovery of multiple items in association with each other can enhance the accuracy of inference of status. Many of men's day dress styles of the 1850s were made of silk fibers. Garments made of silk during this period were expensive and reflected position within society. Items having silk fibers would include coats, waistcoats, trousers, and neckwear as well as the linings of coats, trousers, and waistcoats. However, different fiber types were associated with different forms and functions in the 1850s. For example, neckwear and waistcoats made of silk fibers were worn for day dress while neckwear and waistcoats made of cotton fibers were 202 worn for formal evening dress. It is critical when distinguishing fiber type to have an idea of the classes of items studied. For example, shirts worn during the mid-nineteenth century were made of linen or cotton. Shirts indicating status were made of linen (flax) fibers rather than cotton fibers, even though cotton was newer and considered to be more fashionable (Levitt, 1986). Linen shirts on the other hand took more time to produce, were more expensive to make, and had to be cleaned more often than those made of cotton. Hence, if an item could be identified as a shirt with a fiber content of cotton the fiber content would not be characteristic of fibers used to produce shirts of finer quality but a shirt that was fashionable for the period. The type of stitching on the item or items under investigation can also be used as an indicator of status. There are two types of stitching: hand stitching or machine stitching. Fine hand stitching takes more time and is more labor intensive; items made of fine hand stitching would therefore cost more to produce and purchase. Machine top stitching was becoming very popular during the mid-nineteenth century. After 1846 sewing machines were available and used in industries of the United States (Ewing, 1984). By producing garments using machine stitching the time it took to produce an item was decreased substantially. . . .Men's shirts which had taken fourteen hours and twenty minutes to made by hand, could now be finished in an hour and sixteen minutes at greatly reduced cost...(Schleninger, 1937, p. 4). 203 Therefore the cost of men's outer-garments that were machine stitched were less expensive to produce and purchase. Another attribute identified related to status is fabric structure. The fabric structure is in fact more important than the fashionableness or shape of the garment when identifying status (Byrde, 1979) . The fabric structure of an item has many dimensions. The texture, weight, fineness of twist, and uniformity of yarns may indicate a greater length of time was taken to produce the fabric structure thereby indicating that the item would cost more to purchase and would be of a higher quality. The complexity of the fabric structure itself may also be an indication of status since those fabric structures having components reflecting more complex elements reflect specialization in production and would cost more to produce and purchase. Fabric pattern is another attribute that may be used to indicate status. If a fabric structure has complementary or supplementary yarns used to create a patten in the fabric structure these additions would indicate that the item took more time to produce and therefore would be more expensive to purchase. Fabric design is another characteristic that can be used to indicate status. Fabric design is reflected in the fabric pattern. A fabric design which reflects complex fabric patterns would indicate the fabric design was created taking time and specialization of design technology. Fabric 204 structures reflecting complex fabric designs would cost more to produce and purchase. The construction of the garment is also an indicator of status. If the item is constructed with finished edges, pockets that match, darts or tucks that are similar in length, the item would be said to be of good construction. Kefge (1971) states that good structural design components in a garment are the most pleasing and often the most expensive. Better made garments take more time to produce and require more expertise indicating the garment would last longer and therefore sell for a higher price than a similar item that was not well constructed. The style of the item may also be used as an indicator of status. If the style of the item is consistent throughout that item it may be said that the garment is uniform in style and indicative of status. As stated in the Art of Dress (1857) "simplicity and long, unbroken lines give dignity, while complicated and short lines express vivacity. Curves, particularly if long and sweeping, give grace, while straight lines and angles indicate power and strength" (p. 33). A man who can dress in the current styles of the period would be seen as having a higher status than one who wore styles of past periods. The function of outer-garments can also be used as an indicator of status. During the mid-nineteenth century there were several different dress functions observed each day. A 205 man of means and position could afford to observe these variations in dress and purchase items to be worn for each occasion. The fashionableness of the items may also be used as an indicator of status. Dress items that represent fashionable dress for the period in which they were worn may be used in conjunction with other status attributes to support the intended status of the wearer. When only small fragments of dress items remain inferences related to status can still be inferred. Attributes or characteristics indicative of status would include dimensions of: fiber type (uniform diameter, and length), fabric structure (interlacing, yarn twist, yarn ply, fineness of yarns, and weight), fabric pattern and fabric design.

Historical Inference According to Wallace (1974) a textile or article of clothing can be seen "as the product of a configuration of interrelated choices" (p. 101). When analyzing historic articles of clothing or textiles, there is a method in which human activity and behavior can be understood based on the identification, characterization and analysis of the object. By placing the items to be studied in their contexts, the investigator can gain a better understanding about the environment in which they were produced, manufactured, used 206 and discarded. One way to understand the context in which artifacts are produced and used is to look at the historical record. By analyzing primary documents from the period in question, one develops a better understanding of the context in which the artifacts were used or worn can be obtained. During the mid-nineteenth century there were many changes. Some of these changes included the availability of cheaper and faster transportation, national advertising, and the simplification and standardization of men's dress. Advancements in technology such as the invention of the sewing machine and the use of measurements based on reoccurring figure types aided in the standardization of men's dress during the mid-nineteenth century (Waugh, 1974). Even with the standardization of men's dress during the mid-nineteenth century, different meanings associated with men's dress fashions were visible through advertising, opinion leaders, and changes in the fashion system during this time (McCracken, 1986). Advertising was now used as a distributor of fashionable dress ideas to many places around the world. Opinion leaders during the mid-nineteenth century included men and women of status and aristocracy. Their movements and clothing choices were depicted and described in popular newspapers and magazines of the period. Other changes in the fashion system included the marketing of ready made clothing and the tailor's access to the sewing machine as compared to doing all the sewing by hand. Some tailors still made men's 207 dress items by hand and these garments were considered to be offine quality and usually cost more to purchase than the ready made dress items. At this time in history there were many social occasions in each day and appropriate dress for each occasion was required. A man who could afford to dress for many everyday functions in clothing that was hand sewn and of superior fabric was considered a man of position and status by his peers and society as a whole. In this way, dress can be seen as a vehicle of communication. Dress can be seen as a vehicle of communication reflecting values and beliefs, lifestyle, status, and group affiliation. By studying men's outer dress items, inferences can be derived about the style, function and fashionableness of the items when compared to primary written and visual documents of the period. Certain research questions were proposed at the onset of this work. Discussion of each question follows. The first research question stated "What types of men's dress items were recovered from the Easton trunk?" There were six classes of men's outer-garments identified. These include coats, waistcoats, trousers, neckwear, shirts and collars. There were two different types of coats recovered from the coat category. One coat was identified as a double breasted Frock coat (#29148) and one was identified as a Paletot-sac coat (#29168) . There were two different types of waistcoats identified within the class of 208 waistcoats. There are four single breasted waistcoats (#29170, #29176, #29178, and #29180), and one double breasted waistcoat (#29181) . In the class of trousers both pairs were identified as classic style trousers or day trousers. Within the class of neckwear there were three types identified. There are three ascots (#29095, #29096, and #29134), six cravats or joinvilles (#29088, #29104, #29105, #29107, #29108, and #29138), and seven ties (#29099, #29100, #29101, #29102, #29103, #29106, and #29296). There were two different types of shirts identified within the shirt category: thirteen were identified as day dress shirts (#29064, #29066, #29067, #29069, #29074, #29077, #29084, #29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, and #29158) . Shirt (#29064) was identified as an day dress shirt, however this shirt has a printed design and would have been worn for more informal day wear functions (Payne, 1965/1992) . Shirt (#29065) was identified as a formal evening or wedding shirt. In the class of collars, all three collars were identified as being worn for day or evening dress. The second research question stated "What differences in function do the men's outer-garments studied represent?" For the most part Easton had items appropriate for morning, day, and business dress in his trunk although some were more formal than others. For example, both coats (#29148 and #29168) , four waistcoats (#29170, #29176, #29178, and #29181), both pairs of trousers (#29049 and #29164), all the neckwear items (#29088, #29095, #29096, #29099, #29100, 209 #29101, #29102, #29103, #29104, #29105, #29106, #29107, #29108, #29134, #29296), thirteen shirts (#29064, #29066, #29067, #29069, #29074, #29077, #29084, #29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, #29158, and #29114) and all three collars (#29085, #29161, and #29239) represent styles of dress that a man of status would have worn for day dress in 1850s. There were only a few items recovered from the Easton trunk that could have been worn for formal or evening dress. Mr. Easton had one white pique waistcoat (#29180), and one white, linen, embroidered shirt with faggoting and pleating (#29065). Perhaps there was another trunk containing more formal dress items, or perhaps for a sea voyage trip the appropriate dress for a gentleman during the mid-nineteenth century was less formal and did not require a dramatic change in dress from day wear to evening wear. By looking at the association of the artifacts as they were recovered from the Easton trunk and also the association of items as they were evaluated, inferences were made as to the clothing combinations Mr. Easton may have worn together. For example, Easton may have worn his brown Frock coat (#29148), a white linen shirt (#29074), a brown and gold abstract patterned waistcoat (#29178) and a white, tan and black cravat (#29296) , and a pair of brown tweed trousers with red and gold threads creating a subtle design. After careful examination of the patterns present in the collection of attributes visible in the men's outer dress 210 items and comparison of those attributes to primary and secondary written and visual information, inferences were made concurring which dress items Mr. Easton may have worn together. For example, another combination may have been Easton's brown Frock coat (#29148), a white linen shirt (#29066), a dark green waistcoat (#29170), a brown patterned cravat with fringed ends (#29088) , and his red, gold and brown tweed trousers (#29049) for day dress. Or he could have worn his Paletot-sac coat (#29168), a white linen shirt with the collar cut off (#29069), a detachable collar (#29085) a brown and white waistcoat (#29176) , a blue tie (#29099) , and his blue trousers (#29164) also for day dress. There are many combinations Mr. Easton could have used to create a dress outfit for day wear from the items recovered in the Easton trunk. However, there are a few items missing from the Easton trunk that he would have needed to complete his day dress. These include a hat and a pair of shoes. The third research question stated "Did Mr. Easton's dress items reflect the current fashions available to men in his social position?" Mr. Easton had many outer-garments that represented the current fashions (1853-1857) available to men in his social position. These items included two coats: a Frock coat (#29148) and a Paletot-sac coat (#29168); two pairs of classic style trousers (#29164 and #29049) , that have belt buckle dates of 1857; all sixteen neckwear items which include three 211 ascots (#29095, #29096, and #29134), six cravats (#29088, #29104, #29105, #29107, #29108, and #29138) and seven ties (#29099, #29100, #29101, #29102, #29103, #29106, and #29296), fourteen shirts (#29064, #29065, #29066, #29067, #29069, #29074, #29077, #29084, #29114, #29154, #2915, #29156, #29157, and #29158), and all three collars (#29085, #29161, and #29239) . All five of the waistcoats (#29170, #29176, #29178, #29180, and #29181) appear to be representative of older styles of waistcoats. There are details of elements from the waistcoats that reflect fashionable styles worn during the late 1840s and early 1850s. These details included leather foreparts and ties at the center back of the waistcoat. In general Mr. Easton wore outer-garments that were fashionable. It is of interest that in only one category i.e. the waistcoats, fashionable dress was not present from the items analyzed.

Hypotheses

Hypothesis I All of the men's dress items recovered from the Easton trunk represent fashionable male dress of the mid-nineteenth century. 212 Criterion for acceptance: The men's dress items from the Easton trunk are consistent with fashionable male dress of 1853-1857 as evidenced by visual and written primary documents of period. Hypothesis I was accepted for 37 of the men's outer garments recovered from the Easton trunk. The men's coats (#29148 and #29168), trousers (#29049 and #29164), neckwear items (#29088, #29095, #29096, #29099, #29100, #29101, #29102, #29103, #29104, #29105, #29106, #29107, #29108, #29134, #29138, and #29296) , shirts (#29064, #29065, #29066, #29067, #29069, #29074, #29077, #29084, #29114, #29154, #29155, #29156, #29157, and #29158), and collars (#29085, #29161, and #29239) exhibited no variation in style from fashionable male dress of the mid-nineteenth century. No difference was found in comparison of Easton's garments and those of the documentary and visual dress evidence of the mid-nineteenth century that depicts men of status similar to Mr. Easton's. Hypothesis I was not accepted for the five waistcoats (#29170, #29176, #29178, #29180, and #29181) analyzed for the study. All five waistcoats represent a variation in style from fashionable male dress of the period 1853-1857. Instead Mr. Easton had waistcoats that represented styles worn during the late 1840s or early 1850s. 213 Hypothesis II None of the men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk represent styles manufactured and worn prior to 1853.

Criterion for acceptance; All garments in the Easton trunk represent styles manufactured and worn from 1853-1857 as evidenced by visual and written primary and secondary documents of the period. Hypothesis II was accepted for 37 of the men's outer garments recovered from the Easton trunk. Many of the men's outer garments (coats, trousers, neckwear, shirts, and collars) represent dress worn by males in the period of 1853- 1857. However, one coat (#29148), and two neckwear items (#29095 and #29134) have areas that have been mended indicating the items were not brand new, although they were probably purchased after 1853. Alterations were also present in three items: one coat (#29148), and two shirts (#29064 and #29069) . The alterations in the coat and shirts may have been done to ensure a better fit. One of the shirts (#29064) had a straight pin securing each cuff in a rolled position indicating the sleeve length was too long, and one shirt (#29069) had the collar cut off, perhaps in order to wear one of the three detachable collars recovered from the trunk. The alteration in the coat (#29148) was the indication that a button hole had been moved. 214 In many cases Mr. Easton's outer garments were identified as new. The belt buckles of both trousers were dated 1857. The shirts and collars examined for this study reflect styles that were very modern for the period. Many of the shirts of the same period located in museums in Ohio had different details when compared to the Easton shirts. Study of the primary documents shows that Mr. Easton had shirts that were the latest style for the period. Hypothesis II was not accepted for the five waistcoats analyzed for the study. There were two waistcoats (#29176 and #29178) that have areas that have been mended, and two waistcoats (#29176 and #29181) have areas that have been altered. One waistcoat (#29180) had a belt buckle with the date of 1854. The waistcoat could have been made earlier and a new buckle used; however the presence of ties at the center back of this waistcoat and another waistcoat (#29176) reflect a detail of element present in waistcoats of the late 1840s or early 1850s.

