Period References to the Word Viking
We use the term ‘Viking’ to describe the people living in Scandinavia roughly between 793 and 1066 AD, and though they remained the same people before and after these dates, this is what is termed the ‘Viking Age’. However this is never what they called themselves, and wasn’t used to refer to a people until the 19th century, when a Victorian enthusiasm for the period created it along with other anachronisms. Since then it has become an all- encompassing term to refer to the population of Scandinavia as well as inhabitants in the Hebrides, England, Ireland, Russia, and in many places where Scandinavian people raided, traded or colonised.
The word was used in the early middle ages, in the Old Norse language the word existed in both a noun form ‘víkingr’, (the person travelling for adventure) and a verb form ‘víking’,(to travel or participate in one of these adventures) and came to mean a pirate or raider. It occurs in Viking Age runic inscriptions and in later medieval writings in expressions such as ‘fara í víking’ meaning "to go on an expedition". It was used to describe evil characters in the sagas ‘Hann var víkingr mikill’ (he was a powerful Viking) and was also occasionally used as a personal name, i.e. ‘Toki the Viking’.
There are several possible original meanings of the term ‘Viking’. One theory of its origin is that it is derived from ‘vik’ (inlet or bay) and that its meaning is "dwelling in the inlets". Or that the men of ‘Viken’ which is an old name for the coast at the Oslo Fjord may have been the original Vikings. It may also have come from Old Norse ‘vikja’ and meant "one who goes away”, i.e. leaves the country or "one who goes abroad".
There have also been suggestions that connect the word to the Old English Wik’ (place of trade). The word; ‘Wicingas’ first appears in the Anglo-Saxon poem Widsith, which probably dates from the 6th or 7th century and is preserved in the Exeter book. This is the earliest reference to Vikings in written sources, and at this early date it may refer to a particular tribe. In Old English the word is synonymous with pirate and a Scandinavian.
The Latin terms ‘Danus’ and ‘Normannus’ are used as a general term for all Scandinavians as are ‘Dene’ and ‘Norðmann’ in English sources such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. In the Old Norse spoken in the Viking Age there is no distinction made between Danish and Norwegian, for most of the Viking Age these were not yet unified kingdoms and it is unlikely other people would be able to make the ethnic distinction. Viking armies on campaign were often of mixed composition and are known to have recruited local people into their armies. Up until the mid tenth century ‘þa Denisc’ is the most commonly used term for Vikings. ‘Hæðen’ (heathen) ‘Wicing’ and ‘Norðmann’ are found less frequently and seem to be used interchangeably. Anglo-Saxon law only recognised one Scandinavian group, the Danes.
In Ireland they were referred to as ‘Gaill’, as well as ‘Echtrainn’ and ‘Allmuire,’ all meaning foreigners. This was often divided into ‘Finngaill’ (fair foreigners) and ‘Dubgaill’ (dark foreigners). The idea that this refers to different cultural groups suggesting the fair haired Norwegians were the Finngaill, is unlikely as seen above, and Irish genealogical literature uses the term dark to refer to new or later groups or people and fair to refer to the earlier ones. They referred to the Vikings homeland as ‘Laithlind’ which later became ‘Lochlann’.
They were also referred to as ‘Ascomanni’, or ‘Ashmen’, by the Germans, and as the ’Rus’ or ‘Varangoi’ in the east.
The word does not occur in preserved Middle English texts and was not used until it re- entered the popular lexicon in the 1840’s. The term ‘The Viking Age’ wasn’t introduced until 1873. Bibliography
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Norden och Kontinenten i Gammal tid Askeberg, Fritz. (1944)
The Viking - The Oarsman Daggfeldt, Bertil. http://www.abc.se/~pa/publ/vik-oar.htm
Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland Downhan, Clare. (2007)
Encyclopaedia of the Viking Age Haywood, John. (2000)
The Icelandic Sagas
Online Etymology Dictionary www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=viking
Viking Runestones http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_runestones
Widsith from the Exter Book Lines 47, 59, 80
The original text; http://www8.georgetown.edu/departments/medieval/labyrinth/library/oe/texts/a3.11.html
An English Translation; http://www.rado.sk/old_english/texts/Widsith.htm
Appendix:Runestones Mentioning Vikings
Västergötland
Vg 61
This runestone is raised at Härlingstorp. It is carved in runestone style RAK and was raised in memory of a man who died on the western route. Only two other runestones, Viking runestones DR 330 and 334, use the phrase i vikingu, literally "in viking," and here with the combination of "on the western route" probably indicates that he died during the wars in England.
Latin transliteration:
: tula : sati : sten : þ...... [iR kR : sun] : sin : harþa × kuþon : trok : sa × uarþ : tuþr : o : uastr:uakm : i : uikiku :
Old Norse transcription:
Tola satti stæin þ[annsi æft]iR GæiR, sun sinn, harða goðan dræng. Sa varð dauðr a vestrvegum i vikingu.
English translation:
"Tóla placed this stone in memory of Geirr, her son, a very good valiant man. He died on a Viking raid on the western route."
