Detailed Contents
Preface xv
1 Introduction to the Study of Memory 1 The Science of Memory 3 The History of Memory Research 4 Hermann Ebbinghaus 5 Mary Calkins 9 Behaviorism 10 Frederic Bartlett 11 Endel Tulving 11 Cognitive Psychology 12 Cognitive Neuroscience 13 Methods of Studying Memory 15 Memory Measures 17 Recall 17 Recognition 18 Implicit Memory Tests 18 Source Judgments 19 Metamemory Judgments 20 Neuropsychology 20 Animal Models 21 Neuroimaging 21 Memory Improvement 24 Themes for the Book 25 Summary 26 Key Terms 27 Review Questions 27 Online Resources 27 2 Memory and the Brain 29 Old Questions, New Answers 30 Brain and Memory 31 Neurons 33 Neurotransmitters 37 Learning at the Cellular Level 38 Structures of the Human Brain 39 Subcortical Structures 41 Cortical Areas of the Brain Associated With Memory 43 Interim Summary 46 Neuroimaging 46 EEG (Electroencephalography) 46 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 48 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 49 Neuropsychology: Memory Deficits and Amnesia 51 Chemical Enhancement of Memory 52 Olfaction, Memory, and the Brain 53 Memory, Music, and the Brain 54 Summary 55 Key Terms 56 Review Questions 56 Online Resources 57
3 Working Memory 59 What Is Working Memory? 60 Some Terminological Clarifications 60 Working Memory Capacity 61 Pronunciation Time 64 The Duration of Information in Working Memory 66 The Serial Position Curve and Its Implication for Working Memory 70 Interim Summary 74 The Working Memory Model of Baddeley 74 Working Memory Systems 77 The Phonological Loop 77 Visuospatial Sketchpad 79 The Episodic Buffer 80 The Central Executive 80 Working Memory and the Brain 81 Applications of Working Memory 82 Reading Fluency 82 Verbal Fluency 83 ADHD 83 Alzheimer’s Disease 83 Cell Phones and Working Memory 83 Summary 84 Key Terms 84 Review Questions 85 Online Resources 85 4 Episodic Memory 87 Evidence for the Distinction 91 Behavioral Evidence 91 Neuropsychological Evidence 92 Evidence From Neuroimaging 93 Memory Processes: Encoding, Representation, and Retrieval 93 Encoding in Episodic Memory 94 Levels of Processing 94 Applications of Levels of Processing 99 The Self-Reference Effect 99 Survival Processing 100 The Generation Effect 101 Organization 103 Distinctiveness 104 Interim Summary 105 Retrieval From Episodic Memory 105 Encoding Specificity 108 Inhibition in Episodic Memory 114 Retrieval-Induced Inhibition 115 Part-Set Cueing 117 Directed Forgetting 118 Prospective Memory 118 Summary 120 Key Terms 121 Review Questions 121 Online Resources 122
5 Semantic Memory and Lexical Memory 123 Semantic Memory 124 Associative Structures in Semantic Memory 124 Semantic Priming and Lexical Decision Tasks 126 Sentence Verification Tasks 127 Concepts and Categories 128 Categories Are Fuzzy 129 Family Resemblance 131 Prototype Theory 132 Alternates to Prototype Theory 133 Schemas and Scripts 135 Reconstruction of Events 138 Semantic Memory for Music 140 Interim Summary 140 Lexical Memory 140 What Is Language? 141 Lexical Memory 144 Bilingual Lexicon 147 How Are Languages Learned by Young Children? 148 Second-Language Learning in Adulthood 150 Summary 152 Key Terms 152 Review Questions 153 Online Resources 154
6 Visual Memory 155 Visual Memory: Recognition and Recall 157 Representation and Imagery 158 Shepard and Metzler’s (1971) Mental Rotation Experiment 160 Neuroimaging and the Analog View 165 Interim Summary 167 Other Topics in Visual Memory 168 Photographic Memory: Reality or Fantasy? 168 Cognitive Maps 169 Memory for Faces 170 Verbal Facilitation and Overshadowing as It Pertains to Face Memory 171 Cross-Race Bias 175 The Neuroscience of Face Memory 175 Application of Visual Imagery to Mnemonics 177 Method of Loci 177 Keyword Technique 179 Pegword Technique 182 Interactive Versus Bizarre Imagery 183 Summary 184 Key Terms 185 Review Questions 185 Online Resources 186
7 Autobiographical Memory 187 Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory 188 Event-Specific Memories 190 General Events 190 Lifetime Periods 193 The Working Self 193 Childhood Amnesia 194 Psychodynamic View 198 Age-Related Changes in Self-Concept 198 Neurological Transitions in Memory Systems 198 Influence of Language on Memory Development 199 Childhood Amnesia May Result From Multiple Causes 200 Flashbulb Memories 201 Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories 202 Theories of Flashbulb Memory Formation 205 Interim Summary 206 Diary Studies and Autobiographical Memory 206 The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical Memories and the Reminiscence Bump 209 Subjective Experience and Autobiographical Memory 213 Involuntary Memories 214 Borrowed Memories 214 Music and Autobiographical Memory 215 Sense of Smell and Autobiographical Memory 215 The Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory 216 Neuropsychology of Autobiographical Memory 219 Summary 219 Key Terms 220 Review Questions 221 Online Resources 221