Hypothesis III The men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk exhibit variation in function within each category.

Criterion for acceptance; The men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk display the presence of attributes indicating different functions for garments within 215 each class, based on primary documents of period. Hypothesis III was accepted for three of the men's outer garments analyzed for the study. One waistcoat (#29180) exhibited variation in function when compared to the other four waistcoats. Two shirts (#29064 and #29065) exhibit variation in function when compared to the other shirts recovered from the Easton trunk. The waistcoat (#29180) could have been worn for formal evening dress; shirt (#29064) was less formal and could have been worn for informal day dress, while shirt (#29065) was very formal and could have been worn for evening dress or wedding. Hypothesis III was not accepted for 39 of the men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk. The two coats analyzed for this study represent different styles, but the function was relatively the same: both coats were worn for morning, or day dress. However, the Frock coat was the more formal of the two coats analyzed. The five waistcoats analyzed for the study exhibited a difference in style, but four of the waistcoats (#29170, #29176, #29178, #29181) represent similar functions, as compared to waistcoat (#29180) that would have been worn for formal or evening dress. It was suggested in the literature that silk waistcoats were worn for day, and cotton for evening. Color was also used to indicate function: white or black for evening, embroidered or patterned for day (Byrde, 1979) . The four waistcoats that were similar in function 216 would have been worn for morning, day dress or business attire. The two pair of trousers analyzed (#29049 and #29164) were similar in style and function, both would have been worn for day dress. The neckwear items exhibited a difference in style but were similar in function. There were three ascots or scarves, six cravats or joinvilles and seven ties. All the neckwear recovered from the Easton trunk would have been worn for day dress. The fourteen shirts analyzed for the study were similar in style, except shirt (#29064) which had a printed pattern and would have been considered to be a casual and sporty style worn during the day, and shirt (#29065) which was more formal and would have been worn for evening dress or a wedding. Twelve of the shirts including Mr. Ralston's shirt (#29114) would have been worn for morning, day or business dress. The three collars differed in style, but were similar in function. Collar (#29085) appeared to be the most formal of the three. The collar was enclosed using a button hole at each end and securing it to the front of a shirt with a stud or button from the neckband of the shirt. Collar (#29161) had ties to secure it to the back of the neck. Collar (#29239) was recovered in fragments but appears to be similar in style to (#29161) with ties used to hold it in place. All three collars could have been worn for day dress or evening dress. CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study was to identify, characterize, and interpret men's outer garments recovered from the deep ocean shipwreck of the S.S. Central America. In this chapter, a summary of the research will be presented as well as a discussion of the limitations of the research and recommendations for research.

Summary of Previous Chapters The previous chapters included a discussion of the following stages of research: statement of the problem, theoretical framework, review of related literature, development of research methods, and presentation and implication of the findings.

statement of t b «=> P-rr>V>1 o m In 1857 the S . S . Central America foundered in a hurricane off the Carolina coast and sank with immense loss of life and possessions. Over one hundred and thirty years later, a passenger trunk was recovered from the site of the shipwreck. The trunk and its contents were identified as belonging to Mr. and Mrs. Ansel Ives Easton, a couple on their

217 218 wedding sea voyage from San Francisco, California. Mr. Easton had married Miss Adeline Mills just prior to beginning the ocean voyage. Easton and his wife represented a relatively high status couple from San Francisco, California. Mr. Easton was a rancher/businessman. Never before has an opportunity occurred to investigate a trunk, with its contents largely intact, from a deep ocean marine site. The first stage of the research reported here included identifying the items according to gender using video tape recordings and written records of the opening and excavation of the items from within the trunk. Primary and secondary visual and written documents from the period were used to assist in the identification. After the cataloging phase of the work, the next emphasis of this study was upon the identification, characterization and interpretation of male outer-garments, in particular. Inferences derived from the analyses of the men's outer-garments revealed attributes characteristic of clothing worn by a man of relatively high status, as well as the style, function and fashionableness of the men's outer-garments items recovered from the Easton trunk. Clothing recovered from a deep ocean shipwreck offers a unique opportunity to study men's clothing worn by a male with relatively high status who lived in San Francisco, California in 1857. In general, the literature presents little information concerning clothing selected and worn by a man of 219 relatively high status on a ocean sea voyage during the mid­ nineteenth century. The objectives of the study were as follows: 1). To identify types or styles of outer-wear assembled by a male of the 1850s for sea voyage. 2) . To determine if the men's dress items are indicative of a difference in function. 3) . To determine if the men's dress items from the Easton trunk represent fashionable wardrobe items worn by males during the mid-nineteenth century.

Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework chosen for the study included an examination of dress, the phenomenon of fashion, indicators of status, and Gardin's (1980) archaeological classification constructs model.

Dress Dress has two functions: as a physical covering of the body and as a vehicle of communication to communicate status and group affiliation of an individual. Dress has been defined by many (Stone, 1962; Goffman 1963; Stryker, 1980; and Weigert, Teitge, & Teitge, 1986). Roach-Higgins and Eicher's (1992) definition of dress was chosen for this study since it offered the most comprehensive definition of dress. Roach- Higgins and Eicher (1992) defined dress as "an assemblage of modifications of the body and/or supplements to the body" (p. 220 1) . The term "dress" was chosen over other terms since it was not gender specific and does not have positive or negative connotations associated with it (Roach-Higgins & Eicher, 1992) . In 1857 dress was defined as "having two functions, to clothe and to ornament. The essential requirement of dress is to cover that make comfortable the body" ("The Uses of Dress", 1857, pp. 31-32). In comparing and contrasting the two definitions of dress one sees there are many similarities. Both sources define dress as functional: to clothe. Roach-Higgins and Eicher (1992) definition gives more descriptions as to what is encompassed by the term dress. The 1857 definition of dress defines dress as functional. This concept of function included the fitness of the dress i.e. how the dress fits the body. In contrast, Roach-Higgins and Eicher (1992) definition of dress does not directly identify the second function of dress: ornamentation in detail as compared to the 1857 definition which gives a long, lengthy description of ornamentation and how it should not interfere with the mental constitution of the wearer. However, both definitions of dress were similar since dress was defined as that which is added to the body, and that which should not overtake or interfere with the personality and position of the wearer, as well as the intended meaning the wearer wishes to convey to society through clothing choices that represent the self. 221 By viewing dress and observing attributes, characteristics, or details of element visible in dress as a collection of symbols used to communicate meaning, inferences can be made about the group in which Mr, Easton belonged.

PhAimmenon of Fashion Fashion has been defined by many. For the purposes of this research the concept of fashion from a sociological perspective was used. From this perspective fashion is seen as the collective consensus of individuals who belong to a group within a culture. The formation of collective taste can be seen in the artifacts produced and reflect the formation of ideas by that group (Blumer, 1969/1981; Horowitz, 1975; McCracken, 1986). During the mid-nineteenth century in the United States there was immense change in technological, economic, social, political and environmental aspects of the culture. Fashionable dress reflected these advancements and changes. When ideas within a culture are changing, people within a culture are more likely to dictate and embrace fashionable changes in dress since dress reflects changes in ideas within the culture in which they live. By studying attributes or characteristics of a man's fashionable dress from the mid­ nineteenth century inferences related to the culture in which he lived can be noted. Specifically, the meaning assigned to attributes in dress denoting style, function, fashionability 222 and status.

Fashion as Communication. Fashionable dress can be understood as an instrument of meaning (McCracken, 1986). The way in which fashionable dress is invested with meaning is through cultural categories and principles which make up the cultural world in which the items were produced and used. People within a culture divide up the culture in which they live by defining specific categories in order to create some order of all that is present. Cultural principles are the values and ideas that are attached to the categories identified. Fashionable dress can be seen as a vehicle of communication reflecting the cultural categories and principles people within a culture have defined. McCracken (1986) cites three ways in which to transfer the meaning of goods from the cultural categories and principles which come from the culturally constituted world. During the mid-nineteenth century communication of fashion was accomplished through advertising in newspapers and catalogs of men's fashionable items targeted at men looking for a certain image. Secondly, men's fashionable dress was visible through clothing choices made by families of industrialists, entertainers and people of status and aristocracy (Payne, 1965/1992) . The visibility of these people and their dress enabled others to see what they wore and to adopt fashionable silhouette changes as they occurred. Thirdly, there were 223 changes in the meaning of fashionable dress and sub-groups within the culture reflected these ideas. For example, at this time in history (1850s) sub-groups that were visible and represented new ideas and values included: men who supported the emancipation of women; men who moved to the west coat of the United States to establish cities in frontier areas, namely San Francisco, California; men who belonged to political office; and men who were of status and position.

Dress as Indicator of Status The concept of status is culture dependent. Indicators of status can be seen in a variety of ways. One way is through clothing choices an individual makes in order to participate in group activities. During the mid-nineteenth century status was inferred by the variety of dress items an individual had to wear to attend several different functions in a day. A man who could afford to dress for various social functions was considered to have position and status. Other indicators of status include the presence of attributes visible in dress. Hoult (1965) states that there are no fixed symbols to mark the social elite in a stratified society, so external features such as clothing are often used. Attributes identified in this research as indicators of status included dimensions of: fiber type, top stitching, fabric structure, fabric pattern, fabric design, construction of the garment, style of the garment, function of the garment and 224 fashionableness of the garment. In order to identify these attributes in the men's outer-garments studied, the investigator chose a classification system that could be used to catalog, classify, identify patterns present in the classification and make historical inferences based on the patterns observed.

Gardin's Classification Model Using Gardin's (1980) archaeological constructs model the investigator catalogued and classified the men's outer- garments based on specific attributes identified in the historical record related to style, function, fashion, and status. The classes and types within each class of men's outer-garments were evaluated and patterns were noted, and historical inferences made. Using Gardin's (1980) framework the steps used to identify, characterize and interpret the evidence are described below.

Cataloging. The dress items recovered from the Easton were described in detail, noting the elements themselves (dress items) as well as the details of the elements (specific attributes). By describing the items, and noting specific characteristics the items were identified by the sex of the wearer. Next, the descriptions were organized and a classification scheme developed. 225

Classification. The men's outer-garments were then ordered based on attributes, traits, and characteristics that were observed. In order to classify the items, a number of attributes unique to that class of item were recorded (Clarke, 1978). The items were then classified and further divided within each class according to type. At this time attributes that were identified for the attribute examination record based on the primary, secondary, and scholarly documents of the period were further divided into different types of attributes.

Pattern Recocmition. Based on the attributes identified to create the classification of the men's outer-garments, patterns of those attributes were observed and noted. Patterns observed in the six classes of men's outer-garments analyzed for the study included: style, function, and fashionability of the items within each class and across classes. Included in the pattern recognition stage was the identification of three types of attributes: essential, key, and status. Essential attributes have been identified as attributes that are class specific. Essential attributes included fabric structure, fabric pattern, fabric design, and fiber type. Key attributes were identified as those attributes that occur in more than one class. Key attributes included the presence of a label, top stitching, presence of 226 alterations, and presence of mended areas. Status attributes which were identified included some essential and some key attributes. Status attributes were identified as fiber type, top stitching, fabric structure, fabric pattern, fabric design, construction of garment, style of garment, function of the garment, and the fashionableness of the garment.

Historical Inference. After meaningful patterns were defined, inferences were made about Mr. Easton and the style, function and fashionableness of his outer-garments. By defining constructs of dress, dress and the self, the phenomenon of fashion, and dress as indicator of status, the men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk were evaluated using Gardin's (1980) archaeological constructs model. Gardin's (1980) theoretical framework was used to identify, characterize, and infer meaning based on the analyses of the selected men's dress items recovered from the Easton trunk.

Review of Related Literature In the body of scholarship cited for this research, topics were discussed that influenced the production and distribution of men's dress items during the mid-nineteenth century. Presented is information related to the textile industry, California and San Francisco trade, and fashion and technology during the mid-nineteenth century. 227

The Textile Industry The influence of the industrial revolution precipitated changes within the textile industry. As well as becoming more efficient, textile producers were enabled to produce fabric structures, fabric patterns, and fabric designs that were very complex and expensive. Fabrics made during the mid-nineteenth century were constructed from materials that were often woven with some type of printed design using the latest advancements in technology. For men's dress, outer-wear fabrics of wool broadcloth and "cassimere" were two popular fabric choices. Embroidered satin, striped Marseilles, and velveret were popular fabrics used to make men's waistcoats (Wilson, 1979). Shirtwear fabric consisted of crisp cotton poplin fabric as well as linen woven cloth. Byrde (1979) stated that formal dress was made of fabrics such as silks, and fine woolen cloths that were aesthetically pleasing, while less formal attire was made from fabrics that were more serviceable; often made of a heavy, rough variety such as stout cottons, and corduroys (p. 142) . In addition to changes in the production of fabrics, the construction of garments also underwent immense change. With the invention and commercial use of the sewing machine beginning in 1846, machine work surpassed hand work and factory work took the place of the domestic industry. It saved power and raw material; it increased the speed and continuity of operation between processes (Singer, Holmyard, 228 Hall, & Williams, 1958). From this, the quality of garments improved which led to lowered prices of manufactures, stimulating demand and creating employment. Also at this time, advancements in transportation enabled goods to be shipped by railway, steamship or stage coach nationally.