Småland
Sm 10
This runestone is found at the Cathedral of Växjö near its western wall. It is raised by a man who entitled himself "the Viking" and is classified as being carved in runestone style Pr2, which is also known as Ringerike style. It was discovered in 1813 under plaster in the wall of the cathedral. The inscription starts at the head of the serpent, and the inscription is carved in the circular band that follows the sides of the stone until it reaches the x. The prayer is read from bottom-up in the right hand rectangle. The runes tyki are found above the serpent's head in the central rectangle, whereas the runes uikikr are found in the left-hand rectangle.
Latin transliteration:
-u(k)i tyki × uikikr reisti * stein * e(f)tir : kunar : sun : kirims × kuþ healbi sel hans
Old Norse transcription:
[T]oki, Toki vikingR, ræisti stæin æftiR Gunnar, sun Grims. Guð hialpi salu hans!
English translation:
"Tóki, Tóki the Viking, raised the stone in memory of Gunnarr, Grímr's son. May God help his soul!”
Gotland
G 370
This runestone is located at the church of Hablingbo. The stone was discovered in 1988 while conducting excavation for a grave at the church cemetery, and was then moved to the church tower. It is classified as being carved in runestone style Pr3 and was raised in memory of a man who died when travelling in the west with vikingum or the Vikings. The inscription is considered to be an early use of the plural form of the word Vikings in Sweden, although it is also used on U 617 at Bro and on the Viking runestone DR 216 from Denmark.
Latin transliteration:
uatar : auk ... hilkaiR : raistu : stain : iftir ... hailka ... f-þur : sin : hn : uahR -istr : farin miþ uikikum
Old Norse transcription:
Hvatarr ok HæilgæiRR(?) ræistu stæin aftiR Hæilga, f[a]ður sinn. Hann var [v]estr farinn með vikingum.
English translation:
"Hvatarr and Heilgeirr(?) raised the stone in memory of Helgi, their father. He travelled to the west with the Vikings.
Scania
DR 330
This 11th century runestone was discovered at the church at Gårdstånga in 1867, but it is presently located at "runestone hill" in Lund. It is classified as being carved in runestone style RAK. Although the runic text has been damaged, it describes the relationship between the men using the word felaga or "partner," which is related to félag, a mercantile partnership or financial joint venture.
Latin transliteration:
A ...usti : auk : kunar : ...u : stina : þasi : aiftiR : kn... ¶ ...... biurn : filaka : si(n)(-) B : þiR : trikaR : uaRu : u--(-) --isiR : i * uikiku
Old Norse transcription:
A Tosti(?) ok Gunnar ... stena þæssi æftiR ... [ok] ...biorn, felaga sin[a]. B ÞeR drængiaR waRu w[iþa] [un]esiR i wikingu.
English translation:
A "Tosti(?) and Gunnarr ... these stones in memory of ... [and] ...-bjôrn, their partners." B "These valiant men were widely renowned on viking raids."
DR 334
This runestone is carved in runestone style RAK and is part of the Västra Strö monument, which has five standing stones and two runestones, DR 334 and DR 335. The monument was in good shape when documented by Ole Worm in 1643, but a survey in 1876 found that all of the stones had fallen except one. The monument was restored in 1932 by the Lund Kulturen. The inscription on DR 334 is considered to have been carved by the same runemaster who did DR 335, which memorializes a deceased ship owner. Both memorial runestones were also sponsored by the same man, Faðir, who on DR 334 memorializes his deceased brother Ôzurr, who died i wikingu or on a Viking raid or expedition. It has been suggested that all three men may have participated on this raid or expedition.
The stone is known locally as the Västra Ströstenen 1.
Latin transliteration:
faþiR : lit : hukua : runaR : þisi : uftiR : osur : bruþur : sin : is : nur : uarþ : tuþr : i : uikiku :
Old Norse transcription:
FaþiR let hoggwa runaR þæssi æftiR Azur, broþur sin, æs nor warþ døþr i wikingu.
English translation:
"Faðir had these runes cut in memory of Ôzurr, his brother, who died in the north on a Viking raid
Denmark
DR 216
This runestone originates from Tirsted on the island of Lolland, Denmark. It is the earliest native Scandinavian document that mentions Sweden together with the runestones DR 344 and Sö Fv1948;289. It is raised in memory of a Viking who died in Sweden and according to one reading, he fought in the retinue of Freygeirr. It is on permanent display at the Danish National Museum.
Latin transliteration:
A osraþr auk hiltu(-)-R raisþu stain þansi aft froþa fronti sin sin ian han uas þo foink uaiRa ian han uarþ tauþr o suoþiauþu auk uas furs i frikis ioþi þo aliR uikikaR
Old Norse transcription:
Asraþr ok Hildu[ng]R/Hildv[ig]R/Hildu[lf]R resþu sten þænsi æft Fraþa/Fræþa, frænda sin sin, æn han was þa fækn(?) wæRa, æn han warþ døþr a Sweþiuþu ok was fyrst(?) i(?) Friggis(?) liði(?) þa alliR wikingaR.
English translation:
"Asrathr and Hildung/Hildvig/Hildulf erected this stone after Fretha, their kinsman, ... he died in Sweden and was first .... of every viking."
Runestone images and translations sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_runestones