8 False Memory 223 Correspondence, Accuracy, and Amount 226 Source Monitoring 226 Methods of Studying False Memory 228 Deese-Roediger-McDermott Procedure (DRM) 228 False Memory Induction Procedure 230 Imagination Inflation 233 Altered Evidence 235 Hypnosis and Memory 236 Recovered Memory: The Reality of Repression 236 Mechanisms of Repression and Recovery 238 Active Suppression 242 Interim Summary 1 244 False Memories and Legal Psychology 244 Eyewitness Testimony 245 Effects of Wording on Memory of an Accident 246 The Misinformation Effect 247 Explanations for the Misinformation Effect 250 Interim Summary 2 252 The Cognitive Interview: More Information Without Suggestion 253 Chapter Summary 256 Key Terms 256 Review Questions 256 Online Resources 257
9 Metamemory 259 What Is Metamemory? 260 Theories of Metamemory 263 Direct-Access Theories 264 Indirect or Inferential Theories 264 Types of Judgments 265 Tip-of-the-Tongue States 265 Theoretical Mechanism 267 Brain Mechanisms 268 Feeling of Knowing 270 Cue Familiarity and the Feeling of Knowing 270 Brain Mechanisms of Feeling of Knowing 271 Neuropsychology and the Feeling of Knowing 271 Judgments of Learning 273 Factors That Influence Judgments of Learning 275 Brain Mechanisms for Judgments of Learning 276 Interim Summary 276 Control Processes in Metamemory 276 Allocation of Study Time 278 Labor-in-Vain Effect 279 Region of Proximal Earning 280 Control Processes at Retrieval 282 TOTs and Retrieval Time 282 A Note on Accuracy 283 Other Kinds of Metamemory 283 Retrospective Confidence 283 Metamemory in Nonhuman Animals 285 Summary 286 Key Terms 286 Review Questions 287 Online Resources 287
10 Memory Disorders 289 What Is Amnesia? 290 Case Studies of Amnesia 291 Patient HM 291 Clive Wearing 291 Anterograde Amnesia 292 Implicit Memory in the Amnesic Syndrome 294 Awareness in the Amnesic Syndrome 295 Simulated Anterograde Amnesia 297 Retrograde Amnesia 298 Electroconvulsive Therapy 301 Korsakoff’s Disease 301 Interim Summary 306 Frontal Lobe Amnesia 306 Behavioral Issues in Frontal Patients 307 Transient Global Amnesia 308 Short-Term Memory Amnesia 309 Reduplicative Paramnesia and Capgras Syndrome 310 Psychogenic Amnesia 312 Dissociative Amnesia 314 Dissociative Fugue 314 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 314 Repression 315 Alzheimer’s Disease 315 Causes of Alzheimer’s Disease 317 Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease 318 Memory Rehabilitation 318 Summary 319 Key Terms 320 Review Questions 320 Online Resources 321
11 Memory in Childhood 323 Memory in Infancy 323 Visual Recognition 324 Nonnutritive Sucking 325 Conjugate Reinforcement Technique 325 Imitation 326 Memory for Language in Infancy 327 Semantic Memory 327 Episodic Memory 327 Memory in Early Childhood 328 Why Does Memory Improve During Early Childhood? 328 Memory Efficiency 330 Episodic Memory 331 Memory Conversations and Episodic Memory 332 Interim Summary 334 Children’s Eyewitness Memory 335 Memory and Stress in Children’s Episodic Memory 337 Memory in Older Children 339 Metamemory in Children 341 Overconfidence in Judgments 345 Metamemory and the Strategic Use of Memory 346 A Guide to Developing Memory Skills in Children 346 Summary 347 Key Terms 348 Review Questions 348 Online Resources 349
12 Memory in Older Adults 351 Theories of Aging and Memory 354 Processing Speed 354 Inhibition Theory 356 Decline in the Strategic Use of Memory 357 Age-Related Changes in Working Memory 358 Semantic Memory and Lexical Memory 360 Episodic Memory 360 Recall Versus Recognition 361 Memory Accuracy 362 False Memory in Older Adults 363 Suggestibility 363 Misattribution of Source 364 Associative Meaning 365 Interim Summary 365 Metamemory in Older Adults 365 Judgments of Learning 367 TOTs and Aging 370 Use It or Lose It: Maintaining Memory Ability in Older Adults 371 Memory Rehabilitation Among Older Adults 372 Mnemonic Tips for Older Adults 373 The Neuroscience of Memory and Aging 374 Summary 374 Key Terms 375 Review Questions 375 Online Resources 376
13 Memory Improvement: A User’s Guide 377 1. Process for Meaning 379 Subjective Organization and Mnemonics 382 A Note About Imagery-Based Mnemonics 383 2. Make Use of Retrieval Cues 384 Retrieval Practice 385 Retrieval Cues and Autobiographical Memory 387 3. Use Metamemory: The Advantages of Self-Regulated Learning 388 Judgments of Learning as Mnemonic Improvement Tools 388 4. Distributed Practice and the Spacing Effect 391 Avoid Cramming: Massed Versus Distributed Practice 391 Myths and Methods to Avoid 394 Mnemonists 395 S 395 Rajan Mahadevan 397 Collaborative Memory 397 Summary 398 Key Terms 400 Review Questions 400 Online Resources 401
Glossary 403 References 419 Figure and Photo Credits 443 Author Index 449 Subject Index 461 About the Author 481