California and San Francisco Trade During the height of the Gold Rush the population in California increased from 92,597 in 1850 to 379,994 by 1860 (Statistical Abstract, 1878) . The people of San Francisco had a wide and constant demand for manufactured goods, tools, machinery and food products which the undeveloped local industry could not supply (California State Department of Education, 1940). Merchants sent out reports and requests for goods to suppliers in the eastern United States, Europe, Chile, China, and Hawaii (Senkewciz, 1985). Inevitably, the market became saturated during the 1850s (Senkewciz, 1985) . At this time mens clothing could be purchased in stores, by catalog, or made by a tailor.

Fashion and Toffhnningy During the mid-nineteenth century, the simplification and standardization of men's dress occurred due to advancements in mass production and technology (Roach & Musa, 1980) . Due to this change, fashionable men's clothing became available at lower prices. This change afforded many men the luxury of 229 dressing above their status within the class structure of the American culture. However, by observing the details of the garments others were able to infer the status of the wearer (Keers, 1988) . Kidwell and Christman (1974) stated: "The custom tailor may be regarded as the seminal figure in the story of the democratization of clothing because it was the modification of his techniques that made possible cheap, well made and fashionable clothing' in 'an extensive assortment from the medium to the extreme of fashion" (p. 39). During this time men's clothing consisted of a variety of styles of garments dependent on time of day and social occasion. Men's wear styles in the United States during the mid-nineteenth century were influenced by menswear styles from Europe, specifically England (Kidwell & Christman, 1974). In summary, the mid-nineteenth century was a time of rapid industrial growth. Specifically, the textile industry advanced in many areas: industrialization of machines, the sewing machine in particular; complexity of fabric produced at a rapid rate due to technological advancements which saved time and money in production. Transportation advancements which included railway and steamship enabled goods to be dispersed nationally. At this time in history San Francisco, California was becoming established as a city. However, goods were usually brought in and sold as compared to being produced in the city, at least in the early 1850s. 230

Devtalopmtant of Research Methods A combination of qualitative and quantitative techniques was employed to analyze the men's outer-garments. The qualitative analysis included the cataloging of all the dress items from the Easton trunk and their identification with regard to gender. Then the men's outer-garments were analyzed in more detail. Written and visual primary and secondary historical sources were used as a basis for comparison for each of the outer-garments described. The quantitative analysis of the study included the development of an attribute examination record. The checklist was developed with reference to primary and secondary visual and written documents of the period. The attributes chosen represent characteristics that could be used as indicators of style, function and fashionability of men's outer-garments worn during the mid-nineteenth century. The attribute examination record was tested for inter­ rater reliability and test re-test reliability. A pre and post test was given to three professionals in Historic Costume and Textiles. Each rater evaluated six outer-garments from the Easton trunk as well as fiber samples representing four fiber groups: silk, wool, cotton and linen. The results of the pre and post test indicated that some modifications needed to be made to the attribute examination record with regard to the descriptions of the style of garment and the descriptions of the fabric structures. Results of the tests also indicated 231 that those using the attribute examination record to evaluate attributes of men's outer-garments should have an extensive knowledge of the types of styles of men's garments worn during the period in question, as well as a comprehensive understanding of fabric and fiber components. Modifications were made to the attribute examination record reflecting the recommendations of the raters who tested it. The sample was derived from a total population of 109 dress artifacts recovered from the Easton trunk. The sample was selected and consisted of forty-two items identified as men's outer-garments, including coats, waistcoats, trousers, neckwear items, shirts and collars. For the purposes of the study, shirts and collars were included as outer-garments since parts of them were visible when worn and the items could be used as indicators of status and position for men during the mid-nineteenth century.

Presentation and Implication of the Findings The men's outer-garments were catalogued, arranged according to class and further divided according to type. The classes identified included: two coats, five waistcoats, two pair of trousers, sixteen neckwear items, fourteen shirts, and three collars. Pattern recognition of the men's outer- garments analyzed indicated that within each category there was some variation with regard to style and function. In the coat category each coat represented a different style: coat 232 #29148 has been identified as a double breasted Frock, coat, while coat #29168 has been identified as a Paletot-sac coat. Both coats are similar in function and would have been worn for morning or day dress. However the Frock coat (#29148) was the more formal of the two coats. Out of five waistcoats studied, four (#29170, #29176, #29178, #29180) are a single breasted shawl collar waistcoats, and one (#29181) is a double breasted shawl collar waistcoat that would have been worn for day wear. With respect to function, one of the waistcoats (#29180) is single breasted, cotton, and originally was probably a solid white color. This waistcoat would have been worn for evening dress, while the other four waistcoats (#29170, #291076, #29178, #29181) would have been worn for day dress. The two pairs of trousers (#29049 and #29161) analyzed are of a similar style, both pairs are made of wool, and are dark in color. Both pairs of trousers are also similar in function and would have been worn for morning dress, day dress and business dress. The sixteen neckwear items represent a variation in style but are similar in function. All sixteen neckwear items display stylistic variation. Three neckwear items (#29095, #29096, and #29134) were identified as ascots, six neckwear items (#29088, #29108, #29138, #29104, and #29107) were identified as cravats, and seven neckwear items (#29099, #29100, #29101, #29102, #29103, and #29106) were identified as ties. Within these smaller categories or types of neckwear 233 different functions are represented. For day dress, silk would have been worn. All the neckwear items except one (#29296) were identified as silk. Neckwear item (#29296) was identified as cotton and has a taupe and black, plaid design and probably was worn for day dress, since patterned cravats were worn for day dress (Cunnington, 1966). Therefore, all sixteen neckwear items would have been worn for day dress. Out of fourteen shirts analyzed for the study there was a slight variation in style. Many of the shirts are white, linen, and have pleats. Shirt #29064 is made from cotton fibers and has a printed design. Shirt #29065, identified as a formal shirt, is white, linen, pleated, and has embroidery and faggoting on the shirt front. All the shirts except (#29065) could have been worn for morning dress or day dress. Since it has small tucks and embroidery on the shirt front, shirt #29065 would have been worn for evening dress. There were three collars analyzed for the study. All three collars varied in style. One shirt (#29085) has a button hole at each end to be secured with a stud or button at the neck. Collar #29161 has a tie to be secured at the back of the neck, and (#29239) is in six fragments but appears to be similar in style to (#29161). Collar #29085 appears to be the most formal of the three detachable collars. The button holes would only enclose a certain length perhaps indicating an item made just for Mr. Easton. The other two collars (#29161 and #29239) appear to be more ready made with a string used to fit the 234 collar to any neck circumference. All three collars would have been worn for day dress or evening dress. The styles of the coats, trousers, neckwear, shirts and collars were all fashionable styles for the period of 1853 to 1857. The five waistcoats analyzed for the study display styles popular in the 1840s and early 1850s. All of the forty two men's outer-garments appear to be items a man of status would wear; they are somewhat conservative and formal, with little variation in function, most of the outer-garments would have been worn for day dress; only two items, a waistcoat (#29180) and a shirt (#29065) , would have been worn for formal or evening dress. Based on the attributes identified in the primary, secondary, visual and written documents of the period three types of attributes were identified: essential, key and status. Information related to essential attributes contributed knowledge that was class specific while information was gained by looking key attributes as they occurred in more than one class. Status attributes were then identified from essential and key attributes tested in the attribute examination record. It was determined that Mr. Easton had outer-garments that reflected his relatively high position based on attributes visible in his dress. For example, Easton had fourteen shirts recovered from his trunk (one was identified as belonging to Mr. Ralston #29114). Thirteen of the fourteen shirts were made of (flax) linen 235 fibers while one shirt was made of cotton. Linen shirts during the mid-nineteenth century were a symbol of status since they wrinkled and soiled easily as compared to the fashionable cotton shirts that were easier to maintain. Mr. Easton also had a variety of items that were made of silk fibers or had silk linings. These items included the majority of his neckwear, three of the five waistcoats, and linings in his coats and trousers. However, Mr. Easton's outer-garments recovered from the trunk represent for the most part clothing that was worn for day dress. Perhaps other clothing representing different functions was packed in another trunk or perhaps for an ocean sea voyage during the mid-nineteenth century there was not a set precedent for different types of dress denoting different social functions to be observed.

Hypotheses The hypotheses posed for the study are as follows : The first hypothesis states that all the men's dress items recovered from the Easton trunk represent fashionable male dress of the mid-nineteenth century (1853-1857) . Five of the six classes of items analyzed (coats, trousers, neckwear, shirts and collars) represent fashionable male dress of the mid-nineteenth century. Five waistcoats were identified as having styles that were fashionable during the 1840s and early 1850s. 236 The second hypothesis states that none of the men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk represent styles manufactured and worn prior to 1853. In fact, results of this research show that many of the men's dress items represent dress styles that were manufactured and worn during the period of 1853-1857, with the exception of the five waistcoats which were manufactured earlier, but were worn during the period of 1853-1857. The third hypothesis states that the men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk exhibit variation in function within each category. The research showed that many of the men's outer-garments did not exhibit a variation in function within each category identified, with the exception of the waistcoat and shirt categories.

Assun^tions of the Research In this research it is assumed that Mr. Easton had an array of fashionable goods available to him in San Francisco, California. Distribution routes were limited by the lack of available transportation by land. However, shipping during the mid-nineteenth century enabled transmission of dress styles to cities along the east and west coats, particularly San Francisco, California by way of New York and transatlantic passage from Europe (Lotchin, 1974; Johnston, 1988). The assumption is also made that the selection of items in the Easton trunk is representative of Mr. Easton's entire 237 day dress wardrobe and so reflects what he wore in San Francisco, on the ocean sea voyage and would have worn in New York if the S . S . Central America had not sunk. Finally it is assumed in this work that the presence of male and female dress items in the Easton trunk indicates that the trunk was used, at least right before the sinking of the S. S. Central America, by both Mr. and Mrs. Easton.

Limitations of the Research The researcher's knowledge of the exact placement and juxtaposition of the dress items is limited by the circumstances of the recovery. The fashion theory chosen for this study comes from a sociological perspective and focuses on the collective behavior of the group (Blumer 1969/1981; Horowitz 1975; McCracken 1986) . For this study, by looking at the phenomenon of fashion from a sociological perspective inferences are limited to the collective behavior of the group who wore fashionable clothing during the mid-nineteenth century, a group of which Mr. Easton belonged, as stated in Chapter I.

Recommendations for Future Research The study encompasses the examination of a small collection of the items recovered from the Easton trunk, in order to gain a better understanding of the types of artifacts a man of known status would purchase and use, other male dress 238 items and artifacts within the trunk must be identified and characterized. After all of the items recovered from the Easton trunk have been identified, characterized, and interpreted a better understanding of the whole picture can be revealed with regard to what a man of known status would pack for his trousseau to be taken on his wedding voyage. Other research may include the comparison of Easton's outer-garments to other men's outer-garments from the same period using the attribute examination record. Specifically, a comparison of men's outer-garments recovered from the Easton trunk to men's outer garments recovered from the Dement trunk, which was also recovered from the shipwreck site of the S . S . Central America, would be an interesting study since the context in which the items were worn was the same. Other research may include the comparison Easton's outer-garments to dress worn on the East coast of the United States. Other research may also include a study of the site in which the trunk was recovered. Specifically, the relationship of all the trunks, Easton's and Dement's trunks included, in the debris field of the shipwreck site to the actual shipwreck site of the S . S . Central America. In this way information may be gained as to why there are trunks in the debris field of the S . S . Central America and not in the rooms or the hold of the shipwreck. APPENDIX A

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

239 240

Thread, y a m : These terns are used interchangeably (Emery, 1966) .

End: A single thread of the warp (Emery, 1966).

Pick: A single thread of the welt (Emery, 1966) .

System: One of the two sets of parallel threads that interweave to form a woven fabric; warp and weft (Emery, 1966) .

S-spun or Z spun: The direction of the twisting of the yarn (Emery, 1966) .

Single: A yarn made by spinning together fibers in a single operation (Emery, 1966).

Balanced: Having about the same number of warp and weft threads per centimeter (Emery, 1966).

Placket: Is a finished slit with a fastener, as at the collar of a shirt, to make it easy to put on and take off (Gioeilo & Berke, 1981) .

Collar: Is described according to its outer shape or silhouette: standing or turned down are two examples (Gioeilo & Berke, 1981) .

Shirt tail: Is defined as the bottom of the back of the shirt. The shirt tail can vary in length, some are the same length in back and in front, others are much longer in back (Gioeilo & Berke, 1981) .

French cuff: Is a piece of material that extends down the length of the cuff and is turned over the cuff (Gioeilo & Berke, 1981). 241

Plastron: Is a starched shirt front (Gioeilo & Berke, 1981).

Foreparts: "The skirted coat was constructed of a pair of foreparts joined by side seams to a part of back-pieces which were united by a midline seam extending from neck to waist (Cunnington, 1966, p. 34) . APPENDIX B

FABRIC NAMES

242 243

Broadcloth: "a woollen made of fine merino yarns in plain twill weave, heavily milled with dress face finish" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 571).

Cassimere: (cammimer): "a twilled woollen made of very fine yarns closely set" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 571) .

Kerseymere: "a twilled cloth closely woven and finished with a very close nap" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 572) .

Linsey-woolsey: "a woarse mixed material of wool and flax, the warp of thread, the weft of worsted" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 572) .

Marcella: "a stiff double-faced quilted white cotton similar to pique but with a plain weave ground" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 573) .

Nankin: "a twilled cotton cloth having a yellowish brown tint" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 573).

Ottoman silk: "a term applied to silks with a horizontal thick cord and two or three cords between" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 573) .

Poplin: "a rep of silk warp and worsted weft, having a cord on the surface" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 573).

Satin Merv: "a broad-ribbed satin" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 574).

Satin Merveilleux: "a soft twilled satin resembling surah but with a brighter face and duller back" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 574) .

Serge: "a loosely woven twilled flannel, the warp of worsted, the weft of wool" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 574) . 244

Tweed: "a woollen cloth originating in Scotland" (Cunnington, 1966, p. 574) . APPENDIX C

ATTRIBUTE EXAMINATION RECORD DEFINITIONS

245 246

Frock coat: a coat with a waist seam and skirt attached. Long sleeves, by 1857 the sleeve was "peg top" in shape. The waist shortened in 1855-56 when the skirt lengthened. The frock coat could have side vents or back vents. The frock coat had lapels and a collar. Pockets patched pockets not sewn into the lining. Buttons enclosed the foreparts of the coat and could be single breasted or double breasted (Cunnington, 1966, p. 197) .

Morning coat: a coat that resembled the frock coat but slope away in front to broad tails in the back. The Morning coat was usually double breasted. The pockets were set in the pleats not in the lining (Cunnington, 1966, p. 197) .

Paletot-sac: a coat with a turned down collar. Double buttons enclose the collar. The sleeves are long, and the body of the jacket hangs full. Down the center front the coat is enclosed by tabs. There is no back seam. There is piping around the collar, sleeve ends, tabs, and body of jacket (Cunnington, 1966, p. 182) .

Dress or Tail Coat: cut in across the waist, with a single-or double-breasted fastening, collar and revers was worn more for evening wear than day wear after 1830s (Byrde, 1979).

Double breasted waistcoat: a waistcoat that encloses down the center front with two rows of buttons and a lapel that sometimes buttons back. Usually worn for day wear. 247

Shawl collar waistcoat: a waistcoat with a rolled collar and lapel. The waistcoat is single breasted and encloses down the center front. Usually worn for evening wear and with a double breasted frock coat.

Peg top trousers : trousers that were worn for day wear only but never a universal fashion (Cunnington, 1966, p. 206) . The legs were wide at the hips and gradually sloped inward to close at the ankle. Similar to the cut of the coat-sleeve of the period (1857) . Peg top trousers were fuller, several pleats were needed to draw all the material into the waistband (Keers, 1988) .

American trousers : body of trousers gathered onto a narrow waistband. Could be worn with braces or without as a buckle and strap enclosed the back upper part of the waistband. Pockets were sewn into the side seams (Keers, 1988).

Full trousers: trousers for evening were close-fitting, with cash pocket. They were mainly made of black doeskin or cassimir (Cunnington, 1966, p. 206).

Classic trousers: two pleats at the front waistband, one which becomes the front crease, and another midway between the first pleat and the pocket (Keers, 1988, p. 52).

Shirt with collar: a shirt with collar. Sleeves are long and have cuffs. Button holes down part of the center front of shirt. Encloses with buttons or studs. Shirt tails rounded at corners, a fashionable detail of the shirt for the 1850s. 248

Shirt without collar: a shirt with no collar. Long sleeves and cuffs. Button holes down part of the center front of shirt. Encloses with buttons or cuffs. Shirt tails are rounded (Stipulated by the author).

Collar with square ends: collar that would be attached to a shirt with a button or stud at the center back of collar. Ends of collar are square, would be considered a standing collar style for the period of 1857 (Payne, 1965/1992).

Collar with round ends : collar that would be attached to a shirt with a button or stud at the center back of collar. Ends of collar are round, would be considered a turned down collar style for the period of 1857 (Payne, 1965/1992).

Ascot or Scarf: a scarf that is rectangular or square in shape. Folded so as to resemble a long thin line. Secured about the neck with a pin of some sort. Various fabric designs and patterns (Payne, 1965/1992).

Tie: A fore in hand style neckwear item. Rectangular in shape, sewn together, sometimes has interfacing. Sometimes there is a hole in the middle of the tie, sometimes a tuck. Worn about the neck and enclosed with various styles of knots. Falls down the center front and covers shirt front. Various patterns and designs seen in fabric used for ties (Cunnington, 1966) . 249

Cravat or Joinville : a long rectangular piece of woven fabric, no raw edges, same on both sides, no interfacing or seam. Usually has fringed edges and some sort of repeat design. Tied about the neck and then in a bow at the neck front so that ends stand out (Cunnington, 1966).

Presence of mended areas : areas on a garment that have been torn in some way and then mended with hand stitching to enclose the tear and mend the area.

Presence of alterations: any construction modification or addition to the body of the garment. Alterations may be due to having a better fitting garment or due to lack of fabric to make a garment, therefore piecing is necessary.

Label : any type of identification on the garment. Can be sewn, monogrammed, in ink.

Top Stitching: stitching that is on the exterior of the garment. Can be either machine or hand sewn or both.

Machine stitching: the stitches that are created by using a machine.

Hand stitching: the stitches that are created by human hands.

Button hole style

Bar button hole: a button hole that looks like a bar, straight down on both sides and round at the ends.

Key hole button hole: a button hole that looks like a key hole, larger end that is rounded and long, straight down on both sides and the opposite end is rounded similar to the bar button hole style. 250

Fabric design Woven design: a design that is woven into the fabric. Applied design: a design that is applied to the surface of the woven fabric.

Woven pattern design linear: types of designs that are woven into the fabric using straight lines.

Woven pattern design curvilinear: types of designs that are woven into the fabric using curved lines.

Applied design style: can be linear (straight lines) or curvilinear (curved lines).

Applied pattern design Printed: printed onto the surface of the fabric using in)c or paint. Applique : a fabric design cut out of one fabric and applied and sewn to the surface of another fabric. Embroidered: a pattern design using yarns that is applied to the surface of the fabric creating a design.

Fabric structure

Plain weave: " the simplest possible interlacing of warp and weft elements produces plain weave" (Emery, 1966, p. 76) .

Balanced plain weave: "if the warp and weft elements are equally spaced and either identical or approximately equal in size and flexibility, the plain weave can be described as balanced" (Emery, 1966, p. 76). 251

Ribbed weave: "In plain weave, a marked numerical predominance of one set of elements over the other tends to produce a 'ribbed' effect sometimes referred to as rep. The ribs extend in the direction of the concealed elements" (Emery, 1966, p. 77) .

Basket weave: "in which warp ends or weft picks, or both, move in groups of two or more" (Burnham, 1981, p. 139).

Twill weave: "Float weaves characterized by a diagonal alignment of floats for which a minimum of three warp groupings is essential" (Emery, 1966, p. 92).

Satin weave: "long floats of one set of elements, and more or less evenly distributed single 'ties' of the other, on each face" (Emery, 1966, p. 108).

Conqpound feJaric structure: "in which a simple weave, complete in itself, serves as a 'ground' or 'foundation' weave throughout, any additional sets (whether warp or weft) are clearly supplementary. Other compound structures, however, have at least two sets of one type of element (either warp or weft) that are complementary to each other and co-equal in the fabric structure" (Emery, 1966, p. 140). 252

Napped: "produced by 'raising' some of the fibers from the surface of a fabric (i.e. loosening them from the body of the material) by one or another mechanical process such as 'teaseling'. Thus while the process of 'napping' (i.e. producing a 'nap') may be described as a finishing process, the word nap- particularly in older usage- may refer to a kind of surface which itself requires finishing" (Emery, 1966, p. 173) .

Non-woven: a fabric that is made of fibers that are bonded together instead of woven or knitted.

Outer fabric: the outer material that is used to construct a garment and is visible.

Outer fabric pattern : the outer material that is used as supplementary or complementary to the ground fabric to produce a pattern.

Lining: the material used for covering the inner surface of something.

Interfacing: to sew material (interfacing) between the outer fabric and the facing of (a collar, lapel, etc.) so as to give body or prevent stretching.

Sewing thread : the thread or yarn used to sew materials together.

Warp: weaving the threads running lengthwise in the loom and crossed by the weft or woof.

Weft: the yarns carried by the shuttle back and forth across the warp in weaving, woof: filling. 253

Cotton fiber morphological characteristics: relatively clear fiber surface area, convolutions or ribbon like twisting.

Linen (flax) fiber morphological characteristics: presence of nodes and striations.

Wool fiber morphological characteristics: presence of scales along the surface of the fibers.

Silk fiber morphological characteristics: clear and smooth, relatively straight longitudinally. APPENDIX D

ATTRIBUTE EXAMINATION RECORD

254 255

Attribute Examination Record

Rater # ______I.D. Number ------1) . Item 1. coat 2. waistcoat ____ 3. trousers____ 4 . shirt 5 . collar 6 . neckwear____ 2). Location 1, freezer 2. collection 3. exhibit____ 3). Condition 1. cleaned 2. not cleaned 4). Style: Coat 1. Frock coat single breasted_ 2. Frock coat double breasted_ 3. Morning coat____ 4. Dress or Tail coat____ 5. Paletot-sac____ 6. Other coat name

Waistcoat 1. Shawl collar double breasted waistcoat____ 2. Shawl collar single breasted waistcoat____ 3. Double breasted waistcoat with lapels buttoned back_ 4. Other waistcoat name____

Trousers 1. Peg top trousers____ 2. American trousers____ 3. Full leg trousers____ 4. Classic trousers 5. Other trouser name

Shirt 1. Shirt with collar attached (collar has square ends) 2. Shirt with collar attached (collar has rounded ends) 3. Shirt with no collar attached____ 4. Other shirt name____

Collar 1. Detached collar with square ends____ 2. Detached collar with rounded ends____ 3. Other collar name____

Neckwear 1. Ascot____ 2. Tie 3. Cravat or Joinville_ 4. Other neckwear name 256 5) . Presence of mended areas : 1. yes_ 2. no_ 6). Presence of alterations ; 1. yes_ 2. no 7). Label / identification : 1. owner's name in ink____ 2. owner's name monogrammed 3. owner's name sewn onto label 4. manufacturer's name in ink 5. manufacturer's name monogrammed____ 6 manufacturer's name sewn onto label_ 7. label with no identification____

8 . other 9. none 8). Top stitching : 1. machine 2. hand_ 3. machine and hand 4. none 9). Button hole stvle: 1. bar_ 2 . key hole 3 . key hole and bar button hole 4. other 5. none Fabric structure

Simple plain weave 10). Balanced simple Plain weave 1. yes_ 2. no 11). Unbalanced simple plain weave: warp faced 1. yes 2._no____ 12). Unbalanced simple plain weave: weft faced 1. yes 2 . no____

Single float weave 13). Balanced simple float weave 1. yes_ 2. no 14). Unbalanced simple float weave: warp faced 1. yes 2. no____ 15). Unbalanced simple float weave; weft faced 1. yes 2. no____

Compound plain weave 16). Balanced compound plain weave 1. yes no 17). Unbalanced compound plain weave: warp faced 1. yes 2. no_ 18) Unbalanced compound plain weave : weft faced 1. yes 2. no____ 19) Supplementary warp 1. yes_ 2 . no_ 2 0 ) Supplementary weft 1. yes_ 2 . no_ 21) Complementary warp 1. yes 2 . no_ 22 ) Complementary weft 1. yes 2 . no

Coopound float weave 23). Balanced compound float weave 1. yes_ no 24). Unbalanced compound float weave; warp faced 1. yes______2. no____ 25). Unbalanced compound float weave : weft faced 1. yes______2. no____ 26). Supplementary warp 1. yes_ 2. no 257

27) Supplementary weft 1. yes_ 2 no_ 28) Complementary warp 1. yes_ 2 no_ 29) Complementary weft 1. yes_ 2 no 30) Nonwoven 1. yes_ 2. no 31) Other 1. yes___ 2. no 32) Unidentifiable 1. yes 2. no Pattern achieved in fabric structure 33) . Float 1. yes 2. no____ 2. no 35) . Variation in warp varn size 1. yes 2. no 36) . Variation in weft varn size 1. yes 2. no 37) . Variation in number of varns 1 . yes 2. no Desian achieved in fabric structure 38) . Fabric desian; 1. woven 2. applied 3 . woven and applied 4. none 39) . Woven pattern desian linear: 1 . checks 2. stripe_ 3. plaid_ 4. diamond 5. bar_ 6. abstract , other 8. none 40). Woven pattern design curvilinear: 1. floral_ 2 . honeycomb 3. abstract____ 4 . other 5 . none 41). Applied design style: 1. linear_ 2. curvilinear 3. combination 4. none 42) . Applied pattern design: 1. printed_ 2. appligue_ 3. embroidered 4. combined 5. none Fabric Structure Pattern Structure 258

Comments

Sample area and fiber type 43). outer fabric (warp) 1. wool 2. silk 3. cotton 4. linen_ 5. combination_ 6. other 7. unidentifiable 8. no sample__ 44). outer fabric (weft) 1. wool 2. silk 3. cotton_____ 4. linen_ 5. combination_ 6. other 7. unidentifiable 8. no sample__ 45). outer fabric pattern (one) 1. wool 2. silk 3 cotton 4. linen_ 5. combination_ 6. other 7. unidentifiable 8. no sample ] 46). outer fabric pattern (two) 1. wool 2 . silk 3 . cotton 4. linen_ 5. combination_ 6. other 7. unidentifiable 8. no sample__ 47) . lining interior of garment (warp) 1. wool 2. silk 3. cotton 4. linen_ 5. combination_ 6. other 7 unidentifiable 8. no sample _ 48). lining interior of garment (weft) 1. wool ____ 2 . silk 3 . cotton 4. linen 5. combination_ 6. other 7. unidentifiable 8. no sample__ 49) . lining of waistband (warp) 1. wool 2. silk 3. cotton 4. linen 5. combination_ 6. other 7. unidentifiable 8. no sample__ 259

50) . lining of waistband (weft) 1. wool 2. si l k ___ 3. cotton_____ 4. linen_ - ^ 1 7 _ unidentif iable_ 5. combination_ 6. other_ 8. no sample__ 51) . lining of lower pant leg (warp) 1. wool 2. silk __ 3. cotton 4. linen_ - ^ 1 7 . unidentifiable_ 5. combination_ 6. other_ 8. no sample__ 52) . lining of lower pant leg (weft) 1. wool 2._silk____ 2. cotton--- 4 . linen_ — - 7. unidentifiable_ 5, combination_ 6. other. 8. no sample__

53). interfacing (warp) 3 . cotton 4. 1.i: cô^îHra:on__ wool 2. silk 6— h e r ----- 7. unidentxf rahle, 8. no sample____

54) . interfacing (weft) 3. cotton 4. linen_ 1. wool 2. silk i! combination 6. other 7. unidentifiable. 8. no sample. 55). sewing thread silk 3. cotton 4. linen_ 1. wool 2 6. other 7, unidentifiable 5. combination, 8. no sample ] APPENDIX E

SCRIPT FOR ATTRIBUTE EXAMINATION RECORD

260 261 Script Good afternoon. I would like to thank you all for participating in this reliability check of my instrument, identified as the "attribute examination record". -For this test there will be six types of garments. -The garments to be studied are from a deep ocean shipwreck. They are very fragile and dirty. -You will analyze one of each type of garment using the attribute checklist. -Hand them out. -Along with the attribute checklist I have included another list which explains in more detail each attribute to be analyzed, as well as some pictures of actual garment styles.

-Pencils also available, hand them out. -Go over each attribute and definition in more detail and garment style photographs. -To help you identify the fabric structures of the garments and the fiber types there will be a few different types of books that will be available to you during this test. -Irene Emery's (1966) book on The Primary Structures of Fabrics. -Marjorie Joseph (1982) Introductory Textile Science -Robinson, A. T. C. & Marks, R. (1967). Woven Cloth Construction. -American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists 1990 Technical Manual. -General Guidelines 1. Do not talk to the other raters. 2. If you have questions I will be present to try and answer them. 3. This is a testing of the instrument. You are considered to be experts in the identification of fabric structures and fiber type. Any additions, deletions or comments you have about the attribute checklist would be greatly appreciated. 262 -The test will be conducted in two phases. -First the garments will be analyzed. Guidelines for analyzing the garments. 1. Here are a pair of gloves to keep your hands from getting dirty, and to protect the garments. 2. a hand held microscope will be available for each of you. 3. Try and look at the entire front of the garment before turning it over. 4. Please be careful when touching or moving the garments. -As each rater finishes analyzing the garments they can go ahead and start on the second phase of the test, the fiber identification. -The slides are in the next room. There are three microscopes and each of you will have your own to use. The slides will be divided up into thirds. When you have completed the first set of slides I will give, you a new set of slides to identify, and then the last set.

-The slides are not labeled. They do have a number on them. Be sure when you analyze each slide that you write down the corresponding number next to the place where you mark your answer. This number will be used to identify the slides to each garment at a later time. -The identification of archaeological fibers is sometimes very difficult due to deterioration or the presence of foreign matter or both. If you cannot identify the fibers check the box marked unidentifiable. -There are no time limits on the analysis. -If at any time you feel fatigue and would like to take a break please do so. - Are there any questions? -I would like to assign rater numbers to you. The numbers in the box rangefrom one to three. Each rater will choose a number. -Each table will have a number attached to it. 263 -The rater with the lowest number will start analyzing the garment labeled l. -The rater with the highest number will start analyzing the garment labeled 3. -The rater with the middle number will start analyzing the garment labeled 6. -As you finish each garment, analyze the garment with the next highest number. -If you have analyzed the 6th item start then with number 1 until you have analyzed all six items. -When you are finished go into the next room to identify slides. -After the slide identification is completed please bring me your attribute checklist. -Any questions before we begin? APPENDIX F

LETTERS TO RATERS

264 265 August 11, 1993

Dear , Thank you for participating in the reliability check of my instrument. The retest of the attribute examination record has been scheduled for Wednesday, August 25th at 1:00 PM in room 67. 1 will call you on Monday the 23rd to make sure everything is set for the 25th. I would like to take you out to lunch the weekend of the 28th or another time that would be good for you. Thanks again for all of your help!

Sincerely yours,

Laurie C. Crawford APPENDIX G

RAW DATA SCORES FROM ATTRIBUTE EXAMINATION RECORD

266 267 291481222228232222122222222222222222212222485451188228888882 291702222118222122222222222222222222222222485452288338888333 291782222216222222222122211222222222212221165452228338888333 291802222116232222222212221222222222222222145453388338888883 291643224224222222122222222222222222212222175451188882244443 290744211228211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888883 291544221228211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888884 291574211228211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888883 291584211228211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888885 291615221228111222222222222222222222222222485458888888888883 292395221228151222222222222222222222222222485454488888888333 290886223228252222222122211222222222212111182452388888888883 290956221128252222222122212222222222212221325332228888888882 290996222224252222222222222122221222212222485452288888888313 291006222228251222222222222222222222221222125452288888888313 291016222228252222222121222222222222212222155452228888888313 291026222228251222222222222222222222221212125452288888888312 291036222218251222222222222222222222222222485452228888888313 291046223228452222222122211222222222212111155452288888888888 290156223228452222222122211222222222212111152452388888888888 291066222228252222222122211222222222212121165452288888888333 291076223228452222222122211222222222212111152452388888888888 291086223226252222222122211222222222212111182452288888888883 291386223228452222222122211222222222212111155452288888888888 292966222228451222222222222222222222222222285113388888888883 291681125228222222221222212222222222211211125142128228888883 291762122228222222221222211222222222211211181453338338888333 291812121128212222221222211222222222211212161453338338888883 290493124224222222222121222222222222211221165451118882244882 290644121218111222222222222222222222222222285113388888888883 290674121221211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888883 290694124211211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888885 290774121221211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888883 290844121228211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888883 291144121221211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888885 291554121228211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888883 291564121228211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888443 290966121228251222222222222222222222222112355312288888888883 291346121118251222222222222222222222222112155452288888888882 290654121221211222222222222222222222212221365335553888888883 290664311228211222222222222222222222222222485454488888888883 290855311221111222222222222222222222222222485444488888888888 APPENDIX H

DESCRIPTION OF OUTER GARMENTS

268 269

Coat I.D. #29148

Style Double Breasted Frock Coat (Brown in color) Function Worn for day dress. Double breasted frock coat worn for riding (Cunnington, 1966, p. 198). At Recovery Folded. Construction Neck: Collar and lapels. Front : Double breasted. Completely lined. Lining is machine sewn. Buttons : Four covered buttons 12/16" on each side of front, same fabric as outer fabric. Eight buttons total. Button holes: 1" button holes on lapel. 1 1/16" button holes on front to enclose coat. Shoulder seams : R=6 1/2", L=6 1/2". Pockets : Two vent pockets at the back of coat. Two welt pockets. Inside breast lining pocket. Back: From center back where body meets collar to waist seam measures 16 13/16". From waist seam to hem of coat measures 15 12/16". Split tails in back. Armseye: Set in sleeves. Satin like quilted lining near armseye. Side seams: R to waist seam=8 1/2 L to waist seam=8 1/2" R to end of coat at skirt=25 1/2" L to end of coat at skirt= 25 1/2. Hem: Hand sewn. Details: Alterations button hole partially cut out on the inside and then left, does not show on the outside. Mended area near vent at back of lining. I.D. 29149 found inside welt pocket of jacket. Also a pair of gloves I.D. # found inside back vent pocket. Fabric structure: Unbalanced simple warp faced float weave. Surface has been napped, hard to see ground structure. Coat lining is a satin or float weave. 270 Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): wool (Brown under the microscope BF) outer fabric (weft): wool (Brown under the microscope BF) lining interior of garment (warp): silk lining interior of garment (weft): silk Sewing thread; silk 271 Coat I.D. #29168 Style : Paletot-sac (Brown in color) Function: Could be worn as an overcoat, for morning or day dress. Could also be worn as a jacket next to the waistcoat (Cunnington, 1966, p. 176). At recovery: Folded. Construction: Neck: Small shawl collar and square lapels. Front : Trim-frets and crosses raised at hem, going around collar, down the front of the garment and along the cuffs of sleeves. Buttons : There are two buttons 10/16" in diameter on each tab. There are three tabs, a total of six buttons. The buttons are not covered in fabric but are plain; metal or some other substance. Button holes: Three sets of tabs on each side used as closure left to right attached at the outside. Size of button holes measured approximately 14/16". Shoulder seams : R= 7 1/2" L=7 1/2" Pockets : Three lined welt pockets with trim, two hip and one breast. Back: Center back seam visible from the nec)cband to the hem of the coat. Armseye : Set in sleeves. Side seams R=21 16/16" L=21 9/16" Hem: Hand sewn. Details: 19 1/2" down from the center back seam where it meets the neckband the circumference of the coat was measured. From the button hole on one tab to the first button hole on the other tab, at the other side measured 47". From the button hole to the second button on the tab measured 48 l /16". The length of the coat from the center back seam to the bottom of the coat measured 29 1/2". At 17 1/2" down on the center back seam and around the coat measured approximately 42 1/2" around. 272 Fabric structure: Compound balanced plain weave. There are complementary warp yarns. Warp yarns are made of plain silk, weft yarns are larger wool yarns. The complementary warp is silk and when taken out of fabric structure would interfere with the stability of the ground weave; hence complementary instead of supplementary. Outer pattern formed from warp floats on the surfaced of fabric. Applied design made from plain weave ground and satin stitched crosses and yarns that have been cut and looks like pile to create design. The lining is made of a plain weave. The plaid pattern is achieved with a color change and larger weft yarns. Fiber content : outer fabric warp: silk outer fabric weft: wool outer fabric pattern: silk lining warp: silk (plaid lining) lining weft: silk (plaid lining) interfacing warp: no sample interfacing weft: no sample sewing thread: cotton 273

Waistcoat I.D. #29170 Style: Shawl Collar, single breasted (Dark green waistcoat) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Rolled. Construction: Neck: Waistcoat has a shawl collar with two pieces added at the center back. Considered to be alterations to the collar. Front : Darts under each lapel. Front of vest on lapel underside has a piece inset on each lapel. Cording around collar and lapel edges and front of vest. Cording also on pockets. Buttons : There are five covered flat buttons down the front of the waistcoat. They measure 1/2" round. Button holes: The button holes are key hole style. Shoulder seams:Each shoulder seam measures 5". Pockets: There are two welt pockets at the bottom front side of each forepart. The pockets are set into the lining of the waistcoat. Both pockets measure 5" across in width. There is also one breast pocket. This pocket is located over the left breast area. The pocket is angled with the end nearest the arms eye higher up and the other end angling downward. Back: The back of the waistcoat is made of a different fabric than the front or the lining. There is a belt located at the bottom area of the waistcoat. There would have been a buckle attached to one end of the belt secured by folding the fabric over and stitching it. Armseye circumference: The right armhole measures 21 1/4" The left armhole measures 21" Side seams: Both side seams from the armhole to the hem measure 9 1/2" in length. Hem: Hand stitched. 274 Details: Foreparts are faced with wool. Buckle missing from belt that is located at back base of waistcoat. Fabric structure: Unbalanced simple warp faced plain weave. Fabric name Velverett (Burnhan, 1981). Lining is a simple warp faced float weave. Fabric back of waist is a right reclining twill float. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk lining interior of garment (warp): cotton lining of interior of garment (weft): cotton interfacing (warp): cotton interfacing (weft): cotton sewing thread: cotton 275

Waistcoat I.D. #29176 Style : Shawl collar single breasted (White waist with floral motif in brown) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded. Construction: Neck: Shawl collar. Lining under collar. There is a dart under each lapel. Front : Single breasted with a shawl collar. Buttons : There are five covered buttons, measuring 1/2" in diameter, that enclose the front of the waistcoat. The buttons are dome shaped. Button holes: Button hole style is key hole. The key hole button holes measure approximately 13/16" in length. Shoulder seams : Shoulder seams are rolled back to the back side of the waistcoat. r=5 1/8" 1=5" Pockets ; Two welt pockets and a watch pocket are located on the front of the waistcoat. Back: There is a half belt with a buckle (no date visible) at the lower back of waist. The buckle is enclosed in the half belt with the belt turned and stitched. There is an upside down V at the center back bottom of the back of the waistcoat. Armseye : R=21 5/16" L=21 5/16" There are two darts at the front side of each armseye. Side seams ; No ribbing. R=9 5/16" L=9 5/16" Hem: Hand sewn. Foreparts lined in outer fabric. Forepart fabric is on grain. Details: 19 1/2" down from center back seam where it meets with the neckband the circumference of the waist was measured. 43 1/4" circumference at the base of the waist. Fabric structure: Balanced compound plain weave. Both the warp and weft yarns are beige in color. There is a 276 complementary warp and weft yarn in the fabric structure. The complementary warp yarn is a different color (brown) and binds the weft and creates a floral pattern on the surface of the fabric. The complementary weft yarn is thicker and the same color as the warp and weft creating the ground (beige color). Lining is a plain weave. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): cotton outer fabric (weft): cotton outer fabric pattern: cotton lining interior of garment (warp): cotton lining interior of garment (weft): cotton interfacing (warp) cotton interfacing (weft): cotton sewing thread: cotton 277

Waistcoat I.D. #29178 Style : Shawl collar single breasted (Brown waist with abstract motif in gold) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded. Construction: Neck: Shawl collar. Two inserts added at the center back area of the collar. There is a dart under each lapel. Front : Waistcoat encloses completely down the front, no wedge opening where the foreparts meet in the front. Buttons : Five flat covered buttons measuring 1/2" across. Button holes : Five key hole button holes measuring 1 5/8" long. Hand made. Shoulder seams:R=5" L=5" Pockets : Three welt pockets. Back: Half belt in back no buckle. Where a buckle would have been the end of the belt was turned and stitched. Center back seam from collar to hem is 18 1/2". There is a v at the center back of the waist. Armseye : Left arm circumference is 21 5/8". Right arm circumference is 22 1/4" Side seams : Left side seam length is 8 7/8". There is a small piece of fabric inserted along the shoulder seam to edge of shoulder seam. Right side seam length is 9". A small insertion of fabric is located at the edge of the armhole down the right side seam. Hem: Hem is hand sewn. Condition: Lining has holes at the center neck back, right upper chest armhole at near center front, right side where the seam and leather facing meet, and the left bottom backside insert. 278 Details:Base of foreparts is lined in leather. Cunnington (1966) base of foreparts lined in leather 1845; not after 1855. Fabric structure: Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with complementary warp and weft yarns. Lining of waist is a plain weave. Fabric back of waist is a simple float weave.

Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk outer fabric pattern (one): silk lining interior of garment (warp): cotton lining interior of garment (weft): cotton Back fabric: cotton interfacing (warp): cotton interfacing (weft): cotton sewing thread: cotton 279

Waistcoat I.D. #29180 Style : Shawl collar single breasted (white waistcoat) Function: Formal or Evening Dress At recovery: Folded. Construction: Neck: Shawl collar. Front : Single breasted shaw collar waistcoat. Buttons : Five covered buttons 1/2" in diameter. One button at the back of the half belt measuring 7/16" in diameter. Button holes : 11/16" on front and 9/16" button hole on back of half belt. Shoulder seams:R=4 1/2" L=4 3/4" Pockets ; Three welt pockets. Back: Half belt with a buckle. Belt buckle has date of 1854. Cunnington (1966) similar to style "c" in book. The buckle was secured on one side of the half belt with a button and bar button hole. Two ties located at the upper part of waist back. Armseye : R=21" L=21 2/16" Side seams: R=10 1/4" L=10 5/16". Hem: Hand sewn. Details: Foreparts lined in the same fabric as outer waist only off grain. Possible remnant of a label sewn into the center back collar area, no writing is visible. Fabric structure: Originally white in color. Unbalanced compound weft faced plain weave with complementary weft yarn. Fabric design is a diamond pattern. Lining of waist is a plain weave. Fabric back of waist is a plain weave. Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): cotton outer fabric (weft): cotton lining interior of garment (warp): cotton 280 lining interior of garment (weft): cotton Back of waistcoat fabric: cotton sewing thread: cotton 281

Waistcoat I.D. #29181 Style : Shawl collar, double breasted waistcoat (White waist with floral and abstract design in brown thread). Function: Day Dress. At recovery: Folded. Construction: Neck: Shawl collar. One dart under each lapel. Front : Double breasted. Buttons : Four covered buttons on each side of waist front opening. The buttons are 9/16" in diameter. Double breasted front with four buttons on each side; only one button still remaining, not fabric covered, appears to be black in color. Button holes : Style is bar button hole. Bar button holes measure approximately 14/16" in length. Shoulder seams :R=4 1/8" L=4 1/8" Pockets : Two welt pockets and a breast pocket with a button hole welt. The two welt pockets on the lower front of the waist have a dart that comes up to the pocket and then farther up past the top of the pockets. Left dart measures 5 14/16" from base of waist, right dart measures 6 " . Back: Fabric in back is a plain weave. Half belt with buckle. The buckle issecured in the belt with hand stitching of the end of the belt. Hand sewn belt. Ties at middle back of waistcoat sewn to the outside not the side seams. Back of waistcoat gusset between where the two belt parts meet. Small v at the center back of waist. Armseye : R=22 10/16" L=22 1/2" Side seams; R=10 10/16" L=10 9/16" Hem: Hem is hand sewn. Foreparts lined in outer fabric. Forepart fabric is off grain. 282 Details: Ties in back stitched to back fabric not side seams. Gusset at bottom center back of waist. 19 1/2" from center back seam at top is where the waist circumference was measured. 44 3/4" approximate circumference from the button hole to the button. There is a mended area at the lower right inside seam where the foreparts and lining meet. Fabric structure: Balanced compound plain weave. There is a complementary warp and weft yarn. The complementary warp yarn is a different color and the complementary weft yarn is larger in diameter. The original ground warp is a lighter color, the complementary warp is brown and used as a float to form an abstract pattern on the fabric surface. The lining is a plain weave as well as the fabric back of the waist. There is a gusset at the center back of waist and fabric structure is a left reclining twill. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): cotton outer fabric (weft): cotton outer fabric pattern: cotton lining interior of garment (warp): cotton lining interior of garment (weft): cotton fibers from gusset at lower central back: cotton fabric back: cotton sewing thread: cotton 283 Trousers I.D. #29049 Style: Classic formal trousers (Brown, red and gold yarns make up pattern throughout trousers) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded? Construction: Waistband: Snaps around waistband. Waistband is lined and hand sewn. Waistband circumference is 37" from the button to the end of the button hole. Front : Two buttons on each side of the front near pockets for suspenders. No pleats in front. Fly: Button fly with blind closing. Buttons : Five buttons on the right side of the placket. Only remaining part of the buttons is the thread. One dome shaped button on each set in pocket, measuring 9/16". Buttons at the back of trousers where suspenders or braces would be secured. Button holes; Key hole button hole at the waist side seam, measuring 13/16" in length. Concealed placket with five key hole button holes, measured 13/16" in length. Pockets : Watch pocket on the right waistline. Bar tack on watch pocket sewn.in by hand. Watch pocket has stamp in ink . . .New York. Two set in pockets, one pocket on each side of pant front. Back: Morning gale center back 20.4 cm across with buckle, circular design at far end narrowing in to 3cm at center back. Buckle at back has date of 1857. There is a "V" at the center back of trousers. Side seams; Side seams on pants visible on the front towards the ankle. No ribbing on side seams of trousers. R=37" L=37 1/4" Including waistband in side seam length r=38 1/2" 1=38 1/2"

Inseams ; R=26 3/4" L=27" 284 Crotch: Gusset set in crotch.

Hem: Trousers are hemmed with silk bias tape on the back part of trousers extending to where the linen lining is attached to the trouser leg. Hem is hand overcast. Details: Lining only at the front of the trousers from the ankle to the shin. Suspenders are cream colored canvas material with leather fastenings. There are eight eyelets in which they can be adjusted to fit. The suspenders have been adjusted to fit the third eyelets from the top, no embroidery. Leather parchment at the V of the suspenders 1cm by 5.7cm in size. Fabric structure: Unbalanced compound plain weave, warp faced. There is a supplementary warp yarn throughout fabric pattern. In the fabric ground there are two different colored warp yarns: one red and one gold. There are two weft yarns both are brown. The supplementary warp yarns are brown in color. The surface of the fabric appears to have been brushed creating a napped effect. Pocket lining plain weave. Waistband lining plain weave. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): wool outer fabric (weft): wool outer fabric pattern: wool lining of waistband (warp): silk lining of waistband (weft): silk lining of lower pant leg (warp): linen lining of lower pant leg (weft): linen sewing thread: silk 285 Trousers I.D. #29164 Style : Classic formal trousers (blue yarns or napped surface of trousers) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Rolled. Construction: Waistband: One tab in back of buckle, in center back of pants. Belt buckle has a dateof 1857. Cunnington (1966) style "c" of buckle. Front : Plain no pleats, pockets set in side seams. Fly: Placket has been pinked. Five button fly. Buttons : Metal buttons, 10/16". One button in seam of waistband. Button holes : 12/16" on placket of pant front opening. Pockets : Watch pocket or cash pocket has a label. . . .York. There are two set in pockets on each side front of pants. Back: There is a visible insertion at the center back waistband area. This slit is not cut out, but stands straight as if sewn together. Side seams : No satin piping. From top of waistband to hem: R+40 1/2" L=40" . From the base of waistband to hem R=38 3/4", L=38 1/2". Inseams : R=27 1/2", L=27 1/2". Crotch: Gusset in crotch. Hem: Hem is 5cm. Details: Pants recovered from trunk are inside out. Lining inside pants only 20 to 25cm from hem to shin. Fabric structure: Unbalanced simple warp faced float weave. Fabric surface has been napped, hard to see woven fabric structure underneath. Lining of waistband is a plain weave. Lining of pant legs is a plain weave. 286 Fiber content : outer fabric (warp) wool (blue in color when observed under the microscope) outer fabric (weft) wool (blue in color when observed under the microscope) lining of waistband (warp: silk lining of waistband (weft): silk lining of lower pant leg (warp): linen lining of lower pant leg (weft): linen interfacing (warp) linen interfacing (weft): linen sewing thread: cotton 287

Neckwear I.D. #29088

Style : Cravat or Joinville (Brown in color) (similar in fabric structure to 29108) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded. Construction: Length: Length of fringe edge to fringe edge is 51 1/2" fringe is 3/8" long on both sides. Width: End 1 1/2", middle l 1/2", end 1 1/2".

Tuck: There is a tuck 18 1/2" from edge with a hole through it to the other side. Details : Fabric structure: Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave, with complementary warp and weft yarns. Four warp yarns cover four maybe more weft yarns, then four weft yarns split and are covered (2 each) by four warp yarns then brought together again and covered by four warp. Smaller version of this honeycomb design at ends of cravat and then fringe. Warp yarns are not as twisted as weft yarns. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): silk (fringe) outer fabric (weft): cotton sewing thread : cotton 288

Neckwear I.D. #29095 Style : Scarf or Ascot (Black ground with gold embroidery design) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded. Construction: Width: Three measurements taken from selvage edge to selvage edge: 29 1/2", 29 7/8" and 29 3/4". Length : Length from hand rolled hem to hand rolled hem: 28 1/4", 28 1/4" and 28 3/8".

Details: Woven border 5/8" . Six repeats between hem to hem. Ten repeats from selvage to selvage. Gold embroidery thread used to create an abstract design throughout the fabric ground. Embroidery is machine sewn. Ground fabric is hand woven. Folds on scarf indicate how the scarf was folded when it was worn. Fabric structure: Unbalanced simple warp faced compound plain weave with a complementary warp yarn. Black simple warp faced ribbed (larger weft yarns used to create rib) weave with a satin weave stripe around the edge of the scarf. Applied machine gold embroidery thread used to create design using satin stitch in some parts of the motif. Machine embroidery since each stitch is exactly the same distance apart on each design feature. Fiber content: outer fabric (warp: silk outer fabric (weft): silk outer fabric pattern (one) embroidery thread: silk sewing thread: silk 289

Neckwear I.D. #29096 Style : Scarf or Ascot (Gold ground fabric with purple fish hooks printed on fabric) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded. Construction: Length : Dimensions are selvages: 26 1/4" and 26 1/2".

Width: Hand rolled edges: 28 1/4" and 28 1/4". Details: All four sides have six ribs near each side. Each selvage has the rib or stripe made by larger warp yarns. The hand hemmed ends have the ribs formed by larger weft yarns. Hem is hand sewn. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. There are six bars or stripes around each edge of scarf or ascot. These are created using larger warp or weft yarns respectively. Ground is gold in color with printed fish hooks for a design in purple color. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk sewing thread: cotton 290

Neckwear I.D. #29099 Style : Tie (Blue in color with gold printed lettering) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded. Construction: Length : Length of tie from point to point is 43 1/8". There is a selvage and hand rolled hem end at each end. The batting measures 31" along the length of the tie. Width: End 1 13/16", middle: 1 7/8", end 1 5/8". Details: There is hand stitching securing the batting to the outside fabric in five places along the underside of the tie: 1 5/8", 2 3/8", 2", 2 3/8" and 1 3/4" in length. Cut on bias. Cursive initials stamped or printed onto fabric F W C and Co? Can tell printing since you can see where the print missed on some parts of the yarns. Fabric structure: Balanced compound float weave with a complementary warp yam. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk interfacing (warp): cotton interfacing (weft): wool sewing thread: cotton 291

Neckwear I.D. #29100 Style: Tie (Gold with brown or black warp yarns creating stripe) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded. Construction: Was tied when recovered from the trunk. Length: Length from point to point is 40 5/8". Width: End 1 13/16", middle 1 15/16", end 1 13/16". Details : At each end of the tie there is one selvage and one hand rolled hem, each end is the opposite of the other. Lining or batting is thick and measured 35" inside the tie. There is hand stitching on the underside of the tie in three places: 1 5/8", 1 3/4" and l 1/2". Cut on bias. No hole in tie. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Stripes created using different colored warp yarns (Burnham, 1981). There are four gold warp and gold weft yarns then four brown or black warp yarns, then fourgold warp yarns and then four brown or black yarns etc. . . to make up the pattern infabric. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk interfacing (warp): cotton interfacing (weft): wool sewing thread: cotton 292

Neckwear I.D. #29101 Style: Tie (Brown in color) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded and tied. Construction: Length: Length from point topoint is 41 1/2". Width: Width end 2" middle 1 7/8" and end 1 3/4". Details: The ends are finished with selvage and hand rolled edges each end is the opposite of the other. There is hand top stitching on the underside of the tie to secure the batting to the outer fabric. The three places measure 1 1/2", 1 7/8" and 1 7/8". No opening in tie.

Fabric structure: Unbalanced compound plain warp faced plain weave with supplementary warp yarns. Warp faced ribbed weave with supplementary warp float yarns used to create small patterned vertical squares. Dobby loom attachment used to the draw loom. Cut on the bias. Fiber content: blue in color outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk outer fabric pattern (one): silk interfacing (warp): cotton interfacing (weft): wool sewing thread: cotton 293

Neckwear I.D. #29102 Style : Tie { Brown in color) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded and tied. Construction: Length : Length from point to point of tie is 53 3/4" Width: Width end 1 11/16", middle 1 5/8", end 1 5/8" Details: Each end is finished with a selvage hem and a hand rolled hem each end is the opposite. There is hand stitching on the underside of the tie in two places: 1 1/2" and 1 1/2" on the other side. There is a tuck 18" in from the end and there is a hole all the way to the other side. Cut on bias. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Three larger weft yarns inserted at intervals to create horizontal stripe. Warp yarns of a different color inserted to create a stripe throughout fabric. Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk interfacing (warp): cotton interfacing (weft): wool sewing thread: silk 294

Neckwear I.D. #29103 Style: Tie (Blue in color) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded and tied. Construction: Length : Length from point of tie to point of tie is 54 1/4", 34 1/2" from end is a tuck. Width: Width end 1 5/8", middle l 13/16", end 1 13/16". Details : Each end has a selvage and a hand rolled hem, opposite sides for each end. There are two worn areas. On is along then length of one side of the tie in the middle and measures 12 1/4" in length, the other is on the other length of the other side and is 11 1/4" in length. There is a tuck on one side that does not go all the way through. There is hand stitching on the underside to secure the batting to the outer fabric. The three places measure 2 12", 2", and 2 1/2". Cut on bias. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk outer fabric pattern: silk interfacing (warp): cotton interfacing (weft): wool sewing thread: cotton 295

Neckwear I.D. #29104

Style: Cravat or Joinville (Blue or brown in color) (similar in fabric structure to 29138) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded and tied. Construction: Length : Length from fringe edge to fringe edge is 35 1/2". Fringe on both ends is 3/8" long. Width: Width end 1 1/2", middle 1 1/2", end l 1/2". Details : Fabric structure: Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with complementary warp and weft yarns. Warp faced rib with fifteen rows of warp faced rib and then one row of weft yarn then three rows of satin stitch separated by a row of weft yarn then fifteen rows of warp faced rib etc...pattern then repeats. Under satin stitch pattern is the warp faced plain ground. Each end of cravat finished with smaller warp faced rib and fringe. 33 satin stitched inserts (3 rows each). The ribbing 33 rows design woven 5/8" apart.

Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk 296

Neckwear I.D. #29105

Style : Cravat or Joinville (Brown in color) (similar in fabric structure to 29107) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded and tied. Construction: Length : Length from fringe to fringe end is 36 3/8". Fringe measures 1/2" on one end and 3/8" on the other. Width: The width is end 1 1/2", middle 1 7/16" and end 1 7/16". Details : Fabric structure: Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with complementary warp and weft yarns. Warp faced weave, four warp yarns cover four weft (maybe more) yarns then 2 weft yarns then four again. 31 repeats (1" apart) of 3 rows of weft rib throughout fabric. Smaller version of honeycomb pattern at cravat ends then fringe.

Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): cotton 297

Neckwear I.D. #29106 Style: Tie (Blue in color) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded and tied. Construction: Length: Length from point to point is 41 1/2" long. Width: Width end 2", middle 1 15/16", end 1 7/8". Details: Hand rolled. At each end there is a selvage and a hand rolled edge, each end is the opposite of the other. Underside there is hand stitching added to each end. The area has been hand sewn. Maybe where the batting or interfacing has been secured in the tie. One end measures 2 1/4" long, the other 1 3/4" long where the hand stitching is visible on the underside of the tie. Cut on the bias. Fabric structure: Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with complementary warp and weft yarns. Warp is a float and weft changes in direction. Four warp yarns cover three weft yarns then alternate to cover one weft yarn and then float to cover three weft yarns etc.. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk interfacing (warp): cotton interfacing (weft): cotton sewing thread: cotton 298

Neckwear I.D. #29107

Style: Cravat or Joinville (Blue in color in many areas, some areas appear to be brown) (similar in fabric structure to 29105) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded and tied. Construction; Length: Length from fringe to fringe is 34 7/8" fringe on one end is 3/8" and the other is 7/16". Width: Width end 1 1/2", middle l 1/2", end l 7/8". Details : Fabric structure: Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with complementary warp and weft yarns. 31 rows 1" apart, of four warp faced ribbed weaves throughout cravat, plain weave variation in between the weft rib. Plain weave variation consists of four warp yarns covering four weft yarns (maybe more), then four warp yarns covering two weft yarns and then four again etc.... Each end of cravat has smaller version of plain weave variation and then fringe.

Fiber content: Appears to be blue in color, outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): cotton 299

Neckwear I.D. #29108

Style : Cravat or Joinville (Brown in color) (similar in fabric structure to 29088) Function: Day Dress At recovery : Rolled in a ball. Construction; Length: Length is 52 1/2". Width: Width end:l 3/4", middle: 1 3/4", and end: 1 3/4". Details: Fringe is 3/8" long on one side the other side us unknown since the fringe and fabric are matted together. Sewn opening at one side of the cravat. Fabric structure: Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with complementary warp and weft yarns. Four warp yarns cover four weft yarns (maybe more), then four warp yarns cover two weft yarns and then four weft yarns, etc. At each end there is a smaller scale of the plain weave variation and then each end is finished with fringe. Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk sewing thread: cotton 300

Neckwear I.D, #29134 Style : Scarf or Ascot (Black in color, mended with dark green thread) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded. Construction: Square. Length : Selvage edges are 30 1/2" each. Width: Hand sewn ends are 33" and 32 1/2" in length. Details : Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. The ground is a plain weave design created using larger warp and weft yarns for a bar or stripe effect at each end. On both the selvage edges there are five bars, on the hand hemmed edge there are five bars and on the other hand hemmed end there are only three visible since the fabric edge has been turned and stitched over the other two bars. There is also an indication of mending in green thread on the black ground. Hem is stitched in brown thread. Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk sewing thread: silk 301

Neckwear I.D. #29138 Style: Cravat or Joinville (Brown in color) (similar in style to 29104) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Unknown Construction: Length : Length of cravat including the fringe is 36 3/4" . Width: Width is end 1 1/2", middle 1 1/2", and end 1 1/2" . Details: Fringe is 1/2" on one end and 3/8" on the other. 4 1/4" from fringe edge very worn area. 5 1/2" from fringe edge very worn area (other end). All together there are five worn areas. Fabric structure : Unbalanced compound warp faced plain weave with complementary warp and weft yarns. Warp faced ribbed weave varies in size depending on weft yarns used. Warp faced satin stitch (3 rows) can see a row of weft yarns running across between each satin row, 37 groups of 3 satin stitch rows, 15 rows of warp faced ribbed weave between each group of satin bars. Smaller warp faced ribs at each end and then one larger row of warp rib and then fringe. Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): silk outer fabric (weft): silk 302

Neckwear I.D. #29296 Style: Tie (Printed with colors of black and tan on a white plain weave ground) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Unknown. Construction: Length : From point to point is 43 1/2" Width: 5 1/2" wide from end to end. Details: Ends are unfinished. 5 1/2" wide from end to end. The ends have a selvage and hand rolled edge at each end. Cut on the bias. Tie is in one complete long strand of fabric, no hole to tie through in the middle. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Plaid is printed on the fabric. Can see where the printing of either black or tan dye was placed on the fabric structure after the fabric was woven, some of the color went on to other yarns and some of it is missing on the yarns where the color should be visible. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): cotton outer fabric (weft): cotton sewing thread: cotton 303

Shirt I.D. #29064

Style: Shirt with collar ( White shirt with printed design in purple). Function: Day Dress At recovery: Rolled. Construction: Neck: The collar is not split and has square ends. There is a button and button hole on the neckband. Placket : There are three buttons on the right side of the placket and three visible button holes on the left side. Front : There are three pleats on each side of the placket making up the plastron shirt front. Back ; Yoke gathered at back. Shoulder Seams:R=6" L=6" Sleeve : Sleeves set in by hand. Cuffs : The cuffs are enclosed with dorset buttons and an additional buttonholes to be enclosed with a stud on each cuff. Each cuff has one straight pin secured to ensure the cuffs are set back in place. Shirt tails: Shirt tails are rounded, Gusset where shirt tails split. Buttons : One button on neckband. Three covered buttons on the placket, measuring 5 /16". No other buttons still visible on shirt only thread. Button holes: Bar button holes on placket and cuffs. Button holes on cuffs measure 9/16"; placket 7/16"; neckband 8 1/2". Neck circumference; 15 3/4" Sleeve length: From center back seam of yoke to cuff button hole: R=31", L=30 1/2". Hem: Hem is hand sewn. 304 Details: There is a printed design on the shirt. The design is a deep purple diamond shape with a pale purple X in the center of it. The design is composed of four diamond X shapes and then smaller x's in between each diamond X shape and one in the middle. The entire shirt is hand stitched. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Design is printed on. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): cotton outer fabric (weft): cotton sewing thread: cotton 305

Shirt I.D. #29065

Style : Shirt with collar (collar has square ends). Twining design along front and embroidery. (White shirt). Function: Evening Dress or Wedding Dress (Similar style shirt in the Cincinnati Art Museum Collection, same period, function was wedding). At recovery: Rolled. Construction: Neck: Collar in not split and has square ends The neckband has a button hole and button. Placket : Blind placket front. The placket on the shirt front has three buttons on the right side and then a three button holes on the left side. Front : There are two pleats, embroidery designs (two rows) and then twining stitching, one larger pleat, two smaller pleats, and then farther out in the shirt front two more pleats. A. Ives Easton 1 mark on center right front of shirt. Back: Yoke gathered in back. Shoulder Seams:R=5 1/4" L=5 1/4" Sleeves : Sleeves set in by hand. Cuffs : Cuffs with dorset button and one button hole. Shirt tails: Rounded shirt tails with small gusset where shirt tails split. Cuffs with dorset button and one button hole. Buttons : One button on neckband. Three buttons on placket one on each cuff. No buttons left on cuffs impression of it visible on fabric and measures 1/2" in diameter. Button holes : Bar button holes, hand sewn. Size of button holes 9/16" on cuffs; 7/16" on placket; 1/2" on neckband. Neck circumference: Neck circumference 15 3/4" 306 Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back yoke seam to button hole on cuff: R and L= 27 1/2". Hem: Hem is hand sewn. Details: This shirt appears to be smaller than some of the others may have been custom tailored for Mr. Easton. Perhaps it was his wedding shirt. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): combination: linen and cotton outer fabric (weft): combination: linen and cotton outer fabric pattern (one) twining: combination: linen and cotton outer fabric pattern (two) embroidery thread: cotton sewing thread: cotton 307

Shirt I.D. #29066

Style : Shirt with collar (Collar has square ends) (White shirt)(similar to shirt #29064) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Rolled. Construction: Neck: The collar is not split. The neckband has a button hand button hole. Placket: The placket has three button holes on one side and three visible button holes on the other. Front : There are three pleats on each side of the placket making up the plastron shirt front. Back: Yoke gathered at back. Sleeve : Sleeves set in by hand. Cuffs : Dorset button on cuff with one button hole. Cuffs on sleeves. Shirt tails: Shirt tails are rounded, back tail longer then the front. Buttons : Buttons still intact on shirt front. Buttons also on neckband. Button hole: Bar button hole style. 1/2" on neckband, 1/2" on placket and 6/16" for button hole on cuff for button and 12/16" button hole on cuff for a stud. Neck circumference: Neck circumference 16 1/2". Sleeve length: From the center back yoke seam to the button hole on the cuff: for R and L= 32". Hem: Hand rolled hem. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread: no sample 308

Shirt I.D. #29067

Style: Shirt with collar (Collar has square ends) (White shirt) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Rolled. Construction: Neck: Collar is not split, The neckband has a button and button hole. Placket : The placket has two buttons on the right side of the placket and two blind button holes on the other side. The buttons are covered with a plain weave fabric. Five to seven inches down from the neckband to the placket there are pin marks where perhaps, a stick pin had secured Mr. Easton's ascot or tie. Front I There are pleats or tucks in a variety of sizes on the shirt front. Could be an insert sewn into the body of the shirt front. Fabric looks very fine. The pleats or tucks vary in size: smaller then larger then smaller again. There were three pleats then five smaller tucks then one larger pleat, then five smaller tucks then three larger pleats, for a total of seventeen tucks on each side of the placket. A. Ives Easton 4 marked at the right front side of the shirt. There is a tab at the center front where the placket meets the lower part of the shirt front. There is a vertical button hole in the tab. Back: Yoke is gathered at back. Shoulder Seams:R=6 1/8" L=6 1/8" Sleeves : Sleeves are set by hand. Cuff : Each cuff has two button holes and two buttons. Shirt tails: The shirt tail is made so that the back of the shirt tail you see the selvage edge and then it is hand sewn forming a side ways diamond. The front of the shirt tail also has the selvage showing and then hand stitching forming a 309 rounded shirt tail. Larger gusset where shirt front and back separate. Fabric structure appears to be very fine. Long shirt tails. Torn at the bottom. Hole in the left front. Buttons ; Hard to say what type. Buttons on neckband, placket and cuffs. Buttons are 5/16" and fabric covered on placket. Other buttons not in whole piece to measure. Button holes; Bar button holes: 1/2" on cuff; 7/i6" on placket; 1/2" on neckband. Neck circumference: Neck circumference: 15 1/2". Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back seam of yoke to cuff button hole: r=31 1/2", 1= 31 1/2". Hem: Hem is hand sewn. Details : Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft); linen sewing thread: cotton 310 Shirt I.D. #29069 Style ; Shirt without a collar (White shirt) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Rolled. Construction; Neck Neckband and part of the remnant of the collar are present. Collar has been cut off where it goes up from the collar band. Stitching on collar is visible as well as raw edge where collar was cut to be level with the rest of the collar. One button at the neck as well as a button hole. There is a straight pin secured at the center back of the neckband facing horizontal. Placket : There are three button holes and three buttons on placket. Button holes on placket are visible. Front ; There are three pleats on each side of the placket making up the plastron shirt front. Back: Yoke is gathered on shirt back. Shoulder Seams:R=6" L=6" Sleeves : Sleeves are set by hand. Cuffs : Cuff gathered into 2 cm, band, Buttonholes on cuff. Shirt tails: The shirt tails are rounded. Buttons : There are buttons on the neckband, placket and cuffs. Size 1/2" on cuff; 7/16" on placket and 9/16" on neckband. Button holes ; Button holes on placket are 7/16"; cuffs are 1/2"; and the neckband are 9/16". All are bar style. Neck circumference; Neck circumference: 15" Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back yoke seam to button hole on cuff: R=27 1/2", L=27 1/2". Hem: Hem is hand sewn. 311 Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave

Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread: combination (linen and cotton) 312

Shirt I.D. #29074

Style: Shirt with collar (collar has square ends) (White shirt) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Rolled. Construction: Neck: The collar is not split and has square ends. The neckband has one button hole and button. Placket : Double placket, visible. There are three bar button holes on each side in opposite directions in order to secure the studs. Front : There are four pleats on each side of the placket making up the plastron front. Back: Yoke is gathered. Sleeves : Sleeves are hand set. Cuffs : Cuffs have dorset button and two additional button holes to be used with a stud on each cuff. Shirt tails: Shirt tails are rounded. Buttons : Buttons on neckband and cuffs. Buttons on cuffs measure 5/16". Button holes: Button holes on placket 1/2", neckband 1/2", and on cuffs for button 7/16" and cuffs for studs 11/16". Button holes are bar style. Neck circumference; Neck circumference: 15". Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back yoke seam to button hole on cuff: R=28", L=28". Hem: Hem is hand sewn. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread: cotton 313

Shirt I.D. #29077

Style: Shirt with collar (collar has square ends and is split in the back). (White shirt) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Rolled. Construction: Neck: Collar is split and has square ends. The neckband has one button and one button hole. Placket : The placket is a blind placket with two buttons on the right side and two button holes on the left side. Front : There are a total of sixteen pin tucks on each side of the placket. Possibility that the shirt front is an insert sewn in to the shirt front. A. Ives Easton 3 stamped at right center front of shirt. Tab at waist with vertical bar button hole. Back: Yoke is gathered. Shoulder Seams:R=6 1/2" L=6 1/2" Sleeves : Sleeve is sheared into a 3.1mm band and then into the cuff. Cuffs : There are two buttons and two button holes on each cuff. Shirt tails: Three big holes in the tail portion of the shirt. Shirt tails are rounded with gusset. The back shirt tail has a selvage edge until the bottom of the hem where it is hand stitched. The front of the shirt tail also has a selvage but farther up on each side there is hand stitching starts and all the way to the other side. Buttons : There are buttons on the neckband, placket and the cuffs. No buttons visible on neckband, cuffs or placket. However there is a indent on the fabric of the cuff representing a button measures 6/16". 314 Button hole: The placket and cuffs have bar style button holes. Size: 1/2" on cuffs; 1/2" on neckband and 1/2" on placket. Neck circumference: Neck circumference: 15 1/2". Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back yoke seam to button hole on cuff: R=30 1/2" L=30 1/2". Hem: Hem is hand sewn. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Design is created having warp yarns float over weft yarns to create pattern, weft yarns also float over warp yarns. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread : cotton 315

Shirt I.D. #29084 Style: Shirt with collar (White shirt) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Folded. Construction: Neck: The collar in not split and has square ends. There is one button hole and one button on neckband. Placket : The placket has three visible button holes and three buttons on the other side. Front : There are three pleats on each side of the placket making up the plastron front. Back: The yoke is gathered. Shoulder Seams:R=5 1/4" L=5 1/4" Sleeves : Sleeves are hand set. Cuffs : The cuffs have one dorset button and bar button hole. Shirt tails; Shirt tails are rounded and have a small gusset where the shirt tails split. Buttons : Buttons on neckband, placket and cuffs. No buttons in one piece to measure diameter. Button holes: Button holes on placket and cuffs are bar style. Size: 1/2" on cuff; 7/16" on placket; 7/16" on neckband. Neck circumference: Neck circumference: 16". Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back yoke seam to cuff button hole: R=32 1/2" L=32 1/2". Hem: Hem is hand sewn. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): linen 316 outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread: cotton 317

Shirt I.D. #29114

Style : Shirt with collar (collar has square ends and is split in the back). (White shirt) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Rolled. Construction: Neck: Collar is split in the back and has square ends. The neckband has one button hole and one button. Placket : The placket has three vertical button holes on one side and four horizontal button holes on the other side. Front : Three pleats on each side of placket smaller ones near placket, making up plastron front. W. Ralston market at the right center front of shirt. Back: Back has a yoke that has been gathered. Shoulder Seams:R=5 1/2" L=5 1/2" Sleeves : Sleeves are set by hand. Cuffs : French cuffs with 3 buttonholes and one dorset button, other two button holes would be used with studs. Shirt tails: Shirt tail is rounded on front and square in back. No gusset where shirt tails split. Buttons : Buttons on neckband and cuffs. Size: 5/16" for cuff, 5/16" for neckband. Button hole: Button hole style on placket and cuffs is bar style. Size: 12/16" for cuff stud button; 9/16" for cuff button hole for button,- 9/16" for placket button hole. Neck circumference: Neck circumference: 14 1/2". Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back yoke seam to cuff button hole: R=31" L=31". 318 Hem: Hem is hand sewn. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread: combination (cotton and linen) 319

Shirt I.D. #29154

Style : Shirt with collar (collar has square ends) (White shirt) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Men's shirt folded. Construction: Neck: Collar not split has square ends. Collar has fine stitching. Neckband has one button hole and one button. Placket : There are three visible vertical button holes on the left and three horizontal button holes on the right. Front : There are four pleats on each side of placket. Back: Yoke is gathered. Sleeve : Sleeves are set by hand. Cuffs : Dorset button encloses each cuff, plus two additional button holes to be secured with a stud. Cuff folds back. Shirt tails: Shirt tails are rounded. Buttons : Buttons on neckband and cuffs. Button holes ; Button hole style on placket and cuffs is bar style. 1/2" on neckband, 1/2" on placket and button hole on cuff for button is 7/17" and for button hole on cuff for stud 12/16". Neck circumference: Neck circumference 14 3/4". Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back yoke seam to button hole on cuff: R=28", L=28". Hem: Rolled hem. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread: linen 320

Shirt I.D. #29155

Style: Shirt with collar (collar has square ends) (White shirt) Function: Day Dress At Recovery: Men's shirt folded. Construction: Neck: Collar not split, has square ends, Neckband has one button hole and one button. Placket : Double placket with three button holes on each side. Front : Four pleats on each side of placket. Back: Yoke is gathered in back. Shoulder Seams:R=5 10/16" L=5 11/16". Sleeves : Sleeves are set by hand. Cuffs : The cuffs on shirt have a dorset button and two additional button holes for a stud. Shirt tails; The shirt tails are rounded. Buttons : Button on neckband, and one on each cuff. Button hole; Button hole style is bar for neckband 1/2", placket 1/2", and button hole for dorset button 6/16" and button holes for studs 12/16". Neck circumference: Neck circumference: 15 1/2". Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back yoke seam to cuff button hole: R=29 3/4", L=29 1/2". Hem: Hem is hand sewn. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread: cotton 321

Shirt I.D. #29156 Style: Shirt with collar (White shirt) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Men's shirt folded. Construction: Neck: Collar not split, ends are square. Neckband has one button and one button hole. Placket : There are three button holes on each side of the placket for studs. Front : There are four pleats on each side of the placket to make up the plastron shirt front. Back: Yoke is gathered. Yoke has a hole in it where the interfacing samples were taken from. Sleeves : Sleeves are hand set. Cuffs : Both cuffs have dorset button and two bar button holes for a stud. Shirt tails: Shirt tails are rounded. Buttons : Buttons on neckband, and cuffs. Button hole: Button hole style is bar style for neckband 1/2", placket 7/16",and cuffs for buttons 7/16" and cuffs for studs 12/16". Neck circumference: Neck circumference: 15 1/2". Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back yoke seam to cuff button hole: R=28", L=28 1/4". To edge of cuff R=30" L=30 1/4". Hem: Hem is hand turned. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread: cotton 322

Shirt I.D. #29157 Style: Shirt with collar (White shirt) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Men's shirt folded. Construction: Neck: Collar not split, has square ends. Neckband has one button and one button hole. Neck circumference from edge of neck band to edge of neck band is 15 1/2". Collar circumference is 13 7/8". Placket : Placket from base of neck band seam to bottom of placket measures 15". Left side of placket overlaps to the right front side and is visible. Placket band is l 3/16" wide and has stitching (picking stitch) that goes all the way around the outside of the placket creating a boarder. On the left placket there are three small button holes all hand made and 7/16" in length. The right placket or blind placket has three horizontal button holes, hand sew 7/16" wide. Front ; The shirt has a plastron front. There are four pleats on each side 15/16" wide. All pleats are sewn into the neck band and the shirt waist. Both shoulder seams measure 5 3/8" from the shoulder seam neck band to the arm seam. Back: Yoke is gathered. Sleeve ; Left arms eye circumference is 19 1/8". The length of the sleeve from shoulder seam to cuff is 19 1/2". From under the arm to cuff measures 17 1/2". The right armseye circumference is 19 3/8". Outside seam at armhole to end of sleeve is 19 1/4". From underarm to cuff measures 17 1/2". Cuffs ; Dorset button encloses sleeve. Cuffs with two button holes attached to be secured with a stud, cuff folds back. Shirt tails; Shirt tails are rounded. 323 Buttons: There are buttons on the neckband and cuffs. Button holes: Bar style button holes on neckband 1/2", placket 1/2", and cuffs for buttons 7/16" and cuffs for studs 11/16". Neck circumference: Neck circumference: 15". Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back yoke seam to button hole on cuff; R=28", L=28". Hem: Hem is hand sewn. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread: cotton 324 Shirt I.D. #29158 Style : Shirt with collar (White shirt) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Men's shirt folded. Construction: Neck : Collar not split and has square ends. Neckband has one button and one button hole. Placket : Blind placket. There are three vertical button holes and three horizontal button holes on the placket. Front : Four pleats on each side of the placket. Back: Yoke is gathered. Sleeves : Sleeves are hand set. Cuffs : Cuffs on sleeves. Dorset button. Button encloses sleeve, cuff folds back and is secured with a stud or double button in two button holes. Shirt tails: Shirt tails are rounded with small gusset at split. Buttons : Buttons only on neckband and cuffs. None left to measure size. Button holes: All button holes are bar style. Neckband 1/2", placket 1/2", and cuff for button 1/2" and cuff for stud 12/16". Neck circumference: Neck circumference: 15". Sleeve length: Sleeve length from center back yoke seam to button hole on cuff: R=30 1/2", L=30 1/2". Hem: Hem is hand sewn. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave Fiber content: outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread: cotton 325

Collar I.D. #29085 Style : Collar with square ends (White in color) Function: Day Dress At recovery: Flat. Construction : Detachable. A. Ives Easton written with something on the collar. No center button hole or ties to hold collar in place. There are two bar button holes on each end of the collar. Appear to be hand sewn. No samples taken at this time. Sample mounted from earlier and identified as war and weft based on the cross directions, both linen. Neck circumference: Measurement from button hole to button hole 16 1/2". Measurement from end to end 17". Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen sewing thread: no sample 326

Collar I.D. #29161

Style: Collar with square ends. (White in color). Function: Day Dress At recovery: Rolled. Construction: Collar has a string attached to one end, the other end the string has degraded off. This collar has a vertical bar buttonhole that attaches to the neckband button on the collarless shirt and then ties at the back of the neck. Machine stitching since each stitch is uniform to the next. Neck circumference: Measurement from end to end (there are ties no button holes) 16 3/4". Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave. Fiber content: no samples taken except of sewing thread since collar was in such good condition, sewing thread: cotton 327

Collar I.D. #29239 Style: Collar fragments with square ends. (White in color). Function: Day Dress At recovery: Fragments. Construction: May have had ties at each end of the collar since there are fragments of ties recoveredwith thefragments ofthe collar. Perhaps the same style as 29161. There is an opening in one of the fragments at one side. Out of six fragments four were chosen that looked similar and matched seams. Neck circumference: Impossible to infer since all are fragments that do not exactly match. Fabric structure: Balanced simple plain weave Fiber content : outer fabric (warp): linen outer fabric (weft): linen interfacing (warp): cotton interfacing (weft): cotton sewing thread: cotton List of References

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